7 Network-Protection-And-Automation-Guide-2011 (001-267) PDF

-i
i. Alstom Grid
© 2011 Alstom Grid. Single copies of this document may be filed or printed for personal non-commercial use and must include this
copyright notice but may not be copied or displayed for commercial purposes without the prior written permission of Alstom Grid.
Network Protection & Automation Guide
Network Protection & Automation

Guide
NETWORK PROTECTION & AUTOMATION
GUIDE, EDITION MAY 2011
Previously called Protective Relays Application Guide

First Edition June 1966
Reprinted January 1967
August 1968
November 1970
September 1971
February 1973
January 1974
Second Edition March 1975
Reprinted November 1977
December 1979
November 1982
October 1983
October 1985
Third Edition June 1987
Reprinted September 1990
March 1995

First Edition July 2002
©
2011 ALSTOM GRID MAY 2011
ISBN: 978-0-9568678-0-3
Published by Alstom Grid

Alstom Grid Worldwide Contact Centre
www.alstom.com/grid/contactcentre
Tel: +44(0) 1785 250 070

www.alstom.com/grid/sas
All rights reserved. Celebrating 45 years of PRAG/NPAG and 54th APPS course.
-ii copyright notice but may not be copied or displayed for commercial purposes without the prior written permission of Alstom Grid.
CONTENTS
1 Introduction
2 Fundamentals of Protection Practice
3 Fundamental Theory
4 Fault Calculations
Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of
5
Power System Plant
6 Current and Voltage Transformers
7 Relay Technology
8 Protection: Signalling and Intertripping
Overcurrent Protection for Phase and
9
Earth Faults
10 Unit Protection of Feeders
11 Distance Protection
12 Distance Protection Schemes
Protection of Complex Transmission
13
Circuits
14 Auto-Reclosing
15 Busbar Protection
Transformer and Transformer-Feeder
16
Protection
Generator and Generator-Transformer
17
Protection
Industrial and Commercial Power System
18
Protection
19 A.C. Motor Protection
20 System Integrity Protection Schemes
21 Relay Testing and Commissioning
22 Power System Measurements
23 Power Quality
24 The Digital Substation
25 Substation Control and Automation
Appendix A Terminology
Appendix B IEEE/IEC Relay Symbols
Typical Standards Applicable to
Appendix C
Protection and Control Numerical Devices
Appendix D Company Data and Nomenclature
Index
-iii
Chapter 1
.
Introduction
Since 1966, the Network Protection and Automation Guide Michael Bamber
(formerly the Protective Relays Application Guide) has been
the definitive reference textbook for protection engineers and Michael Bergstrom
technicians. For 2011, Alstom has capitalised on its pool of Andrew Darby
experts at the St Leonards Centre of Excellence in Stafford UK
to launch a new edition. Susan Darby
New chapters treat topics such as system integrity protection Graham Elliott
and remedial action schemes, phasor measurements and wide
area schemes. The digital substation, including IEC 61850, Peter Harding
Ethernet station bus, GOOSE, process bus, and precision time Graeme Lloyd
synchronising is also detailed. Advancements in protection
and control application engineering have assisted the authors Alan Marshall
in exploring and integrating the new techniques and
Allen Millard
philosophies in this edition, whilst retaining vendor-
independence – as we continue to deliver the genuine, Andrew Myatt
impartial, reference textbook.
Philip Newman
This book is a précis of the Application and Protection of Power
Systems (APPS) training course, an intensive programme, Anthony Perks
which Alstom (and its predecessor companies at Stafford) has Steve Pickering
been running for over 50 years. This course, by the ingenuity
and dedication of the trainers, is vibrant and evolving. As Stephen Potts
APPS progresses, the Network Protection and Automation
Simon Richards
Guide advances too, whilst never losing sight of the key basic
principles and concepts. Beginners and experts alike will each Jack Royle
feel satisfied in their search for relaying, measurement,
communication and control knowledge. Peter Rush
In the list opposite, we name a mix of new authors for this Brendan Smith
edition, and key historical figures at Stafford who have Mark Stockton
contributed significantly to the advancement of APPS and
NPAG, and hence the quality and integrity of our book. We Paul Wilkinson
sincerely hope that this book assists your navigation through a
Alan Wixon
challenging and rewarding career in electrical power
engineering. Protection and control has long been termed an John Wright
art, rather than a precise science - this book offers a mix of
both.
We acknowledge and thank Alstom colleagues in the wider
Alstom Grid and Alstom Power organisations for photographs
used within this book.
Alstom Grid © 2011 Alstom Grid. Single copies of this document may be filed or printed for personal non-commercial use and must include this
1-1
Chapter 2
Fundamentals of Protection Practice
2.1 Introduction 2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 Protection Equipment The purpose of an electrical power system is to generate and
2.3 Zones of Protection supply electrical energy to consumers. The system should be
2.4 Reliability designed to deliver this energy both reliably and economically.
2.5 Selectivity Frequent or prolonged power outages result in severe
2.6 Stability disruption to the normal routine of modern society, which is
2.7 Speed demanding ever-increasing reliability and security of supply.
As the requirements of reliability and economy are largely
2.8 Sensitivity
opposed, power system design is inevitably a compromise.
2.9 Primary and Back-up Protection
2.10 Relay Output Devices A power system comprises many diverse items of equipment.
Figure 2.1 illustrates the complexity of a typical power station
2.11 Tripping Circuits
Figure 2.2 shows a hypothetical power system.
2.12 Trip Circuit Supervision
Figure 2.1: Modern power station
2-1
Key Hydro power station

GS: Generator
T: Transformer GS G1 G2 GS
R1 R2
R: Resistor
L: Line
T1 T2
380kV A
L2 L1A
L1B
380kV C 380kV B
L3 L4
T5 T6 T3 T4
110kV C' 33kV B'
Steam power station CCGT power station
GS G3 G4 GS GS G5 G6 GS G7 GS
R3 R4 R5 R6 R7
T10 T11 T7 T8 T9
220kV D L7A 380kV E
T14
L6
380kV G
Grid
L7B L5
Substation
F
T15
T16 T17
T12 T13
L8
33kV D' Grid 110kV G'

F'
380kV
Figure 2.2: Example power system
2-2 © 2011 Alstom Grid. Single copies of this document may be filed or printed for personal non-commercial use and must include this
Chapter 2Fundamentals of Protection Practice
Figure 2.4: Possible consequence of inadequate protection
2.2 PROTECTION EQUIPMENT

The definitions that follow are generally used in relation to
power system protection:
x Protection System: a complete arrangement of
protection equipment and other devices required to
achieve a specified function based on a protection
principle (IEC 60255-20)
x Protection Equipment: a collection of protection
devices (relays, fuses, etc.). Excluded are devices such
as Current Transformers (CTs), Circuit Breakers (CBs)
and contactors
Figure 2.3: Onset of an overhead line fault
x Protection Scheme: a collection of protection
Many items of equipment are very expensive, and so the equipment providing a defined function and including
complete power system represents a very large capital all equipment required to make the scheme work (i.e.
investment. To maximise the return on this outlay, the system relays, CTs, CBs, batteries, etc.)
must be utilised as much as possible within the applicable
In order to fulfil the requirements of protection with the
constraints of security and reliability of supply. More
optimum speed for the many different configurations,
fundamental, however, is that the power system should
operating conditions and construction features of power
operate in a safe manner at all times. No matter how well
systems, it has been necessary to develop many types of relay
designed, faults will always occur on a power system, and
that respond to various functions of the power system
these faults may represent a risk to life and/or property. Figure
quantities. For example, simple observation of the fault
2.3 shows the onset of a fault on an overhead line. The
current magnitude may be sufficient in some cases but
destructive power of a fault arc carrying a high current is very
measurement of power or impedance may be necessary in
large; it can burn through copper conductors or weld together
others. Relays frequently measure complex functions of the
core laminations in a transformer or machine in a very short
system quantities, which may only be readily expressible by
time – some tens or hundreds of milliseconds. Even away
mathematical or graphical means.
from the fault arc itself, heavy fault currents can cause
damage to plant if they continue for more than a few seconds. Relays may be classified according to the technology used:
The provision of adequate protection to detect and disconnect
x electromechanical
elements of the power system in the event of fault is therefore
an integral part of power system design. Only by doing this x static
can the objectives of the power system be met and the x digital
investment protected. Figure 2.4 provides an illustration of the x numerical
consequences of failure to provide adequate protection. This
shows the importance of protection systems within the The different types have varying capabilities, according to the
electrical power system and of the responsibility vested in the limitations of the technology used. They are described in more
Protection Engineer. detail in Chapter 7.
2-3
In many cases, it is not feasible to protect against all hazards section between the current transformers and the circuit
with a relay that responds to a single power system quantity. breaker A is not completely protected against faults. A fault at
An arrangement using several quantities may be required. In F would cause the busbar protection to operate and open the
this case, either several relays, each responding to a single circuit breaker but the fault may continue to be fed through the
quantity, or, more commonly, a single relay containing several feeder. If the feeder protection is of the type that responds
elements, each responding independently to a different only to faults within its own zone (see section 2.5.2), it would
quantity may be used. not operate, since the fault is outside its zone. This problem is
dealt with by intertripping or some form of zone extension, to
The terminology used in describing protection systems and
ensure that the remote end of the feeder is also tripped. These
relays is provided in Appendix A. Different symbols for
methods are explained extensively in chapters 11 and 12.
describing relay functions in diagrams of protection schemes
are used, the three most common methods (IEC, IEEE/ANSI Busbar
and IEC61850) are provided in Appendix B. protection
2.3 ZONES OF PROTECTION

To limit the extent of the power system that is disconnected
when a fault occurs, protection is arranged in zones. The
principle is shown in Figure 2.5. Ideally, the zones of
Feeder
protection should overlap, so that no part of the power system protection
is left unprotected. This is shown in Figure 2.6(a), the circuit
(a) CTs on both sides of circuit breaker
breaker being included in both zones.
A Busbar
protection
GS Zone 1
F
Feeder
Zone 2 protection
(b)CTs on circuit side of circuit breaker
Figure 2.6: CT locations
The point of connection of the protection with the power
system usually defines the zone and corresponds to the
location of the current transformers. Unit type protection
Zone 3
results in the boundary being a clearly defined closed loop.
Figure 2.7 shows a typical arrangement of overlapping zones.
Zone 4
Zone 5 Zone 7
Feeder 1 Feeder 2 Feeder 3

Zone 6 Figure 2.7: Overlapping zones of protection systems
Figure 2.5: Division of power systems into protection zones Alternatively, the zone may be unrestricted; the start will be
defined but the extent (or ‘reach’) will depend on
For practical physical and economic reasons, this ideal is not
measurement of the system quantities and will therefore be
always achieved, accommodation for current transformers
subject to variation, owing to changes in system conditions
being in some cases available only on one side of the circuit
and measurement errors.
breakers, as shown in Figure 2.6(b). In this example, the
2.4 RELIABILITY recognised standards is carried out during design and

The need for a high degree of reliability has already been production and this fulfils many of these requirements, but it
discussed briefly. Reliability is dependent on the following will still be necessary to test the complete protection scheme
factors: (relays, current transformers and other ancillary items). The
tests must realistically simulate fault conditions.
x incorrect design/settings
x incorrect installation/testing 2.4.5 Deterioration in Service
x deterioration in service Subsequent to installation, deterioration of equipment will take
place and may eventually interfere with correct functioning.
2.4.1 Design For example: contacts may become rough or burnt due to
The design of a protection scheme is of paramount frequent operation, or tarnished due to atmospheric
importance. This is to ensure that the system will operate contamination, coils and other circuits may become open-
under all required conditions, and refrain from operating when circuited, electronic components and auxiliary devices may fail,
so required. This includes being restrained from operating for and mechanical parts may seize up.
faults external to the zone being protected, where necessary. The time between operations of protection relays may be years
Due consideration must be given to the nature, frequency and rather than days. During this period, defects may have
duration of faults likely to be experienced, all relevant developed unnoticed until revealed by the failure of the
parameters of the power system and the type of protection protection to respond to a power system fault. For this reason,
equipment used. Of course, the design of the protection relays should be periodically tested in order to check they are
equipment used in the scheme is just as important. No functioning correctly.
amount of effort at this stage can make up for the use of badly
Testing should preferably be carried out without disturbing
designed protection equipment.
permanent connections. This can be achieved by the provision
of test blocks or switches.
2.4.2 Settings
It is essential to ensure that settings are chosen for protection The quality of testing personnel is an essential feature when
relays and systems which take into account the parameters of assessing reliability and considering means for improvement.
the primary system, including fault and load levels, and Staff must be technically competent and adequately trained, as
dynamic performance requirements, etc. The characteristics of well as self-disciplined to proceed in a systematic manner to
power systems change with time, due to changes in loads, achieve final acceptance.
location, type and amount of generation, etc. Therefore, Important circuits that are especially vulnerable can be
setting values of relays may need to be checked at suitable provided with continuous electrical supervision; such
intervals to ensure that they are still appropriate. Otherwise, arrangements are commonly applied to circuit breaker trip
unwanted operation or failure to operate when required may circuits and to pilot circuits. Modern digital and numerical
occur. relays usually incorporate self-testing/diagnostic facilities to
assist in the detection of failures. With these types of relay, it
2.4.3 Installation may be possible to arrange for such failures to be automatically
The need for correct installation of protection systems is reported by communications link to a remote operations
obvious, but the complexity of the interconnections of many centre, so that appropriate action may be taken to ensure
systems and their relationship to the remainder of the system continued safe operation of that part of the power system and
may make checking the installation difficult. Site testing is arrangements made for investigation and correction of the
therefore necessary. Since it will be difficult to reproduce all fault.
fault conditions correctly, these tests must be directed towards
proving the installation itself. At the installation stage, the 2.4.6 Protection Performance
tests should prove the correctness of the connections, relay Protection system performance is frequently assessed
settings, and freedom from damage of the equipment. No statistically. For this purpose each system fault is classed as
attempt should be made to ‘type test’ the equipment or to an incident and only those that are cleared by the tripping of
establish complex aspects of its technical performance. the correct circuit breakers are classed as 'correct'. The
percentage of correct clearances can then be determined.
2.4.4 Testing
This principle of assessment gives an accurate evaluation of
Testing should cover all aspects of the protection scheme, the protection of the system as a whole, but it is severe in its
reproducing operational and environmental conditions as judgement of relay performance. Many relays are called into
closely as possible. Type testing of protection equipment to
2-5
operation for each system fault, and all must behave correctly system.
for a correct clearance to be recorded.
2.5.2 Unit Systems
Complete reliability is unlikely ever to be achieved by further
improvements in construction. If the level of reliability It is possible to design protection systems that respond only to
achieved by a single device is not acceptable, improvement can fault conditions occurring within a clearly defined zone. This
be achieved through redundancy, e.g. duplication of type of protection system is known as 'unit protection'. Certain
equipment. Two complete, independent, main protection types of unit protection are known by specific names, e.g.
systems are provided, and arranged so that either by itself can restricted earth fault and differential protection. Unit
carry out the required function. If the probability of each protection can be applied throughout a power system and,
equipment failing is x/unit, the resultant probability of both since it does not involve time grading, it is relatively fast in
equipments failing simultaneously, allowing for redundancy, is operation. The speed of response is substantially independent
x2. Where x is small the resultant risk (x2) may be negligible. of fault severity.
Where multiple protection systems are used, the tripping Unit protection usually involves comparison of quantities at the
signal can be provided in a number of different ways. The two boundaries of the protected zone as defined by the locations of
most common methods are: the current transformers. This comparison may be achieved by
direct hard-wired connections or may be achieved via a
x all protection systems must operate for a tripping communications link. However certain protection systems
operation to occur (e.g. ‘two-out-of-two’ arrangement) derive their 'restricted' property from the configuration of the
x only one protection system need operate to cause a trip power system and may be classed as unit protection, e.g. earth
(e.g. ‘one-out-of two’ arrangement) fault protection applied to the high voltage delta winding of a
The former method guards against false tripping due to power transformer. Whichever method is used, it must be
maloperation of a protection system. The latter method guards kept in mind that selectivity is not merely a matter of relay
against failure of one of the protection systems to operate, due design. It also depends on the correct co-ordination of current
to a fault. Occasionally, three main protection systems are transformers and relays with a suitable choice of relay settings,
provided, configure in a ‘two-out-of three’ tripping taking into account the possible range of such variables as
arrangement, to provide both reliability of tripping, and security fault currents, maximum load current, system impedances and
against unwanted tripping. other related factors, where appropriate.
It has long been the practice to apply duplicate protection 2.6 STABILITY
systems to busbars, both being required to operate to complete
The term ‘stability’ is usually associated with unit protection
a tripping operation. Loss of a busbar may cause widespread
schemes and refers to the ability of the protection system to
loss of supply, which is clearly undesirable. In other cases,
remain unaffected by conditions external to the protected zone,
important circuits are provided with duplicate main protection
for example through-load current and faults external to the
systems, either being able to trip independently. On critical
protected zone.
circuits, use may also be made of a digital fault simulator to
model the relevant section of the power system and check the
2.7 SPEED
performance of the relays used.
The function of protection systems is to isolate faults on the
2.5 SELECTIVITY power system as rapidly as possible. One of the main
objectives is to safeguard continuity of supply by removing
When a fault occurs, the protection scheme is required to trip
each disturbance before it leads to widespread loss of
only those circuit breakers whose operation is required to
synchronism and consequent collapse of the power system.
isolate the fault. This property of selective tripping is also
called 'discrimination' and is achieved by two general As the loading on a power system increases, the phase shift
methods. between voltages at different busbars on the system also
increases, and therefore so does the probability that
2.5.1 Time Grading synchronism will be lost when the system is disturbed by a
Protection systems in successive zones are arranged to operate fault. The shorter the time a fault is allowed to remain in the
in times that are graded through the sequence of protection system, the greater can be the loading of the system. Figure
devices so that only those relevant to the faulty zone complete 2.8 shows typical relations between system loading and fault
the tripping function. The others make incomplete operations clearance times for various types of fault. It will be noted that
and then reset. The speed of response will often depend on the phase faults have a more marked effect on the stability of the
severity of the fault, and will generally be slower than for a unit system than a simple earth fault and therefore require faster
clearance. that detects an un-cleared primary system fault at its own

location, which then trips its own circuit breakers; e.g. time
System stability is not, however, the only consideration. Rapid
graded overcurrent relays. Remote back-up protection is
operation of protection ensures minimisation of the equipment
provided by protection that detects an un-cleared primary
damage caused by the fault. The damaging energy liberated
system fault at a remote location and then issues a trip
during a fault is proportional to the time that the fault is
command to the relevant relay; e.g. the second or third zones
present, thus it is important that the protection operate as
of a distance relay. In both cases the main and back-up
quickly as possible. Speed of operation must be weighed
protection systems detect a fault simultaneously, operation of
against economy, however. Distribution circuits, which do not
the back-up protection being delayed to ensure that the
normally require a fast fault clearance, are usually protected by
primary protection clears the fault if possible. Normally being
time-graded systems. On the other hand, generating plant
unit protection, operation of the primary protection will be fast
and EHV systems require protection systems of the highest
and will result in the minimum amount of the power system
attainable speed and reliability, therefore unit systems are
being disconnected. Operation of the back-up protection will
normal practice.
be, of necessity, slower and will result in a greater proportion
of the primary system being lost.
The extent and type of back-up protection applied will naturally
be related to the failure risks and relative economic importance
Phase-earth
of the system. For distribution systems where fault clearance
Load power
Phase-phase
times are not critical, time delayed remote back-up protection
may be adequate. For EHV systems, where system stability is
Phase-phase-earth at risk unless a fault is cleared quickly, multiple primary
Three-phase protection systems, operating in parallel and possibly of
different types (e.g. distance and unit protection), will be used
to ensure fast and reliable tripping. Back-up overcurrent
Time protection may then optionally be applied to ensure that two
Figure 2.8: Typical power/time relationship for various fault types separate protection systems are available during maintenance
of one of the primary protection systems.
2.8 SENSITIVITY
Back-up protection systems should, ideally, be completely
Sensitivity is a term frequently used when referring to the separate from the primary systems. For example, a circuit
minimum operating level (current, voltage, power etc.) of protected by a current differential relay may also have time-
relays or complete protection schemes. Relays or protection graded overcurrent and earth fault relays added to provide
schemes are said to be sensitive if their primary operating circuit breaker tripping in the event of failure of the main
parameters are low. primary unit protection. Ideally, to maintain complete
With older electromechanical relays, sensitivity was considered redundancy, all system components would be duplicated. This
in terms of the measuring movement and was measured in ideal is rarely attained in practice. The following compromises
terms of its volt-ampere consumption to cause operation. are typical:
With modern digital and numerical relays the achievable x Separate current transformers or duplicated secondary
sensitivity is seldom limited by the device design but by its cores are often provided. This practice is becoming less
application and associated current and voltage transformer common at distribution voltage levels if digital or
parameters. numerical relays are used, because the extremely low
input burden of these relay types allows relays to share
2.9 PRIMARY AND BACK-UP PROTECTION a single CT
The reliability of a power system has been discussed earlier, x Voltage transformers are not duplicated because of cost
including the use of more than one primary (or ‘main’) and space considerations. Each protection relay supply
protection system operating in parallel. In the event of failure is separately protected (fuse or MCB) and continuously
or non-availability of the primary protection some other means supervised to ensure security of the VT output. An
of ensuring that the fault is isolated must be provided. These alarm is given on failure of the supply and where
secondary systems are referred to as ‘back-up protection appropriate, unwanted operation of the protection is
schemes’. prevented
Back-up protection may be considered as either being ‘local’ or x Trip power supplies to the two protection types should
‘remote’. Local back-up protection is achieved by protection be separately protected (fuse or MCB). Duplication of
2-7
tripping batteries and of circuit breaker trip coils may be

provided. Trip circuits should be continuously
supervised.
x It is desirable that the main and back-up protections (or
duplicate main protections) should operate on different
principles, so that unusual events that may cause
failure of the one will be less likely to affect the other
Digital and numerical relays may incorporate suitable back-up
protection functions (e.g. a distance relay may also incorporate
time-delayed overcurrent protection elements as well). A
reduction in the hardware required to provide back-up
protection is obtained, but at the risk that a common relay
element failure (e.g. the power supply) will result in
simultaneous loss of both main and back-up protection. The
acceptability of this situation must be evaluated on a case-by- Figure 2.9: Contact types
case basis.
A 'changeover' contact generally has three terminals; a
common, a make output, and a break output. The user
2.10 RELAY OUTPUT DEVICES
connects to the common and other appropriate terminal for
In order to perform their intended function, relays must be the logic sense required.
fitted with some means of providing the various output signals
required. Contacts of various types usually fulfil this function. A protection relay is usually required to trip a circuit breaker,
the tripping mechanism of which may be a solenoid with a
2.10.1 Contact Systems plunger acting directly on the mechanism latch or an
electrically operated valve. The power required by the trip coil
Relays may be fitted with a variety of contact systems for
of the circuit breaker may range from up to 50 W for a small
providing electrical outputs for tripping and remote indication
'distribution' circuit breaker, to 3 kW for a large, EHV circuit
purposes. The most common types encountered are as
breaker.
follows:
The relay may energise the tripping coil directly, or through the
x Self-reset: The contacts remain in the operated agency of another multi-contact auxiliary relay, depending on
condition only while the controlling quantity is applied, the required tripping power.
returning to their original condition when it is removed
The basic trip circuit is simple, being made up of a hand-trip
x Hand or electrical reset: These contacts remain in the
control switch and the contacts of the protection relays in
operated condition after the controlling quantity has
parallel to energise the trip coil from a battery, through a
been removed.
normally open auxiliary switch operated by the circuit breaker.
The majority of protection relay elements have self-reset This auxiliary switch is needed to open the trip circuit when the
contact systems, which, if so desired, can be modified to circuit breaker opens since the protection relay contacts will
provide hand reset output contacts by the use of auxiliary usually be quite incapable of performing the interrupting duty.
elements. Hand or electrically reset relays are used when it is The auxiliary switch will be adjusted to close as early as
necessary to maintain a signal or lockout condition. Contacts possible in the closing stroke, to make the protection effective
are shown on diagrams in the position corresponding to the in case the breaker is being closed on to a fault.
un-operated or de-energised condition, regardless of the
Where multiple output contacts or contacts with appreciable
continuous service condition of the equipment. For example,
current-carrying capacity are required, interposing contactor
an undervoltage relay, which is continually energised in normal
type elements will normally be used.
circumstances, would still be shown in the de-energised
condition. Modern numerical devices may offer static contacts as an
ordering option. Semiconductor devices such as IGBT
A 'make' contact is one that is normally open, but closes on
transistors may be used instead of, or in parallel with,
energisation. A 'break' contact is one that is normally closed,
conventional relay output contacts to boost:
but opens on energisation. Examples of these conventions and
variations are shown in Figure 2.9. x The speed of the 'make' (typically 100Ps time to make
is achieved)
x Interrupting duty (allowing the contacts to break trip PR 52a TC

coil current.
In general, static, digital and numerical relays have discrete
measuring and tripping circuits, or modules. The functioning
(a) Series sealing
of the measuring modules is independent of operation of the
tripping modules. Such a relay is equivalent to a sensitive
electromechanical relay with a tripping contactor, so that the PR 52a TC
number or rating of outputs has no more significance than the
fact that they have been provided.
For larger switchgear installations the tripping power
(b) Shunt reinforcing
requirement of each circuit breaker is considerable, and
further, two or more breakers may have to be tripped by one
protection system. There may also be remote signalling PR 52a TC
requirements, interlocking with other functions (for example
auto-reclosing arrangements), and other control functions to
be performed. These various operations may then be carried
out by multi-contact tripping relays, which are energised by
the protection relays and provide the necessary number of (c) Shunt reinforcing with series sealing
adequately rated output contacts. Figure 2.10: Typical relay tripping circuits
For electromechanical relays, electrically operated indicators,
2.10.2 Operation Indicators actuated after the main contacts have closed, avoid imposing
Protection systems are invariably provided with indicating an additional friction load on the measuring element, which
devices, called ‘flags’, or ‘targets’, as a guide for operations would be a serious handicap for certain types. Care must be
personnel. Not every relay will have one, as indicators are taken with directly operated indicators to line up their
arranged to operate only if a trip operation is initiated. operation with the closure of the main contacts. The indicator
Indicators, with very few exceptions, are bi-stable devices, and must have operated by the time the contacts make, but must
may be either mechanical or electrical. A mechanical indicator not have done so more than marginally earlier. This is to stop
consists of a small shutter that is released by the protection indication occurring when the tripping operation has not been
relay movement to expose the indicator pattern. completed.
Electrical indicators may be simple attracted armature With modern digital and numerical relays, the use of various
elements, where operation of the armature releases a shutter alternative methods of providing trip circuit functions is largely
to expose an indicator as above, or indicator lights (usually obsolete. Auxiliary miniature contactors are provided within
light emitting diodes). For the latter, some kind of memory the relay to provide output contact functions and the operation
circuit is provided to ensure that the indicator remains lit after of these contactors is independent of the measuring system, as
the initiating event has passed. mentioned previously. The making current of the relay output
contacts and the need to avoid these contacts breaking the trip
The introduction of numerical relays has greatly increased the
coil current largely dictates circuit breaker trip coil
number of LED indicators (including tri-state LEDs) to
arrangements. Comments on the various means of providing
enhance the indicative information available to the operator. In
tripping arrangements are, however, included below as a
addition, LCD text or graphical displays, which mimic the
historical reference applicable to earlier electromechanical relay
electrical system provide more in-depth information to the
designs.
operator.
2.11.1 Series sealing
2.11 TRIPPING CIRCUITS
The coil of the series contactor carries the trip current initiated
There are three main circuits in use for circuit breaker tripping:
by the protection relay, and the contactor closes a contact in
x series sealing parallel with the protection relay contact. This closure relieves
x shunt reinforcing the protection relay contact of further duty and keeps the
tripping circuit securely closed, even if chatter occurs at the
x shunt reinforcement with sealing
main contact. The total tripping time is not affected, and the
These are illustrated in Figure 2.10. indicator does not operate until current is actually flowing
through the trip coil.
2-9
The main disadvantage of this method is that such series importance of the circuit, result in a requirement in many
elements must have their coils matched with the trip circuit cases to monitor the integrity of the circuit. This is known as
with which they are associated. trip circuit supervision. The simplest arrangement contains a
healthy trip lamp or LED, as shown in Figure 2.11(a).
The coil of these contacts must be of low impedance, with
about 5% of the trip supply voltage being dropped across them. The resistance in series with the lamp prevents the breaker
being tripped by an internal short circuit caused by failure of
When used in association with high-speed trip relays, which
the lamp. This provides supervision while the circuit breaker is
usually interrupt their own coil current, the auxiliary elements
closed; a simple extension gives pre-closing supervision.
must be fast enough to operate and release the flag before
their coil current is cut off. This may pose a problem in design Figure 2.11(b) shows how, the addition of a normally closed
if a variable number of auxiliary elements (for different phases auxiliary switch and a resistance unit can provide supervision
and so on) may be required to operate in parallel to energise a while the breaker is both open and closed.
common tripping relay.
2.11.2 Shunt reinforcing

Here the sensitive contacts are arranged to trip the circuit
breaker and simultaneously to energise the auxiliary unit,
which then reinforces the contact that is energising the trip
coil.
Two contacts are required on the protection relay, since it is
not permissible to energise the trip coil and the reinforcing
contactor in parallel. If this were done, and more than one
protection relay were connected to trip the same circuit
breaker, all the auxiliary relays would be energised in parallel
for each relay operation and the indication would be confused.
The duplicate main contacts are frequently provided as a
three-point arrangement to reduce the number of contact
fingers.
2.11.3 Shunt reinforcement with sealing

This is a development of the shunt reinforcing circuit to make it
applicable to situations where there is a possibility of contact
bounce for any reason.
Using the shunt reinforcing system under these circumstances
would result in chattering on the auxiliary unit, and the
possible burning out of the contacts, not only of the sensitive
element but also of the auxiliary unit. The chattering would
end only when the circuit breaker had finally tripped. The
effect of contact bounce is countered by means of a further
contact on the auxiliary unit connected as a retaining contact.
This means that provision must be made for releasing the
sealing circuit when tripping is complete; this is a
disadvantage, because it is sometimes inconvenient to find a
suitable contact to use for this purpose. Figure 2.11: Trip circuit supervision circuit
In either case, the addition of a normally open push-button
2.12 TRIP CIRCUIT SUPERVISION contact in series with the lamp will make the supervision
The trip circuit includes the protection relay and other indication available only when required.
components, such as fuses, links, relay contacts, auxiliary Schemes using a lamp to indicate continuity are suitable for
switch contacts, etc., and in some cases through a locally controlled installations, but when control is exercised
considerable amount of circuit wiring with intermediate from a distance it is necessary to use a relay system. Figure
terminal boards. These interconnections, coupled with the
Chapter 2Fundamentals of Protection Practice
2.11(c) illustrates such a scheme, which is applicable

wherever a remote signal is required.
With the circuit healthy either or both of relays A and B are
operated and energise relay C. Both A and B must reset to
allow C to drop-off. Relays A, B and C are time delayed to
prevent spurious alarms during tripping or closing operations.
The resistors are mounted separately from the relays and their
values are chosen such that if any one component is
inadvertently short-circuited, tripping will not take place.
The alarm supply should be independent of the tripping supply
so that indication will be obtained in case of failure of the
tripping supply.
The above schemes are commonly known as the H4, H5 and
H7 schemes, arising from the diagram references of the utility
specification in which they originally appeared. Figure 2.11(d)
shows implementation of scheme H5 using the facilities of a
modern numerical relay. Remote indication is achieved
through use of programmable logic and additional auxiliary
outputs available in the protection relay.
Figure 2.12: Menu interrogation of numerical relays
2-11
Chapter 3
Fundamental Theory

3.2 Vector Algebra The Protection Engineer is concerned with limiting the effects
3.3 Manipulation of Complex Quantities of disturbances in a power system. These disturbances, if
3.4 Circuit Quantities and Conventions allowed to persist, may damage plant and interrupt the supply
3.5 Theorems and Network Reduction of electric energy. They are described as faults (short and open
3.6 Impedance Notation circuits) or power swings, and result from natural hazards (for
3.7 References instance lightning), plant failure or human error.
To facilitate rapid removal of a disturbance from a power
system, the system is divided into 'protection zones'.
Protection relays monitor the system quantities (current and
voltage) appearing in these zones. If a fault occurs inside a
zone, the relays operate to isolate the zone from the remainder
of the power system.
The operating characteristic of a protection relay depends on
the energising quantities fed to it such as current or voltage, or
various combinations of these two quantities, and on the
manner in which the relay is designed to respond to this
information. For example, a directional relay characteristic
would be obtained by designing the relay to compare the phase
angle between voltage and current at the relaying point. An
impedance-measuring characteristic, on the other hand, would
be obtained by designing the relay to divide voltage by current.
Many other more complex relay characteristics may be
obtained by supplying various combinations of current and
voltage to the relay. Relays may also be designed to respond
to other system quantities such as frequency and power.
In order to apply protection relays, it is usually necessary to
know the limiting values of current and voltage, and their
relative phase displacement at the relay location for various
types of short circuit and their position in the system. This
normally requires some system analysis for faults occurring at
various points in the system.
The main components that make up a power system are
generating sources, transmission and distribution networks,
and loads. Many transmission and distribution circuits radiate
from key points in the system and these circuits are controlled
by circuit breakers. For the purpose of analysis, the power
system is treated as a network of circuit elements contained in
branches radiating from nodes to form closed loops or meshes.
The system variables are current and voltage, and in steady
state analysis, they are regarded as time varying quantities at a
single and constant frequency. The network parameters are
impedance and admittance; these are assumed to be linear,
bilateral (independent of current direction) and constant for a
constant frequency.
3-1
3.2 VECTOR ALGEBRA Z x 2

y2
A vector represents a quantity in both magnitude and
direction. In Figure 3.1 the vector OP has a magnitude Z at T tan 1 y
x
an angle T with the reference axis OX: x Z cos T
y Z sin T
Equation 3.2
From Equations 3.1 and 3.2:
Z Z cos T j sin T
Equation 3.3
and since cosT and sinT may be expressed in exponential

form by the identities:
e jT e jT
Figure 3.1: Vector OP sin T
2j
The quantity may be resolved into two components at right
angles to each other, in this case x and y. The magnitude or e jT e jT
cos T
scalar value of vector Z is known as the modulus Z , whilst 2j
the angle T is the argument and is written as arg Z . The By expanding and simplifying this equation, it follows that:
conventional method of expressing a vector Z is to
Z Z e jT
write Z T . This form completely specifies a vector for
graphical representation or conversion into other forms. Equation 3.4
A vector may therefore be represented both trigonometrically
It is useful to express vectors algebraically. In Figure 3.1, the
and exponentially.
vector Z is the resultant of adding x in the x-direction and y
in the y direction. This may be written as:
3.3 MANIPULATION OF COMPLEX
Z x jy QUANTITIES
Equation 3.1 In the above section, we have shown that complex quantities
may be represented in any of the four co-ordinate systems
where the operator j indicates that the component y is
given below:
perpendicular to component x. The axis OC is the 'real' axis,
and the vertical axis OY is called the 'imaginary' axis. x Polar ZT
If a quantity is considered positive in one direction, and its x Rectangular x+jy
direction is reversed, it becomes a negative quantity. Hence if x Trigonometric |Z|(cosT+jsinT)
the value +1 has its direction reversed (shifted by 180°), it
x Exponential |Z|e j˥
becomes -1.
The modulus |Z| and the argument T are together known as
The operator j rotates a vector anti-clockwise through 90°. If a
'polar co-ordinates', and x and y are described as 'cartesian
vector is made to rotate anti-clockwise through 180°, then the
co-ordinates'. Conversion between co-ordinate systems is
operator j has performed its function twice, and since the
easily achieved. As the operator j obeys the ordinary laws of
vector has reversed its sense, then:
algebra, complex quantities in rectangular form can be
j2 1 giving j 1 manipulated algebraically, as can be seen by the following:
The representation of a vector quantity algebraically in terms of Z1 Z 2 x1 x2 j y1 y 2

its rectangular co-ordinates is called a 'complex quantity'.
Equation 3.5
Therefore, x jy is a complex quantity and is the rectangular
form of the vector Z T where:
Chapter 3Fundamental Theory
Z1 Z 2 x1 x 2 j y1 y 2 such variables in differential equations it is useful to express

the complex quantity in exponential form.
Equation 3.6
Z1 Z 2 Z1 Z 2 T1 T 2 3.3.2 The 'a' Operator

We have seen that the mathematical operator j rotates a
Z1 Z1 quantity anti-clockwise through 90°. Another useful operator
T1 T 2 is one which moves a quantity anti-clockwise through 120°,
Z2 Z2
commonly represented by the symbol 'a'.
Equation 3.7
Using De Moivre's theorem, the nth root of unity is given by
solving the expression.
cos 2Sm j sin 2Sm n

1 1
n
1
where m is any integer. Hence:
1 2Sm 2Sm
1 n
cos j sin
n n
where m has values 1, 2, 3, ... (n - 1)
From the above expression ‘j’ is found to be the 4th root and
‘a’ the 3rd root of unity, as they have four and three distinct
Figure 3.2: Addition of vectors values respectively. Below are some useful functions of the 'a'
operator.
3.3.1 Complex Variables 2S
1 3 j
In the diagrams shown in Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2, we have a j e 3
shown that complex variables are represented on a simple 2 2

chart, where the y-axis is perpendicular to the x-axis displaced 4S
1 3 j
by 90°. The argument, or angle of incidence with respect to a2 j e 3
the x-axis is also known as the phase. So a quantity lying along 2 2

the y-axis is 90° out of phase with a quantity lying along the x- 1 1 j0 e j0
axis. Because we are rotating in an anti-clockwise direction,
the quantity y is then leading the quantity x by 90°. 1 a a2 0
If we take a simple sinusoidal waveform of frequency f, where 1 a j 3a 2
one cycle of the waveform (360°) takes T seconds (1/f) we can
see that the phase angle can be represented by the angular 1 a2 j 3a
velocity multiplied by the time taken to reach that angle. At
this point, we should move away from using degrees to a a2 j 3
measure angles and move over to radians. There are 2˭
a a2
radians in one cycle so: j
3
x 360° = 2 radians
x 270° = 3/2 radians 3.4 CIRCUIT QUANTITIES AND
x 180° = radians CONVENTIONS
x 90° = /2 radians Circuit analysis may be described as the study of the response
of a circuit to an imposed condition, for example a short
Thus circuit, where the circuit variables are current and voltage. We
Z T Z cos T j sin T Z cos Zt j sin Zt know that current flow results from the application of a driving
voltage, but there is complete duality between the variables
where T is the angle moved in time t, of a quantity moving at and either may be regarded as the cause of the other. Just as
Z radians per second. the current flowing through the primary winding of
transformer is as a result of the voltage applied across the
Some complex quantities vary with time. When manipulating
primary terminals, the voltage appearing at the secondary
3-3
terminals of the same transformer is as a result of current L

flowing through the secondary winding. Likewise, the current
flowing through a resistor is caused by a voltage applied to
either side of the resistor. But we can just as well say that the
voltage developed across the resistor is as a result of the AC V R
current flowing through it.
It is possible to represent any circuit with five circuit elements:
x Voltage source Figure 3.3: Simple RL circuit
x Current source When the voltage is changing, the inductive component L

inhibits the subsequent change of current. So in addition to the
x Resistance
resistance, the circuit offers reactance to the changing voltage
x Capacitance according to the equation:
x Inductance
di
When a circuit exists, there is an interchange of energy VL L
between these elements. A circuit may be described as being dt
made up of 'sources' and 'sinks' for energy. For example, where VL is the instantaneous voltage across the inductor
voltage and current sources are energy sources, resistors are
The equation that defines the voltage of the circuit is thus:
energy sinks, whereas capacitors and inductors (in their pure
form) are neither sinks nor sources, but are energy stores. They di
V iR L
merely borrow energy from the circuit then give it back. dt
The elements of a circuit are connected together to form a It can be seen that in this circuit, the higher the frequency the
network having nodes (terminals or junctions) and branches higher the impedance.
(series groups of elements) that form closed loops (meshes).
As a series inductance offers impedance to alternating current
In steady state a.c. circuit theory, the ability of a circuit to flow, a series capacitance will offer admittance. Consider the
impede a current flow resulting from a given driving voltage is following circuit:
called the impedance (Z) of the circuit. The impedance
parameter has an inverse equivalent (1/Z), known as C
admittance (Y). The impedance of a circuit is made up its
resistance (R) from resistors and its reactance (X) from
inductors and capacitors. Likewise the admittance of a circuit
AC V R
comprises the conductance (G) from resistors and susceptance
(B) from inductors and capacitors.
Impedance Figure 3.4: Simple RC circuit

If a steady state dc voltage is applied to a circuit, a current will
When the current is changing, the series capacitance C inhibits
flow, which depends only on the resistance of the circuit
the voltage build-up on the capacitor. The reactance of the
according to ohms law V=IR. The circuit’s reactive
series capacitor is given by:
components will not play a part in the long term. However if a
changing voltage source is applied, the subsequent flow in 1
C³
current depends not only on the resistance of the circuit, but
VC idt
also the reactance of the circuit, according to the equation:
where VC is the instantaneous voltage across the capacitor
V IZ
In this circuit, the complete voltage equation is as follows:
where Z is the circuit impedance consisting of the resistive part
1
C³
R and the reactive part X: V iR idt
Consider the following circuit:
It can be seen that in this circuit, the lower the frequency the
higher the impedance.
If the voltage waveform applied to an inductor is
Vt Vm sinZt Z R2 X 2
where V(t) is the voltage as a function of time, Vm is the and the angle is:
maximum voltage, Z is the angular velocity and t is the time,
then: X
Z tan 1
R
di
Vm sin( Zt ) L
dt
The impedance of a resistor in series with a capacitor in series
therefore with an inductor is:
di Vm 1 § 1 ·
sin( Zt ) Z R jZL R j ¨ ZL ¸
dt L jZ C © ZC ¹
and
3.4.1 Circuit Variables
V
I m cos( Zt ) AC current and voltage are (in the ideal case) sinusoidal
ZL functions of time, varying at a single and constant frequency.
They can be regarded as rotating vectors.
The reactance X is defined as the voltage across the reactive
For example, the instantaneous value, e of a voltage varying
component divided by the current flowing through the reactive
sinusoidally with time is:
component, therefore
e Em sinZt G
V( t ) Vm sin( Zt )
X =
I( t ) Vm cos( Zt ) Equation 3.8

ZL where:
Em = the maximum amplitude of the waveform
therefore
Z = the angular velocity, measured in radians per second
X ZL
G = the phase of the vector at time t = 0
Likewise, it can be shown that the reactance of a capacitor is: At t=0, the actual value of the voltage is EmsinG . So if Em is
regarded as the modulus of a vector, whose argument is G,
1
X then EmsinG is the imaginary component of the vector
ZC
|Em|G. Figure 3.5 illustrates this quantity as a vector and as
Phase Angle a sinusoidal function of time.
It has been explained that in an inductor, the current lags the

voltage. When one considers a sinusoidal waveform, the
current lags the voltage by 90° (This assumes a pure inductor
with zero resistive component). Likewise in a pure capacitor,
the current leads the voltage by 90°.
As the reactive components introduce a 90° phase shift
between the current and the voltage, the waveforms can be
represented by the impedance by a complex number, such
that:
Z R jX Figure 3.5: Representation of a sinusoidal function
where Z is the overall impedance, R is the resistive (or real) The current resulting from applying a voltage to a circuit
component and X is the reactive (or imaginary) component. depends upon the circuit impedance. If the voltage is a
The modulus of the impedance is: sinusoidal function at a given frequency and the impedance is
constant the current will also vary harmonically at the same
frequency, so it can be shown on the same vector diagram as
the voltage vector, and is given by the equation
3-5
Em potential difference in more exact terms. For this reason, the

i sinZt G I terms voltage rise and voltage drop are used to define more
Z
accurately the nature of the potential difference.
Equation 3.9
Voltage rise is a rise in potential measured in the direction of
where: current flow between two points in a circuit. Voltage drop is
the converse. A circuit element with a voltage rise across it
Z R2 X 2 acts as a source of energy. A circuit element with a voltage
drop across it acts as a sink of energy. Voltage sources are
§ 1 ·
X ¨ ZL ¸ usually active circuit elements, while sinks are usually passive
© ZC ¹ circuit elements. The positive direction of energy flow is from
sources to sinks.
X
I tan 1 Kirchhoff's first law states that the sum of the driving voltages
R
must equal the sum of the passive voltages in a closed loop.
Equation 3.10
This is illustrated by the fundamental equation of an electric
From Equations 3.9 and 3.10 it can be seen that the angular circuit:
displacement I between the current and voltage vectors and
di 1
dt C ³
the current magnitude |Im| is dependent upon the impedance e iR L idt
Z . In complex form the impedance may be written
Equation 3.12
Z R jX . The 'real component', R, is the circuit
resistance, and the 'imaginary component', X, is the circuit where the terms on the left hand side of the equation are
reactance. When the circuit reactance is inductive (that is, voltage drops across the circuit elements. Expressed in steady
state terms Equation 3.12 may be written:
ZL ! 1 / ZC ), the current 'lags' the voltage by an angle I,
and when it is capacitive (that is, 1 / ZC ! ZL ) it 'leads' the ¦E ¦ IZ
voltage by an angle I.
Equation 3.13
Root Mean Square and this is known as the equated-voltage equation [3.1].
Sinusoidally varying quantities are described by their 'effective' It is the equation most usually adopted in electrical network
or 'root mean square' (r.m.s.) values; these are usually written calculations, since it equates the driving voltages, which are
using the relevant symbol without a suffix. known, to the passive voltages, which are functions of the
Thus: currents to be calculated.
In describing circuits and drawing vector diagrams, for formal
Im
I analysis or calculations, it is necessary to adopt a notation
2 which defines the positive direction of assumed current flow,
and and establishes the direction in which positive voltage drops
and increases act. Two methods are available; one, the double
Em suffix method, is used for symbolic analysis, the other, the
E single suffix or diagrammatic method, is used for numerical
2
calculations.
Equation 3.11
In the double suffix method the positive direction of current
The 'root mean square' value is that value which has the same
flow is assumed to be from node ‘a’ to node ‘b’ and the current
heating effect as a direct current quantity of that value in the
same circuit, and this definition applies to non-sinusoidal as is designated I ab . With the diagrammatic method, an arrow
well as sinusoidal quantities. indicates the direction of current flow.
The voltage rises are positive when acting in the direction of
3.4.2 Sign Conventions
current flow. It can be seen from Figure 3.6 that E1 and Ean
In describing the electrical state of a circuit, it is often
are positive voltage rises and E2 and Ebn are negative
necessary to refer to the 'potential difference' existing between
two points in the circuit. Since wherever such a potential voltage rises. In the diagrammatic method their direction of
difference exists, current will flow and energy will either be action is simply indicated by an arrow, whereas in the double
transferred or absorbed, it is obviously necessary to define a suffix method, Ean and Ebn indicate that there is a potential
rise in directions na and nb. supplied or absorbed it is necessary to take the average power
over one whole cycle. If
Z3
e Em sin( Zt G ) and i Im sin( Zt G I ) , then
I
Z1 Z2 the power equation is:
p ei P [ 1 cos 2( Zt G )] Q sin 2( Zt G )
E1 E2
Equation 3.15
where:
E1 E2 Z1 Z2 Z3 I P E I cos I
(a) Diagrammatic and
Z ab
a b
Q E I sin I
I ab
Z an Zbn From Equation 3.15 it can be seen that the quantity P varies
from 0 to 2P and quantity Q varies from -Q to +Q in one
Ean Ebn cycle, and that the waveform is of twice the periodic frequency
of the current voltage waveform.
n
The average value of the power exchanged in one cycle is a
Ean Ebn Zan Zab Zbn I ab constant, equal to quantity P, and as this quantity is the
(b) Double suffix product of the voltage and the component of current which is
Figure 3.6: Methods of representing a circuit 'in phase' with the voltage it is known as the 'real' or 'active'
power.
Voltage drops are also positive when acting in the direction of
current flow. From Figure 3.6(a) it can be seen that The average value of quantity Q is zero when taken over a
cycle, suggesting that energy is stored in one half-cycle and
Z1 Z 2 Z 3 is the total voltage drop in the loop in the
returned to the circuit in the remaining half-cycle. Q is the
direction of current flow, and must equate to the total voltage
product of voltage and the quadrature component of current,
rise E1 E2 . In Figure 3.6(b) the voltage drop between and is known as 'reactive power'.
nodes a and b designated Vab indicates that point b is at a
As P and Q are constants specifying the power exchange in a
lower potential than a, and is positive when current flows from
given circuit, and are products of the current and voltage
a to b. Conversely Vba is a negative voltage drop.
vectors, then if S is the product EI it follows that:
Symbolically:
S P jQ
Vab Van Vbn Equation 3.16
Vba Vbn Van The quantity S is described as the 'apparent power', and is the
term used in establishing the rating of a circuit. S has units of
(where n is a common reference point) VA.
Equation 3.14
3.4.4 Single and Polyphase Systems
3.4.3 Power A system is single or polyphase depending upon whether the
The product of the potential difference across and the current sources feeding it are single or polyphase. A source is single or
through a branch of a circuit is a measure of the rate at which polyphase according to whether there are one or several
energy is exchanged between that branch and the remainder driving voltages associated with it. For example, a three-
of the circuit. If the potential difference is a positive voltage phase source is a source containing three alternating driving
drop the branch is passive and absorbs energy. Conversely, if voltages that are assumed to reach a maximum in phase
the potential difference is a positive voltage rise the branch is order, A, B, C. Each phase driving voltage is associated with a
active and supplies energy. phase branch of the system network as shown in Figure
3.7(a).
The rate at which energy is exchanged is known as power, and
by convention, the power is positive when energy is being If a polyphase system has balanced voltages, that is, equal in
absorbed and negative when being supplied. With a.c. circuits magnitude and reaching a maximum at equally displaced time
the power alternates, so, to obtain a rate at which energy is intervals, and the phase branch impedances are identical, it is
3-7
called a 'balanced' system. It will become 'unbalanced' if any analysing initial values, it is necessary to study the behaviour of
of the above conditions are not satisfied. Calculations using a a circuit in the transient state. This can be achieved using
balanced polyphase system are simplified, as it is only operational methods. In some problems, which fortunately are
necessary to solve for a single phase, the solution for the rare, the assumption of linear, bilateral circuit parameters is no
remaining phases being obtained by symmetry. longer valid. Such problems are solved using advanced
mathematical techniques that are beyond the scope of this
The power system is normally operated as a three-phase,
book.
balanced, system. For this reason the phase voltages are
equal in magnitude and can be represented by three vectors
3.5.1 Circuit Laws
spaced 120° or 2S/3 radians apart, as shown in Figure 3.7(b).
In linear, bilateral circuits, there are three basic network laws.
A A' These laws apply, regardless of the state of the circuit, and at
any particular instant of time. These laws are the branch,
Ean
Phase junction and mesh laws, derived from Ohm and Kirchhoff, and
branches are stated below, using steady state a.c. nomenclature.
N N'
Ecn Ebn
Branch law
C B C' B'
The current I in a given branch of impedance Z is
proportional to the potential difference V appearing across the
(a) Three-phase system branch, that is:
Ea V IZ
Direction of
rotation Junction law
The algebraic sum of all currents entering any junction (or
120° 120° node) in a network is zero, that is:
¦I 0
Mesh law
Ec aEa 120° Eb a2 Ea The algebraic sum of all the driving voltages in any closed path
(or mesh) in a network is equal to the algebraic sum of all the
(b) Balanced system of vectors passive voltages (products of the impedances and the
Figure 3.7: Three phase systems currents) in the component branches, that is:
Since the voltages are symmetrical, they may be expressed in ¦E ¦ IZ

terms of one, that is:
Alternatively, the total change in potential around a closed loop
Ea Ea is zero.
Eb a 2 Ea 3.5.2 Circuit Theorems

From the above network laws, many theorems have been
Ec aEa
derived for the rationalisation of networks, either to reach a
Equation 3.17 quick, simple, solution to a problem or to represent a
2S complicated circuit by an equivalent. These theorems are
j
where a is the vector operator e 3
. Further, if the phase divided into two classes: those concerned with the general
branch impedances are identical in a balanced system, it properties of networks and those concerned with network
follows that the resulting currents are also balanced. reduction.
Of the many theorems that exist, the three most important are
3.5 THEOREMS AND NETWORK REDUCTION given. These are: the Superposition Theorem, Thévenin's
Most practical power system problems are solved by using Theorem and Kennelly's Star/Delta Theorem.
steady state analytical methods. These methods make the
assumption that circuit parameters are linear, bilateral, and
constant for constant frequency circuit variables. When
3.5.2.1 Superposition Theorem (general network theorem) study the effect of opening a breaker at A or B during normal
The resultant current that flows in any branch of a network system operations or of a fault at A or B. Thus the identity of
due to the simultaneous action of several driving voltages is nodes A and B must be retained together with the sources, but
equal to the algebraic sum of the component currents due to the branch ON can be eliminated, simplifying the study.
each driving voltage acting alone with the remainder short- Proceeding, A, B, N, forms a star branch and can therefore be
circuited. converted to an equivalent delta.
2.55:
3.5.2.2 Thévenin's Theorem (active network reduction
1.6: 0.4:
theorem)
Any active network that may be viewed from two terminals
can be replaced by single driving voltage acting in series with 0.75: 0.45:
single impedance. The driving voltage is the open-circuit
18.85:
voltage between the two terminals and the impedance is the
impedance of the network viewed from the terminals with all
sources short-circuited.
Figure 3.9: Typical power system
3.5.2.3 Kennelly's Star/Delta Theorem (passive network
reduction theorem)
Any three-terminal network can be replaced by a delta or star Z AO Z BO
Z AN Z AO Z NO
impedance equivalent without disturbing the external network. Z BO
The formulae relating the replacement of a delta network by 0.75 u 18.85
the equivalent star network is as follows: 0.75 18.85
0.45
Z12 Z 31 51:
Z10
Z12 Z 23 Z 31
and so on. Z BO Z BO
Z BN Z BO Z NO
Z AO
0.45 u 18.85
0.45 18.85
0.75
30.6:
Figure 3.8: Star/Delta network reduction Z AO Z BO

Z AB Z AO Z BO
The impedance of a delta network corresponding to and Z NO
replacing any star network is: 1.2:
Z10 Z 20 (since ZNO >> ZAOZBO)
Z12 Z10 Z 20
Z 30
2.5:
and so on. 1.6: 0.4:
3.5.3 Network Reduction 1.2:

The aim of network reduction is to reduce a system to a simple 51: 30.6:
equivalent while retaining the identity of that part of the
system to be studied.
For example, consider the system shown in Figure 3.9. The
network has two sources E' and E" , a line AOB shunted by Figure 3.10: Reduction using star/delta transform
an impedance, which may be regarded as the reduction of a
further network connected between A and B, and a load
The network is now reduced as shown in Figure 3.10.
connected between O and N. The object of the reduction is to
3-9
By applying Thévenin's theorem to the active loops, these can x decide on the information required, for example the
be replaced by a single driving voltage in series with branch currents in the network for a fault at a particular
impedance, as shown in Figure 3.11. location
1.6×51 x reduce all passive sections of the network not directly
: involved with the section under examination
1.6: 52.6
x reduce all active meshes to a simple equivalent, that is,
to a simple source in series with a single impedance
51: 51
E' ' With the widespread availability of computer-based power
52.6
system simulation software, it is now usual to use such
software on a routine basis for network calculations without
significant network reduction taking place. However, the
network reduction techniques given above are still valid, as
there will be occasions where such software is not immediately
0.4×30.6 available and a hand calculation must be carried out.
:
0.4: 31
In certain circuits, for example parallel lines on the same
towers, there is mutual coupling between branches. Correct
30.6 circuit reduction must take account of this coupling.
30.6: E' '
31 Three cases are of interest. These are:
x Case a: two branches connected together at their nodes
x Case b: two branches connected together at one node
only
Figure 3.11: Reduction of active meshes: Thévenin's theorem
x Case c: two branches that remain unconnected
The network shown in Figure 3.9 is now reduced to that Considering each case in turn:
shown in Figure 3.12 with the nodes A and B retaining their
identity. Further, the load impedance has been completely
Case a
eliminated. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 3.13(a).
The network shown in Figure 3.12 may now be used to study Ia
system disturbances, for example power swings with and

without faults.
Ib
2.5:
1.55: 0.39:
1.2: 2
Z aaZ bb Z ab
Z
Z aa Z bb 2 Z ab
0.97 E' 0.99 E' '
Z
1

Z Z bb
2 aa

Figure 3.12: Reduction of typical power system
Most reduction problems follow the same pattern as the Figure 3.13: Reduction of two branches with mutual coupling
example above. The rules to apply in practical network The application of a voltage V between the terminals P and Q
reduction are: gives:
x decide on the nature of the disturbance or disturbances V I a Z aa I b Z ab
to be studied
V I a Z ab I b Z bb
where Ia and Ib are the currents in branches a and b,
respectively and I = Ia + Ib , the total current entering at The assumption is made that an equivalent star network can
terminal P and leaving at terminal Q. replace the network shown. From inspection with one
terminal isolated in turn and a voltage V impressed across the
Solving for Ia and Ib :
remaining terminals it can be seen that:
Ia
Z bb Z ab V Za Zc Z aa
Z aa Z bb Z ab
2
Zb Zc Z bb
from which Z a Zb Z aa Z bb 2Z ab
Ib
Z aa Z ab V
Z aa Z bb Z ab
2
Solving these equations gives:
and Za Z aa Z ab
V Z aa Z bb 2 Z ab Zb Z bb Z ab
I I a Ib
Z aa Z bb Z ab
2
Zc Z ab Z ab
so that the equivalent impedance of the original circuit is:
Z aa Z bb Z ab
2
Equation 3.20 - see Figure 3.14(b).
Z
Z aa Z bb 2 Z ab Case c
Equation 3.18 Consider the four-terminal network given in Figure 3.15(a), in
(Figure 3.13(b)), and, if the branch impedances are equal, the which the branches 11' and 22' are electrically separate except
usual case, then: for a mutual link. The equations defining the network are:
Z11 I1 Z12 I 2
Z
1
2
Z aa Z ab V1
V2 Z 21 I1 Z 22 I 2
Equation 3.19 (see Figure 3.13c)
I1 Y11V1 Y12V2
Case b
I2 Y21V1 Y22V2
Consider the circuit in Figure 3.14(a).
where Z12 = Z21 and Y12 = Y21, if the network is assumed to

be reciprocal. Further, by solving the above equations it can
be shown that:
Y11 Z 22 / '
Y22 Z11 / '
Y12 Z12 / '
' Z11Z 22 Z12

2
Equation 3.21
There are three independent coefficients, namely Z12, Z11, Z22
so the original circuit may be replaced by an equivalent mesh
containing four external terminals, each terminal being
connected to the other three by branch impedances as shown
in Figure 3.15(b).
Figure 3.14: Reduction of mutually-coupled branches with a common

terminal
3-11
Z11' 1
Z11
1 1' Z11'
1 1' Y11
Z1'2 Z2'1
Z12 Z12 Z1'2'
1
2
Z22
2' Z22'
Z 22'
2 2'
Y22
(a) Actual circuit (b) Equivalent circuit 1

Z12
Y12
Z11
Z12 Z1' 2' Z 21' Z12'
1 1 1'
Z12 Hence:
Z11' Z12 Z12' -Z12 -Z12
Z11Z 22 Z12
2
Z22 Z12 Z11'

C 2 2' Z 22
Z11Z 22 Z12
2
(c) Equivalent with
commoned nodes (d) Equivalent circuit Z 22'
Z11
Figure 3.15: equivalent circuits for four terminal network with mutual
Z11Z 22 Z12
coupling 2
Z12
In order to evaluate the branches of the equivalent mesh let all Z12
points of entry of the actual circuit be commoned except node Equation 3.22
1 of circuit 1, as shown in Figure 3.15(c). Then all impressed
A similar but equally rigorous equivalent circuit is shown in
voltages except V1 will be zero and:
Figure 3.15(d). This circuit [3.2] follows from the reasoning
I1 Y11V1 that since the self-impedance of any circuit is independent of
all other circuits it need not appear in any of the mutual
I2 Y12V1 branches if it is lumped as a radial branch at the terminals. So
If the same conditions are applied to the equivalent mesh, putting Z11 and Z22, equal to zero in Equation 3.22, defining
then: the equivalent mesh in Figure 3.15(b), and inserting radial
branches having impedances equal to Z11 and Z22 in terminals
V1 1 and 2, results in Figure 3.15(d).
I1
Z11'
3.6 IMPEDANCE NOTATION
V1 V1
I2 It can be seen by inspection of any power system diagram that:
Z12 Z12'
x several voltage levels exist in a system
These relations follow from the fact that the branch connecting x it is common practice to refer to plant MVA in terms of
nodes 1 and 1' carries current I1 and the branches connecting per unit or percentage values
nodes 1 and 2' and 1' and 2 carry current I2. This must be
x transmission line and cable constants are given in
true since branches between pairs of commoned nodes can
ohms/km
carry no current.
Before any system calculations can take place, the system
By considering each node in turn with the remainder
parameters must be referred to ‘base quantities’ and
commoned, the following relationships are found:
represented as a unified system of impedances in either ohmic,
percentage, or per unit values.
The base quantities are power and voltage. Normally, they are
given in terms of the three-phase power in MVA and the line
voltage in kV. The base impedance resulting from the above
base quantities is:
Zb
kV 2 :
MVA
Equation 3.23
and, provided the system is balanced, the base impedance may

be calculated using either single-phase or three-phase
quantities.
The per unit or percentage value of any impedance in the
system is the ratio of actual to base impedance values.
Hence:
MVAb
Z ( p.u .) Z ( : ) u
kVb 2
Z (%) Z ( p .u .) u 100
Figure 3.16: Selection of base voltages
Equation 3.24
From Figure 3.16 it can be seen that the base voltages in the
where: three circuits are related by the turns ratios of the intervening
MVAb=baseMVA transformers. Care is required as the nominal transformation
ratios of the transformers quoted may be different from the
kVAb=basekV
turns ratios- e.g. a 110/33kV (nominal) transformer may have
Transferring per unit quantities from one set of base values to a turns ratio of 110/34.5kV. Therefore, the rule for hand
another can be done using the equation: calculations is: 'to refer impedance in ohms from one circuit to
2 another multiply the given impedance by the square of the
MVAb 2 § kVb1 ·
Z p .u .2 Z p .u .1 u ¨ ¸ turn’s ratio (open circuit voltage ratio) of the intervening
MVAb1 ¨© kVb 2 ¸¹ transformer'.
where: Where power system simulation software is used, the software

normally has calculation routines built in to adjust transformer
x suffix b1 denotes the value to the original base parameters to take account of differences between the
x suffix b2 denotes the value to new base nominal primary and secondary voltages and turns ratios. In
The choice of impedance notation depends upon the this case, the choice of base voltages may be more
complexity of the system, plant impedance notation and the conveniently made as the nominal voltages of each section of
nature of the system calculations envisaged. the power system. This approach avoids confusion when per
unit or percent values are used in calculations in translating
If the system is relatively simple and contains mainly the final results into volts, amps, etc.
transmission line data, given in ohms, then the ohmic method
can be adopted with advantage. However, the per unit For example, in Figure 3.17, generators G1 and G2 have a sub-
method of impedance notation is the most common for transient reactance of 26% on 66.6MVA rating at 11kV, and
general system studies since: transformers T1 and T2 a voltage ratio of 11/145kV and an
impedance of 12.5% on 75MVA. Choosing 100MVA as base
x impedances are the same referred to either side of a MVA and 132kV as base voltage, find the percentage
transformer if the ratio of base voltages on the two impedances to new base quantities.
sides of a transformer is equal to the transformer turns
ratio x generator reactances to new bases are:
x confusion caused by the introduction of powers of 100 100 112

in percentage calculation is avoided 26 u u 0.27%
66.6 132 2
x by a suitable choice of bases, the magnitudes of the
x transformer reactances to new bases are:
data and results are kept within a predictable range,
and hence errors in data and computations are easier to 100 1452
spot 12.5 u u 20.1%
75 132 2
Most power system studies are carried out using software in
NOTE: The base voltages of the generator and circuits are
per unit quantities. Irrespective of the method of calculation,
11kV and 145kV respectively, that is, the turns ratio of the
the choice of base voltage, and unifying system impedances to
transformer. The corresponding per unit values can be found
this base, should be approached with caution, as shown in the
by dividing by 100, and the ohmic value can be found by using
following example.
Equation 3.19.
3-13
Figure 3.17: Section of a power system
3.7 REFERENCES
[3.1] Power System Analysis. J. R. Mortlock and M. W.
Humphrey Davies. Chapman & Hall.
[3.2] Equivalent Circuits I. Frank M. Starr, Proc. A.I.E.E. Vol.
51. 1932, pp. 287-298.
3-15
Chapter 4
Fault Calculations

4.2 Three-phase Fault Calculations
A power system is normally treated as a balanced symmetrical
4.3 Symmetrical Component Analysis of A Three- three-phase network. When a fault occurs, the symmetry is
Phase Network normally upset, resulting in unbalanced currents and voltages
4.4 Equations and Network Connections for appearing in the network. The only exception is the three-
Various Types of Faults phase fault, where all three phase equally at the same location.
4.5 Current and Voltage Distribution in a System This is described as a symmetrical fault. By using symmetrical
due to a Fault component analysis and replacing the normal system sources
by a source at the fault location, it is possible to analyse these
4.6 Effect of System Earthing on Zero Sequence
fault conditions.
Quantities
4.7 References For the correct application of protection equipment, it is
essential to know the fault current distribution throughout the
system and the voltages in different parts of the system due to
the fault. Further, boundary values of current at any relaying
point must be known if the fault is to be cleared with
discrimination. The information normally required for each
kind of fault at each relaying point is:
x maximum fault current
x minimum fault current
x maximum through fault current
To obtain this information, the limits of stable generation and
possible operating conditions, including the system earthing
method, must be known. Faults currents are always assumed
to be through zero fault impedance.
4.2 THREE-PHASE FAULT CALCULATIONS

Three-phase faults are unique in that they are balanced, that
is, symmetrical in the three phases, and can be calculated from
the single-phase impedance diagram and the operating
conditions existing prior to the fault.
A fault condition is a sudden abnormal alteration to the normal
circuit arrangement. The circuit quantities, current and
voltage, will alter, and the circuit will pass through a transient
state to a steady state. In the transient state, the initial
magnitude of the fault current will depend upon the point on
the voltage wave at which the fault occurs. The decay of the
transient condition, until it merges into steady state, is a
function of the parameters of the circuit elements. The
transient current may be regarded as a d.c. exponential current
superimposed on the symmetrical steady state fault current.
In a.c. machines, owing to armature reaction, the machine
reactances pass through 'sub transient' and 'transient' stages
4-1
before reaching their steady state synchronous values. For this currents circulating in the system due to the fault, to give the
reason, the resultant fault current during the transient period, total current in any branch of the system at the time of fault
from fault inception to steady state also depends on the inception. However, in most problems, the load current is
location of the fault in the network relative to that of the small in comparison to the fault current and is usually ignored.
rotating plant.
In a practical power system, the system regulation is such that
In a system containing many voltage sources, or having a the load voltage at any point in the system is within 10% of the
complex network arrangement, it is tedious to use the normal declared open-circuit voltage at that point. For this reason, it
system voltage sources to evaluate the fault current in the is usual to regard the pre-fault voltage at the fault as being the
faulty branch or to calculate the fault current distribution in the open-circuit voltage, and this assumption is also made in a
system. A more practical method [Reference 4.1] is to replace number of the standards dealing with fault level calculations.
the system voltages by a single driving voltage at the fault
The section on Network Reduction in chapter 3, provided an
point. This driving voltage is the voltage existing at the fault
example of how to reduce a three-phase network. We will use
point before the fault occurs.
this circuit for an example of some practical three-phase fault
Consider the circuit given in Figure 4.1 where the driving calculations. With the network reduced as shown in Figure
voltages are E ' and E ' ' , the impedances on either side of 4.2, the load voltage at A before the fault occurs is:
fault point F are Z1 ' and Z1" , and the current through point 2.5 :
F before the fault occurs is I . 1.55 : 0.39 :
Z1' Z1" 1.2 :
0.97 E' 0.99 E' '

I
E' V E"
Figure 4.2: Reduction of typical power system network
V 0.97 E ' 1.55I

N
§ 1.2 u 2.5 ·
Figure 4.1: Network with fault at F V 0.99 E" ¨ 0.39 ¸ I 0.99 E" 1.2 I
© 2.5 1.2 ¹
The voltage V at F before fault inception is:
V E' IZ ' E" I Z "

For practical working conditions, E ' !!! 1.55 I and
Assuming zero fault impedance, the fault voltage V will be E' ' !!! 1.2 I . Hence E ' # E '' # V
zero after the fault inception, and a large fault current will flow
to earth. The change in voltage at the fault point is therefore Replacing the driving voltages E ' and E '' by the load voltage
V . The change in the current flowing into the network from V between A and N modifies the circuit as shown in Figure
F is thus: 4.3(a).
'I
V
V
Z ' Z "
1 1
Z1 Z1' Z 1"
and, since no current was flowing into the network from F
prior to the fault, the fault current flowing from the network
into the fault is:
If 'I V
Z ' Z "
1 1
Z1' Z1"
By applying the principle of superposition, the load currents
circulating in the system prior to the fault may be added to the
Chapter 4 Fault Calculations
2.5 :
1.55 : 0.39 :
A B
1.2 :
(a) Three-phase fault diagram for a fault at node A
Busbar
Circuit
Breaker
A
X
(b) Typical physical arrangement of node A with a fault shown at X
Figure 4.3: Network with fault at node A

The node A is the junction of three branches. In practice, the
node would be a busbar, and the branches are feeders
radiating from the bus via the closed circuit breakers, as shown Figure 4.4: Impedances viewed from fault
in Figure 4.3(b). There are two possible locations for a fault at The currents from Figure 4.4(a) are as follows:
A; the busbar side of the breakers or the line side of one of the
breakers. In this example, let us assumed that the fault is at 1.55 1.55
From the right: 0.563 p .u .
X, and we wish to calculate the current flowing from the bus 1.55 1.201 2.751
to X.
1.201 1.201
From the left: 0.437 p.u .
The network viewed from AN has a driving point impedance: 1.55 1.201 2.751
1.5 u 1.201 There is a parallel branch to the right of A.
Z1 0.68:
1.5 1.201 The current in the 2.5 ohm branch is:
The current in the fault is:

V
=
V 1.2 u 0.562
0.182 p.u.
Z1 0.68 2.5 1.2
Let this current be 1.0 per unit. It is now necessary to find the and the current in 1.2 ohm branch
fault current distribution in the various branches of the
2.5 u 0.562
network and in particular the current flowing from A to X on 0.38 p.u.
the assumption that a relay at X is to detect the fault 2.5 1.2
condition. The equivalent impedances viewed from either side The total current entering from A to X, is 0.437+0.182 =
of the fault are shown in Figure 4.4(a). 0.62 p.u. and from B to X is 0.38p.u. The equivalent
network as viewed from the relay is as shown in Figure 4.4(b).
The impedances on either side are:
0.68 0.68
1.1: and 1.79:
0.62 0.38
The circuit of Figure 4.4(b) has been included because the
Protection Engineer is interested in these equivalent
parameters when applying certain types of protection relay.
4-3
4.3 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS Eo
OF A THREE-PHASE NETWORK a 2 E2
Eo
E2
Ea
It is necessary to consider the fault currents due to many
different types of fault. The most common type of fault is a Ec
single-phase to earth fault, which in LV systems, can produce E1
aE1
a higher fault current than a three-phase fault. A method of
analysis that applies to unbalanced faults is required. By
applying the 'Principle of Superposition', any general three-
phase system of vectors may be replaced by three sets of
balanced (symmetrical) vectors; two sets being three-phase
but having opposite phase rotation and one set being co- a 2 E1
phasal. These vector sets are described as the positive, Eb
negative and zero sequence sets respectively.
The equations between phase and sequence voltages are given
aE2
below:
Ea E1 E2 E0
Eo
Eb a E1 aE2 E0
2 Figure 4.5: Resolution of a system of unbalanced vectors
When a fault occurs in a power system, the phase impedances
Ec aE1 a 2 E2 E0 are no longer identical (except in the case of three-phase
Equation 4.1 faults) and the resulting currents and voltages are unbalanced,
the point of greatest unbalance being at the fault point. We
E1
1
3
Ea aEb a 2 Ec have shown in Chapter 3 that the fault may be studied by
short-circuiting all normal driving voltages in the system and
replacing the fault connection by a source whose driving
E2
1
3

Ea a 2 Eb aEc voltage is equal to the pre-fault voltage at the fault point.
Hence, the system impedances remain symmetrical, viewed
E0
1
Ea Eb Ec from the fault, and the fault point may now be regarded as the
point of injection of unbalanced voltages and currents into the
3
system.
Equation 4.2
This is a most important approach in defining the fault
where all quantities are referred to the reference phase A. A
conditions since it allows the system to be represented by
similar set of equations can be written for phase and sequence
sequence networks [4.3] using the method of symmetrical
currents. Figure 4.5 illustrates the resolution of a system of
components
unbalanced vectors.
4.3.1 Positive Sequence Network

During normal balanced system conditions, only positive
sequence currents and voltages can exist in the system, and
therefore the normal system impedance network is a positive
sequence network
When a fault occurs the current in the fault branch changes
from O to I 1 and the positive sequence voltage across the
branch changes from V to V 1 ; replacing the fault branch by a
source equal to the change in voltage and short-circuiting all
normal driving voltages in the system results in a current ' I
flowing into the system, and:
V V1 under normal conditions, then negative sequence quantities

'I can only exist during an unbalanced fault.
Z1
If no negative sequence quantities are present in the fault
Equation 4.3
branch prior to the fault, then, when a fault occurs, the change
where Z1 is the positive sequence impedance of the system in voltage is V 2 , and the resulting current I 2 flowing from
viewed from the fault. the network into the fault is:
As before the fault no current was flowing from the fault into V2
the system, it follows that I1 , the fault current flowing from I2
Z2
the system into the fault must equal ' I . Therefore:
Equation 4.5
V1 V I 1 Z1 The impedances in the negative sequence network are
generally the same as those in the positive sequence network.
Equation 4.4
In machines Z1 z Z 2 , but the difference is generally ignored,
is the relationship between positive sequence currents and
voltages in the fault branch during a fault. particularly in large networks.
In Figure 4.6, which represents a simple system, the voltage The negative sequence diagrams, shown in Figure 4.7, are
similar to the positive sequence diagrams, with two important
drops I '1 Z '1 and I"1 Z "1 are equal to ( V V1 ) where the differences; no driving voltages exist before the fault and the
currents I1 ' and I1' ' enter the fault from the left and right negative sequence voltage V2 is greatest at the fault point.
respectively and impedances Z1 ' and Z1 ' ' are the total X
system impedances viewed from either side of the fault

Z S1 ' Z1c I 2c F I 2cc Z1cc
branch. The voltage V is equal to the open-circuit voltage in
the system, and it has been shown that V # E' # E' ' (see
chapter 3). So the positive sequence voltages in the system
due to the fault are greatest at the source, as shown in the
Z1c I2
gradient diagram, Figure 4.6(b).
X
V2
Z S1 ' Z1c Z1cc
F
I 1c I 1cc
N
I1
Z1c
(a) Negative sequence network
E' ~ V1 ~ E"
F
N
(a) System diagram
I 1c X
N
V2
X I 1c Z1c
V
F V 2 I 2c ' Z1c
V1 I 1c ' Z1c
V1
N' N
(b) Gradient diagram
(b) Gradient diagram
Figure 4.6: Fault at F: Positive sequence diagrams
Figure 4.7: Fault at F: Negative sequence diagrams
4.3.2 Negative Sequence Network
If only positive sequence quantities appear in a power system
4-5
4.3.3 Zero Sequence Network Single-phase-earth (A-E)

The zero sequence current and voltage relationships during a
Ib 0
fault condition are the same as those in the negative sequence
network. Hence: Ic 0
V0 I0Z0 Va 0
Equation 4.6
Equation 4.7
Also, the zero sequence diagram is that of Figure 4.7,
substituting I 0 for I 2 , and so on.
Phase-phase (B-C)
The currents and voltages in the zero sequence networks are Ia 0

co-phasal, that is, all the same phase. For zero sequence
currents to flow in a system there must be a return connection Ib Ic
through either a neutral conductor or the general mass of
Vb Vc
earth. Note must be taken of this fact when determining zero
sequence equivalent circuits. Further, in general Z1 z Z 0 Equation 4.8
and the value of Z 0 varies according to the type of plant, the Phase-phase-earth (B-C-E)
winding arrangement and the method of earthing.
Ia 0
4.4 EQUATIONS AND NETWORK
Vb 0
CONNECTIONS FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF
FAULTS Vc 0
The most important types of faults are as follows: Equation 4.9
x single-phase to earth
Three-phase (A-B-C or A-B-C-E)
x phase to phase
x phase-phase-earth I a Ib Ic 0
x three-phase (with or without earth)
Va Vb
The above faults are described as single shunt faults because
they occur at one location and involve a connection between Vb Vc
one phase and another or to earth.
Equation 4.10
In addition, the Protection Engineer often studies two other It should be noted from the above that for any type of fault
types of fault: there are three equations that define the fault conditions.
x single-phase open circuit When there is fault impedance, this must be taken into
x cross-country fault account when writing down the equations. For example, with
By determining the currents and voltages at the fault point, it a single-phase earth fault through fault impedance Z f , the
is possible to define the fault and connect the sequence equations are re-written:
networks to represent the fault condition. From the initial
equations and the network diagram, the nature of the fault Ib 0
currents and voltages in different branches of the system can
be determined. Ic 0
For shunt faults of zero impedance, and neglecting load Va IaZ f
current, the equations defining the first four of the above faults
(using phase-neutral values) can be written down as follows: Equation 4.11
From network Equation 4.4, Equation 4.5 and Equation 4.16

F Va
A F1 F2 Fo can be re-written:
Ia
Vb
B
Z1 Z2 Z0
V I 1 Z1 I 2 Z 2
Ib Vc
C
Ic N2 No and substituting for I 2 from Equation 4.15:
V
I1 Z1 Z 2
N1
V
Ib 0 Equation 4.17
Ic 0
The constraints imposed by Equations 4.15 and 4.17 indicate
Va 0
that there is no zero sequence network connection in the
(b) Definition of fault (b) Equivalent circuit
equivalent circuit and that the positive and negative sequence
Figure 4.8: Single-phase-earth fault at F
networks are connected in parallel. Figure 4.9 shows the
4.4.1 Single-phase-earth Fault (A-E) defining and equivalent circuits satisfying the above equations
Consider a fault defined by Equation 4.7 and by Figure 4.8(a).

Va
Converting Equation 4.7 into sequence quantities by using
Ia
Equation 4.1 and Equation 4.2, then: Vb
Z1 Z2 Zo
1 Vc
I1 I2 I0 Ia
3 Ib
V
Equation 4.12 Ic
V1 V2 V0 Ia 0
Equation 4.13 Ib Ic
Vb Vc
Substituting for V1 , V2 and V0 in Equation 4.13 from
Equation 4.4, Equation 4.5 and Equation 4.6:
Figure 4.9: Phase-phase fault at F
V I1 Z1 I2Z2 I0Z0
4.4.3 Phase-phase-earth Fault (B-C-E)
but, I 1 I2 I 0 , therefore: Again, from Equation 4.9 and Equations 4.1 and 4.2:
V I 1 Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 I1 I2 Io
Equation 4.14 Equation 4.18
The constraints imposed by Equation 4.12 and Equation 4.14 and
and indicate that the equivalent circuit for the fault is obtained
by connecting the sequence networks in series, as shown in V1 V2 V0
Equation 4.8(b) Equation 4.19
4.4.2 Phase-phase Fault (B-C) Substituting for V2 and V0 using Equation 4.5 and Equation
From Equation 4.8 and using Equation 4.1 and Equation 4.2: 4.6:
I1 I 2 I2Z2 I0Z0
Equation 4.15 Thus, using Equation 4.18:
I0 0 Z 2 I1
I0
Z0 Z2
V1 V2
Equation 4.20
Equation 4.16
and
4-7
Z 0 I1 I0 0
I2
Z0 Z2 Equation 4.24
Equation 4.21
Substituting V2 0 in Equation 4.5 gives:
Now equating V1 and V2 and using Equation 4.4 gives:
I2 0
V I 1 Z1 I 2 Z 2 Equation 4.25
or
and substituting V1 0 in Equation 4.4 gives:
V I 1 Z1 I 2 Z 2
0 V I1 Z1
Substituting for I 2 from Equation 4.21: or
ª Z0Z2 º V I1 Z1
V « Z1 » I1
¬ Z0 Z2 ¼ Equation 4.26
or
Further, since from Equation 4.24 I 0 0 , it follows from
I1 V
Z
Z2
0 Equation 4.6 that V0 is zero when Z 0 is finite. The
Z1 Z 0 Z1 Z 2 Z 0 Z 2 equivalent sequence connections for a three-phase fault are
Equation 4.22 shown in Figure 4.11.
From the above equations it follows that connecting the three

Va
sequence networks in parallel as shown in Equation 4.10(b)
may represent a phase-phase-earth fault Vb
Z1 Z2 Z0
Vc
Va
Ia V
Ia Ib
Vb Ic
Z1 Z2 Zo
Vc
Ib
Ia Ib Ic 0
Va Vb Vc 0
Ic
Ia 0
Figure 4.11: Three-phase-earth fault at F
Vb 0
Vc 0
4.4.5 Single-phase Open Circuit Fault
Figure 4.10: Phase-phase-earth fault The single-phase open circuit fault is shown diagrammatically
in Figure 4.12(a). At the fault point, the boundary conditions
4.4.4 Three-phase Fault (A-B-C or A-B-C-E) are:
Assuming that the fault includes earth, then, from Equation Ia 0
4.1 Equation 4.2 and Equation 4.10, it follows that:
Vb Vc 0
V0 VA
Equation 4.27
V1 V2 0 Hence, from Equation 4.2,
Equation 4.23
and
1 b) at point F’’
V0 V1 V2 Va
3 I 'a I 'c 0
Ia I1 I 2 I 0 0
V 'b 0
Equation 4.28
Equation 4.31
From Equation 4.8, it can be concluded that the sequence
and therefore:
networks are connected in parallel, as shown in Figure
4.12(b). I 'b1 I 'b 2 I 'b 0
Equation 4.32
To solve, it is necessary to convert the currents and voltages at
point F’ to the sequence currents in the same phase as those
at point F. From Equation 4.32,
a 2 I ' a1 aI ' a 2 I 'a 0

or
I ' a1 a 2 I 'a 2 aI ' a 0

Equation 4.33
and, for the voltages
V 'b1 V 'b 2 V 'b 0 0

Converting:
a 2 V ' a1 aV ' a 2 V ' a 0 0
Figure 4.12: Open circuit on phase A

or
V ' a1 a 2 V ' a 2 aV ' a 0 0

4.4.6 Cross-Country Faults
A cross-country fault is one where there are two faults Equation 4.34
affecting the same circuit, but in different locations and The fault constraints involve phase shifted sequence quantities.
possibly involving different phases. Figure 4.13(a) illustrates To construct the appropriate sequence networks, it is
this. necessary to introduce phase-shifting transformers to couple
the sequence networks. This is shown in Figure 4.13(b).
The constraints expressed in terms of sequence quantities are
as follows:
a) at point F
Ib Ic 0
VA 0
Equation 4.29
Therefore:
I a1 Ia2 I a0
Va1 Va 2 Va 0 0
Equation 4.30
4-9
F F’ x with faults assumed to occur at each relaying point in

turn, maximum and minimum fault currents are
~ ~
a-e b'-e calculated for each type of fault
NOTE: The fault is assumed to be through zero impedance

(a) 'A' phase to earth at F and 'B' phase to earth at F'
x by calculating the current distribution in the network for
faults applied at different points in the network the
I a1 c
I a1
maximum through fault currents at each relaying point
F1 F1c are established for each type of fault
c
V a1 V a1 x at this stage more or less definite ideas on the type of
protection to be applied are formed. Further
N1 N1c
calculations for establishing voltage variation at the
I a2 D 2 I a2
c
c
I a2 relaying point, or the stability limit of the system with a
1
D2 fault on it, are now carried out in order to determine the
F2 F2c
class of protection necessary, such as high or low
Va 2 c
V a2 D 2V a2
c
speed, unit or non-unit, etc.
N2 N 2c
c
D I ao
I ao c
I ao 4.5.1 Current Distribution
1
D The phase current in any branch of a network is determined
Fo Foc
D V ao
c
from the sequence current distribution in the equivalent circuit
V ao c
V ao
of the fault. The sequence currents are expressed in per unit
No N oc terms of the sequence current in the fault branch.
(b) Equivalent circuit In power system calculations, the positive sequence and
Figure 4.13: Cross-country fault: phase A to phase B negative sequence impedances are normally equal. Thus, the
division of sequence currents in the two networks will also be
4.5 CURRENT AND VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION identical.
IN A SYSTEM DUE TO A FAULT
The impedance values and configuration of the zero sequence
Practical fault calculations involve the examination of the network are usually different from those of the positive and
effect of a fault in branches of network other than the faulted negative sequence networks, so the zero sequence current
branch, so that protection can be applied correctly to isolate distribution is calculated separately.
the section of the system directly involved in the fault. It is
therefore not enough to calculate the fault current in the fault If C0 and C1 are described as the zero and positive sequence
itself; the fault current distribution must also be established. distribution factors then the actual current in a sequence
Further, abnormal voltage stresses may appear in a system branch is given by multiplying the actual current in the
because of a fault, and these may affect the operation of the sequence fault branch by the appropriate distribution factor.
protection. Knowledge of current and voltage distribution in a For this reason, if I 1 , I 2 and I 0 are sequence currents in an
network due to a fault is essential for the application of arbitrary branch of a network due to a fault at some point in
protection. the network, then the phase currents in that branch may be
The approach to network fault studies for assessing the expressed in terms of the distribution constants and the
sequence currents in the fault. These are given below for the
application of protection equipment may be summarised as
follows: various common shunt faults, using Equation 4.1 and the
appropriate fault equations:
x from the network diagram and accompanying data,
a. Single-phase-earth (A-E)
assess the limits of stable generation and possible
operating conditions for the system I 'a 2C1 C0 I 0
C1 C0 I 0
NOTE: When full information is not available assumptions
I 'b
may have to be made
I 'c C1 C0 I 0
Equation 4.35
b. Phase-phase (B-C)
I 'a 0
I 'b a a C I
2
1 1
I 'c a a C I
2
1 1
Equation 4.36
c. Phase-phase-earth (B-C-E)
I 'a C1 C0 I 0
ª º
I 'b
« a a C1
2 Z0
Z1

a 2 C1 C 0 » I 0
¬ ¼
ª 2 º
I'c
« a a C1
Z0
Z1

aC1 C 0 » I 0
¬ ¼
Equation 4.37
d. Three-phase (A-B-C or A-B-C-E)
I 'a C1 I1
I 'b a 2C1 I1
I 'c aC1 I1
Equation 4.38
As an example of current distribution technique, consider the Figure 4.14: Typical power system
system in Figure 4.14(a). The equivalent sequence networks By using network reduction methods and assuming that all
are given in Figure 4.14(b) and Figure 4.14(c), together with impedances are reactive, it can be shown that
typical values of impedances. A fault is assumed at A and it is Z1 Z0 j 0.68: .
desired to find the currents in branch OB due to the fault. In
each network, the distribution factors are given for each Therefore, from Equation 4.14, the current in the fault branch
branch, with the current in the fault branch taken as 1.0p.u. V
From the diagram, the zero sequence distribution factor C0 in is I a .
0.68
branch OB is 0.112 and the positive sequence factor C1 is
0.373. For an earth fault at A the phase currents in branch Assuming that |V| = 63.5V, then:
OB from Equation 4.35 are: 1 63.5
I0 Ia 31.2 A
I 'a 0.746 0.112I 0 0.858I 0 3 3 u 0.68
And If V is taken as the reference vector, then:
I 'b I 'c 0.373 0.112I 0 0.261I 0 I' a 26.8 90q A

I' b I' c 81.590q A
The vector diagram for the above fault condition is shown in
Figure 4.15.
4-11
V 'c 61.5116.4q and
V'2 I 2 >Z1 j 0.464@

From the zero sequence distribution diagram Figure 4.8(b):
V '0 I 0 >Z 0 j 0.165 u 2.6 0.112 u 1.6 @

I 'b I 'c 8.1590q
therefore
V '0 I 0 >Z 0 j 0.608@

V 63.50q
For earth faults, at the fault I1 I2 I0 j 31.2 A , when

V 'a 47.80q V 63.5 volts and is taken as the reference vector.
Further,
Z1 Z0 j 0.68:
Hence:
I'a 26.8 90q
V '1 63.5 0.216 u 31.2 56.760qV
V 'b 61.5 116.4q V '2 6.74180qV
Figure 4.15: Vector diagram: Fault currents and voltages in branch OB
due to Phase-to-Earth (P-E) fault at bus A V '0 2.25180qV
4.5.2 Voltage Distribution and, using Equation 4.1:
The voltage distribution in any branch of a network is V'a V '1 V ' 2 V ' 0 56.76 6.74 2.25
determined from the sequence voltage distribution. As shown
by Equation 4.5, Equation 4.6 and Equation 4.7 and the Therefore V ' a 47.80qV
gradient diagrams Figure 4.6(b) and Figure 4.7(b), the positive
sequence voltage is a minimum at the fault, whereas the zero V 'b a 2 V '1 aV ' 2 V ' 0 56.76a 2 6.74a 2.25
and negative sequence voltages are a maximum. Thus, the
sequence voltages in any part of the system may be given Therefore V 'b 61.5 116.4qV
generally as:
V 'c aV '1 a 2 V ' 2 V ' 0
56.75a 6.74a 2 2.25
§ n
·
V '1 V I1 ¨ Z1 ¦ C1n 'Z1n ¸
© 1 ¹ Therefore V ' c 61.5116.4qV
§ n
· These voltages are shown on the vector diagram, Figure 4.15.
V '2 I 2 ¨ Z1 ¦ C1n 'Z1n ¸
© 1 ¹ 4.6 EFFECT OF SYSTEM EARTHING ON ZERO
§ n
· SEQUENCE QUANTITIES
V '0 I 0 ¨ Z 0 ¦ C0 n 'Z 0 n ¸
© 1 ¹ It has been shown previously that zero sequence currents flow
in the earth path during earth faults, and it follows that the
Equation 4.39
nature of these currents will be influenced by the method of
Using the above equation, the fault voltages at bus B in the earthing. Because these quantities are unique in their
previous example can be found. association with earth faults they can be utilised in protection,
From the positive sequence distribution diagram Figure 4.8(c): provided their measurement and character are understood for
all practical system conditions.
V '1 V I 1 >Z1 j 0.395 u 0.75 0.373 u 0.45@
4.6.1 Residual Current and Voltage
V I1 >Z1 j 0.464@
Residual currents and voltages depend for their existence on
two factors: Ia
A
a. a system connection to earth at two or more points Ib
B
b. a potential difference between the earth points
Ic
resulting in a current flow in the earth paths C
Under normal system operation there is a capacitance between
Vae
the phases and between phase and earth; these capacitances Vbe V
ce
may be regarded as being symmetrical and distributed
uniformly through the system. So even when (a) above is A
satisfied, if the driving voltages are symmetrical the vector sum
of the currents will equate to zero and no current will flow
between any two earth points in the system. When a fault to
earth occurs in a system, an unbalance results in condition (b)
being satisfied. From the definitions given above it follows V
that residual currents and voltages are the vector sum of phase
(a) Residual current (b) Residual voltage
currents and phase voltages respectively.
Figure 4.16: Measurement of residual quantities
Hence:
4.6.2 System Ratio
IR I a Ib Ic
The system Z 0 Z1 ratio is defined as the ratio of zero
And sequence and positive sequence impedances viewed from the
VR Vae Vbe Vce fault; it is a variable ratio, dependent upon the method of
earthing, fault position and system operating arrangement.
Equation 4.40
When assessing the distribution of residual quantities through
Also, from Equation 4.2: a system, it is convenient to use the fault point as the reference
IR 3I 0 as it is the point of injection of unbalanced quantities into the
system. The residual voltage is measured in relation to the
VR 3V0 normal phase-neutral system voltage and the residual current
is compared with the three-phase fault current at the fault
Equation 4.41 point. It can be shown [4.4/4.5] that the character of these
It should be further noted that: quantities can be expressed in terms of the system Z 0 Z1
Vae Van Vne ratio.
The positive sequence impedance of a system is mainly
Vbe Vbn Vne reactive, whereas the zero sequence impedance being affected
by the method of earthing may contain both resistive and
Vce Vcn Vne
reactive components of comparable magnitude. Thus the
Equation 4.42
expression for the Z 0 Z1 ratio approximates to:
2
and since Vbn a Van and Vcn aVan
Z0 X0 R0
then:
j
Z1 X1 X1
VR 3Vne Equation 4.44
Equation 4.43 Expressing the residual current in terms of the three-phase

current and Z 0 Z1 ratio:
where Vne is the neutral displacement voltage.
a. Single-phase-earth (A-E)
Measurements of residual quantities are made using current
and voltage transformer connections as shown in Figure 4.16.
If relays are connected into the circuits in place of the ammeter
and voltmeter, earth faults in the system can be detected.
4-13
3V 3 V 3.0
IR Residual current for
2Z 1 Z 0 2 K Z1 Double-Phase-Earth fault
2.5
Z0 V
where K and I 3I Residual voltage for
Z1 Z1 Single-Phase-Earth fault
3I
V R and I R as mul t i pl es of V and I
2.0
Thus:
IR 3
1.5
I 3I 2 K
Equation 4.45
1.0 Residual voltage for
b. Phase-phase-earth (B-C-E) Double-Phase-Earth fault
3Z1
IR 3I 0 I1 0.5
Z1 Z 0 Residual current for
I1

V Z1 Z 0 0
Double-Phase-Earth fault
1 2 3 4 5
2Z 1 Z 0 Z 1
2
§ Z0 ·
K ¨ ¸
Hence: © Z1 ¹
Figure 4.17: Variation of residual quantities at fault point

3V Z1 3 V
IR
2Z 1 Z 0 Z 1
2
2 K 1 Z 1
The curves in Figure 4.17 illustrate the variation of the above
Therefore:
residual quantities with the Z 0 Z1 ratio. The residual
IR 3 current in any part of the system can be obtained by

I 3I 2K 1 multiplying the current from the curve by the appropriate zero
sequence distribution factors. Similarly, the residual voltage is
Equation 4.46 calculated by subtracting from the voltage curve three times
Similarly, the residual voltages are found by multiplying the zero sequence voltage drops between the measuring point
Equation 4.45 and Equation 4.46 by K V . in the system and the fault.
c. Single-phase-earth (A-E) 4.6.3 Variation of Residual Quantities

3K The variation of residual quantities in a system due to different
VR V
2 K earth arrangements can be most readily understood by using
vector diagrams. Three examples have been chosen, namely
Equation 4.47
solid fault-isolated neutral, solid fault-resistance neutral, and
d. Phase-phase-earth (B-C-E) resistance fault-solid neutral. These are illustrated in Figure
4.18, Figure 4.19 and Figure 4.20 respectively.
3K
VR V
2K 1
Equation 4.48
I ab I ac
short-circuited by the fault and the neutral current combines
with the sound phase capacitive currents to give I a in the
I ab
faulted phase.
I ac
Ia X ZL F
I ab I ac A
I ab I ac
I ab
N B
I ac
C
I ac
I an
I ab I ab
Ia
V cF Eac
V bF V cF (a) Circuit diagram

I ab V bF Eab
VR
I ac
c
Figure 4.18: Solid fault - isolated neutral
V cF
4.6.3.1 Solid fault-isolated neutral
From Figure 4.18 it can be seen that the capacitance to earth V cX Ia
of the faulted phase is short circuited by the fault and the n a(F) I ac
I aZ L
resulting unbalance causes capacitance currents to flow into VXn I ab
the fault, returning via sound phases through sound phase V bF I an
x
capacitances to earth.
I ab V bX
At the fault point: b
(b) Vector diagram
VaF 0
and
V cX V cF
VR VbF VcF 3Ean VR
V bF (At source)
V aX
At source:
VR (At fault)
V bX
VR 3Vne 3Ean
(c) Residual voltage diagram
Since Figure 4.19: Solid fault - resistance neutral
Ean Ebn Ecn 0 With a relay at X, residually connected as shown in Figure

4.16, the residual current will be I an , that is, the neutral earth
Thus, with an isolated neutral system, the residual voltage is
three times the normal phase-neutral voltage of the faulted loop current.
phase and there is no variation between VR at source and VR At the fault point:
at fault.
VR VbF VcF
In practice, there is some leakage impedance between neutral
and earth and a small residual current would be detected at X since VFe 0
if a very sensitive relay were employed.
At source:
4.6.3.2 Solid fault-resistance neutral VR VaX VbX VcX
Figure 4.19 shows that the capacitance of the faulted phase is
From the residual voltage diagram it is clear that there is little
4-15
variation in the residual voltages at source and fault, as most reduces towards the source. If the fault resistance approaches
residual voltage is dropped across the neutral resistor. The zero, that is, the fault becomes solid, then VFn approaches
degree of variation in residual quantities is therefore dependent
on the neutral resistor value. zero and the voltage drops in Z S and Z L become greater.
The ultimate value of VFn will depend on the effectiveness of
4.6.3.3 Resistance-fault-solid neutral
the earthing, and this is a function of the system Z 0 Z1
Capacitance can be neglected because, since the capacitance
of the faulted phase is not short-circuited, the circulating ratio.
capacitance currents will be negligible.
4.7 REFERENCES
At the fault point:
[4.1] Circuit Analysis of A.C. Power Systems, Volume I. Edith
VR VFn Vbn Vcn Clarke. John Wiley & Sons.
[4.2] Method of Symmetrical Co-ordinates Applied to the
At relaying point X: Solution of Polyphase Networks. C.L. Fortescue.
Trans. A.I.E.E.,Vol. 37, Part II, 1918, pp 1027-40.
VR V Xn Vbn Vcn
[4.3] Power System Analysis. J.R. Mortlock and M.W.
Humphrey Davies. Chapman and Hall.
X
ZS IF ZL F [4.4] Neutral Groundings. R Willheim and M. Waters.
A
Elsevier.
B [4.5] Fault Calculations. F.H.W. Lackey. Oliver & Boyd
C
IF
IF
(a) Circuit diagram

c
V cF
V cn
V an
n a
V Xn I FZ s
Vbn
V Fn X
I FZ L
F IF
V bF
b
(b) Vector diagram
V Xn
VR V Fn VR
V cn V bn
V cn Vbn
(c) Residual voltage at fault (d) Residual voltage at relaying point
Figure 4.20: Resistance fault -solid neutral

From the residual voltage diagrams shown in Figure 4.20, it is
apparent that the residual voltage is greatest at the fault and
4-17
Chapter 5
Equivalent circuits and parameters of
power system plant
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.1 Introduction Knowledge of the behaviour of the principal electrical system
5.2 Synchronous Machines plant items under normal and fault conditions is a prerequisite
5.3 Armature Reaction for the proper application of protection. This chapter
5.4 Steady State Theory summarises basic synchronous machine, transformer and
transmission line theory and gives equivalent circuits and
5.5 Salient Pole Rotor
parameters so that a fault study can be successfully completed
5.6 Transient Analysis before the selection and application of the protection systems
5.7 Asymmetry described in later chapters. Only what might be referred to as
5.8 Machine Reactances ‘traditional’ synchronous machine theory is covered because
5.9 Negative Sequence Reactance calculations for fault level studies generally only require this.
5.10 Zero Sequence Reactance Readers interested in more advanced models of synchronous
5.11 Direct and Quadrature Axis Values machines are referred to the numerous papers on the subject,
of which reference [5.1] is a good starting point.
5.12 Effect of Saturation on Machine Reactances
5.13 Transformers Power system plant can be divided into two broad groups:
5.14 Transformer Positive Sequence Equivalent static and rotating.
Circuits The modelling of static plant for fault level calculations
5.15 Transformer Zero Sequence Equivalent Circuits provides few difficulties, as plant parameters generally do not
5.16 Auto-Transformers change during the period of interest after a fault occurs. The
problem in modelling rotating plant is that the parameters
5.17 Transformer Impedances
change depending on the response to a change in power
5.18 Overhead Lines and Cables system conditions.
5.19 Calculation of Series Impedance
5.20 Calculation of Shunt Impedance 5.2 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
5.21 Overhead Line Circuits With or Without Earth There are two main types of synchronous machine: cylindrical
Wires rotor and salient pole. In general, the former is confined to 2
5.22 OHL Equivalent Circuits and 4 pole turbine generators, while salient pole types are built
5.23 Cable Circuits with 4 poles upwards and include most classes of duty. Both
5.24 Overhead Line and Cable Data classes of machine are similar in that each has a stator
carrying a three-phase winding distributed over its inner
5.25 References
periphery. The rotor is within the stator bore and is magnetised
by a d.c. current winding.
The main difference between the two classes of machine is in
the rotor construction. The cylindrical rotor type has a
cylindrical rotor with the excitation winding distributed over
several slots around its periphery. This construction is not
suited to multi-polar machines but it is very mechanically
sound. It is therefore particularly well suited for the highest
speed electrical machines and is universally used for 2 pole
units, plus some 4 pole units.
The salient pole type has poles that are physically separate,
each carrying a concentrated excitation winding. This type of
5-1
construction is complementary to that of the cylindrical rotor unity p.f., the voltage and current in the stator are in phase,
and is used in machines of 4 poles or more. Except in special the stator current producing a cross magnetising magneto-
cases its use is exclusive in machines of more than 6 poles. motive force (m.m.f.) which interacts with that of the rotor,
Figure 5.1 shows a typical large cylindrical rotor generator resulting in a distortion of flux across the pole face. As can be
installed in a power plant. seen from Figure 5.2(a) the tendency is to weaken the flux at
the leading edge or distort the field in a manner equivalent to a
Two and four pole generators are most often used in
shift against the direction of rotation.
applications where steam or gas turbines are used as the
driver. This is because the steam turbine tends to be suited to If the power factor is reduced to zero lagging, the current in
high rotational speeds. Four pole steam turbine generators are the stator reaches its maximum 90° after the voltage. The
most often found in nuclear power stations as the relative rotor is then in the position shown in Figure 5.2(b) and the
wetness of the steam makes the high rotational speed of a stator m.m.f. is acting in direct opposition to the field.
two-pole design unsuitable. Most generators with gas turbine
Similarly, for operation at zero leading power factor, the stator
drivers are four pole machines to obtain enhanced mechanical
m.m.f. directly assists the rotor m.m.f. This m.m.f. arising
strength in the rotor - since a gearbox is often used to couple
from current flowing in the stator is known as ‘armature
the power turbine to the generator, the choice of synchronous
reaction’.
speed of the generator is not subject to the same constraints
as with steam turbines.
Generators with diesel engine drivers are invariably of four or
more pole design, to match the running speed of the driver Weak Strong Weak Strong
without using a gearbox. Four-stroke diesel engines usually
N S
have a higher running speed than two-stroke engines, so
generators having four or six poles are most common. Two-
stroke diesel engines are often derivatives of marine designs Direction of rotation
with relatively large outputs (circa 30MW is possible) and may (a)
have running speeds of the order of 125rpm. This requires a
generator with a large number of poles (48 for a 125rpm,
50Hz generator) and consequently is of large diameter and
short axial length. This is a contrast to turbine-driven
machines that are of small diameter and long axial length.
N S N
(b)
Figure 5.2: Distortion of flux due to armature reaction
5.4 STEADY STATE THEORY

The vector diagram of a single cylindrical rotor synchronous
machine is shown in Figure 5.3, assuming that the magnetic
circuit is unsaturated, the air-gap is uniform and all variable
quantities are sinusoidal. The resistance of these machines is
much smaller than the reactance and is therefore neglected.
Figure 5.1: Large synchronous generator
The excitation ampere-turns ATe produces a flux across the
5.3 ARMATURE REACTION air-gap which induces a voltage Et in the stator. This voltage
drives a current I at a power factor cos and produces an
Armature reaction has the greatest effect on the operation of a
armature reaction m.m.f. ATar in phase with it. The m.m.f.
synchronous machine with respect both to the load angle at
ATf resulting from the combination of these two m.m.f.
which it operates and to the amount of excitation that it needs.
vectors (see Figure 5.3(a)) is the excitation which must be
The phenomenon is most easily explained by considering a
provided on the rotor to maintain flux across the air gap.
simplified ideal generator with full pitch winding operating at
Rotating the rotor m.m.f. diagram, Figure 5.3(a), clockwise
unity p.f., zero lag p.f. and zero lead p.f. When operating at
until ATe coincides with Et and changing the scale of the
Chapter 5 Equivalent circuits and parameters of power system plant
diagram so that ATe becomes the basic unit, where IXL is exactly in phase with the voltage drop due to Xad as
ATe=Et=1 results in Figure 5.3(b). The m.m.f. vectors shown on the vector diagram Figure 5.3(c). Xad and XL can
therefore become voltage vectors. For example ATar /ATe is a be combined to give a simple equivalent reactance; known as
unit of voltage that is directly proportional to the stator load the ‘synchronous reactance'and denoted by Xd.
current. This vector can be fully represented by a reactance
The power generated by the machine is given by:
and in practice this is called 'armature reaction reactance' and
is denoted by Xad. Similarly, the remaining side of the triangle VEo
P VI cos I sin G
becomes ATf /ATe which is the per unit voltage produced on Xd
open circuit by ampere-turns ATf. It can be considered as the
Equation 5.1
internal generated voltage of the machine and is designated
E0 . where G is the angle between the internal voltage and the
terminal voltage and is known as the load angle of the
machine.
It follows from the above analysis that, for steady state
performance, the machine may be represented by the
M equivalent circuit shown in Figure 5.4, where XL is a true
reactance associated with flux leakage around the stator
) winding and Xad is a fictitious reactance, being the ratio of
armature reaction and open-circuit excitation magneto-motive
forces.
) Figure 5.4: Equivalent circuit of elementary synchronous machine

In practice, due to necessary constructional features of a
cylindrical rotor to accommodate the windings, the reactance
Xa is not constant irrespective of rotor position, and modelling
proceeds as for a generator with a salient pole rotor. However,
the numerical difference between the values of Xad and Xaq is
small, much less than for the salient pole machine.
5.5 SALIENT POLE ROTOR

The preceding theory is limited to the cylindrical rotor
G generator. For a salient pole rotor, the air gap cannot be
M considered as uniform.. The effect of this is that the flux
produced by armature reaction m.m.f. depends on the position
of the rotor at any instant, as shown in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.3: Vector diagram of synchronous machine

The true leakage reactance of the stator winding which gives
rise to a voltage drop or regulation has been neglected. This
reactance is designated XL (or Xa in some texts) and the
voltage drop occurring in it IXL is the difference between the
terminal voltage V and the voltage behind the stator leakage
reactance EL.
5-3
Lag Lead Iq Xq
Armature
reaction M.M.F.
Id Xd
E0
IXd
Flux Flux
E’0
Direct axis pole
Quadrature axis
V
Figure 5.5: Variation of armature reaction m.m.f. with pole position G

When a pole is aligned with the assumed sine wave m.m.f. set M
up by the stator, a corresponding sine wave flux is set up but
Iq
when an inter-polar gap is aligned very severe distortion is I
caused. The difference is treated by considering these two
axes, that is those corresponding to the pole and the inter-
polar gap, separately. They are designated the 'direct' and Id
'quadrature' axes respectively, and the general theory is known
as the 'two axis' theory.
The vector diagram for the salient pole machine is similar to Pole axis
that for the cylindrical rotor except that the reactance and Figure 5.6: Vector diagram for salient pole machine
currents associated with them are split into two components.
The synchronous reactance for the direct axis is Xd=Xad+XL, 5.6 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
while that in the quadrature axis is Xq=Xaq+XL. The vector For normal changes in load conditions, steady state theory is
diagram is constructed as before but the appropriate quantities perfectly adequate. However, there are occasions when
in this case are resolved along two axes. The resultant internal almost instantaneous changes are involved, such as faults or
voltage is E0, as shown in Figure 5.6. switching operations. When this happens new factors are
introduced within the machine and to represent these
Note that E’0 is the internal voltage which would be given, in
adequately a corresponding new set of machine characteristics
cylindrical rotor theory, by vectorially adding the simple vectors
is required.
IXd and V. There is very little difference in magnitude between
E’0 and E0 but there is a substantial difference in internal The generally accepted and most simple way to appreciate the
angle. The simple theory is perfectly adequate for calculating meaning and derivation of these characteristics is to consider a
excitation currents but not for stability considerations where sudden three-phase short circuit applied to a machine initially
load angle is significant. running on open circuit and excited to normal voltage E0.
This voltage is generated by a flux crossing the air-gap. It is
not possible to confine the flux to one path exclusively in any
machine so there is a leakage flux L that leaks from pole to
pole and across the inter-polar gaps without crossing the main
air-gap as shown in Figure 5.7. The flux in the pole is +L .
It might be expected that the fault current would be given by

E0/(XL+Xad) equal to E0/Xd, but this is very much reduced,
and the machine is operating with no saturation. For this
reason, the value of voltage used is the value read from the
air-gap line corresponding to normal excitation and is higher
than the normal voltage. The steady state current is given by:
)L )L
2 2 Eg
Id
Xd
Equation 5.2
where Eg = voltage on air gap line
Figure 5.7: Flux paths of salient pole machine Between the initial and final conditions there has been a severe
If the stator winding is then short-circuited, the power factor in reduction of flux. The rotor carries a highly inductive winding
it is zero. A heavy current tends to flow as the resulting which links the flux so the rotor flux linkages before the short
armature reaction m.m.f. is demagnetising. This reduces the circuit are produced by +L. In practice the leakage flux is
flux and conditions settles until the armature reaction nearly distributed over the whole pole and all of it does not link all the
balances the excitation m.m.f., the remainder maintaining a winding. L is an equivalent concentrated flux imagined to
very much reduced flux across the air-gap which is just link all the winding and of such a magnitude that the total
sufficient to generate the voltage necessary to overcome the linkages are equal to those actually occurring. It is a
stator leakage reactance (resistance neglected). This is the fundamental principle that any attempt to change the flux
simple steady state case of a machine operating on short linked with such a circuit causes current to flow in a direction
circuit and is fully represented by the equivalent of Figure that opposes the change. In the present case the flux is being
5.8(a); see also Figure 5.4. reduced and so the induced currents tend to sustain it.
For the position immediately following the application of the
short circuit, it is valid to assume that the flux linked with the
rotor remains constant, this being brought about by an
induced current in the rotor which balances the heavy
demagnetising effect set up by the short-circuited armature.
So +L remains constant, but owing to the increased
m.m.f. involved, the flux leakage increases considerably. With
a constant total rotor flux, this can only increase at the
expense of that flux crossing the air-gap. Consequently, this
generates a reduced voltage, which, acting on the leakage
reactance XL, gives the short circuit current.
It is more convenient for machine analysis to use the rated
voltage E0 and to invent a fictitious reactance that gives rise to
the same current. This reactance is called the 'transient
reactance' X’d and is defined by the equation:
E0
Transient current I ' d
X 'd
Equation 5.3
It is greater than XL and the equivalent circuit is represented
by Figure 5.8(b) where:
X ad X f
X 'd XL
Figure 5.8: Synchronous machine reactances X ad X f
Equation 5.4
5-5
and Xf is the leakage reactance of the field winding or

Equation 5.4 may also be written as: X "d X L X 'kd
X 'd XL X 'f and
where: Xkd = leakage reactance of damper winding(s)
X’f = effective leakage reactance of field winding X’kd = effective leakage reactance of damper winding(s)
The flux is only be sustained at its relatively high value while It is greater than XL but less than X’d and the corresponding
the induced current flows in the field winding. As this current equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 5.8(c).
decays, conditions approach the steady state. Consequently
Again, the duration of this phase depends upon the time
the duration of this phase is determined by the time constant
constant of the damper winding. In practice this is
of the excitation winding. This is usually one second or less -
approximately 0.05 seconds - very much less than the
hence the term 'transient' applied to characteristics associated
transient - hence the term 'sub-transient'.
with it.
Figure 5.9 shows the envelope of the symmetrical component
A further point now arises. All synchronous machines have
of an armature short circuit current indicating the values
what is usually called a ‘damper winding’ or windings. In
described in the preceding analysis. The analysis of the stator
some cases, this may be a physical winding (like a field
current waveform resulting from a sudden short circuit test is
winding, but of fewer turns and located separately), or an
traditionally the method by which these reactances are
‘effective’ one (for instance, the solid iron rotor of a cylindrical
measured. However, the major limitation is that only direct
rotor machine). Sometimes, both physical and effective
axis parameters are measured. Detailed test methods for
damper windings may exist (as in some designs of cylindrical
synchronous machines are given in references [5.2] and [5.3],
rotor generators, having both a solid iron rotor and a physical
and include other tests that are capable of providing more
damper winding located in slots in the pole faces).
detailed parameter information.
Under short circuit conditions there is a transfer of flux from
Current
the main air-gap to leakage paths. To a small extent this

diversion is opposed by the excitation winding and the main
transfer is experienced towards the pole tips.
The damper winding(s) is subjected to the full effect of flux
transfer to leakage paths and carries an induced current
tending to oppose it. As long as this current can flow, the air- I dcc
Eo
gap flux is held at a value slightly higher than would be the X ccd
case if only the excitation winding were present, but still less
than the original open circuit flux .
As before, it is convenient to use rated voltage and to create
EO
another fictitious reactance that is considered to be effective I dc
X cd
over this period. This is known as the 'sub-transient Eai r gap
Id
reactance' X”d and is defined by the equation: Xd
E0
Sub-transient current I "d Time
X "d
Figure 5.9: Transient decay envelope of short-circuit current
Equation 5.5
where:
5.7 ASYMMETRY
The exact instant at which the short circuit is applied to the
X ad X f X kd stator winding is of significance. If resistance is negligible
X "d XL
X ad X f X kd X f X ad X kd compared with reactance, the current in a coil lags the voltage
by 90°, that is, at the instant when the voltage wave attains a
maximum, any current flowing through would be passing
through zero. If a short circuit were applied at this instant, the
resulting current would rise smoothly and would be a simple more costly machine. It is also worth noting that XL normally
a.c. component. However, at the moment when the induced changes in sympathy with Xad but that it is completely
voltage is zero, any current flowing must pass through a overshadowed by it.
maximum (owing to the 90° lag). If a fault occurs at this
The value 1/Xd has a special significance as it approximates to
moment, the resulting current assumes the corresponding
the short circuit ratio (S.C.R.), the only difference being that
relationship; it is at its peak and in the ensuing 180° goes
the S.C.R. takes saturation into account whereas Xd is derived
through zero to maximum in the reverse direction and so on.
from the air-gap line.
In fact the current must actually start from zero so it follows a
sine wave that is completely asymmetrical. Intermediate Cylindrical rotor turbine generators
Salient pole
generators
positions give varying degrees of asymmetry. This asymmetry Salient pole
Type of machine synchronous Hydrogen
can be considered to be due to a d.c. component of current condensers Air Hydrogen 4 Multi-
or Water
which dies away because resistance is present. Cooled Cooled Pole pole
Cooled
The d.c. component of stator current sets up a d.c. field in the Short circuit ratio 0.5-0.7 1.0-1.2 0.4-0.6 0.4-0.6 0.4-0.6 0.4-0.6 0.6-0.8
stator which causes a supply frequency ripple on the field Direct axis synchronous 1.75-
1.6-2.0 0.8-1.0 2.0-2.8 2.1-2.4 2.1-2.6 1.4-1.9
reactance Xd (p.u.) 3.0
current, and this alternating rotor flux has a further effect on
Quadrature axis
the stator. This is best shown by considering the supply synchronous reactance
1.0- 0.5-
1.8-2.7 1.9-2.4 2.0-2.5 0.9-1.5 0.8-1.0
1.23 0.65
frequency flux as being represented by two half magnitude Xq (p.u.)
waves each rotating in opposite directions at supply frequency Direct axis transient
0.3-0.5
0.2-
0.2-0.3 0.27-0.33 0.3-0.36
0.26-
0.24-0.4
reactance X'd (p.u.) 0.35 0.35
relative to the rotor. So, as viewed from the stator, one is
stationary and the other rotating at twice supply frequency. Direct axis sub-transient 0.12- 0.19-
0.2-0.4 0.15-0.23 0.19-0.23 0.21-0.27 0.16-0.25
reactance X''d (p.u.) 0.25 0.25
The latter sets up second harmonic currents in the stator.
Quadrature axis sub-
Further development along these lines is possible but the transient reactance X''q
0.25- 0.15-
0.16-0.25 0.19-0.23 0.21-0.28
0.19-
0.18-0.24
0.6 0.25 0.35
resulting harmonics are usually negligible and normally (p.u.)
neglected. Negative sequence 0.25- 0.14-
0.16-0.23 0.19-0.24 0.21-0.27
0.16-
0.16-0.23
reactance X2 (p.u.) 0.5 0.35 0.27
5.8 MACHINE REACTANCES Zero sequence reactance 0.12- 0.06-

0.06-0.1 0.1-0.15 0.1-0.15
0.01- 0.045-
X0 (p.u.) 0.16 0.10 0.1 0.23
Table 5.1 gives values of machine reactances for salient pole Direct axis short circuit
and cylindrical rotor machines typical of latest design practice. transient time constant 1.5-2.5 1.0-2.0 0.6-1.3 0.7-1.0 0.75-1.0 0.4-1.1 0.25-1
T'd (s)
Also included are parameters for synchronous compensators –
such machines are now rarely built, but significant numbers Direct axis open circuit
transient time constant 5-10 3-7 6-12 6-10 6-9.5 3.0-9.0 1.7-4.0
can still be found in operation. T'd (s)
Direct axis short circuit
0.04- 0.05- 0.013- 0.02-
5.8.1 Synchronous Reactance Xd=XL+Xad sub-transient- time
0.9 0.10 0.022
0.017-0.025 0.022-0.03
0.04
0.02-0.06
constant T''d (s)
The order of magnitude of XL is normally 0.1-0.25p.u., while
Direct axis open circuit
that of Xad is 1.0-2.5p.u. The leakage reactance XL can be 0.07- 0.08- 0.018- 0.035-
sub-transient time 0.023-0.032 0.025-0.035 0.03-0.1
0.11 0.25 0.03 0.06
reduced by increasing the machine size (derating), or increased constant T''d' (s)
by artificially increasing the slot leakage, but XL is only about Quadrature axis short
0.04- 0.05- 0.013- 0.025- 0.025-
circuit sub-transient 0.018-0.027 0.02-0.03
10% of the total value of Xd and does not have much influence. 0.6 0.6 0.022 0.04 0.08
time constant T''q (s)
The armature reaction reactance can be reduced by decreasing Quadrature axis open
0.026- 0.13-
circuit sub-transient time 0.1-0.2 0.2-0.9 0.03-0.05 0.04-0.065 0.1-0.35
the armature reaction of the machine, which in design terms 0.045 0.2
constant T''q (s)
means reducing the ampere conductor or electrical (as distinct
Table 5.1: Typical values of machine characteristics (all reactance
from magnetic) loading - this often means a physically larger values are unsaturated)
machine. Alternatively the excitation needed to generate
open-circuit voltage may be increased; this is simply achieved 5.8.2 Transient Reactance X’d=XL+X’f
by increasing the machine air-gap, but is only possible if the The transient reactance covers the behaviour of a machine in
excitation system is modified to meet the increased the period 0.1-3.0 seconds after a disturbance. This generally
requirements. corresponds to the speed of changes in a system and therefore
In general, control of Xd is obtained almost entirely by varying X’d has a major influence in transient stability studies.
Xad and in most cases a reduction in Xd means a larger and
5-7
Generally, the leakage reactance XL is equal to the effective In practice an empirical method is used, based on the fact that
field leakage reactance X’f , about 0.1-0.25p.u. The principal a given type of machine is capable of carrying, for short
factor determining the value of X’f is the field leakage. This is periods, an amount of heat determined by its thermal capacity,
largely beyond the control of the designer, in that other and for a long period, a rate of heat input which it can
considerations are at present more significant than field dissipate continuously. Synchronous machines are designed to
leakage and hence take precedence in determining the field operate continuously on an unbalanced system so that with
design. XL can be varied as already outlined and, in practice, none of the phase currents exceeding the rated current, the
control of transient reactance is usually achieved by varying ratio of the negative sequence current I2 to the rated current IN
XL. does not exceed the values given in Table 5.2. Under fault
conditions, the machine can also operate with the product of
5.8.3 Sub-Transient Reactance X’’d=XL+X’kd § I2 ·
2
The sub-transient reactance determines the initial current ¨¨ ¸¸ and time in seconds (t) not exceeding the values
peaks following a disturbance and in the case of a sudden fault © IN ¹
is of importance for selecting the breaking capacity of given.
associated circuit breakers. The mechanical stresses on the
machine reach maximum values that depend on this constant. Machine
Maximum Maximum
The effective damper winding leakage reactance X’kd is largely Rotor Rotor I2/IN for (I2/IN)2t for
Type/Rating
construction Cooling continuous operation
determined by the leakage of the damper windings and control (SN) (MVA)
operation during faults
of this is only possible to a limited extent. X’kd normally has a
value between 0.05 and 0.15p.u. The major factor is XL indirect motors 0.1 20
which, as indicated previously, is of the order of 0.1-0.25p.u., generators 0.08 20
and control of the sub-transient reactance is normally achieved
synchronous
by varying XL. 0.1 20
condensers
Salient
Good transient stability is obtained by keeping the value of X’d direct motors 0.08 15
low, which therefore also implies a low value of X”d. The fault generators 0.05 15
rating of switchgear, etc. is therefore relatively high. It is not synchronous
0.08 15
normally possible to improve transient stability performance in condensers
a generator without adverse effects on fault levels, and vice indirectly cooled
all 0.1 15
(air)
versa.
indirectly cooled
all 0.1 10
(hydrogen)
5.9 NEGATIVE SEQUENCE REACTANCE Cylindrical directly cooled <=350 0.08 8
Negative sequence currents can arise whenever there is any
351-900 Note 1 Note 2
unbalance present in the system. Their effect is to set up a
901-1250 Note 1 5
field rotating in the opposite direction to the main field
1251-1600 0.05 5
generated by the rotor winding, so subjecting the rotor to
I2 S 350
double frequency flux pulsations. This gives rise to parasitic Note 1: Calculate as 0.08 N
IN 3u10 4
currents and heating; most machines are quite limited in the
2
amount of such current which they are able to carry, both in ªI º
the steady–state and transiently.

Note 2: Calculate as «« 2 » t
»

8 0.00545 S N 350
¬ IN ¼
An accurate calculation of the negative sequence current Table 5.2: Unbalanced operating conditions for synchronous machines
(with acknowledgement to IEC 60034-1)
capability of a generator involves consideration of the current
paths in the rotor body. In a turbine generator rotor, for
5.10 ZERO SEQUENCE REACTANCE
instance, they include the solid rotor body, slot wedges,
excitation winding and end-winding retaining rings. There is a If a machine operates with an earthed neutral, a system earth
tendency for local over-heating to occur and, although possible fault gives rise to zero sequence currents in the machine. This
for the stator, continuous local temperature measurement is reactance represents the machines’ contribution to the total
not practical in the rotor. Calculation requires complex impedance offered to these currents. In practice it is generally
mathematical techniques to be applied, and involves specialist low and often outweighed by other impedances present in the
software. circuit.
5.11 DIRECT AND QUADRATURE AXIS VALUES machine excited to rated voltage.
The transient reactance is associated with the field winding In some cases, the test may be made from a suitably reduced
and since on salient pole machines this is concentrated on the voltage so that the initial current is approximately full load
direct axis, there is no corresponding quadrature axis value. value. This may be the case where the severe mechanical
The value of reactance applicable in the quadrature axis is the strain that occurs when the test is performed at rated voltage
synchronous reactance, that is X’q = Xq. has to be avoided. Saturation is very much reduced and the
The damper winding (or its equivalent) is more widely spread reactance values measured are virtually unsaturated values.
and hence the sub-transient reactance associated with this has They are also known as 'rated current' values, for obvious
reasons.
a definite quadrature axis value X”q, which differs significantly
in many generators from X”d.
5.13 TRANSFORMERS
5.12 EFFECT OF SATURATION ON MACHINE A transformer may be replaced in a power system by an
REACTANCES equivalent circuit representing the self-impedance of, and the
mutual coupling between, the windings. A two-winding
In general, any electrical machine is designed to avoid severe
transformer can be simply represented as a 'T' network in
saturation of its magnetic circuit. However, it is not
which the cross member is the short-circuit impedance, and
economically possible to operate at such low flux densities as
the column the excitation impedance. It is rarely necessary in
to reduce saturation to negligible proportions, and in practice a
fault studies to consider excitation impedance as this is usually
moderate degree of saturation is accepted.
many times the magnitude of the short-circuit impedance.
Since the armature reaction reactance Xad is a ratio ATar /ATe With these simplifying assumptions a three-winding
it is evident that ATe does not vary in a linear manner for transformer becomes a star of three impedances and a four-
different voltages, while ATar remains unchanged. The value winding transformer a mesh of six impedances.
of Xad varies with the degree of saturation present in the The impedances of a transformer, in common with other plant,
machine, and for extreme accuracy should be determined for can be given in ohms and qualified by a base voltage, or in per
the particular conditions involved in any calculation. unit or percentage terms and qualified by a base MVA. Care
All the other reactances, namely XL, X’d and X”d, are true should be taken with multi-winding transformers to refer all
reactances and actually arise from flux leakage. Much of this impedances to a common base MVA or to state the base on
leakage occurs in the iron parts of the machines and hence which each is given. The impedances of static apparatus are
must be affected by saturation. For a given set of conditions, independent of the phase sequence of the applied voltage; in
the leakage flux exists as a result of the net m.m.f. which consequence, transformer negative sequence and positive
causes it. If the iron circuit is unsaturated its reactance is low sequence impedances are identical. In determining the
and leakage flux is easily established. If the circuits are highly impedance to zero phase sequence currents, account must be
saturated the reverse is true and the leakage flux is relatively taken of the winding connections, earthing, and, in some
lower, so the reactance under saturated conditions is lower cases, the construction type. The existence of a path for zero
than when unsaturated. sequence currents implies a fault to earth and a flow of
balancing currents in the windings of the transformer.
Most calculation methods assume infinite iron permeability
and for this reason lead to somewhat idealised unsaturated Practical three-phase transformers may have a phase shift
reactance values. The recognition of a finite and varying between primary and secondary windings depending on the
permeability makes a solution extremely laborious and in connections of the windings – delta or star. The phase shift
practice a simple factor of approximately 0.9 is taken as that occurs is generally of no significance in fault level
representing the reduction in reactance arising from calculations as all phases are shifted equally. It is therefore
saturation. ignored. It is normal to find delta-star transformers at the
transmitting end of a transmission system and in distribution
It is necessary to distinguish which value of reactance is being
systems for the following reasons:
measured when on test. The normal instantaneous short-
circuit test carried out from rated open-circuit voltage gives a x At the transmitting end, a higher step-up voltage ratio
current that is usually several times full load value, so that is possible than with other winding arrangements,
saturation is present and the reactance measured is the while the insulation to ground of the star secondary
saturated value. This value is also known as the 'rated voltage' winding does not increase by the same ratio.
value since it is measured by a short circuit applied with the
5-9
x In distribution systems, the star winding allows a A B

A B C
neutral connection to be made, which may be
E Load Z11 Z22
important in considering system earthing Z12
arrangements. A' B' C'

A' B'
x The delta winding allows circulation of zero sequence Zero bus
(a) Model of transformer (b) Equivalent circuit of model
currents within the delta, thus preventing transmission
Z1=Z11-Z12 Z2=Z22-Z12 r1+jx1 r2+jx2
of these from the secondary (star) winding into the A B A B
primary circuit. This simplifies protection
considerations. Z3=Z12 R jXM
5.14 TRANSFORMER POSITIVE SEQUENCE A'

Zero bus
B' A'
Zero bus
B'
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS (c) 'T' equivalent circuit

(d) ‘’ equivalent circuit
The transformer is a relatively simple device. However, the ZT=Z1+Z2
equivalent circuits for fault calculations need not necessarily be A B
quite so simple, especially where earth faults are concerned.
The following two sections discuss the positive sequence A' B'
Zero bus
equivalent circuits of various types of transformers.
(e) Equivalent circuit: secondary winding s/c
Figure 5.10: Equivalent circuits for a two-winding transformer
5.14.1 Two-Winding Transformers
The relative magnitudes of ZT and XM are 10% and 2000%
The two-winding transformer has four terminals, but in most
system problems, two-terminal or three-terminal equivalent respectively. ZT and XM rarely have to be considered together,
circuits as shown in Figure 5.10 can represent it. In Figure so that the transformer may be represented either as a series
impedance or as an excitation impedance, according to the
5.10(a), terminals A' and B' are assumed to be at the same
problem being studied.
potential. Hence if the per unit self-impedances of the
windings are Z11 and Z22 respectively and the mutual Figure 5.11 shows a typical high voltage power transformer.
impedance between them Z12, the transformer may be
represented by Figure 5.10(b). The circuit in Figure 5.10(b) is
similar to that shown in Figure 3.14(a), and can therefore be
replaced by an equivalent 'T' as shown in Figure 5.10(c)
where:
Z1 Z11 Z12
Z2 Z 22 Z12
Z3 Z12
Equation 5.6
Z1 is described as the leakage impedance of winding AA' and
Z2 the leakage impedance of winding BB'. Impedance Z3 is
the mutual impedance between the windings, usually
represented by XM, the magnetising reactance paralleled with
the hysteresis and eddy current loops as shown in Figure
5.10(d). Figure 5.11: Testing a high voltage transformer
If the secondary of the transformers is short-circuited, and Z3
5.14.1 Three-Winding Transformers
is assumed to be large with respect to Z1 and Z2, the short-
circuit impedance viewed from the terminals AA’ is If excitation impedance is neglected the equivalent circuit of a
ZT=Z1+Z2 and the transformer can be replaced by a two- three-winding transformer may be represented by a star of
terminal equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 5.10(e). impedances, as shown in Figure 5.12, where P, T and S are
the primary, tertiary and secondary windings respectively. The
impedance of any of these branches can be determined by
considering the short-circuit impedance between pairs of ZT/2 ZT/2

a a
windings with the third open.
S
b Ze b
Zs
Secondary Zero potential bus
Zp (a) Two windings

P Primary
a
Tertiary
Zt
Zs
T
Zp
a
Zero bus
Figure 5.12: Equivalent circuit for a three-winding transformer
5.15 TRANSFORMER ZERO SEQUENCE Zt
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
The flow of zero sequence currents in a transformer is only a Ze
possible when the transformer forms part of a closed loop for
uni-directional currents and ampere-turn balance is
b b b
maintained between windings.
Zero potential bus
The positive sequence equivalent circuit is still maintained to (b) Three windings
represent the transformer but now there are certain conditions Figure 5.13: Zero sequence equivalent circuits
attached to its connection into the external circuit. The order
The exceptions to the general rule of neglecting magnetising
of excitation impedance is much lower than for the positive
impedance occur when the transformer is star/star and either
sequence circuit and is roughly between 1 and 4 per unit but
or both neutrals are earthed. In these circumstances the
still high enough to be neglected in most fault studies.
transformer is connected to the zero bus through the
The mode of connection of a transformer to the external circuit magnetising impedance. Where a three-phase transformer
is determined by taking account of each winding arrangement bank is arranged without interlinking magnetic flux (that is a
and its connection or otherwise to ground. If zero sequence three-phase shell type, or three single-phase units) and
currents can flow into and out of a winding, the winding provided there is a path for zero sequence currents, the zero
terminal is connected to the external circuit (that is, link a is sequence impedance is equal to the positive sequence
closed in Figure 5.13). If zero sequence currents can circulate impedance. In the case of three-phase core type units, the
in the winding without flowing in the external circuit, the zero sequence fluxes produced by zero sequence currents can
winding terminal is connected directly to the zero bus (that is, find a high reluctance path, the effect being to reduce the zero
link b is closed in Figure 5.13). Table 5.3 gives the zero sequence impedance to about 90% of the positive sequence
sequence connections of some common two- and three- impedance.
winding transformer arrangements applying the above rules.
However, in hand calculations, it is usual to ignore this
variation and consider the positive and zero sequence
impedances to be equal. It is common when using software to
perform fault calculations to enter a value of zero-sequence
impedance in accordance with the above guidelines, if the
manufacturer is unable to provide a value.
5-11
Connections and zero phase sequence currents Zero phase sequence network
a Zt a
b b
Zero bus
a Zt a
b b
Zero bus
a Zt a
b b
Zero bus
a Zt a
b b
Zero bus
a Zt a
b b
Zero bus
a ZT a
b b
Zero bus
Zt
Zero bus
Zs
a Zp a
Zt a
b b b
Zero bus
Zs
a Zp a
Zt a
b b b
Zero bus
Zs
a Zp a
Zt a
b b b
Zero bus
Zs
a Zp a
Zt a
b b b
Zero bus
Zs
a Zp a
Zt a
b b b
Zero bus
Table 5.3: Zero sequence equivalent circuit connections
5.16 AUTO-TRANSFORMERS winding transformer. The star equivalent for a three-winding

The auto-transformer is characterised by a single continuous transformer, for example, is obtained in the same manner,
winding, part of which is shared by both the high and low with the difference that the impedances between windings are
voltage circuits, as shown in Figure 5.14(a). The 'common' designated as follows:
winding is the winding between the low voltage terminals 1
whereas the remainder of the winding, belonging exclusively to ZL Z sc c Z c t Z sc t
2
the high voltage circuit, is designated the 'series' winding, and,
1
combined with the 'common' winding, forms the 'series- ZH Z sc c Z sc t Zc t
common' winding between the high voltage terminals. The 2
1
advantage of using an auto-transformer as opposed to a two-
winding transformer is that the auto-transformer is smaller
ZT Z sc t Zc t Z sc c
2
and lighter for a given rating. The disadvantage is that
Equation 5.7
galvanic isolation between the two windings does not exist,
giving rise to the possibility of large overvoltages on the lower where:
voltage system in the event of major insulation breakdown. Zsc-t = impedance between ‘series-common’ and tertiary
Three-phase auto-transformer banks generally have star windings.
connected main windings, the neutral of which is normally Zsc-c = impedance between ‘series-common’ and ‘common’
connected solidly to earth. In addition, it is common practice windings.
to include a third winding connected in delta called the tertiary
winding, as shown in Figure 5.14(b). Zc-t = impedance between ‘common’ and tertiary windings
H
When no load is connected to the delta tertiary, the point T is
IH
L
open-circuited and the short-circuit impedance of the
H IH
T transformer becomes ZL+ZH=ZSC-C, similar to the equivalent
IL
IT
IL L circuit of a two-winding transformer, with magnetising
IL -IH
impedance neglected; see Figure 5.14(c).
N
VH
VL ZN
IL -IH 5.16.2 Zero Sequence Equivalent Circuit
IN
The zero sequence equivalent circuit is derived in a similar
IH N IL manner to the positive sequence circuit, except that, as there is
(a) Circuit diagram (b) Circuit diagram with tertiary winding
no identity for the neutral point, the current in the neutral and
the neutral voltage cannot be given directly. Furthermore, in
ZL ZH ZX ZY
L H L H deriving the branch impedances, account must be taken of an
IL1 IH1 IL0 IH0
ZZ T
impedance in the neutral Zn, as shown in Equation 5.8, where
ZT
Zx, Zy and Zz are the impedances of the low, high and tertiary
IT1 IT0
windings respectively and N is the ratio between the series and
T Zero potential bus
common windings.
(c) Positive sequence (d) Zero sequence equivalent circuit
impedance
N
ZLH Zx Z L 3Z n
L
IL0 IH0
H N 1
N
ZLT ZHT Zy Z H 3Z n
T N 12
IT0 1
Zz Z T 3Z n
Zero potential bus N 1
(e) Equivalent circuit with isolated neutral
Equation 5.8
Figure 5.14: Equivalent circuits of auto-transformers
Figure 5.14(d) shows the equivalent circuit of the transformer
5.16.1 Positive Sequence Equivalent Circuit bank. Currents IL0 and IH0 are those circulating in the low and
The positive sequence equivalent circuit of a three-phase auto- high voltage circuits respectively. The difference between
transformer bank is the same as that of a two- or three- these currents, expressed in amperes, is the current in the
5-13
common winding. The current in the neutral impedance is For transformers used in electricity distribution networks, the
three times the current in the common winding. situation is more complex, due to an increasing trend to assign
importance to the standing (or no-load) losses represented by
5.16.3 Special Conditions of Neutral Earthing the magnetising impedance. This can be adjusted at the
With a solidly grounded neutral, Zn=0, the branch impedances design stage but there is often an impact on the leakage
Zx, Zy, Zz, become ZL, ZH, ZT, that is, identical to the reactance in consequence. In addition, it may be more
corresponding positive sequence equivalent circuit, except that important to control fault levels on the LV side than to improve
the equivalent impedance ZT of the delta tertiary is connected motor starting voltage drops. Therefore, departures from the
to the zero potential bus in the zero sequence network. IEC 60076 values are commonplace.
IEC 60076 does not make recommendations of nominal
When the neutral is ungrounded ZT=f and the impedances
impedance in respect of transformers rated over 200MVA,
of the equivalent star also become infinite because there are
while generator transformers and a.c. traction supply
apparently no paths for zero sequence currents between the
transformers have impedances that are usually specified as a
windings, although a physical circuit exists and ampere-turn
result of Power Systems Studies to ensure satisfactory
balance can be obtained. A solution is to use an equivalent
performance. Typical values of transformer impedances
delta circuit (see Figure 5.14(e)), and evaluate the elements of
covering a variety of transformer designs are given in Table 5.4
the delta directly from the actual circuit. The method requires
to Table 5.10. Where appropriate, they include an indication
three equations corresponding to three assumed operating
of the impedance variation at the extremes of the taps given.
conditions. Solving these equations relates the delta
Transformers designed to work at 60Hz have much the same
impedances to the impedance between the series and tertiary
impedance as their 50Hz counterparts.
windings as follows:
Z% Tolerance
N2 MVA X/R
Z LH Z s t HV/LV on Z%
N 1 <0.630 4.00 1.5 ±10
Z LT Z s t N 0.631-1.25 5.00 3.5 ±10
N 1.251 - 3.15 6.25 6.0 ±10
Z HT Z s t
N 1 3.151 - 6.3 7.15 8.5 ±10
6.301-12.5 8.35 13.0 ±10
Equation 5.9
12.501- 25.0 10.00 20.0 ±7.5
With the equivalent delta replacing the star impedances in the
25.001 - 200 12.50 45.0 ±7.5
autotransformer zero sequence equivalent circuit the
>200 by agreement
transformer can be combined with the system impedances in
Table 5.4: Transformer impedances IEC 60076
the usual manner to obtain the system zero sequence diagram.
Primary X/R
MVA Primary Taps Secondary kV Z% HV/LV
5.17 TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCES kV ratio
7.5 33 +5.72% -17.16% 11 7.5 15
In most fault calculations the protection engineer is only
concerned with the transformer leakage impedance; the 7.5 33 +5.72% -17.16% 11 7.5 17
magnetising impedance is neglected as it is very much higher. 8 33 +5.72% -17.16% 11 8 9
Impedances for transformers rated at 200MVA or less are 11.5 33 +5.72% -17.16% 6.6 11.5 24
given in IEC 60076 and repeated in Table 5.4, together with 11.5 33 +5.72% -17.16% 6.6 11.5 24
an indication of X/R values (not part of IEC 60076). These 11.5 33 +5.72% -17.16% 11 11.5 24
impedances are commonly used for transformers installed in 11.5 33 +5.72% -17.16% 11 11.5 26
industrial plants. Some variation is possible to assist in 11.5 33 +4.5% -18% 6.6 11.5 24
controlling fault levels or motor starting, and typically up to 12 33 +5% -15% 11.5 12 27
r10% variation of the impedance values given in the table is
12 33 ±10% 11.5 12 27
possible without incurring a significant cost penalty. For these
12 33 ±10% 11.5 12 25
transformers, the tapping range is small, and the variation of
15 66 +9% -15% 11.5 15 14
impedance with tap position is normally neglected in fault level
15 66 +9% -15% 11.5 15 16
calculations.
16 33 ±10% 11.5 16 16
Primary X/R
MVA Primary Taps Secondary kV Z% HV/LV MVA Primary kV Primary Taps Secondary kV Z% HV/LV X/R ratio
kV ratio
16 33 +5.72% -17.16% 11 16 30
95 132 ±10% 11 13.5 46
16 33 +5.72% -17.16% 6.6 16 31
140 157.5 ±10% 11.5 12.7 41
19 33 +5.72% -17.16% 11 19 37
141 400 ±5% 15 14.7 57
30 33 +5.72% -17.16% 11 30 40
151 236 ±5% 15 13.6 47
24 33 ±10% 6.9 24 25
167 145 +7.5% -16.5% 15 25.7 71
30 33 +5.72% -17.16% 11 30 40
180 289 ±5% 16 13.4 34
30 132 +10% -20% 11 21.3 43
180 132 ±10% 15 13.8 40
30 132 +10% -20% 11 25 30
247 432 +3.75% -16.25% 15.5 15.2 61
30 132 +10% -20% 11 23.5 46
250 300 +11.2% -17.6% 15 28.6 70
40 132 +10% -20% 11 27.9 37
290 420 ±10% 15 15.7 43
45 132 +10% -20% 33 11.8 18
307 432 +3.75% -16.25% 15.5 15.3 67
60 132 +10% -20% 33 16.7 28
346 435 +5% -15% 17.5 16.4 81
60 132 +10% -20% 33 17.7 26
420 432 +5.55% -14.45% 22 16 87
60 132 +10% -20% 33 14.5 25
437.8 144.1 +10.8% -21.6% 21 14.6 50
60 132 +10% -20% 66 11 25
450 132 ±10% 19 14 49
60 132 +10% -20% 11/11 35.5 52
600 420 ±11.25% 21 16.2 74
60 132 +9.3% -24% 11/11 36 75
716 525 ±10% 19 15.7 61
60 132 +9.3% -24% 11/11 35.9 78
721 362 +6.25% -13.75% 22 15.2 83
65 140 +7.5% -15% 11 12.3 28
736 245 +7% -13% 22 15.5 73
90 132 +10% -20% 33 24.4 60
900 525 +7% -13% 23 15.7 67
90 132 +10% -20% 66 15.1 41
Table 5.7: Impedances of generator transformers (three-phase units)
Table 5.5: Impedances of two winding distribution transformers –
Primary voltage <200kV MVA/
Primary kV Primary Taps Secondary kV Z% HV/LV X/R ratio
phase
Primary Primary Secondary Tertiary Z%
MVA X/R ratio
kV Taps kV kV HV/LV 266.7 432/3 +6.67% -13.33% 23.5 15.8 92
266.7 432/3 +6.6% -13.4% 23.5 15.7 79
20 220 +12.5% -7.5% 6.9 - 9.9 18
277 515/3 ±5% 22 16.9 105
20 230 +12.5% -7.5% 6.9 - 10-14 13
375 525/3 +6.66% -13.32% 26 15 118
57 275 ±10% 11.8 7.2 18.2 34
375 420/3 +6.66% -13.32% 26 15.1 112
74 345 +14.4% -10% 96 12 8.9 25
Table 5.8: Impedances of generator transformers (single-phase units)
79.2 220 +10% -15% 11.6 11 18.9 35
120 275 +10% -15% 34.5 - 22.5 63 Primary Primary Secondary Secondary Tertiary Z%
MVA X/R ratio
125 230 ±16.8% 66 - 13.1 52 kV Taps kV Taps kV HV/LV
125 230 not known 150 - 10-14 22 100 66 - 33 - - 10.7 28

180 275 ±15% 66 13 22.2 38 180 275 - 132 ±15% 13 15.5 55
255 230 +10% 16.5 - 14.8 43 240 400 - 132 +15% -5% 13 20.2 83
Table 5.6: Impedances of two winding distribution transformers – 240 400 - 132 +15% -5% 13 20.0 51
Primary voltage >200kV
240 400 - 132 +15% -5% 13 20.0 61
250 400 - 132 +15% -5% 13 10-13 50
500 400 - 132 +0% -15% 22 14.3 51
750 400 - 275 - 13 12.1 90
1000 400 - 275 - 13 15.8 89
1000 400 - 275 - 33 17.0 91
333.3 500/3 ±10% 230/3 - 22 18.2 101
Table 5.9: Autotransformer data
5-15
Primary Primary Secondary Secondary Z% R X R X

MVA X/R ratio
kV Taps kV Taps HV/LV
10 132 - 25 +10% -2.5% 7.7 14

G B G B
12 132 ±5.5% 27.5 - 12.3 21
26.5 132 ±7.5% 25 - 19 63
Table 5.10: Traction supply transformer data Series impedance Z = R + jX per unit length
Shunt admittance Y = G + jB per unit length
5.18 OVERHEAD LINES AND CABLES (a) Actual transmission circuit
In this section a description of common overhead lines and

cable systems is given, together with tables of their important § si nh Z Y ·
Z ¨¨ ¸¸
© ZY ¹
characteristics. The formulae for calculating the characteristics
are developed to give a basic idea of the factors involved, and
to enable calculations to be made for systems other than those
Y § t anh Z Y 2 · Y § t anh Z Y 2 ·
tabulated. ¨¨ ¸ ¨¨ ¸
2 © Z Y 2 ¸¹ 2 © Z Y 2 ¸¹
A transmission circuit may be represented by an equivalent S

or T network using lumped constants as shown in Figure 5.15. (b) equivalent
Z is the total series impedance (R+jX)L and Y is the total
shunt admittance (G+jB)L, where L is the circuit length. The
terms inside the brackets in Figure 5.15 are correction factors Z § t anh Z Y 2 · Z § t anh Z Y 2 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
2 ¨© Z Y 2 ¸¹ 2 ¨© Z Y 2 ¸¹
that allow for the fact that in the actual circuit the parameters
are distributed over the whole length of the circuit and not
lumped, as in the equivalent circuits.
§ si nh Z Y ·
Y ¨¨ ¸¸
With short lines it is usually possible to ignore the shunt © ZY ¹
admittance, which greatly simplifies calculations, but on longer
lines it must be included. Another simplification that can be
(c) T equivalent
made is that of assuming the conductor configuration to be
symmetrical. The self-impedance of each conductor becomes Note: Z and Y in (b) and (c) are the total series
impedance and shunt admittance respectively.
Zp, and the mutual impedance between conductors becomes Z=(R+jX)L and Y=(G+jB)L where L is the
circuit length
Zm. However, for rigorous calculations a detailed treatment is
si nh Z Y Z Y Z 2Y 2 Z 3Y 3
necessary, with account being taken of the spacing of a 1 .. .
ZY 6 120 5040
conductor in relation to its neighbour and earth.
t anh Z Y Z Y Z 2Y 2 1 7Z 3Y 3
1 ...
ZY 12 120 20160
5.19 CALCULATION OF SERIES IMPEDANCE
Figure 5.15: Transmission circuit equivalents
The self impedance of a conductor with an earth return and
the mutual impedance between two parallel conductors with a
common earth return are given by the Carson equations: where:
De R = conductor ac resistance (ohms/km)
Zp R 0.000988 f j 0.0029 f log10
dc dc = geometric mean radius of a single conductor
D
Zn 0.000988 f j 0.0029 f log10 e D = spacing between the parallel conductors
D
Equation 5.10
f = system frequency
De = equivalent spacing of the earth return path
= 216 U f where U is earth resistivity (ohms/cm3)

Equation 5.10 gives the impedances in ohms/km. The last
terms in Equation 5.10 are very similar to the classical
inductance formulae for long straight conductors.
The geometric means radius (GMR) of a conductor is an 5.20 CALCULATION OF SHUNT IMPEDANCE
equivalent radius that allows the inductance formula to be It can be shown that the potential of a conductor a above
reduced to a single term. It arises because the inductance of a
ground due to its own charge qa and a charge -qa on its
solid conductor is a function of the internal flux linkages in
image is:
addition to those external to it. If the original conductor can be
replaced by an equivalent that is a hollow cylinder with 2h
Va 2qa log e
infinitesimally thin walls, the current is confined to the surface r
of the conductor, and there can be no internal flux. The
Equation 5.14
geometric mean radius is the radius of the equivalent
conductor. If the original conductor is a solid cylinder having a where:
radius r its equivalent has a radius of 0.779r. h is the height above ground of the conductor
It can be shown that the sequence impedances for a r is the radius of the conductor, as shown in Figure 5.16
symmetrical three-phase circuit are:
Similarly, it can be shown that the potential of a conductor a
Z1 Z2 Z p Zm due to a charge qb on a neighbouring conductor b and the
Z0 Z p 2Z m charge -qb on its image is:
Equation 5.11 D'

Va ' 2qb log e
where: D
Equation 5.15
Zp and Zm are given by Equation 5.10. Substituting Equation
5.10 in Equation 5.11 gives: where D is the spacing between conductors a and b and D’ is
the spacing between conductor b and the image of conductor
D
Z1 Z2 R j 0.0029 f log10 a as shown in Figure 5.16.
dc
D
De b
Z0 R 0.00296 f j 0.00869 f log10 a
3 2
dcD
Equation 5.12
Conductor
radius r
3 2
In the formula for Z0 the expression dcD is the geometric
mean radius of the conductor group. h
Typically circuits are not symmetrical. In this case symmetry D'

can be maintained by transposing the conductors so that each
conductor is in each phase position for one third of the circuit
length. If A, B and C are the spacings between conductors bc, Earth
ca and ab then D in the above equations becomes the

geometric mean distance between conductors, equal to
3
ABC .
h
Writing Dc 3
dcD 2 , the sequence impedances in
ohms/km at 50Hz become:
3
ABC
Z1 Z2 R j 0.145 log10
dc a'
D Figure 5.16: Geometry of two parallel conductors a and b and the
Z0 ( R 0.148) j 0.434 log10 e image of a (a')
Dc
Since the capacitance C=q/V and the capacitive reactance
Equation 5.13
Xc=1/ Z C, it follows that the self and mutual capacitive
reactance of the conductor system in Figure 5.16 can be
5-17
obtained directly from Equation 5.14 and Equation 5.15.

Further, as leakage can usually be neglected, the self and
mutual shunt impedances Z’p and Z’m in megohm-km at a
system frequency of 50Hz are:
2h
Z' p j 0.132 log10
r
D'
Z'm j 0.132 log10
D
Equation 5.16
Where the distances above ground are great in relation to the
conductor spacing, which is the case with overhead lines.
From Equation 5.11, the sequence impedances of a
symmetrical three-phase circuit are:
D
Z1 Z2 j 0.132 log10
r
D'
Z0 j 0.396 log10
3
rD 2
Equation 5.17
The logarithmic terms in Equation 5.17 are similar to those in
Equation 5.12 except that r is the actual radius of the
conductors and D’ is the spacing between the conductors and
their images.
Where the conductors are transposed and not symmetrically
spaced, Equation 5.17 can be rewritten using the geometric
mean distance between conductors 3 ABC , giving the
distance of each conductor above ground, ha hb hc as follows:
3
ABC
Z1 Z2 j 0.132 log10
r
8ha hb hc
Z0 j 0.132 log10
r 3 A2 B 2 C 2
Equation 5.18
5.21 OVERHEAD LINE CIRCUITS WITH OR

WITHOUT EARTH WIRES
Typical configurations of overhead line circuits are given in
Figure 5.18. Tower heights are not given as they vary
considerably according to the design span and nature of the
ground. As indicated in some of the tower outlines, some
tower designs are designed with a number of base extensions
for this purpose. Figure 5.17 shows a typical tower.
Figure 5.17: Double circuit 132kV overhead line tower
Figure 5.18: Typical overhead line tower outlines
5-19
Figure 5.19: Typical overhead line tower outlines
In some cases the phase conductors are not symmetrically From Equation 5.19 it can be seen that:
disposed to each other and therefore, as previously indicated,
Z ea Z Z
electrostatic and electromagnetic unbalance result, which can Ie I a eb I b ec I c
be largely eliminated by transposition. Modern practice is to Z ee Z ee Z ee
build overhead lines without transposition towers to reduce Making use of this relation, the self and mutual impedances of
costs; this must be taken into account in rigorous calculations the phase conductors can be modified using the following
of the unbalances. In other cases, lines are formed of bundled formula:
conductors, that is conductors formed of two, three or four
separate conductors. This arrangement minimises losses Z ne Z me
J nm Z nm
when voltages of 220kV and above are involved. Z ee
The line configuration and conductor spacings are influenced, Equation 5.20
not only by voltage, but also by many other factors including
For example:
type of insulators, type of support, span length, conductor sag
and the nature of terrain and external climatic loadings. Z 2 ae
Therefore there can be large variations in spacings between J aa Z aa
Z ee
different line designs for the same voltage level, so those
depicted in Figure 5.17 are only typical examples. Z ae Z be
J ab Z ab
Z ee
When calculating the phase self and mutual impedances,
Equation 5.10 and Equation 5.16 may be used. However, in and so on.
this case Zp is calculated for each conductor and Zm for each
Equation 5.19 can be simplified while still accounting for the
pair of conductors. This section is not intended to give a
effect of the earth wire. This is done by deleting the fourth row
detailed analysis but rather to show the general method of
and fourth column and substituting Jaa for Zaa, Jab for Zab, and
formulating the equations, taking the calculation of series
so on, calculated using Equation 5.20. The single circuit line
impedance as an example and assuming a single circuit line
with a single earth wire can therefore be replaced by an
with a single earth wire.
equivalent single circuit line having phase self and mutual
The phase voltage drops Va Vb Vc of a single circuit line with a impedances Jaa, Jab and so on.
single earth wire due to currents Ia Ib Ic flowing in the phases
It can be shown from the symmetrical component theory given
and Ie in the earth wire are:
in Chapter 4 that the sequence voltage drops of a general
Va Z aa I a Z ab I b Z ac I c Z ae I e three-phase circuit are:
Vb Z ba I a Z bb I b Z bc I c Z be I e V0 Z 00 I 0 Z 01 I1 Z 02 I 2
Vc Z ca I a Z cb I b Z cc I c Z ce I e V1 Z10 I 0 Z11 I1 Z12 I 2
0 Z ea I a Z eb I b Z ec I c Z ee I e V2 Z 20 I 0 Z 21 I1 Z 22 I 2
Equation 5.19 Equation 5.21
where: And, from Equation 5.19 modified as indicated above and
Equation 5.21, the sequence impedances are:
De
Z aa R 0.000988 f j 0.0029 f log10
dc
De
Z ab 0.000988 f j 0.0029 f log10
D
and so on.
The equation required for the calculation of shunt voltage
drops is identical to Equation 5.19 in form, except that primes
must be included, the impedances being derived from
Equation 5.16.
5-21
1 2 132kV Double circuit line 275kV Double circuit

Z 00 ( J aa J bb J cc ) ( J ab J bc J ac ) Sequence impedance
(200 mm2) line (400 mm2)
3 3
Z00 = (Z0'0') 1.1838 71°6’ 0.9520 76°46’
1 1
Z11 Z 22 ( J aa J bb J cc ) ( J ab J bc J ac ) Z11 = Z22 = (Z1'1') 0.4433 66°19’ 0.3354 74°35’
3 3
1 2 (Z0'0 = Z00') 0.6334 71°2’ 0.5219 75°43’
Z12 ( J aa a 2 J bb aJ cc ) ( aJ ab a 2 J ac J bc ) Z01 = Z20 = (Z0'1' = Z2'0') 0.0257 -63°25’ 0.0241 -72°14’
3 3
1 2 Z02 = Z10 = (Z0'2' = Z1'0') 0.0197 -94°58’ 0.0217 -100°20’
Z 21 ( J aa aJ bb a 2 J cc ) ( a 2 J ab aJ ac J bc )
3 3 Z12 = (Z1'2') 0.0276 161°17’ 0.0281 149°46’
1 1 Z21 = (Z2'1') 0.0277 37°13’ 0.0282 29°6’
Z 20 Z 01 ( J aa a 2 J bb aJ cc ) ( aJ ab a 2 J ac J bc )
3 3 (Z11'=Z1'1 = Z22' = Z2'2) 0.0114 88°6’ 0.0129 88°44’
1 1 (Z = Z = Z = Z ) 0.0140 -93°44’ 0.0185 -91°16’
Z10 Z 02 ( J aa aJ bb a 2 J cc ) ( a2 J ab aJ ac J bc ) 02' 0'2 1'0 10'
3 3 (Z02' = Z0'2 = Z1'0 = Z10' 0.0150 -44°11’ 0.0173 -77°2’
Equation 5.22
(Z1'2 = Z12') 0.0103 145°10’ 0.0101 149°20’
The development of these equations for double circuit lines (Z21' = Z2'1) 0.0106 30°56’ 0.0102 27°31’
with two earth wires is similar except that more terms are Table 5.12: Sequence self and mutual impedances for various lines
involved.
The sequence mutual impedances are very small and can 5.22 OHL EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
usually be neglected; this also applies for double circuit lines Consider an earthed, infinite busbar source behind a length of
except for the mutual impedance between the zero sequence transmission line as shown in Figure 5.20(a). An earth fault
circuits, namely Z00’ = Z0’0 . Table 5.11 and Table 5.12 give involving phase A is assumed to occur at F. If the driving
typical values of all sequence self and mutual impedances voltage is E and the fault current is Ia then the earth fault
some single and double circuit lines with earth wires. All impedance is Ze. From symmetrical component theory (see
conductors are 400mm2 ACSR, except for the 132kV double Chapter 4):
circuit example where they are 200mm2.
3E
132kV Single circuit line 380kV Single circuit Ia
Sequence impedance 2 2 Z1 Z 2 Z 0
(400 mm ) line (400 mm )
Z00 = (Z0'0') 1.0782 73°54’ 0.8227 70°36’ thus
Z11 = Z22 = (Z1'1') 0.3947 78°54’ 0.3712 75°57’ 2Z1 Z 0
(Z0'0 = Z00') - -
Ze
3
Z01 = Z20 = (Z0'1' = Z2'0') 0.0116 -166°52’ 0.0094 -39°28’ Equation 5.23
Z02 = Z10 = (Z0'2' = Z1'0') 0.0185 5°8’ 0.0153 28°53’
since, as shown, Z1=Z2 for a transmission circuit. From
Z12 = (Z1'2') 0.0255 -40°9’ 0.0275 147°26’ Equation 5.11, Z1=Zp-Zm and Zo=Zp+2Zm. Thus,
Z21 = (Z2'1') 0.0256 -139°1’ 0.0275 27°29’ substituting these values in Equation 5.23 gives Ze=Zp. This
(Z11'=Z1'1 = Z22' = Z2'2) - - relation is physically valid because Zp is the self-impedance of
(Z02' = Z0'2 = Z1'0 = Z10') - -
a single conductor with an earth return. Similarly, for a phase
fault between phases B and C at F:
(Z02' = Z0'2 = Z1'0 = Z10' - -
(Z1'2 = Z12') - - 3E
Ib Ic
(Z21' = Z2'1) - - 2Z1
Table 5.11: Sequence self and mutual impedances for various lines
where 3E is the voltage between phases and 2Z1 is the
impedance of the fault loop.
F errors. However, the formulae must be modified by the

Source Line inclusion of empirical factors to take account of sheath and
screen effects. A useful general reference on cable formulae is
C
given in reference [5.4]; more detailed information on
particular types of cables should be obtained direct from the
B
manufacturers. The equivalent circuit for determining the
positive and negative sequence series impedances of a cable is
A
shown in Figure 5.21. From this circuit it can be shown that:
§ X
2
· § X cs
2
·
Z1 Z2 ¨ Rc Rs 2 cs 2 ¸ ¨
j¨ X c X s 2 ¸
2 ¸
E ¨
© Rs X s ¸¹ © Rs X s ¹
(a) Actual circuit
Equation 5.24
S Z1 F
Ic
C where Rc and Rs are the core and sheath (screen) resistances
per unit length, Xc and Xs core and sheath (screen) reactances
3E Ib Z1
B per unit length and Xcs the mutual reactance between core
and sheath (screen) per unit length. Xcs is generally equal to
Z1
Xs .
Ia
A
The zero sequence series impedances are obtained directly
E (Z0 - Z1)/3 using Equation 5.10 and account can be taken of the sheath in
E
the same way as an earth wire in the case of an overhead line.
(b) Equivalent circuit
The shunt capacitances of a sheathed cable can be calculated
Figure 5.20: Three-phase equivalent of a transmission circuit
from the simple formula:
Making use of the above relations, a transmission circuit may
be represented, generally without any loss, by the equivalent of § ·
¨ 1 ¸
Figure 5.20(b), where Z1 is the phase impedance to the fault
C 0.0241H ¨ ¸ PF / km
and (Z0-Z1)/3 is the impedance of the earth path, there being ¨ log d 2T ¸
¨ ¸
no mutual impedance between the phases or between phase © d ¹
and earth. The equivalent is valid for single and double circuit
Equation 5.25
lines except that for double circuit lines there is zero sequence
mutual impedance, hence Z0=Z00-Z0’0. where d is the overall diameter for a round conductor, T core
insulation thickness and H permittivity of dielectric. When the
The equivalent circuit of Figure 5.20(b) is valuable in distance
conductors are oval or shaped an equivalent diameter d’ may
relay applications because the phase and earth fault relays are
be used where d’=(1/) x periphery of conductor. No
set to measure Z1 and are compensated for the earth return
simple formula exists for belted or unscreened cables, but an
impedance (Z0-Z1)/3.
empirical formula that gives reasonable results is:
It is customary to quote the impedances of a transmission
0.0555H
circuit in terms of Z1 and the ratio Z0/Z1, since in this form C PF / km
they are most directly useful. By definition, the positive G
sequence impedance Z1 is a function of the conductor spacing Equation 5.26
and radius, whereas the Z0/Z1 ratio is dependent mainly on the where G is a geometric factor which is a function of core and
level of earth resistivity U . Further details may be found in belt insulation thickness and overall conductor diameter.
Chapter 12.
5.23 CABLE CIRCUITS

The basic formulae for calculating the series and shunt
impedances of a transmission circuit, Equation 5.10 and
Equation 5.16 may be applied for evaluating cable parameters;
since the conductor configuration is normally symmetrical
GMD and GMR values can be used without risk of appreciable
5-23
Sheath Core Number of Layers Number of Al Strands GMR

circuit (s) circuit (c)
Ic 4 76 0.793r
Xcs per unit length 4 84 0.801r

* - Indicative values only, since GMR for single layer conductors is affected by cyclic magnetic flux,
Is which depends on various factors.
Table 5.14: GMR for aluminium conductor steel reinforced (ACSR) (r =
Rs, Xs per unit length conductor radius)
V
Wire Overall
Sectional area RDC (20°C)
Stranding Diameter Diameter
(mm²) (Ohm/km)
(mm) (mm)
10.6 7 1.38 4.17 1.734
21.2 7 1.96 5.89 0.865
Rc , Xc per unit length
26.7 7 2.20 6.60 0.686
V is voltage per unit length
33.6 7 7.00 7.42 0.544
Figure 5.21: Equivalent circuit for determining positive or negative
sequence impedance of cables 42.4 7 2.77 8.33 0.431
53.5 7 3.12 9.35 0.342
5.24 OVERHEAD LINE AND CABLE DATA 67.4 7 3.50 10.52 0.271
The following tables show typical data on overhead lines and 85.0 7 3.93 11.79 0.215
cables that can be used with the equations in this text. The 107.2 7 4.42 13.26 0.171
data shown is only a guide and where the results of 126.6 19 2.91 14.58 0.144
calculations are important, data should be sourced directly 152.0 19 3.19 15.98 0.120
from a manufacturer or supplier.
177.3 19 3.45 17.25 0.103
Number of Strands GMR 202.7 19 3.69 18.44 0.090
7 0.726r 228.0 37 2.80 19.61 0.080
19 0.758r 253.3 37 2.95 20.65 0.072
37 0.768r 278.7 37 3.10 21.67 0.066
61 0.772r 304.3 37 3.23 22.63 0.060
91 0.774r 329.3 61 2.62 23.60 0.056
127 0.776r 354.7 61 2.72 24.49 0.052
169 0.776r 380.0 61 2.82 25.35 0.048
Solid 0.779r 405.3 61 2.91 26.19 0.045
Table 5.13: GMR for stranded copper, aluminium and aluminium alloy 456.0 61 3.09 27.79 0.040
conductors (r = conductor radius)
506.7 61 3.25 29.26 0.036
Number of Layers Number of Al Strands GMR Table 5.15: Overhead line conductor - hard drawn copper ASTM
Standards
1 6 0.5r*
1 12 0.75r* Wire Overall
Sectional area RDC (20°C)
2 18 0.776r
Stranding Diameter Diameter
(mm²) (Ohm/km)
(mm) (mm)
2 24 0.803r
11.0 1 3.73 3.25 1.617
2 26 0.812r
13.0 1 4.06 4.06 1.365
2 30 0.826r
14.0 1 4.22 4.22 1.269
2 32 0.833r
14.5 7 1.63 4.88 1.231
3 36 0.778r
16.1 1 4.52 4.52 1.103
3 45 0.794r
18.9 1 4.90 4.90 0.938
3 48 0.799r
23.4 1 5.46 5.46 0.756
3 54 0.81r
32.2 1 6.40 6.40 0.549
3 66 0.827r
38.4 7 2.64 7.92 0.466
4 72 0.789r
47.7 7 2.95 8.84 0.375
Wire Overall Stranding and wire Sectional area Approxi-

Sectional area RDC (20°C) diameter (mm) (mm2) Total mate
Stranding Diameter Diameter Desig- RDC at 20 °C
(mm²) (Ohm/km) area overall
(mm) (mm) nation Alumin- Alumin- (mm2) diameter
(ohm/km)
Steel Steel
65.6 7 3.45 10.36 0.273 ium ium (mm)
70.1 1 9.45 9.45 0.252 Gopher 6 2.36 1 2.4 26.2 4.4 30.6 7.08 1.093
97.7 7 4.22 12.65 0.183 Weasel 6 2.59 1 2.6 31.6 5.3 36.9 7.77 0.908
129.5 19 2.95 14.73 0.139 Ferret 6 3 1 3 42.4 7.1 49.5 9 0.676
132.1 7 4.90 14.71 0.135 Rabbit 6 3.35 1 3.4 52.9 8.8 61.7 10.05 0.542
Horse 12 2.79 7 2.8 73.4 42.8 116.2 13.95 0.393
164.0 7 5.46 16.38 0.109
Dog 6 4.72 7 1.6 105.0 13.6 118.5 14.15 0.273
165.2 19 3.33 16.64 0.109
Tiger 30 2.36 7 2.4 131.2 30.6 161.9 16.52 0.220
Table 5.16: Overhead line conductor - hard drawn copper BS
Standards Wolf 30 2.59 7 2.6 158.1 36.9 194.9 18.13 0.182
Dingo 18 3.35 1 3.4 158.7 8.8 167.5 16.75 0.181
Stranding and wire Sectional area Approxi-
diameter (mm) (mm2) Total mate Lynx 30 2.79 7 2.8 183.4 42.8 226.2 19.53 0.157
Desig- RDC at 20 °C
area overall
nation Alumin- Alumin- (ohm/km) Caracal 18 3.61 1 3.6 184.2 10.2 194.5 18.05 0.156
Steel Steel (mm2) diameter
ium ium (mm) Jaguar 18 3.86 1 3.9 210.6 11.7 222.3 19.3 0.137
Sparrow 6 2.67 1 2.7 33.6 5.6 39.2 8.01 0.854 Panther 30 3 7 3 212.1 49.5 261.5 21 0.136
Robin 6 3 1 3 42.4 7.1 49.5 9 0.677 Zebra 54 3.18 7 3.2 428.9 55.6 484.5 28.62 0.067
Raven 6 3.37 1 3.4 53.5 8.9 62.4 10.11 0.536 Table 5.18: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium conductors
steel reinforced (ACSR), to BS215.2
Quail 6 3.78 1 3.8 67.4 11.2 78.6 11.34 0.426
Pigeon 6 4.25 1 4.3 85.0 14.2 99.2 12.75 0.337 Stranding and wire Sectional area Approxi-
diameter (mm) (mm2) Total mate
Penguin 6 4.77 1 4.8 107.2 17.9 125.1 14.31 0.268 Desig- RDC at 20 °C
area overall
nation Alumin- Alumin- (ohm/km)
Partridge 26 2.57 7 2 135.2 22.0 157.2 16.28 0.214 Steel Steel (mm2) diameter
ium ium (mm)
Ostrich 26 2.73 7 2.2 152.0 26.9 178.9 17.28 0.191
35/6 6 2.7 1 2.7 34.4 5.7 40.1 8.1 0.834
Merlin 18 3.47 1 3.5 170.5 9.5 179.9 17.35 0.169
44/32 14 2 7 2.4 44.0 31.7 75.6 11.2 0.652
Lark 30 2.92 7 2.9 201.4 46.9 248.3 20.44 0.144
50/8 6 3.2 1 3.2 48.3 8.0 56.3 9.6 0.594
Hawk 26 3.44 7 2.7 241.7 39.2 280.9 21.79 0.120
70/12 26 1.85 7 1.4 69.9 11.4 81.3 11.7 0.413
Dove 26 3.72 7 2.9 282.0 45.9 327.9 23.55 0.103
95/15 26 2.15 7 1.7 94.4 15.3 109.7 13.6 0.305
Teal 30 3.61 19 2.2 306.6 69.6 376.2 25.24 0.095
95/55 12 3.2 7 3.2 96.5 56.3 152.8 16 0.299
Swift 36 3.38 1 3.4 322.3 9.0 331.2 23.62 0.089
120/70 12 3.6 7 3.6 122.1 71.3 193.4 18 0.236
Tern 45 3.38 7 2.3 402.8 27.8 430.7 27.03 0.072
150/25 26 2.7 7 2.1 148.9 24.2 173.1 17.1 0.194
Canary 54 3.28 7 3.3 456.1 59.1 515.2 29.52 0.064
170/40 30 2.7 7 2.7 171.8 40.1 211.8 18.9 0.168
Curlew 54 3.52 7 3.5 523.7 68.1 591.8 31.68 0.055
185/30 26 3 7 2.3 183.8 29.8 213.6 19 0.157
Finch 54 3.65 19 2.3 565.0 78.3 643.3 33.35 0.051
210/50 30 3 7 3 212.1 49.5 261.5 21 0.136
Bittern 45 4.27 7 2.9 644.5 44.7 689.2 34.17 0.045
265/35 24 3.74 7 2.5 263.7 34.1 297.7 22.4 0.109
Falcon 54 4.36 19 2.6 805.7 102.4 908.1 39.26 0.036
305/40 54 2.68 7 2.7 304.6 39.5 344.1 24.1 0.095
Kiwi 72 4.41 7 2.9 1100.0 47.5 1147.5 44.07 0.027
380/50 54 3 7 3 381.7 49.5 431.2 27 0.076
Table 5.17: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium conductors
steel reinforced (ACSR), to ASTM B232 550/70 54 3.6 7 3.6 549.7 71.3 620.9 32.4 0.052
560/50 48 3.86 7 3 561.7 49.5 611.2 32.2 0.051
650/45 45 4.3 7 2.9 653.5 45.3 698.8 34.4 0.044
1045/45 72 4.3 7 2.9 1045.6 45.3 1090.9 43 0.028
Table 5.19: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium conductors
steel reinforced (ACSR), to DIN48204
5-25
Stranding and wire Sectional area Approxi- RDC at

Wire Sectional Overall
diameter (mm) (mm2) Total mate No. of Al 20°C
Desig- RDC at 20 °C Standard Designation diameter area diameter
area overall Strands (Ohm/k
nation Alumin- Alumin- (ohm/km) (mm) (mm²) (mm)
Steel Steel (mm2) diameter m)
ium ium (mm)
ASTM B-399 - 19 4.12 253.3 20.6 0.132
CANNA
ASTM B-399 - 37 3.096 278.5 21.7 0.120
59.7 12 2 7 2 37.7 22.0 59.7 10 0.765
ASTM B-399 - 37 3.233 303.7 22.6 0.110
CANNA
75.5 12 2.25 7 2.3 47.7 27.8 75.5 11.25 0.604 ASTM B-399 - 37 3.366 329.2 23.6 0.102
CANNA ASTM B-399 - 37 3.493 354.6 24.5 0.094
93.3 12 2.5 7 2.5 58.9 34.4 93.3 12.5 0.489 ASTM B-399 - 37 3.617 380.2 25.3 0.088
CANNA
ASTM B-399 - 37 3.734 405.2 26.1 0.083
116.2 30 2 7 2 94.2 22.0 116.2 14 0.306
ASTM B-399 - 37 3.962 456.2 27.7 0.073
CROCUS
116.2 30 2 7 2 94.2 22.0 116.2 14 0.306 ASTM B-399 - 37 4.176 506.8 29.2 0.066
CANNA Table 5.21: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium alloy (ASTM)
147.1 30 2.25 7 2.3 119.3 27.8 147.1 15.75 0.243
RDC at
CROCUS Wire Sectional Overall
No. of Al 20°C
181.6 30 2.5 7 2.5 147.3 34.4 181.6 17.5 0.197 Standard Designation diameter area diameter
Strands (Ohm/k
(mm) (mm²) (mm)
CROCUS m)
228 30 2.8 7 2.8 184.7 43.1 227.8 19.6 0.157 BS 3242 Box 7 1.85 18.8 5.6 1.750
CROCUS BS 3242 Acacia 7 2.08 23.8 6.2 1.384
297 36 2.8 19 2.3 221.7 75.5 297.2 22.45 0.131
BS 3242 Almond 7 2.34 30.1 7.0 1.094
CANNA
288 BS 3242 Cedar 7 2.54 35.5 7.6 0.928
30 3.15 7 3.2 233.8 54.6 288.3 22.05 0.124
CROCUS BS 3242 Fir 7 2.95 47.8 8.9 0.688
288 30 3.15 7 3.2 233.8 54.6 288.3 22.05 0.124 BS 3242 Hazel 7 3.3 59.9 9.9 0.550
CROCUS BS 3242 Pine 7 3.61 71.6 10.8 0.460
412 32 3.6 19 2.4 325.7 86.0 411.7 26.4 0.089
BS 3242 Willow 7 4.04 89.7 12.1 0.367
CROCUS
BS 3242 - 7 4.19 96.5 12.6 0.341
612 66 3.13 19 2.7 507.8 104.8 612.6 32.03 0.057
BS 3242 - 7 4.45 108.9 13.4 0.302
CROCUS
865 66 3.72 19 3.2 717.3 148.1 865.4 38.01 0.040 BS 3242 Oak 7 4.65 118.9 14.0 0.277
Table 5.20: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium conductors BS 3242 Mullberry 19 3.18 150.9 15.9 0.219
steel reinforced (ACSR), to NF C34-120 BS 3242 Ash 19 3.48 180.7 17.4 0.183
RDC at BS 3242 Elm 19 3.76 211.0 18.8 0.157
Wire Sectional Overall
No. of Al 20°C
Standard Designation diameter area diameter BS 3242 Poplar 37 2.87 239.4 20.1 0.139
Strands (Ohm/k
(mm) (mm²) (mm)
m) BS 3242 Sycamore 37 3.23 303.2 22.6 0.109
ASTM B-397 Kench 7 2.67 39.2 8.0 0.838 BS 3242 Upas 37 3.53 362.1 24.7 0.092
ASTM B-397 Kibe 7 3.37 62.4 10.1 0.526 BS 3242 Yew 37 4.06 479.0 28.4 0.069
ASTM B-397 Kayak 7 3.78 78.6 11.4 0.418 BS 3242 Totara 37 4.14 498.1 29.0 0.067
ASTM B-397 Kopeck 7 4.25 99.3 12.8 0.331 BS 3242 Rubus 61 3.5 586.9 31.5 0.057
ASTM B-397 Kittle 7 4.77 125.1 14.3 0.262 BS 3242 Araucaria 61 4.14 821.1 28.4 0.040
ASTM B-397 Radian 19 3.66 199.9 18.3 0.164 Table 5.22: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium alloy (BS)
ASTM B-397 Rede 19 3.78 212.6 18.9 0.155
ASTM B-397 Ragout 19 3.98 236.4 19.9 0.140
ASTM B-397 Rex 19 4.14 255.8 19.9 0.129
ASTM B-397 Remex 19 4.36 283.7 21.8 0.116
ASTM B-397 Ruble 19 4.46 296.8 22.4 0.111
ASTM B-397 Rune 19 4.7 330.6 23.6 0.100
ASTM B-397 Spar 37 3.6 376.6 25.2 0.087
ASTM B-397 Solar 37 4.02 469.6 28.2 0.070
ASTM B-399 - 19 3.686 202.7 18.4 0.165
ASTM B-399 - 19 3.909 228.0 19.6 0.147
RDC at RDC at
Wire Sectional Overall Wire Sectional Overall
No. of Al 20°C No. of Al 20°C
Standard Designation diameter area diameter Standard Designation diameter area diameter
Strands (Ohm/k Strands (Ohm/k
(mm) (mm²) (mm) (mm) (mm²) (mm)
m) m)
CSA C49.1- DIN 48201 16 7 1.7 15.9 5.1 2.091
10 7 1.45 11.5 4.3 2.863
M87
DIN 48201 25 7 2.1 24.3 6.3 1.370
CSA C49.1-
16 7 1.83 18.4 5.5 1.788 DIN 48201 35 7 2.5 34.4 7.5 0.967
M87
DIN 48201 50 19 1.8 48.4 9.0 0.690
CSA C49.1-
25 7 2.29 28.8 6.9 1.142
M87 DIN 48201 50 7 3 49.5 9.0 0.672
CSA C49.1- DIN 48201 70 19 2.1 65.8 10.5 0.507
40 7 2.89 46.0 8.7 0.716
M87
DIN 48201 95 19 2.5 93.3 12.5 0.358
CSA C49.1-
63 7 3.63 72.5 10.9 0.454 DIN 48201 120 19 2.8 117.0 14.0 0.285
M87
DIN 48201 150 37 2.25 147.1 15.7 0.228
CSA C49.1-
100 19 2.78 115.1 13.9 0.287 DIN 48201 185 37 2.5 181.6 17.5 0.184
M87
CSA C49.1- DIN 48201 240 61 2.25 242.5 20.2 0.138
125 19 3.1 143.9 15.5 0.230
M87 DIN 48201 300 61 2.5 299.4 22.5 0.112
CSA C49.1- DIN 48201 400 61 2.89 400.1 26.0 0.084
160 19 3.51 184.2 17.6 0.180
M87
DIN 48201 500 61 3.23 499.8 29.1 0.067
CSA C49.1-
200 19 3.93 230.2 19.6 0.144 Table 5.24: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium alloy (DIN)
M87
CSA C49.1- RDC at
250 19 4.39 287.7 22.0 0.115 Wire Sectional Overall
M87 No. of Al 20°C
Standard Designation diameter area diameter
Strands (Ohm/k
CSA C49.1- (mm) (mm²) (mm)
315 37 3.53 362.1 24.7 0.092 m)
M87
CSA C49.1- NF C34-125 ASTER 22 7 2 22.0 6.0 1.497
400 37 3.98 460.4 27.9 0.072
M87 NF C34-125 ASTER 34-4 7 2.5 34.4 7.5 0.958
CSA C49.1- NF C34-125 ASTER 54-6 7 3.15 54.6 9.5 0.604
450 37 4.22 517.9 29.6 0.064
M87
NF C34-125 ASTER 75-5 19 2.25 75.5 11.3 0.438
CSA C49.1-
500 37 4.45 575.5 31.2 0.058 NF C34-125 ASTER 93,3 19 2.5 93.3 12.5 0.355
M87
NF C34-125 ASTER 117 19 2.8 117.0 14.0 0.283
CSA C49.1-
560 37 4.71 644.5 33.0 0.051
M87 NF C34-125 ASTER 148 19 3.15 148.1 15.8 0.223
CSA C49.1- NF C34-125 ASTER 181-6 37 2.5 181.6 17.5 0.183
630 61 3.89 725.0 35.0 0.046
M87
NF C34-125 ASTER 228 37 2.8 227.8 19.6 0.146
CSA C49.1-
710 61 4.13 817.2 37.2 0.041 NF C34-125 ASTER 288 37 3.15 288.3 22.1 0.115
M87
NF C34-125 ASTER 366 37 3.55 366.2 24.9 0.091
CSA C49.1-
800 61 4.38 920.8 39.5 0.036
M87 NF C34-125 ASTER 570 61 3.45 570.2 31.1 0.058
CSA C49.1- NF C34-125 ASTER 851 91 3.45 850.7 38.0 0.039
900 61 4.65 1035.8 41.9 0.032
M87
NF C34-125 ASTER 1144 91 4 1143.5 44.0 0.029
CSA C49.1-
1000 91 4.01 1150.9 44.1 0.029 NF C34-125 ASTER 1600 127 4 1595.9 52.0 0.021
M87
Table 5.25: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium alloy (NF)
CSA C49.1-
1120 91 4.25 1289.1 46.7 0.026
M87
CSA C49.1-
1250 91 4.49 1438.7 49.4 0.023
M87
CSA C49.1-
1400 91 4.75 1611.3 52.2 0.021
M87
CSA C49.1-
1500 91 4.91 1726.4 54.1 0.019
M87
Table 5.23: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium alloy (CSA)
5-27
Stranding and wire Sectional Approxi Stranding and wire Sectional Approxi
RDC at RDC at
diameter (mm) area (mm2) Total mate diameter (mm) area (mm2) Total mate
Designa 20 °C Designa 20 °C
Standard area overall Standard area overall
tion (ohm tion (ohm
Alloy Steel Alloy Steel (mm2) dia Alloy Steel Alloy Steel (mm2) dia
/km) /km)
(mm) (mm)
ASTM B711 26 2.62 7 2 140.2 22.9 163.1 7.08 0.240 PHLOX
NF C34-125 116.2 18 2 19 2 56.5 59.7 116.2 14 0.591
ASTM B711 26 2.97 7 2.3 180.1 29.3 209.5 11.08 0.187
PHLOX
ASTM B711 30 2.76 7 2.8 179.5 41.9 221.4 12.08 0.188
NF C34-125 147.1 18 2.25 19 2.3 71.6 75.5 147.1 15.75 0.467
ASTM B711 26 3.13 7 2.4 200.1 32.5 232.5 13.08 0.168
PASTEL
ASTM B711 30 3.08 7 3.1 223.5 52.2 275.7 16.08 0.151 NF C34-125 147.1 30 2.25 7 2.3 119.3 27.8 147.1 15.75 0.279
ASTM B711 26 3.5 7 2.7 250.1 40.7 290.8 17.08 0.135 PHLOX
ASTM B711 26 3.7 7 2.9 279.6 45.6 325.2 19.08 0.120 NF C34-125 181.6 18 2.5 19 2.5 88.4 93.3 181.6 17.5 0.378
PASTEL
ASTM B711 30 3.66 19 2.2 315.6 72.2 387.9 22.08 0.107
NF C34-125 181.6 30 2.5 7 2.5 147.3 34.4 181.6 17.5 0.226
ASTM B711 30 3.88 19 2.3 354.7 81.0 435.7 24.08 0.095
PHLOX
ASTM B711 30 4.12 19 2.5 399.9 91.0 491.0 26.08 0.084 NF C34-125 228 18 2.8 19 2.8 110.8 117.0 227.8 19.6 0.300
ASTM B711 54 3.26 19 2 450.7 58.5 509.2 27.08 0.075 PASTEL
ASTM B711 54 3.63 19 2.2 558.9 70.9 629.8 29.08 0.060 NF C34-125 228 30 2.8 7 2.8 184.7 43.1 227.8 19.6 0.180
ASTM B711 54 3.85 19 2.3 628.6 79.6 708.3 30.08 0.054 PHLOX
NF C34-125 288 18 3.15 19 3.2 140.3 148.1 288.3 22.05 0.238
ASTM B711 54 4.34 19 2.6 798.8 100.9 899.7 32.08 0.042
PASTEL
ASTM B711 84 4.12 19 2.5 1119.9 91.0 1210.9 35.08 0.030 NF C34-125 288 30 3.15 7 3.2 233.8 54.6 288.3 22.05 0.142
ASTM B711 84 4.35 19 2.6 1248.4 101.7 1350.0 36.08 0.027 PASTEL
Table 5.26: Overhead line conductor data – aluminium alloy NF C34-125 299 42 2.5 19 2.5 206.2 93.3 299.4 22.45 0.162
conductors, steel re-inforced (AACSR) ASTM PHLOX
NF C34-125 376 24 2.8 37 2.8 147.8 227.8 375.6 26.4 0.226
Stranding and wire Sectional Approxi
RDC at Table 5.28: Overhead line conductor data – aluminium alloy
diameter (mm) area (mm2) Total mate
Designa 20 °C conductors, steel re-inforced (AACSR) NF
Standard area overall
tion (ohm
Alloy Steel Alloy Steel (mm2) dia
/km)
(mm)
DIN 48206 70/12 26 1.85 7 1.4 69.9 11.4 81.3 11.7 0.479
DIN 48206 95/15 26 2.15 7 1.7 94.4 15.3 109.7 13.6 0.355
DIN 48206 125/30 30 2.33 7 2.3 127.9 29.8 157.8 16.3 0.262
DIN 48206 150/25 26 2.7 7 2.1 148.9 24.2 173.1 17.1 0.225
DIN 48206 170/40 30 2.7 7 2.7 171.8 40.1 211.8 18.9 0.195
DIN 48206 185/30 26 3 7 2.3 183.8 29.8 213.6 19 0.182
DIN 48206 210/50 30 3 7 3 212.1 49.5 261.5 21 0.158
DIN 48206 230/30 24 3.5 7 2.3 230.9 29.8 260.8 21 0.145
DIN 48206 265/35 24 3.74 7 2.5 263.7 34.1 297.7 22.4 0.127
DIN 48206 305/40 54 2.68 7 2.7 304.6 39.5 344.1 24.1 0.110
DIN 48206 380/50 54 3 7 3 381.7 49.5 431.2 27 0.088
DIN 48206 450/40 48 3.45 7 2.7 448.7 39.5 488.2 28.7 0.075
DIN 48206 560/50 48 3.86 7 3 561.7 49.5 611.2 32.2 0.060
DIN 48206 680/85 54 4 19 2.4 678.6 86.0 764.5 36 0.049
Table 5.27: Overhead line conductor data – aluminium alloy
conductors, steel re-inforced (AACSR) DIN
Conductor Size (mm2) Conductor Size (mm2)

10 16 25 35 50 70 95 120 150 185 240 300 400 *500 *630 *800 *1000
Series R Series R
206 1303 825.5 595 439.9 304.9 220.4 174.5 142.3 113.9 87.6 70.8 56.7 45.5 37.1 31.2 27.2
Resistance (/km) Resistance (/km)
Series X Series X
3.3kV 87.7 83.6 76.7 74.8 72.5 70.2 67.5 66.6 65.7 3.3kV 64.7 63.8 62.9 62.4 73.5 72.1 71.2 69.8
Reactance (/km) Reactance (/km)
C C
Susceptance Susceptance
(mS/km) (mS/km)
Series R Series R
514.2 326 206.4 148.8 110 76.2 55.1 43.6 35.6 28.5 21.9 17.6 14.1 11.3 9.3 7.8 6.7
Series X Series X
6.6kV 26.2 24.3 22 21.2 20.4 19.6 18.7 18.3 17.9 6.6kV 17.6 17.1 16.9 16.5 18.8 18.4 18 17.8
C C
(mS/km) (mS/km)
Series R Series R
- 111 0.87 0.63 0.46 0.32 0.23 0.184 0.15 0.12 0.092 0.074 0.059 0.048 0.039 0.033 0.028
Series X Series X
11kV - 9.26 0.107 0.1 0.096 0.091 0.087 0.085 0.083 11kV 0.081 0.079 0.077 0.076 0.085 0.083 0.081 0.08
C C
(mS/km) (mS/km)
Series R Series R
- - 17.69 12.75 9.42 6.53 4.71 3.74 3.04 2.44 1.87 1.51 1.21 0.96 0.79 0.66 0.57
Series X Series X
22kV - - 2.89 2.71 2.6 2.46 2.36 2.25 2.19 22kV 2.11 2.04 1.97 1.92 1.9 1.84 1.8 1.76
C C
(mS/km) (mS/km)
Series R Series R
- - - - 4.19 2.9 2.09 0.181 0.147 0.118 0.09 0.073 0.058 0.046 0.038 0.031 0.027
Series X Series X
33kV - - - - 1.16 1.09 1.03 0.107 0.103 33kV 0.101 0.097 0.094 0.09 0.098 0.097 0.092 0.089
C C
Susceptance 0.104 0.116 Susceptance 0.124 0.194 0.151 0.281 0.179 0.198 0.22 0.245
(mS/km) (mS/km)
Cables are solid type 3 core except for those marked *. Impedances are at 50Hz Cables are solid type 3 core except for those marked *. Impedances are at 50Hz
Table 5.29: Characteristics of paper insulated cables, Table 5.30: Characteristics of paper insulated cables,
conductor size 10 to 150 mm2 conductor size 185 to 1000 mm2
5-29
3.3kV Surge
Conductor size (mm2) Voltage
Voltage Imped- Indicative
R /km X /km Cross Drop
Level Conductors ance Thermal Loading
Sectional Loading
16 1.380 0.106 2 per phase Loading
Area mm
25 0.870 0.100 Un Um
MVA MWkm MVA A
kV kV
35 0.627 0.094
30 1 0.3 11 2.9 151
50 0.463 0.091
50 1 0.3 17 3.9 204
70 0.321 0.086
11 12 90 1 0.4 23 5.1 268
95 0.232 0.084
120 1 0.5 27 6.2 328
120 0.184 0.081
150 1 0.5 30 7.3 383
150 0.150 0.079
30 1 1.2 44 5.8 151
185 0.121 0.077
50 1 1.2 66 7.8 204
240 0.093 0.076
22 24 90 1 1.2 92 10.2 268
300 0.075 0.075
120 1 1.4 106 12.5 328
400 0.060 0.075
150 1 1.5 119 14.6 383
*500 0.049 0.089
50 1 2.7 149 11.7 204
*630 0.041 0.086
90 1 2.7 207 15.3 268
*800 0.035 0.086 33 36
120 1 3.1 239 18.7 328
*1000 0.030 0.084
150 1 3.5 267 21.9 383
3 core copper conductors, 50Hz values.
* - single core cables in trefoil 90 1 11 827 41 268
Table 5.31: 3.3 kV PVC insulated cables 150 1 11 1068 59 383

66 72.5
250 1 11 1240 77 502
At the conceptual design stage, initial selection of overhead
250 2 15 1790 153 1004
line conductor size is determined by four factors:
150 1 44 4070 85 370
x maximum load to be carried in MVA
250 1 44 4960 115 502
x length of line 132 145 250 2 58 7160 230 1004
x conductor material and hence maximum temperature 400 1 56 6274 160 698
x cost of losses 400 2 73 9057 320 1395
gives indicative details of the capability of various sizes of 400 1 130 15600 247 648
overhead lines using the above factors, for AAAC and ACSR 220 245 400 2 184 22062 494 1296
conductor materials. It is based on commonly used standards 400 4 260 31200 988 2592
for voltage drop and ambient temperature. Since these factors 400 2 410 58100 850 1296
may not be appropriate for any particular project, the Table 400 4 582 82200 1700 2590
380 420
should only be used as a guide for initial sizing, with 550 2 482 68200 1085 1650
appropriately detailed calculations carried out to arrive at a 550 3 540 81200 1630 2475
final proposal. Table 5.32: OHL capabilities
XAC at 50 Hz XAC at 50 Hz and shunt capacitance

66kV 132kV
Sectional area
RDC (20°C) 33kV
of Al 3.3kV 6.6kV 11kV 22kV Flat circuit Double vertical Triangle Double vertical Double triangle Flat circuit
X C X C X C X C X C X C X C
mm² /km /km /km /km /km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km
13.3 2.1586 0.395 0.409 0.420 0.434 0.445 8.7 0.503 7.6 0.513 7.4 0.520 7.3 0.541 7.0 0.528 7.2 0.556 6.8
15.3 1.8771 0.391 0.405 0.415 0.429 0.441 8.8 0.499 7.7 0.508 7.5 0.515 7.4 0.537 7.1 0.523 7.3 0.552 6.9
21.2 1.3557 0.381 0.395 0.405 0.419 0.430 9.0 0.488 7.8 0.498 7.7 0.505 7.6 0.527 7.2 0.513 7.4 0.542 7.0
23.9 1.2013 0.376 0.390 0.401 0.415 0.426 9.1 0.484 7.9 0.494 7.8 0.501 7.6 0.522 7.3 0.509 7.5 0.537 7.1
26.2 1.0930 0.374 0.388 0.398 0.412 0.424 9.2 0.482 8.0 0.491 7.8 0.498 7.7 0.520 7.3 0.506 7.5 0.535 7.1
28.3 1.0246 0.352 0.366 0.377 0.391 0.402 9.4 0.460 8.2 0.470 8.0 0.477 7.8 0.498 7.5 0.485 7.7 0.513 7.3
33.6 0.8535 0.366 0.380 0.390 0.404 0.416 9.4 0.474 8.1 0.484 7.9 0.491 7.8 0.512 7.5 0.499 7.7 0.527 7.2
37.7 0.7647 0.327 0.341 0.351 0.365 0.376 9.7 0.435 8.4 0.444 8.2 0.451 8.1 0.473 7.7 0.459 7.9 0.488 7.4
42.4 0.6768 0.359 0.373 0.383 0.397 0.409 9.6 0.467 8.3 0.476 8.1 0.483 7.9 0.505 7.6 0.491 7.8 0.520 7.3
44.0 0.6516 0.320 0.334 0.344 0.358 0.369 9.9 0.427 8.5 0.437 8.3 0.444 8.2 0.465 7.8 0.452 8.0 0.481 7.5
47.7 0.6042 0.319 0.333 0.344 0.358 0.369 9.9 0.427 8.5 0.437 8.3 0.444 8.2 0.465 7.8 0.452 8.1 0.480 7.6
51.2 0.5634 0.317 0.331 0.341 0.355 0.367 10.0 0.425 8.6 0.434 8.4 0.441 8.2 0.463 7.9 0.449 8.1 0.478 7.6
58.9 0.4894 0.313 0.327 0.337 0.351 0.362 10.1 0.421 8.7 0.430 8.5 0.437 8.3 0.459 7.9 0.445 8.2 0.474 7.7
63.1 0.4545 0.346 0.360 0.371 0.385 0.396 9.9 0.454 8.5 0.464 8.3 0.471 8.2 0.492 7.8 0.479 8.0 0.507 7.5
67.4 0.4255 0.344 0.358 0.369 0.383 0.394 10.0 0.452 8.5 0.462 8.3 0.469 8.2 0.490 7.8 0.477 8.1 0.505 7.6
73.4 0.3930 0.306 0.320 0.330 0.344 0.356 10.3 0.414 8.8 0.423 8.6 0.430 8.5 0.452 8.1 0.438 8.3 0.467 7.8
79.2 0.3622 0.339 0.353 0.363 0.377 0.389 10.1 0.447 8.7 0.457 8.4 0.464 8.3 0.485 7.9 0.472 8.2 0.500 7.6
85.0 0.3374 0.337 0.351 0.361 0.375 0.387 10.2 0.445 8.7 0.454 8.5 0.461 8.4 0.483 7.9 0.469 8.2 0.498 7.7
94.4 0.3054 0.302 0.316 0.327 0.341 0.352 10.3 0.410 8.8 0.420 8.6 0.427 8.4 0.448 8.0 0.435 8.3 0.463 7.8
105.0 0.2733 0.330 0.344 0.355 0.369 0.380 10.4 0.438 8.8 0.448 8.6 0.455 8.5 0.476 8.1 0.463 8.3 0.491 7.8
121.6 0.2371 0.294 0.308 0.318 0.332 0.344 10.6 0.402 9.0 0.412 8.8 0.419 8.6 0.440 8.2 0.427 8.4 0.455 7.9
127.9 0.2254 0.290 0.304 0.314 0.328 0.340 10.7 0.398 9.0 0.407 8.8 0.414 8.7 0.436 8.2 0.422 8.5 0.451 8.0
131.2 0.2197 0.289 0.303 0.313 0.327 0.339 10.7 0.397 9.1 0.407 8.8 0.414 8.7 0.435 8.3 0.421 8.5 0.450 8.0
135.2 0.2133 0.297 0.311 0.322 0.336 0.347 10.5 0.405 9.0 0.415 8.8 0.422 8.6 0.443 8.2 0.430 8.4 0.458 7.9
148.9 0.1937 0.288 0.302 0.312 0.326 0.338 10.8 0.396 9.1 0.406 8.9 0.413 8.7 0.434 8.3 0.420 8.6 0.449 8.0
158.7 0.1814 0.292 0.306 0.316 0.330 0.342 10.7 0.400 9.1 0.410 8.9 0.417 8.7 0.438 8.3 0.425 8.5 0.453 8.0
170.5 0.1691 0.290 0.304 0.314 0.328 0.340 10.8 0.398 9.1 0.407 8.9 0.414 8.8 0.436 8.3 0.422 8.6 0.451 8.0
184.2 0.1565 0.287 0.302 0.312 0.326 0.337 10.9 0.395 9.2 0.405 9.0 0.412 8.8 0.433 8.4 0.420 8.6 0.449 8.1
201.4 0.1438 0.280 0.294 0.304 0.318 0.330 11.0 0.388 9.3 0.398 9.1 0.405 8.9 0.426 8.5 0.412 8.8 0.441 8.2
210.6 0.1366 0.283 0.297 0.308 0.322 0.333 11.0 0.391 9.3 0.401 9.1 0.408 8.9 0.429 8.4 0.416 8.7 0.444 8.1
221.7 0.1307 0.274 0.288 0.298 0.312 0.323 11.3 0.381 9.5 0.391 9.3 0.398 9.1 0.419 8.6 0.406 8.9 0.435 8.3
230.9 0.1249 0.276 0.290 0.300 0.314 0.326 11.2 0.384 9.4 0.393 9.2 0.400 9.0 0.422 8.6 0.408 8.9 0.437 8.3
241.7 0.1193 0.279 0.293 0.303 0.317 0.329 11.2 0.387 9.4 0.396 9.2 0.403 9.0 0.425 8.5 0.411 8.8 0.440 8.2
263.7 0.1093 0.272 0.286 0.296 0.310 0.321 11.3 0.380 9.5 0.389 9.3 0.396 9.1 0.418 8.6 0.404 8.9 0.433 8.3
282.0 0.1022 0.274 0.288 0.298 0.312 0.324 11.3 0.382 9.5 0.392 9.3 0.399 9.1 0.420 8.6 0.406 8.9 0.435 8.3
306.6 0.0945 0.267 0.281 0.291 0.305 0.317 11.5 0.375 9.7 0.384 9.4 0.391 9.2 0.413 8.7 0.399 9.1 0.428 8.4
322.3 0.0895 0.270 0.284 0.294 0.308 0.320 11.5 0.378 9.6 0.387 9.4 0.394 9.2 0.416 8.7 0.402 9.0 0.431 8.4
339.3 0.0850 0.265 0.279 0.289 0.303 0.315 11.6 0.373 9.7 0.383 9.5 0.390 9.3 0.411 8.8 0.398 9.1 0.426 8.5
362.6 0.0799 0.262 0.276 0.286 0.300 0.311 11.7 0.369 9.8 0.379 9.6 0.386 9.4 0.408 8.9 0.394 9.2 0.423 8.5
386.0 0.0747 0.261 0.275 0.285 0.299 0.311 11.8 0.369 9.8 0.379 9.6 0.386 9.4 0.407 8.9 0.393 9.2 0.422 8.6
402.8 0.0719 0.261 0.275 0.285 0.299 0.310 11.8 0.368 9.9 0.378 9.6 0.385 9.4 0.407 8.9 0.393 9.2 0.422 8.6
428.9 0.0671 0.267 0.281 0.291 0.305 0.316 11.5 0.374 9.7 0.384 9.4 0.391 9.2 0.413 8.7 0.399 9.0 0.428 8.4
448.7 0.0642 0.257 0.271 0.281 0.295 0.306 11.9 0.364 10.0 0.374 9.7 0.381 9.5 0.402 9.0 0.389 9.3 0.418 8.7
456.1 0.0635 0.257 0.271 0.281 0.295 0.307 12.0 0.365 10.0 0.374 9.7 0.381 9.5 0.403 9.0 0.389 9.3 0.418 8.7
483.4 0.0599 0.255 0.269 0.279 0.293 0.305 12.0 0.363 10.0 0.372 9.8 0.379 9.6 0.401 9.0 0.387 9.4 0.416 8.7
494.4 0.0583 0.254 0.268 0.279 0.293 0.304 12.1 0.362 10.0 0.372 9.8 0.379 9.6 0.400 9.0 0.387 9.4 0.415 8.7
510.5 0.0565 0.252 0.266 0.277 0.291 0.302 12.1 0.360 10.1 0.370 9.8 0.377 9.6 0.398 9.1 0.385 9.4 0.413 8.7
523.7 0.0553 0.252 0.266 0.277 0.291 0.302 12.1 0.360 10.1 0.370 9.8 0.377 9.6 0.398 9.1 0.385 9.4 0.413 8.7
Table 5.33: Overhead line feeder circuit data, ACSR Conductors, 50Hz
5-31
XAC at 60 Hz . XAC at 60 Hz and shunt capacitance
Sectional 66kV 132kV

RAC at 60Hz
area RDC (20°C) 3.3kV 6.6kV 11kV 22kV 33kV
& 20° C Flat circuit Double vertical Triangle Double vertical Double triangle Flat circuit
of Al
X X X X X C X C X C X C X C X C X C
mm² /km /km /km /km /km /km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km /km nF/km
13.3 2.1586 2.159 0.474 0.491 0.503 0.520 0.534 8.7 0.604 7.6 0.615 7.4 0.624 7.3 0.649 7.0 0.633 7.2 0.668 6.8
15.3 1.8771 1.877 0.469 0.486 0.498 0.515 0.529 8.8 0.598 7.7 0.610 7.5 0.619 7.4 0.644 7.1 0.628 7.3 0.662 6.9
21.2 1.3557 1.356 0.457 0.474 0.486 0.503 0.516 9.0 0.586 7.8 0.598 7.7 0.606 7.6 0.632 7.2 0.616 7.4 0.650 7.0
23.9 1.2013 1.201 0.452 0.469 0.481 0.498 0.511 9.1 0.581 7.9 0.593 7.8 0.601 7.6 0.627 7.3 0.611 7.5 0.645 7.1
26.2 1.0930 1.093 0.449 0.466 0.478 0.495 0.508 9.2 0.578 8.0 0.590 7.8 0.598 7.7 0.624 7.3 0.608 7.5 0.642 7.1
28.3 1.0246 1.025 0.423 0.440 0.452 0.469 0.483 9.4 0.552 8.2 0.564 8.0 0.572 7.8 0.598 7.5 0.582 7.7 0.616 7.3
33.6 0.8535 0.854 0.439 0.456 0.468 0.485 0.499 9.4 0.569 8.1 0.580 7.9 0.589 7.8 0.614 7.5 0.598 7.7 0.633 7.2
37.7 0.7647 0.765 0.392 0.409 0.421 0.438 0.452 9.7 0.521 8.4 0.533 8.2 0.541 8.1 0.567 7.7 0.551 7.9 0.585 7.4
42.4 0.6768 0.677 0.431 0.447 0.460 0.477 0.490 9.6 0.560 8.3 0.572 8.1 0.580 7.9 0.606 7.6 0.589 7.8 0.624 7.3
44.0 0.6516 0.652 0.384 0.400 0.413 0.429 0.443 9.9 0.513 8.5 0.525 8.3 0.533 8.2 0.559 7.8 0.542 8.0 0.577 7.5
47.7 0.6042 0.604 0.383 0.400 0.412 0.429 0.443 9.9 0.513 8.5 0.524 8.3 0.533 8.2 0.558 7.8 0.542 8.1 0.576 7.6
51.2 0.5634 0.564 0.380 0.397 0.409 0.426 0.440 10.0 0.510 8.6 0.521 8.4 0.530 8.2 0.555 7.9 0.539 8.1 0.573 7.6
58.9 0.4894 0.490 0.375 0.392 0.404 0.421 0.435 10.1 0.505 8.7 0.516 8.5 0.525 8.3 0.550 7.9 0.534 8.2 0.568 7.7
63.1 0.4545 0.455 0.416 0.432 0.445 0.462 0.475 9.9 0.545 8.5 0.557 8.3 0.565 8.2 0.591 7.8 0.574 8.0 0.609 7.5
67.4 0.4255 0.426 0.413 0.430 0.442 0.459 0.473 10.0 0.543 8.5 0.554 8.3 0.563 8.2 0.588 7.8 0.572 8.1 0.606 7.6
73.4 0.3930 0.393 0.367 0.384 0.396 0.413 0.427 10.3 0.496 8.8 0.508 8.6 0.516 8.5 0.542 8.1 0.526 8.3 0.560 7.8
79.2 0.3622 0.362 0.407 0.424 0.436 0.453 0.467 10.1 0.536 8.7 0.548 8.4 0.556 8.3 0.582 7.9 0.566 8.2 0.600 7.6
85.0 0.3374 0.338 0.404 0.421 0.433 0.450 0.464 10.2 0.534 8.7 0.545 8.5 0.554 8.4 0.579 7.9 0.563 8.2 0.598 7.7
94.4 0.3054 0.306 0.363 0.380 0.392 0.409 0.423 10.3 0.492 8.8 0.504 8.6 0.512 8.4 0.538 8.0 0.522 8.3 0.556 7.8
105.0 0.2733 0.274 0.396 0.413 0.426 0.442 0.456 10.4 0.526 8.8 0.537 8.6 0.546 8.5 0.572 8.1 0.555 8.3 0.590 7.8
121.6 0.2371 0.238 0.353 0.370 0.382 0.399 0.413 10.6 0.482 9.0 0.494 8.8 0.502 8.6 0.528 8.2 0.512 8.4 0.546 7.9
127.9 0.2254 0.226 0.348 0.365 0.377 0.394 0.408 10.7 0.477 9.0 0.489 8.8 0.497 8.7 0.523 8.2 0.507 8.5 0.541 8.0
131.2 0.2197 0.220 0.347 0.364 0.376 0.393 0.407 10.7 0.476 9.1 0.488 8.8 0.496 8.7 0.522 8.3 0.506 8.5 0.540 8.0
135.2 0.2133 0.214 0.357 0.374 0.386 0.403 0.416 10.5 0.486 9.0 0.498 8.8 0.506 8.6 0.532 8.2 0.516 8.4 0.550 7.9
148.9 0.1937 0.194 0.346 0.362 0.375 0.392 0.405 10.8 0.475 9.1 0.487 8.9 0.495 8.7 0.521 8.3 0.504 8.6 0.539 8.0
158.7 0.1814 0.182 0.351 0.367 0.380 0.397 0.410 10.7 0.480 9.1 0.492 8.9 0.500 8.7 0.526 8.3 0.509 8.5 0.544 8.0
170.5 0.1691 0.170 0.348 0.365 0.377 0.394 0.408 10.8 0.477 9.1 0.489 8.9 0.497 8.8 0.523 8.3 0.507 8.6 0.541 8.0
184.2 0.1565 0.157 0.345 0.362 0.374 0.391 0.405 10.9 0.474 9.2 0.486 9.0 0.494 8.8 0.520 8.4 0.504 8.6 0.538 8.1
201.4 0.1438 0.145 0.336 0.353 0.365 0.382 0.396 11.0 0.466 9.3 0.477 9.1 0.486 8.9 0.511 8.5 0.495 8.8 0.529 8.2
210.6 0.1366 0.137 0.340 0.357 0.369 0.386 0.400 11.0 0.469 9.3 0.481 9.1 0.489 8.9 0.515 8.4 0.499 8.7 0.533 8.1
221.7 0.1307 0.132 0.328 0.345 0.357 0.374 0.388 11.3 0.458 9.5 0.469 9.3 0.478 9.1 0.503 8.6 0.487 8.9 0.522 8.3
230.9 0.1249 0.126 0.331 0.348 0.360 0.377 0.391 11.2 0.460 9.4 0.472 9.2 0.480 9.0 0.506 8.6 0.490 8.9 0.524 8.3
241.7 0.1193 0.120 0.335 0.351 0.364 0.381 0.394 11.2 0.464 9.4 0.476 9.2 0.484 9.0 0.510 8.5 0.493 8.8 0.528 8.2
263.7 0.1093 0.110 0.326 0.343 0.355 0.372 0.386 11.3 0.455 9.5 0.467 9.3 0.476 9.1 0.501 8.6 0.485 8.9 0.519 8.3
282.0 0.1022 0.103 0.329 0.346 0.358 0.375 0.389 11.3 0.458 9.5 0.470 9.3 0.478 9.1 0.504 8.6 0.488 8.9 0.522 8.3
306.6 0.0945 0.096 0.320 0.337 0.349 0.366 0.380 11.5 0.450 9.7 0.461 9.4 0.470 9.2 0.495 8.7 0.479 9.1 0.514 8.4
322.3 0.0895 0.091 0.324 0.341 0.353 0.370 0.384 11.5 0.453 9.6 0.465 9.4 0.473 9.2 0.499 8.7 0.483 9.0 0.517 8.4
339.3 0.0850 0.086 0.318 0.335 0.347 0.364 0.378 11.6 0.448 9.7 0.459 9.5 0.468 9.3 0.493 8.8 0.477 9.1 0.511 8.5
362.6 0.0799 0.081 0.314 0.331 0.343 0.360 0.374 11.7 0.443 9.8 0.455 9.6 0.463 9.4 0.489 8.9 0.473 9.2 0.507 8.5
386.0 0.0747 0.076 0.313 0.330 0.342 0.359 0.373 11.8 0.443 9.8 0.454 9.6 0.463 9.4 0.488 8.9 0.472 9.2 0.506 8.6
402.8 0.0719 0.074 0.313 0.330 0.342 0.359 0.372 11.8 0.442 9.9 0.454 9.6 0.462 9.4 0.488 8.9 0.472 9.2 0.506 8.6
428.9 0.0671 0.069 0.320 0.337 0.349 0.366 0.380 11.5 0.449 9.7 0.461 9.4 0.469 9.2 0.495 8.7 0.479 9.0 0.513 8.4
448.7 0.0642 0.066 0.308 0.325 0.337 0.354 0.367 11.9 0.437 10.0 0.449 9.7 0.457 9.5 0.483 9.0 0.467 9.3 0.501 8.7
456.1 0.0635 0.065 0.305 0.322 0.334 0.351 0.364 12.0 0.434 10.0 0.446 9.7 0.454 9.6 0.480 9.0 0.463 9.4 0.498 8.7
483.4 0.0599 0.062 0.306 0.323 0.335 0.352 0.366 12.0 0.435 10.0 0.447 9.8 0.455 9.6 0.481 9.0 0.465 9.4 0.499 8.7
494.4 0.0583 0.060 0.305 0.322 0.334 0.351 0.365 12.1 0.435 10.0 0.446 9.8 0.455 9.6 0.480 9.0 0.464 9.4 0.498 8.7
510.5 0.0565 0.059 0.303 0.320 0.332 0.349 0.362 12.1 0.432 10.1 0.444 9.8 0.452 9.6 0.478 9.1 0.462 9.4 0.496 8.7
523.7 0.0553 0.057 0.303 0.320 0.332 0.349 0.363 12.1 0.432 10.1 0.444 9.8 0.452 9.6 0.478 9.1 0.462 9.4 0.496 8.7
Table 5.34: Overhead line feeder circuit data, ACSR Conductors, 60Hz
Conductor size mm2
25 35 50 70 95 120 150 185 240 300 400 *500 *630 *800 *1000 *1200 *1600
Series Resistance R (/km) 0.927 0.669 0.494 0.342 0.247 0.196 0.158 0.127 0.098 0.08 0.064 0.051 0.042
3.3kV Series Reactance X (/km) 0.097 0.092 0.089 0.083 0.08 0.078 0.076 0.075 0.073 0.072 0.071 0.088 0.086
Susceptance C (mS/km) 0.059 0.067 0.079 0.09 0.104 0.111 0.122 0.133 0.146 0.16 0.179 0.19 0.202
6.6kV Series Reactance X (/km) 0.121 0.113 0.108 0.102 0.096 0.093 0.091 0.088 0.086 0.085 0.083 0.088 0.086
11kV Series Reactance X (/km) 0.128 0.119 0.114 0.107 0.101 0.098 0.095 0.092 0.089 0.087 0.084 0.089 0.086
Series Resistance R (/km) - 0.669 0.494 0.348 0.247 0.196 0.158 0.127 0.098 0.08 0.064 0.051 0.042
22kV Series Reactance X (/km) - 0.136 0.129 0.121 0.114 0.11 0.107 0.103 0.1 0.094 0.091 0.096 0.093
Susceptance C (mS/km) 0.053 0.057 0.065 0.072 0.078 0.084 0.091 0.1 0.109 0.12 0.128 0.141
Series Resistance R (/km) - 0.669 0.494 0.348 0.247 0.196 0.158 0.127 0.098 0.08 0.064 0.051 0.042
33kV Series Reactance X (/km) - 0.15 0.143 0.134 0.127 0.122 0.118 0.114 0.109 0.105 0.102 0.103 0.1
Susceptance C (mS/km) 0.042 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.059 0.063 0.068 0.075 0.081 0.089 0.094 0.103
Series Resistance R (/km) - - - - - - - - - - - 0.0387 0.031 0.0254 0.0215
66kV* Series Reactance X (/km) - - - - - - - - - - - 0.117 0.113 0.109 0.102
Susceptance C (mS/km) 0.079 0.082 0.088 0.11
Series Resistance R (/km) - - - - - - - - - - - 0.0387 0.031 0.0254 0.0215
145kV* Series Reactance X (/km) - - - - - - - - - - - 0.13 0.125 0.12 0.115
Susceptance C (mS/km) 0.053 0.06 0.063 0.072
Series Resistance R (/km) 0.0487 0.0387 0.0310 0.0254 0.0215 0.0161 0.0126
245kV* Series Reactance X (/km) 0.145 0.137 0.134 0.128 0.123 0.119 0.113
Susceptance C (mS/km) 0.044 0.047 0.05 0.057 0.057 0.063 0.072
Series Resistance R (/km) 0.0310 0.0254 0.0215 0.0161 0.0126
420kV* Series Reactance X (/km) 0.172 0.162 0.156 0.151 0.144
Susceptance C (mS/km) 0.04 0.047 0.05 0.057 0.063
Table 5.35: Characteristics of polyethylene insulated cables (XLPE),
copper conductors (50Hz)
5.25 REFERENCES
[5.1] Physical significance of sub-subtransient quantities in
dynamic behaviour of synchronous machines. I.M.
Canay. Proc. IEE, Vol. 135, Pt. B, November 1988.
[5.2] IEC 60034-4. Methods for determining synchronous
machine quantities from tests.
[5.3] IEEE Standards 115/115A. IEEE Test Procedures for
Synchronous Machines.
[5.4] Power System Analysis. J.R. Mortlock and M.W.
Humphrey Davies. Chapman & Hall, London.
5-33
Chapter 6
Current and Voltage Transformers

6.2 Electromagnetic Voltage Transfomers
If the voltage or current in a power circuit are too high to
6.3 Capacitor Voltage Transfomers connect measuring instruments or relays directly, coupling is
6.4 Current Transfomers made through transformers. Such 'measuring' transformers
6.5 Non-Conventional Instrument Transformers are required to produce a scaled down replica of the input
quantity to the accuracy expected for the particular
measurement; this is made possible by the high efficiency of
the transformer. During and following large instantaneous
changes in the input quantity, the waveform may no longer be
sinusoidal, therefore the performance of measuring
transformers is important. The deviation may be a step change
in magnitude, or a transient component that persists for an
significant period, or both. The resulting effect on instrument
performance is usually negligible, although for precision
metering a persistent change in the accuracy of the
transformer may be significant.
However, many protection systems are required to operate
during the transient disturbance in the output of the
measuring transformers following a system fault. The errors in
transformer output may delay the operation of the protection
or cause unnecessary operations. Therefore the functioning of
such transformers must be examined analytically.
The transformer can be represented by the equivalent circuit of
Figure 6.1, where all quantities are referred to the secondary
side.
Figure 6.1: Equivalent circuit of transformer

When the transformer is not 1/1 ratio, this condition can be
represented by energising the equivalent circuit with an ideal
transformer of the given ratio but having no losses.
6.1.1 Measuring Transformers

Voltage and current transformers for low primary voltage or
current ratings are not readily distinguishable; for higher
ratings, dissimilarities of construction are usual. Nevertheless
the main differences between these devices are the way they
are connected into the power circuit. Voltage transformers are
6-1
much like small power transformers, differing only in details of The secondary output voltage Vs is required to be an accurate
design that control ratio accuracy over the specified range of scaled replica of the input voltage Vp over a specified range of
output. Current transformers have their primary windings output. Therefore the winding voltage drops are made small
connected in series with the power circuit, and so also in series and the normal flux density in the core is designed to be well
with the system impedance. The response of the transformer below the saturation density, so the exciting current can be
is radically different in these two modes of operation. low and the exciting impedance substantially constant with a
variation of applied voltage over the desired operating range
6.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC VOLTAGE including some degree of overvoltage. These limitations in
TRANSFOMERS design result in a VT for a given burden being much larger
In the shunt mode, the system voltage is applied across the than a typical power transformer of similar rating.
input terminals of the equivalent circuit of Figure 6.1. The Consequently the exciting current is not as small, relative to
vector diagram for this circuit is shown in Figure 6.2. the rated burden, as it would be for a typical power
transformer.
IpXp
Vp
6.2.1 Errors
The ratio and phase errors of the transformer can be calculated
IpRp
using the vector diagram of Figure 6.2.
Ep
The ratio error is defined as:
K Vn s Vp
u 100%
Vp
-Vs
T Ie
where:
Ip
IpL
Kn is the nominal ratio
Ie
Ic
) Vp is the primary voltage
Im
Vs is the secondary voltage
I
Is If the error is positive, the secondary voltage is greater than the
nominal value. If the error is negative, the secondary voltage is
Vs less than the nominal value. The turns ratio of the transformer
need not be equal to the nominal ratio and a small turns
IsXs compensation is usually used so the error is positive for low
burdens and negative for high burdens.
The phase error is the phase difference between the reversed
Es IsRs
secondary and the primary voltage vectors. It is positive when
the reversed secondary voltage leads the primary vector.
Requirements in this respect are set out in IEC 60044-2. All
Vp = Primary applied voltage
Ep = Primary induced e.m.f. voltage transformers are required to comply with one of the
Vs = Secondary output voltage
Es = Secondary induced e.m.f.
classes in Table 6.1.
) = Flux
Ie = Exciting current For protection purposes, accuracy of voltage measurement
Im = Magnetising component may be important during fault conditions, as the system
Ic = Iron loss component
T = Phase angle error voltage might be reduced by the fault to a low value. Voltage
I = Secondary burden angle transformers for such types of service must comply with the
IpRp = Primary resistance voltage drop
IpXp = Primary reactance voltage drop extended range of requirements set out in Table 6.2.
IsRs = Secondary resistance voltage drop
IsXs = Secondary reactance voltage drop
Is = Secondary current
IpL = Load component of primary current
Ip = Primary current
Figure 6.2: Vector diagram of voltage transformer
Chapter 6 Current and Voltage Transformers
0.8 - 1.2 x rated voltage 6.2.4 Protection of Voltage Transformers

Accuracy 0.25 - 1.0 x rated burden at 0.8pf Voltage Transformers can be protected by High Rupturing
Class phase displacement
voltage ratio error (%)
Capacity (H.R.C.) fuses on the primary side for voltages up to
(minutes) 66kV. Fuses do not usually have a sufficient interrupting
0.1 +/- 0.1 +/- 5 capacity for use with higher voltages. Practice varies, and in
0.2 +/- 0.2 +/- 10 some cases protection on the primary is omitted.
0.5 +/- 0.5 +/- 20
The secondary of a Voltage Transformer should always be
1.0 +/- 1.0 +/- 40 protected by fuses or a miniature circuit breaker (MCB). The
3.0 +/- 3.0 not specified device should be located as near to the transformer as
Table 6.1: Measuring Voltage Transformer error limits possible. A short circuit on the secondary circuit wiring
0.25 - 1.0 x rated burden at 0.8pf
produces a current of many times the rated output and causes
0.05 - Vf x rated primary voltage
excessive heating. Even where primary fuses can be fitted,
Accuracy
Class these usually do not clear a secondary side short circuit
Phase displacement
Voltage ratio error (%) because of the low value of primary current and the minimum
(minutes)
practicable fuse rating.
3P +/- 3.0 +/- 120
6P +/- 6.0 +/- 240 6.2.5 Construction of Voltage Transformers
Table 6.2: Additional limits for protection Voltage Transformers
The construction of a voltage transformer differs from that of a
6.2.2 Voltage Factors power transformer in that different emphasis is placed on
cooling, insulation and mechanical design. The rated output
The quantity Vf in Table 6.2 is an upper limit of operating seldom exceeds a few hundred VA and therefore the heat
voltage, expressed in per unit of rated voltage. This is generated normally presents no problem. The size of a VT is
important for correct relay operation and operation under largely determined by the system voltage and the insulation of
unbalanced fault conditions on unearthed or impedance the primary winding often exceeds the winding in volume.
earthed systems, resulting in a rise in the voltage on the
healthy phases. A VT should be insulated to withstand overvoltages, including
impulse voltages, of a level equal to the withstand value of the
Voltage Primary winding connection/system earthing switchgear and the high voltage system. To achieve this in a
Time rating
factor Vf conditions compact design the voltage must be distributed uniformly
across the winding, which requires uniform distribution of the
Between lines in any network.
1.2 continuous winding capacitance or the application of electrostatic shields.
Between transformer star point and earth in any network
1.2 continuous Voltage transformers are commonly used with switchgear so
Between line and earth in an effectively earthed network
1.5 30 sec the physical design must be compact and adapted for
1.2 continuous
mounting in or near to the switchgear. Three-phase units are
Between line and earth in a non-effectively earthed neutral system
with automatic earth fault tripping common up to 36kV but for higher voltages single-phase units
1.9 30 sec
are usual. Voltage transformers for medium voltage circuits
1.2 continuous Between line and earth in an isolated neutral system without
automatic earth fault tripping, or in a resonant earthed system have dry type insulation, but high and extra high voltage
1.9 8 hours without automatic earth fault tripping systems still use oil immersed units. Figure 6.3 shows an
Table 6.3: Voltage transformers permissible duration of maximum Alstom OTEF 36.5kV to 765kV high voltage electromagnetic
voltage transformer.
6.2.3 Secondary Leads

Voltage transformers are designed to maintain the specified
accuracy in voltage output at their secondary terminals. To
maintain this if long secondary leads are required, a
distribution box can be fitted close to the VT to supply relay
and metering burdens over separate leads. If necessary,
allowance can be made for the resistance of the leads to
individual burdens when the particular equipment is calibrated
6-3
9 three times the zero sequence voltage of the system is

1 - Expansion bellow 10 - Lifting eye 10 developed. To measure this component it is necessary for a
2 - Primary terminal H1 11 - Primary terminal
3 - Capacitive grading layers
4 - Secondary terminal box
12 - Post type porcelain insulator
13 - Capacitive grading layers
11 zero sequence flux to be set up in the VT, and for this to be
5 - Core / coil assembly
6 - Oil-level indicator
14 - Two coil and core
assembly possible there must be a return path for the resultant
7 - Porcelain or composite 15 - Transformer tank 12
insulator 16 - Post type porcelain insulator summated flux. The VT core must have one or more unwound
8 - Secondary terminal box 17 - Oil to air seal bock
9 - Expansion chamber 18 - Secondary terminal box limbs linking the yokes in addition to the limbs carrying
windings. Usually the core is made symmetrically, with five
1
6 13 limbs, the two outermost ones being unwound. Alternatively,
2
three single-phase units can be used. It is equally necessary
for the primary winding neutral to be earthed, for without an
7 earth, zero sequence exciting current cannot flow.
3
A VT should be rated to have an appropriate voltage factor as
described in Section 6.2.2 and Table 6.3, to cater for the
14
voltage rise on healthy phases during earth faults.
15
8
Voltage transformers are often provided with a normal star-
connected secondary winding and a broken-delta connected
4
16 ‘tertiary’ winding. Alternatively the residual voltage can be
5
extracted by using a star/broken-delta connected group of
auxiliary voltage transformers energised from the secondary
winding of the main unit, providing the main voltage
transformer fulfils all the requirements for handling a zero
sequence voltage as previously described. The auxiliary VT
17
must also be suitable for the appropriate voltage factor. It
should be noted that third harmonics in the primary voltage
18
wave, which are of zero sequence, summate in the broken-
Figure 6.3: Alstom OTEF electromagnetic 36.6kV to 765kV high delta winding.
voltage transformer
6.2.7 Transient Performance
6.2.6 Residually connected Voltage Transformers
Transient errors cause few difficulties in the use of
The three voltages of a balanced system summate to zero, but
conventional voltage transformers although some do occur.
this is not so when the system is subject to a single-phase
Errors are generally limited to short time periods following the
earth fault. The residual voltage of a system is measured by
sudden application or removal of voltage from the VT primary.
connecting the secondary windings of a VT in 'broken delta' as
shown in Figure 6.4. If a voltage is suddenly applied, an inrush transient occurs, as
with power transformers. However, the effect is less severe
than for power transformers because of the lower flux density
for which the VT is designed. If the VT is rated to have a fairly
high voltage factor, there is little inrush effect. An error
appears in the first few cycles of the output current in
proportion to the inrush transient that occurs.
When the supply to a voltage transformer is interrupted, the
core flux does not immediately collapse. The secondary
winding maintains the magnetising force to sustain this flux
and circulates a current through the burden, which decays
more or less exponentially. There may also be a superimposed
audio-frequency oscillation due to the capacitance of the
Figure 6.4: Residual voltage connection
winding. If the exciting quantity in ampere-turns exceeds the
The output of the secondary windings connected in broken burden, the transient current may be significant.
delta is zero when balanced sinusoidal voltages are applied,
but under conditions of imbalance a residual voltage equal to
6.2.8 Cascade Voltage Transformer accumulating to a value able to withstand the full system
The capacitor VT (section 6.3) was developed because of the voltage across the complete height of the stack. The entire
high cost of conventional electromagnetic voltage transformers assembly is contained in a hollow cylindrical porcelain housing
but, as shown in Section 6.3.2, the frequency and transient with external weather-sheds; the housing is filled with oil and
responses are less satisfactory than those of the orthodox sealed, an expansion bellows being included to maintain
voltage transformers. Another solution to the problem is the hermetic sealing and to permit expansion with temperature
cascade VT shown in Figure 6.5. change.
A 6.3 CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFOMERS

The size of electromagnetic voltage transformers for the higher
voltages is largely proportional to the rated voltage; the cost
C
P
tends to increase at a disproportionate rate. The capacitor
voltage transformer (CVT) is often more economic.
C
This device is basically a capacitance potential divider. As with
resistance-type potential dividers, the output voltage is
C seriously affected by load at the tapping point. The
capacitance divider differs in that its equivalent source
P - primary winding impedance is capacitive and can therefore be compensated by
C C - coupling windings
S - secondary winding a reactor connected in series with the tapping point. With an
ideal reactor, such an arrangement would have no regulation
C and could supply any value of output.
A reactor possesses some resistance, which limits the output
n
S that can be obtained. For a secondary output voltage of 110V,
a
N the capacitors would have to be very large to provide a useful
output while keeping errors within the usual limits. The
solution is to use a high secondary voltage and further
Figure 6.5: Schematic diagram of typical cascade voltage transformer
transform the output to the normal value using a relatively
The conventional type of VT has a single primary winding, the inexpensive electromagnetic transformer. The successive
insulation of which presents a problem for voltages above stages of this reasoning are shown in Figure 6.6:
about 132kV. The cascade VT avoids these difficulties by Development of capacitor voltage transformer.
breaking down the primary voltage in several distinct and
separate stages.
C1 C1
The complete VT is made up of several individual transformers,
the primary windings of which are connected in series as L
C2 Zb C2 Zb
shown in Figure 6.5. Each magnetic core has primary
windings (P) on two opposite sides. The secondary winding
(S) consists of a single winding on the last stage only.
Coupling windings (C) connected in pairs between stages,
provide low impedance circuits for the transfer of load ampere- (a) Basic capacitive (b) Capacitive divider with
voltage divider inductive compensation
turns between stages and ensure that the power frequency
voltage is equally distributed over the several primary
windings. C1
T
The potentials of the cores and coupling windings are fixed at L
definite values by connecting them to selected points on the C2 Zb
primary windings. The insulation of each winding is sufficient
for the voltage developed in that winding, which is a fraction of
the total according to the number of stages. The individual
transformers are mounted on a structure built of insulating (c) Divider with E/M VT output stage
material, which provides the interstage insulation, Figure 6.6: Development of capacitor voltage transformer
6-5
There are numerous variations of this basic circuit. The Standards generally require a CVT used for protection to
inductance L may be a separate unit or it may be incorporated conform to accuracy requirements of Table 6.2 within a
in the form of leakage reactance in the transformer T. frequency range of 97-103% of nominal. The corresponding
Capacitors C1 and C2 cannot conveniently be made to close frequency range of measurement CVTs is much less, 99%-
tolerances, so tappings are provided for ratio adjustment, 101%, as reductions in accuracy for frequency deviations
either on the transformer T, or on a separate auto-transformer outside this range are less important than for protection
in the secondary circuit. Adjustment of the tuning inductance applications.
L is also needed; this can be done with tappings, a separate
tapped inductor in the secondary circuit, by adjustment of gaps 6.3.1 Voltage Protection of Auxiliary Capacitor
in the iron cores, or by shunting with variable capacitance. A If the burden impedance of a CVT is short-circuited, the rise in
simplified equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 6.7. the reactor voltage is limited only by the reactor losses and
possible saturation to Q  E2 where E2 is the no-load tapping
point voltage and Q is the amplification factor of the resonant
circuit. This value would be excessive and is therefore limited
by a spark gap connected across the auxiliary capacitor. The
voltage on the auxiliary capacitor is higher at full rated output
than at no load, and the capacitor is rated for continuous
service at this raised value. The spark gap is set to flash over
at about twice the full load voltage.
The spark gap limits the short-circuit current which the VT
delivers and fuse protection of the secondary circuit is carefully
designed with this in mind. Usually the tapping point can be
earthed either manually or automatically before making any
adjustments to tappings or connections.
Figure 6.7: Simplified equivalent circuit of capacitor voltage 6.3.2 Transient Behaviour of Capacitor Voltage
transformer Transformers
A CVT is a series resonant circuit. The introduction of the
electromagnetic transformer between the intermediate voltage
and the output makes further resonance possible involving the
exciting impedance of this unit and the capacitance of the
divider stack. When a sudden voltage step is applied,
oscillations in line with these different modes take place and
persist for a period governed by the total resistive damping that
is present. Any increase in resistive burden reduces the time
constant of a transient oscillation, although the chance of a
large initial amplitude is increased.
For very high-speed protection, transient oscillations should be
minimised. Modern capacitor voltage transformers are much
better in this respect than their earlier counterparts. However,
high performance protection schemes may still be adversely
affected unless their algorithms and filters have been
specifically designed with care.
Figure 6.8: Section view of an Alstom OTCF 72.5kV to 765kV coupling
capacitor voltage transformer
6.3.3 Ferro-Resonance
The main difference between Figure 6.7 and Figure 6.1 is the
The exciting impedance Ze of the auxiliary transformer T and
presence of C and L. At normal frequency when C and L
resonate and therefore cancel, the circuit behaves in a similar the capacitance of the potential divider together form a
resonant circuit that usually oscillates at a sub-normal
way to a conventional VT. However, at other frequencies a
reactive component exists which modifies the errors. frequency. If this circuit is subjected to a voltage impulse, the
resulting oscillation may pass through a range of frequencies. winding of the current transformer. This condition can be
If the basic frequency of this circuit is slightly less than one- represented by inserting the load impedance, referred through
third of the system frequency, it is possible for energy to be the turns ratio, in the input connection of Figure 6.1.
absorbed from the system and cause the oscillation to build up.
This approach is developed in Figure 6.10, taking the
The increasing flux density in the transformer core reduces the
numerical example of a 300/5A CT applied to an 11kV power
inductance, bringing the resonant frequency nearer to the one-
system. The system is considered to be carrying rated current
third value of the system frequency. The result is a progressive
(300A) and the CT is feeding a burden of 10VA.
build-up until the oscillation stabilises as a third sub-harmonic
of the system, which can be maintained indefinitely. Z 21.2 :
Depending on the values of components, oscillations at

fundamental frequency or at other sub-harmonics or multiples E 6350V 300/ 5A Burden
10VA
of the supply frequency are possible but the third sub-
harmonic is the one most likely to be encountered. The
(a) Physical arrangement
principal manifestation of such an oscillation is a rise in output
voltage, the r.m.s. value being perhaps 25% to 50% above the Z 21.2 : 0.2 :
normal value. The output waveform would generally be of the

form shown in Figure 6.9. 'Ideal'
CT
E 6350V r 300/ 5 j 50 : 150 : 0.4 :
(b) Equivalent circuit of (a)

Amplitude
Zr = 21.2 x 602 = 76.2k 0.2 :
Er 6 3 5 0V u 6 0
j 50 : 150 : 0.4 :
381kV
Figure 6.9: Typical secondary voltage waveform with third sub-

(c) Equivalent circuit, all quantities referred to secondary side
harmonic oscillation
Figure 6.10: Derivation of equivalent circuit of a current transformer
Such oscillations are less likely to occur when the circuit losses
are high, as is the case with a resistive burden, and can be A study of the final equivalent circuit of Figure 6.10(c), taking
prevented by increasing the resistive burden. Special anti- note of the typical component values, reveals all the properties
ferro-resonance devices that use a parallel-tuned circuit are of a current transformer. It can be seen that:
sometimes built into the VT. Although such arrangements x The secondary current is not affected by change of the
help to suppress ferro-resonance, they tend to impair the burden impedance over a considerable range.
transient response, so that the design is a matter of
x The secondary circuit must not be interrupted while the
compromise.
primary winding is energised. The induced secondary
Correct design prevents a CVT that supplies a resistive burden e.m.f. under these circumstances is high enough to
from exhibiting this effect, but it is possible for non-linear present a danger to life and insulation.
inductive burdens, such as auxiliary voltage transformers, to x The ratio and phase angle errors can be calculated
induce ferro-resonance. Auxiliary voltage transformers for use easily if the magnetising characteristics and the burden
with capacitor voltage transformers should be designed with a impedance are known.
low value of flux density that prevents transient voltages from
causing core saturation, which in turn would bring high 6.4.1 Errors
exciting currents.
The general vector diagram shown in Figure 6.2 can be
simplified by omitting details that are not of interest in current
6.4 CURRENT TRANSFOMERS
measurement; see Figure 6.11. Errors arise because of the
The primary winding of a current transformer is connected in shunting of the burden by the exciting impedance. This uses a
series with the power circuit and the impedance is negligible small portion of the input current for exciting the core,
compared with that of the power circuit. The power system reducing the amount passed to the burden. So Is = Ip - Ie,
impedance governs the current passing through the primary
6-7
where Ie is dependent on Ze, the exciting impedance and the an inductive burden of rated value would be about 1.2%. If the
secondary e.m.f. Es, given by the equation Es=Is(Zs+Zb), nominal turns ratio is 2:120, removal of one secondary turn
where: would raise the output by 0.83% leaving the overall current
Zs = the self-impedance of the secondary winding, which error as -0.37%.
can generally be taken as the resistive component Rs only For lower value burden or a different burden power factor, the
Zb = the impedance of the burden error would change in the positive direction to a maximum of
+0.7% at zero burden; the leakage reactance of the secondary
IsRs winding is assumed to be negligible. No corresponding
correction can be made for phase error, but it should be noted
IsXs Es that the phase error is small for moderately reactive burdens.
Iq
Ir 6.4.2 Composite Error
Vs Ip This is defined in IEC 60044-1 as the r.m.s. value of the
difference between the ideal secondary current and the actual
secondary current. It includes current and phase errors and
T
the effects of harmonics in the exciting current. The accuracy
Is
class of measuring current transformers is shown in Table 6.4
and Table 6.5.
Ie +/- Phase displacement
Accuracy +/- Percentage current
) Class (ratio) error (minutes)
Es = Secondary induced e.m.f. % current 5 20 100 120 5 20 100 120
Vs = Secondary output voltage
Ip = Primary current 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 15 8 5 5
Is = Secondary current 0.2 0.75 0.35 0.2 0.2 30 15 10 10
T = Phase angle error
0.5 1.5 0.75 0.5 0.5 90 45 30 30
) = Flux
IsRs = Secondary resistance voltage drop 1 3 1.5 1.0 1.0 180 90 60 60
IsXs = Secondary reactance voltage drop Table 6.4: Limits of CT error for accuracy classes 0.1 to 1.0
Ie = Exciting current
Ir = Component of le in phase with ls
Iq = Component of le in quadrature with ls Accuracy Class +/- current (ratio) error, %
Figure 6.11: Vector diagram for current transformer (referred to
secondary) % current 50 120
3 3 3
6.4.1.1 Current or Ratio Error 5 5 5
This is the difference in magnitude between Ip and Is and is Table 6.5: Limits of CT error for accuracy classes 3 and 5
equal to Ir, the component of Ie which is in phase with Is.
6.4.3 Accuracy Limit Current of Protection Current
6.4.1.2 Phase Error Transformers
This is represented by Iq, the component of Ie in quadrature Protection equipment is intended to respond to fault
with Is and results in the phase error I . conditions, and is for this reason required to function at
current values above the normal rating. Protection class
The values of the current error and phase error depend on the
current transformers must retain a reasonable accuracy up to
phase displacement between Is and Ie, but neither current nor
the largest relevant current. This value is known as the
phase error can exceed the vectorial error Ie. With a
‘accuracy limit current’ and may be expressed in primary or
moderately inductive burden, resulting in Is and Ie equivalent secondary terms. The ratio of the accuracy limit
approximately in phase, there is little phase error and the current to the rated current is known as the 'accuracy limit
exciting component results almost entirely in ratio error. factor'. The accuracy class of protection current transformers
A reduction of the secondary winding by one or two turns is is shown in Table 6.6.
often used to compensate for this. For example, in the CT
corresponding to Figure 6.10, the worst error due to the use of
Current error at Phase displacement at Composite error at

Class rated primary rated current rated accuracy limit
current (%) (minutes) primary current (%) VK +10% Vk
5P +/-1 +/-60 5
10P +/-3 - 10
+50%IeK
Standard accuracy limit factors are 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30
Table 6.6: Protection CT error limits for classes 5P and 10P
Exciting voltage (Vs)

Even though the burden of a protection CT is only a few VA at
rated current, the output required from the CT may be
considerable if the accuracy limit factor is high. For example,
with an accuracy limit factor of 30 and a burden of 10VA, the
CT may have to supply 9000VA to the secondary circuit.
Alternatively, the same CT may be subjected to a high burden.
For overcurrent and earth fault protection, with elements of
similar VA consumption at setting, the earth fault element of
an electromechanical relay set at 10% would have 100 times
the impedance of the overcurrent elements set at 100%.
Although saturation of the relay elements somewhat modifies IeK
this aspect of the matter, the earth fault element is a severe
burden, and the CT is likely to have a considerable ratio error in Exciting current (Ie)
this case. Therefore it is not much use applying turns Figure 6.12: Definition of knee-point of excitation curve
compensation to such current transformers; it is generally Design requirements for current transformers for general
simpler to wind the CT with turns corresponding to the protection purposes are frequently laid out in terms of knee-
nominal ratio. point e.m.f., exciting current at the knee-point (or some other
Current transformers are often used for the dual duty of specified point) and secondary winding resistance. Such
measurement and protection. They then need to be rated current transformers are designated Class PX
according to a class selected from Table 6.4, Table 6.5 and
Table 6.6. The applied burden is the total of instrument and 6.4.5 CT Winding Arrangements
relay burdens. Turns compensation may well be needed to Several CT winding arrangements are used. These are
achieve the measurement performance. Measurement ratings described in the following sections.
are expressed in terms of rated burden and class, for example
15VA Class 0.5. Protection ratings are expressed in terms of 6.4.5.1 Wound primary type
rated burden, class, and accuracy limit factor, for example This type of CT has conventional windings formed of copper
10VA Class 10P10. wire wound round a core. It is used for auxiliary current
transformers and for many low or moderate ratio current
6.4.4 Class PX Current Transformers transformers used in switchgear of up to 11kV rating.
The classification of Table 6.6 is only used for overcurrent
protection. Class PX is the definition in IEC 60044-1 for the 6.4.5.2 Bushing or bar primary type
quasi-transient current transformers formerly covered by Class Many current transformers have a ring-shaped core,
X of BS 3938, commonly used with unit protection schemes. sometimes built up from annular stampings, but often
Guidance was given in the specifications to the application of consisting of a single length of strip tightly wound to form a
current transformers to earth fault protection, but for this and close-turned spiral. The distributed secondary winding forms a
for the majority of other protection applications it is better to toroid which should occupy the whole perimeter of the core, a
refer directly to the maximum useful e.m.f. that can be small gap being left between start and finish leads for
obtained from the CT. In this context, the 'knee-point' of the insulation.
excitation curve is defined as 'that point at which a further Such current transformers normally have a single
increase of 10% of secondary e.m.f. would require an concentrically placed primary conductor, sometimes
increment of exciting current of 50%’; see Figure 6.12. permanently built into the CT and provided with the necessary
primary insulation. In other cases, the bushing of a circuit
6-9
breaker or power transformer is used for this purpose. At low the widest practical range of input currents.
primary current ratings it may be difficult to obtain sufficient
output at the desired accuracy. This is because a large core 6.4.6 CT Winding Arrangements
section is needed to provide enough flux to induce the CTs for measuring line currents fall into one of three types.
secondary e.m.f. in the small number of turns, and because
the exciting ampere-turns form a large proportion of the 6.4.6.1 Over-Dimensioned CTs
primary ampere-turns available. The effect is particularly
Over-dimensioned CTs are capable of transforming fully offset
pronounced when the core diameter has been made large to fit
fault currents without distortion. In consequence, they are
over large EHV bushings.
very large, as can be deduced from Section 6.4.10. They are
prone to errors due to remanent flux arising, for instance, from
6.4.5.3 Core-Balance Current Transformers
the interruption of heavy fault currents.
The core-balance CT (or CBCT) is normally of the ring type,
through the centre of which is passed cable that forms the 6.4.6.2 Anti-Remanence CTs
primary winding. An earth fault relay, connected to the
This is a variation of the overdimensioned current transformer
secondary winding, is energised only when there is residual
and has small gap(s) in the core magnetic circuit, thus
current in the primary system.
reducing the possible remanent flux from approximately 90% of
The advantage in using this method of earth fault protection saturation value to approximately 10%. These gap(s) are quite
lies in the fact that only one CT core is used in place of three small, for example 0.12mm total, and so the excitation
phase CTs whose secondary windings are residually connected. characteristic is not significantly changed by their presence.
In this way the CT magnetising current at relay operation is However, the resulting decrease in possible remanent core flux
reduced by approximately three-to-one, an important confines any subsequent d.c. flux excursion, resulting from
consideration in sensitive earth fault relays where a low primary current asymmetry, to within the core saturation
effective setting is required. The number of secondary turns limits. Errors in current transformation are therefore
does not need to be related to the cable rated current because significantly reduced when compared with those with the
no secondary current would flow under normal balanced gapless type of core.
conditions. This allows the number of secondary turns to be
Transient protection Current Transformers are included in IEC
chosen such as to optimise the effective primary pick-up
60044-6 as types TPX, TPY and TPZ and this specification
current.
gives good guidance to their application and use.
Core-balance transformers are normally mounted over a cable
at a point close up to the cable gland of switchgear or other 6.4.6.3 Linear Current Transformers
apparatus. Physically split cores ('slip-over' types) are The 'linear' current transformer constitutes an even more
normally available for applications in which the cables are radical departure from the normal solid core CT in that it
already made up, as on existing switchgear. incorporates an appreciable air gap, for example 7.5-10mm.
As its name implies the magnetic behaviour tends to
6.4.5.4 Summation Current Transformers linearisation by the inclusion of this gap in the magnetic
The summation arrangement is a winding arrangement used circuit. However, the purpose of introducing more reluctance
in a measuring relay or on an auxiliary current transformer to into the magnetic circuit is to reduce the value of magnetising
give a single-phase output signal having a specific relationship reactance. This in turn reduces the secondary time-constant
to the three-phase current input. of the CT, thereby reducing the overdimensioning factor
necessary for faithful transformation.
6.4.5.5 Air-gapped current transformers
Figure 6.13 shows a CT for use on HV systems.
These are auxiliary current transformers in which a small air
gap is included in the core to produce a secondary voltage
output proportional in magnitude to current in the primary
winding. Sometimes termed 'transactors' and 'quadrature
current transformers', this form of current transformer has
been used as an auxiliary component of traditional pilot-wire
unit protection schemes in which the outputs into multiple
secondary circuits must remain linear for and proportional to
x The primary conductor(s) passes through the

approximate centre of the core aperture or, if wound, is
approximately evenly distributed along the whole length
of the magnetic circuit.
x Flux equalising windings, where fitted to the
requirements of the design, consist of at least four
parallel-connected coils, evenly distributed along the
whole length of the magnetic circuit, each coil
occupying one quadrant.
Alternatively, when a current transformer does not comply
1
with all of the above requirements, it may be proved to be of
2 low-reactance. In this case the composite error, as measured
3 in the accepted way, does not exceed by a factor of 1.3 that
4
error obtained directly from the V-I excitation characteristic of
5
1. Diaphragm bellows the secondary winding.
2. CT cores and secondary windings
3. Primary terminal 6
4. Primary conductor assembly
5. Head housing 7 6.4.8 Secondary Current Rating
6. Core housing
7. Porcelain or composite insulator The choice of secondary current rating is determined largely by
8. Bushing tube 8
9. Capacitive grading layers the secondary winding burden and the standard practice of the
10 . Secondary terminal blocks
11 . Fault current carrying connector to ground
9
user. Standard CT secondary current ratings are 5A and 1A.
12 . Ground pad
13 . Secondary terminal box The burden at rated current imposed by digital or numerical
14 . Mounting base
15 . Oil/Air block relays or instruments is largely independent of the rated value
of current. This is because the winding of the device has to
develop a given number of ampere-turns at rated current, so
10 that the actual number of turns is inversely proportional to the
11
current, and the impedance of the winding varies inversely
12
13 14 with the square of the current rating. However,
15
electromechanical or static earth-fault relays may have a
Figure 6.13: Alstom OSKF 72.5kV to 765kV high voltage current burden that varies with the current tapping used.
transformer
Interconnection leads do not share this property, however,
being commonly of standard cross-section regardless of rating.
6.4.7 Secondary Winding Impedance
Where the leads are long, their resistance may be appreciable,
As a protection CT may be required to deliver high values of and the resultant burden varies with the square of the current
secondary current, the secondary winding resistance must be rating. For example a CT lead run of the order of 200 metres,
made as low as practicable. Secondary leakage reactance also a typical distance for outdoor EHV switchgear, could have a
occurs, particularly in wound primary current transformers, loop resistance of approximately 3 ohms.
although its precise measurement is difficult. The non-linear
nature of the CT magnetic circuit makes it difficult to assess The CT lead VA burden if a 5A CT is used would be 75VA, to
the definite ohmic value representing secondary leakage which must be added the relay burden (up to of perhaps 10VA
reactance. for an electromechanical relay, but less than 1VA for a
numerical relay), making a total of 85VA. Such a burden
It is however, normally accepted that a current transformer is would require the CT to be very large and expensive,
of the low reactance type provided that the following particularly if a high accuracy limit factor were also applicable.
conditions prevail:
With a 1A CT secondary rating, the lead burden is reduced to
x The core is of the jointless ring type (including spirally 3VA, so that with the same relay burden the total becomes a
wound cores). maximum of 13VA. This can be provided by a CT of normal
x The secondary turns are substantially evenly distributed dimensions, resulting in a saving in size, weight and cost.
along the whole length of the magnetic circuit. Hence modern CTs tend to have secondary windings of 1A
rating. However, where the primary rating is high, say above
2000A, a CT of higher secondary rating may be used, to limit
6-11
the number of secondary turns. In such a situation secondary The maximum transient occurs when sin D E 1 and no
ratings of 2A, 5A or, in extreme cases, 20A, might be used. other condition need be examined.
6.4.9 Rated Short-Time Current So:
A current transformer is overloaded while system short-circuit ª § S· º

currents are flowing and is short-time rated. Standard times ip I p «sin ¨ Zt ¸ e R L t »
¬ © 2¹ ¼
for which the CT must be able to carry rated short-time current
(STC) are 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 or 3.0 seconds. Equation 6.2
A CT with a particular short-time current/ time rating carries a When the current is passed through the primary winding of a
lower current for a longer time in inverse proportion to the current transformer, the response can be examined by
square of the ratio of current values. The converse, however, replacing the CT with an equivalent circuit as shown in Figure
cannot be assumed, and larger current values than the STC 6.10(b).
rating are not permissible for any duration unless justified by a As the 'ideal' CT has no losses, it transfers the entire function,
new rating test to prove the dynamic capability. and all further analysis can be carried out in terms of
equivalent secondary quantities (is and Is). A simplified
6.4.10 Transient Response of a Current Transformer solution is obtainable by neglecting the exciting current of the
When accuracy of response during very short intervals is being CT.
studied, it is necessary to examine what happens when the
The flux developed in an inductance is obtained by integrating
primary current is suddenly changed. The effects are most
the applied e.m.f. through a time interval:
important, and were first observed in connection with
t2
balanced forms of protection, which were liable to operate
unnecessarily when short-circuit currents were suddenly I K ³ vdt
t1
established.
Equation 6.3
6.4.10.1 Primary Current Transient
For the CT equivalent circuit, the voltage is the drop on the
The power system, neglecting load circuits, is mostly inductive, burden resistance Rb.
so that when a short circuit occurs, the fault current that flows
is given by: Integrating for each component in turn, the steady state peak
flux is given by:
ip
Ep
>sinZt E D sinD E e R / L )t
@ 3S 2Z
§ S·
Equation 6.1
R Z L
2 2 2
IA KRb I s ³
S Z
sin ¨ Zt ¸dt
© 2¹
where: KRb I s
Ep = peak system e.m.f. Z
R = system resistance Equation 6.4
L = system inductance The transient flux is given by:

f
E = initial phase angle governed by instant of fault occurrence
IB KRb I s ³ e R L t dt
D = system power factor angle 0
= tan
1
ZL R KRb I s L
R
The first term of Equation 6.1 represents the steady state
alternating current, while the second is a transient quantity Equation 6.5
responsible for displacing the waveform asymmetrically. Hence, the ratio of the transient flux to the steady state value
is:
Ep
is the steady state peak current Ip
R 2 Z 2 L2
IB ZL X
IA R R
where X and R are the primary system reactance and
resistance values.
The CT core has to carry both fluxes, so that:
§ X·
IC I A I B I A ¨1 ¸
© R¹
Equation 6.6
The term (1+X/R) has been called the 'transient factor' (TF),
the core flux being increased by this factor during the transient
asymmetric current period. From this it can be seen that the
ratio of reactance to resistance of the power system is an
important feature in the study of the behaviour of protection Figure 6.14: Response of a CT of infinite shunt impedance to transient
relays. asymmetric primary current
Alternatively, L/R is the primary system time constant T, so Since a CT requires a finite exciting current to maintain a flux,
that the transient factor TF can be written: it does not remain magnetised (neglecting hysteresis), and for
this reason a complete representation of the effects can only be
ZL obtained by including the finite inductance of the CT in the
TF 1 1 ZT
R calculation. The response of a current transformer to a
transient asymmetric current is shown in Figure 6.15.
Again, fT is the time constant expressed in cycles of the a.c.
quantity T’ so that:
1.0
TF 1 2SfT 1 2ST '
0.9 t

This latter expression is particularly useful when assessing a 0.8
e T1
recording of a fault current, because the time constant in t

cycles can be easily estimated and leads directly to the 0.7 e T
transient factor. For example, a system time constant of three 0.6 ie

cycles results in a transient factor of (1+6 S ), or 19.85; that
0.5
is, the CT would be required to handle almost twenty times the
maximum flux produced under steady state conditions. The 0.4
above theory is sufficient to give a general view of the problem. 0.3
In this simplified treatment, no reverse voltage is applied to
0.2
demagnetise the CT, so that the flux would build up as shown
in Figure 6.14. 0.1
i's
0
-0.1 Time (secs)
ie = Transient exciting current

i cs = Secondary output current to burden
T = 0.06s
T1= 0.12s
Figure 6.15: Response of a current transformer to a transient
asymmetric current
Let
is = the nominal secondary current
6-13
i’s = the actual secondary output current chord.

The above theory is sufficient to give a good insight
ie = the exciting current
into the problem and to allow most practical issues
then: to be decided.
is = ie + i’s d. The effect of hysteresis, apart from loss as discussed
under (b) above, is not included. Hysteresis makes
Equation 6.7
the inductance different for flux build up and decay,
also, so that the secondary time constant is variable.
die Moreover, the ability of the core to retain a
Le Rbi 's 'remanent' flux means that the value of
dt
IB developed in Equation 6.5 has to be regarded as
Equation 6.8
an increment of flux from any possible remanent
where: value positive or negative. The formula would then
be reasonable provided the applied current transient
die Rbie Rbis
did not produce saturation.
dt Le Le
A precise calculation of the flux and excitation current is not
Equation 6.9 feasible; the value of the study is to explain the observed
which gives for the transient term phenomena. The asymmetric (or d.c.) component can be
regarded as building up the mean flux over a period
ie I1
T
T1 T

e t T1 e t T corresponding to several cycles of the sinusoidal component,
during which period the latter component produces a flux
swing about the varying 'mean level' established by the
where: former. The asymmetric flux ceases to increase when the
T = primary system time constant L/R exciting current is equal to the total asymmetric input current,
T1 = CT secondary circuit time constant Le/Rb since beyond this point the output current, and hence the
voltage drop across the burden resistance, is negative.
I1 = prospective peak secondary current Saturation makes the point of equality between the excitation
current and the input occur at a flux level lower than would be
6.4.10.2 Practical Conditions
expected from linear theory.
Practical conditions differ from theory for the following
reasons: When the exponential component drives the CT into
saturation, the magnetising inductance decreases, causing a
a. No account has been taken of secondary leakage or large increase in the alternating component ie.
burden inductance. This is usually small compared
with Le so has little effect on the maximum The total exciting current during the transient period is of the
transient flux. form shown in Figure 6.16 and the corresponding resultant
distortion in the secondary current output, due to saturation, is
b. Iron loss has not been considered. This has the
shown in Figure 6.17.
effect of reducing the secondary time constant, but
the value of the equivalent resistance is variable,
depending upon both the sine and exponential
terms. Consequently, it cannot be included in any
linear theory and is too complicated for a
satisfactory treatment to be evolved.
c. The theory is based upon a linear excitation
characteristic. This is only approximately true up to
the knee-point of the excitation curve. A precise
solution allowing for non-linearity is not practicable.
Solutions have been sought by replacing the
Time
excitation curve with several chords; a linear
analysis can then be made for the extent of each Figure 6.16: Typical exciting current of CT during transient asymmetric
input current
6.4.12 Test Windings

On-site conjunctive testing of current transformers and the
Current
apparatus that they energise is often required. It may be

difficult, however, to pass a suitable value of current through
the primary windings, because of the scale of such current and
in many cases because access to the primary conductors is
difficult. Additional windings can be provided to make such
tests easier and these windings are usually rated at 10A. The
test winding inevitably occupies appreciable space and the CT
Figure 6.17: Distortion in secondary current due to saturation
costs more. This should be weighed against the convenience
The presence of residual flux varies the starting point of the achieved and often the tests can be replaced by alternative
transient flux excursion on the excitation characteristic. procedures.
Remanence of like polarity to the transient reduces the value of
symmetric current of given time constant which the CT can 6.4.13 Use of IEEE Standard Current Transformers
transform without severe saturation. Conversely, reverse Most of this chapter has been based around IEC standards for
remanence greatly increases the ability of a CT to transform current transformers. Parts of the world preferring IEEE
transient current. specifications for CTs may require an easy method of
If the CT were the linear non-saturable device considered in converting requirements between the two. In reality, the
the analysis, the sine current would be transformed without fundamental technology and construction of the CTs remains
loss of accuracy. In practice the variation in excitation the same, however the knee-point voltage is specified in a
inductance caused by transferring the centre of the flux swing different way. IEC CT excitation curves are typically drawn on
to other points on the excitation curve causes an error that linear scales, whereas IEEE CT standards prefer to use log-log
may be very large. The effect on measurement is of little scales, defining the knee point as the excitation voltage at
consequence, but for protection equipment that is required to which the gradient of the curve is 45o. The voltage found by
function during fault conditions, the effect is more serious. The this definition is typically 5 to 10% different to the point on the
output current is reduced during transient saturation, which excitation curve found by the IEC definition, as in Figure 6.12.
may prevent the relays from operating if the conditions are An additional complication is that the IEC voltage is an e.m.f.,
near to the relay setting. This must not be confused with the which means that it is not an actual measurable voltage at the
increased r.m.s. value of the primary current due to the CT terminals. The e.m.f. is the internal voltage, compounded
asymmetric transient, a feature which sometimes offsets the by any voltage drop across the CT winding resistance. The
increase ratio error. In the case of balanced protection, during IEEE specifications relate to a terminal voltage, which is often
through faults the errors of the several current transformers referred to as a “C class” voltage rating. This means that a
may differ and produce an out-of-balance quantity, causing C200 rating CT has a knee voltage of 200V according to the
unwanted operation. IEEE definition of the knee point.
6.4.11 Harmonics During the Transient Period Assume that the IEC knee point voltage required in a
protection application is VkIEC. The IEEE C class standard
When a CT is required to develop a high secondary e.m.f.
voltage rating required is lower and the method of conversion
under steady state conditions, the non-linearity of the
is as follows:
excitation impedance causes some distortion of the output
waveform. In addition to the fundamental current, such a Vk IEC In u RCT u ALF
waveform contains odd harmonics only. Vc
1.05
However, when the CT is saturated unidirectionally while being where:
simultaneously subjected to a small a.c. quantity, as in the
transient condition discussed above, the output contains both Vc = IEEE C Class standard voltage rating
odd and even harmonics. Usually the lower numbered VkIEC = IEC Knee point voltage
harmonics are of greatest amplitude and the second and third
harmonic components may be of considerable value. This may In = CT rated current, usually always 5A for IEEE
affect relays that are sensitive to harmonics. RCT = CT secondary winding resistance
ALF = CT accuracy limit factor, always 20 for an IEEE CT.
6-15
The factor of 1.05 accounts for the differing points on the 6.5.1.1 Optical Sensor Concepts
excitation curve at which the two philosophy standards are Certain optical sensing media (glass, crystals, plastics) show a
defined. sensitivity to electric and magnetic fields and that some
properties of a probing light beam can be altered when
6.5 NON-CONVENTIONAL INSTRUMENT passing through them. A simple optical transducer description
TRANSFORMERS is shown in Figure 6.19.
The preceding types of instrument transformers have all been 'Odd' polariser
based on electromagnetic principles using a magnetic core. Input Output
polariser polariser
There are now available several new methods of transforming
Optical Optical
the measured quantity using optical and mass state methods. fibre fibre Sensing
light
In Out detector
6.5.1 Optical Instrument Transducers Light 45° 90°
source
Figure 6.18 shows the key features of a freestanding optical Optical
sensing Zero field
instrument transducer. 1.0 medium 1.0 level
0.5 0.5 +
HV
0 0
Bus t t
Reference Modulated
light input light input
Insulating intensity intensity
function Figure 6.19: Schematic representation of the concepts behind the
Sensing
Sensor optical sensing of varying electric and magnetic fields
function Instrument
E/O converter Transformer
+
If a beam of light passes through a pair of polarising filters,
Communication and if the input and output polarising filters have their axes
rotated 45q from each other, only half the light comes through.
The reference light input intensity is maintained constant over
Optical link
time. If these two polarising filters remain fixed and a third
(fibre optics)
Electronic polarising filter is placed in between them, a random rotation
interface Communication of this middle polariser either clockwise or anticlockwise is
+ monitored as a varying or modulated light output intensity at
O/E converter
the light detector.
Secondary When a block of optical sensing material (glass or crystal) is

output immersed in a varying magnetic or electric field, it plays the
role of the ‘odd’ polariser. Changes in the magnetic or electric
field in which the optical sensor is immersed are monitored as
Figure 6.18: Typical architecture using optical communication a varying intensity of the probing light beam at the light
between sensing unit and electronic interface detector. The light output intensity fluctuates around the zero-
Non-conventional optical transducers lend themselves to field level equal to 50% of the reference light input. This
smaller, lighter devices where the overall size and power rating modulation of the light intensity due to the presence of varying
of the unit does not have any significant bearing on the size fields is converted back to time-varying currents or voltages.
and the complexity of the sensor. Small, lightweight insulator
A transducer uses a magneto-optic effect sensor for optical
structures may be tailor-made to fit optical sensing devices as
current measuring applications. This reflects the fact that the
an integral part of the insulator. Additionally, the non-linear
sensor is not basically sensitive to a current but to the
effects and electromagnetic interference problems in the
magnetic field generated by this current. Solutions exist using
secondary wiring of conventional VTs and CTs are minimised.
both wrapped fibre optics and bulk glass sensors as the optical
Optical transducers can be separated in two families: firstly the sensing medium. However, most optical voltage transducers
hybrid transducers, making use of conventional electrical rely on an electro-optic effect sensor. This reflects the fact that
circuit techniques to which are coupled various optical the sensor used is sensitive to the imposed electric field.
converter systems, and secondly the ‘all-optical’ transducers
that are based on fundamental, optical sensing principles.
6.5.1.2 Hybrid Transducers A.C. line current

The hybrid family of non-conventional instrument transducers
can be divided in two types: those with active sensors and
those with passive sensors. The idea behind a transducer with Optical fibre
an active sensor is to change the existing output of the Magneto-optic sensor
conventional instrument transformer into an optically isolated Magnetic Optical fibre
output by adding an optical conversion system (Figure 6.19). field
This conversion system may require a power supply of its own:
this is the active sensor type. The use of an optical isolating (a) 'Free-field' type
system serves to de-couple the instrument transformer output
secondary voltages and currents from earthed or galvanic A.C. line current
links. Therefore the only link that remains between the
control-room and the switchyard is a fibre optic cable.
6.5.1.3 ‘All-optical’ Transducers

These instrument transformers are based entirely on optical Optical fibres
Magnetic field
materials and are fully passive. The sensing function is
achieved directly by the sensing material and a simple fibre Gapped Magneto-optic sensor
magnetic core
optic cable running between the base of the unit and the
sensor location provides the communication link. (b) 'Field-shaping' type
Figure 6.20: Optical current sensor based on the magnetic properties
The sensing element consists of an optical material that is of optical materials
positioned in the electric or magnetic field to be sensed. The
sensitive element of a current measuring device is either 'Floating'
electrode
located freely in the magnetic field (Figure 6.20(a)) or it can be
immersed in a field-shaping magnetic ‘gap’ (Figure 6.20(b)).
In the case of a voltage-sensing device (Figure 6.21) the same Electro-optic
alternatives exist, this time for elements that are sensitive to sensor
A.C. line
electric fields. Both sensors can be combined in a single voltage
Optical fibres
compact housing, providing both a CT and VT to save space in
a substation.
In all cases there is an optical fibre that channels the probing
Reference
reference light from a source into the medium and another electrode
fibre that channels the light back to the analysing circuitry. In
(a) 'Free-field' type
sharp contrast with a conventional free-standing instrument
transformer, the optical instrument transformer needs an
electronic interface module to function. Therefore its sensing Reference
electrode
principle (the optical material) is passive but its operational
integrity relies on a powered interface.
Light
A.C. line path
voltage Electro-optic
sensor
Reference
electrode Optical fibres
(b) 'Field shaping' type

Figure 6.21: Optical voltage sensor based on the electrical properties
of optical materials
6-17
Typically, current transducers take the shape of a closed loop

of light-transparent material, fitted around a straight
conductor carrying the line current (Figure 6.22). In this case
a bulk-glass sensor unit is depicted (Figure 6.22(a)), along
with a wrapped fibre sensor example, as shown in Figure
6.22(b) and Figure 6.23. Light detectors are very sensitive
devices and the sensing material can be selected to scale-up
readily for larger currents. However, ‘all-optical’ voltage
transducers are not ideally suited to extremely high line
voltages. Two concepts using a ‘full voltage’ sensor are shown
in Figure 6.24.
AC line current Figure 6.23: Alstom COSI-NXCT F3 flexible optical current transformer
AC line current
in a portable substation application
Bulk glass Light in
sensing
element
Light in
Optical fibres Fibre Light out
Light out sensing element
Conductor
(a) Glass sensor approach (b) 'All-fibre' sensor concept
Electro-optic sensor
(Bulk-glass transducer)
Dome
Electro-optic sensor
('All-fibre' transducer)
AC H1 H2
line
current (a) 'Live tank' (b) 'Dead tank'
Figure 6.24: Optical voltage transducer concepts, using a ‘full-voltage’
Fibre optic Liquid /solid/ gaseous
sensor
cable conduit internal insulation
Insulator
column
Fibre junction box
Sensor #1 Fibre
optic
Sensor #2 cables
Figure 6.22: Conceptual design of a double-sensor optical CT
Figure 6.26 Cross section of an Alstom CTO 72.5kV to 765kV current

transformer with an optical sensor
6.5.2 Other Sensing Systems

Figure 6.25: Installation of a CT with an optical sensor
There are several other sensing systems that can be used, as
described in the following sections.
6.5.2.1 Zero-flux (Hall Effect) Current Transformer

In this case the sensing element is a semi-conducting wafer
that is placed in the gap of a magnetic concentrating ring.
This type of transformer is also sensitive to d.c. currents. The
transformer requires a power supply that is fed from the line or
from a separate power supply. The sensing current is typically
0.1% of the current to be measured. In its simplest shape, the
Hall effect voltage is directly proportional to the magnetising
current to be measured. For more accurate and more sensitive
applications, the sensing current is fed through a secondary,
multiple-turn winding, placed around the magnetic ring to
balance out the gap magnetic field. This zero-flux or null-flux
version allows very accurate current measurements in both
d.c. and high-frequency applications. A schematic
representation of the sensing part is shown in Figure 6.27.
6-19
Magnetic concentrator Air core

toroidal coil
(gapped magnetic core)
Electrical to optical
converter
i Optical
fibres
V
i Current carrying
conductor
Sensing current Figure 6.29: Schematic representation of a Rogowski coil, used for
Sensing element current sensing
Figure 6.27: Conceptual design of a Hall-effect current sensing
element fitted in a field-shaping gap
6.5.2.2 Hybrid Magnetic-Optical Sensor

This type of transformer is mostly used in applications such as
series capacitive compensation of long transmission lines,
where a non-grounded measurement of current is required. In
this case, several current sensors are required on each phase
to achieve capacitor surge protection and balance. The
preferred solution is to use small toroidally wound magnetic
core transformers connected to fibre optic isolating systems.
These sensors are usually active sensors because the isolated
systems require a power supply. This is shown in Figure 6.28.
Electrical to optical
converter/transmitter
Burden
Optical
fibres
Current transformer
Figure 6.28: Design principle of a hybrid magnetic current transformer
fitted with an optical transmitter
6.5.2.3 Rogowski Coils

The Rogowski coil is based on the principle of an air-cored
current transformer with a very high load impedance. The
secondary winding is wound on a toroid of insulation material.
In most cases the Rogowski coil is connected to an amplifier,
to deliver sufficient power to the connected measuring or
protection equipment and to match the input impedance of
this equipment. The Rogowski coil requires integration of the
magnetic field and therefore has a time and phase delay while
the integration is completed. This can be corrected for in a
digital protection relay. The schematic representation of the
Rogowski coil sensor is shown in Figure 6.29.
6-21
Chapter 7
Relay Technology

7.2 Electromechanical Relays
This chapter describes how relay technology has changed. The
7.3 Static Relays electromechanical relay in all of its different forms has been
7.4 Digital Relays replaced successively by static, digital and numerical relays,
7.5 Numerical Relays each change bringing with it reductions in size and
7.6 Additional Features of Numerical Relays improvements in functionality. Reliability levels have also been
7.7 Numerical Relay Considerations maintained or even improved and availability significantly
increased due to techniques not available with older relay
types. This represents a tremendous achievement for all those
involved in relay design and manufacture.
This book concentrates on modern digital and numerical
protection relay technology, although the vast number of
electromechanical and static relays are still giving dependable
service.
7.2 ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS

These relays were the earliest forms of relay used for the
protection of power systems, and they date back around 100
years. They work on the principle of a mechanical force
operating a relay contact in response to a stimulus. The
mechanical force is generated through current flow in one or
more windings on a magnetic core or cores, hence the term
electromechanical relay. The main advantage of such relays is
that they provide galvanic isolation between the inputs and
outputs in a simple, cheap and reliable form. Therefore these
relays are still used for simple on/off switching functions where
the output contacts carry substantial currents.
Electromechanical relays can be classified into several different
types as follows:
x attracted armature
x moving coil
x induction
x thermal
x motor operated
x mechanical
However, only attracted armature types presently have
significant applications while all other types have been
superseded by more modern equivalents.
7-1
operating time of as little as 1ms. Operating power is typically

7.2.1 Attracted Armature Relays
0.05-0.2 watts, but could be as large as 80 watts for a relay
These generally consist of an iron-cored electromagnet that with several heavy-duty contacts and a high degree of
attracts a hinged armature when energised. A restoring force resistance to mechanical shock.
is provided by a spring or gravity so that the armature returns
to its original position when the electromagnet is de-energised. Some applications need a polarised relay. This is a permanent
Typical forms of an attracted armature relay are shown in magnet added to the basic electromagnet. Both self-reset and
Figure 7.1. Movement of the armature opens or closes a bistable forms can be made using the basic construction
contact. The armature either carries a moving contact that shown in Figure 7.2. An example of its use is to provide very
engages with a fixed one or causes a rod to move that brings fast operating times for a single contact, with speeds of less
two contacts together. It is easy to mount multiple contacts in than 1msec. Figure 7.3 shows a typical attracted armature
rows or stacks, causing a single input to actuate several relay.
outputs. The contacts can be robust and therefore able to
make, carry and break large currents under difficult conditions
such as highly inductive circuits. This is still a significant
advantage of this type of relay that ensures its continued use.
(a) D.C. relay (c) Solenoid relay
Figure 7.2: Typical polarised relay

(b) Shading loop modification to pole of
(d) Reed relay
relay (a) for a.c. operation
Figure 7.1: Typical attracted armature relays
The energising quantity can be either an a.c. or a d.c. current.
If an a.c. current is used, there is chatter due to the flux
passing through zero every half cycle. A common solution is to
split the magnetic pole and provide a copper loop around one
half. The flux is then phase-shifted in that pole so the total flux
is never equal to zero. Conversely, for relays energised using a
d.c. current, remanent flux may prevent the relay from
releasing when the actuating current is removed. This can be
avoided by preventing the armature from contacting the
electromagnet by a non-magnetic stop, or constructing the
electromagnet using a material with very low remanent flux
properties.
Operating speed, power consumption and the number and
type of contacts required are a function of the design. The
typical attracted armature relay has an operating speed of
between 100ms and 400ms, but reed relays (whose use Figure 7.3: Attracted armature relay in manufacture
spanned a relatively short period in the history of protection
relays) with light current contacts can be designed to have an
Chapter 7  Relay Technology
7.3 STATIC RELAYS

The term ‘static’ implies that the relay has no moving parts.
This is not strictly the case for a static relay, as the output
contacts are still generally attracted armature relays. In a
protection relay, the term ‘static’ refers to the absence of
moving parts to create the relay characteristic.
Introduction of static relays began in the early 1960s. Their
design is based on the use of analogue electronic devices
instead of coils and magnets to create the relay characteristic.
Early versions used discrete devices such as transistors and
diodes with resistors, capacitors and inductors. However,
advances in electronics enabled the use of linear and digital
integrated circuits in later versions for signal processing and
implementation of logic functions. Although basic circuits
were common to several relays, each protection function had Figure 7.4: Busbar supervision static relay
its own case, so complex functions required several cases of
interconnected hardware. User programming was restricted to 7.4 DIGITAL RELAYS
the basic functions of adjustment of relay characteristic curves. Digital protection relays introduced a step change in
Therefore they can be considered as an analogue electronic technology. Microprocessors and microcontrollers replaced
replacement for electromechanical relays, with some additional analogue circuits used in static relays to implement relay
flexibility in settings and some saving in space requirements. functions. Early examples were introduced around 1980 and
In some cases, relay burden is reduced, reducing CT/VT output with improvements in processing capacity are still current
requirements. technology for many relay applications. However, such
Several design problems had to be solved with static relays, technology could be completely superseded by numerical
such as a reliable d.c. power source and measures to prevent relays.
damage to vulnerable electronic circuits. Substation Compared to static relays, digital relays use analogue to digital
environments are particularly hostile to electronic circuits due conversion of all measured quantities and use a
to electrical interference of various forms that are commonly microprocessor to implement the protection algorithm. The
found, such as switching operations and the effect of faults. microprocessor may use a counting technique or use Discrete
Although the d.c. supply can be generated from the measured Fourier Transforms (DFT) to implement the algorithm.
quantities of the relay, this has the disadvantage of increasing However, these microprocessors have limited processing
the burden on the CTs or VTs, and there is a minimum primary capacity and associated memory compared to numerical
current or voltage below which the relay will not operate. This relays. Therefore the functionality is limited mainly to the
directly affects the possible sensitivity of the relay. So provision protection function itself. Compared to an electromechanical
of an independent, highly reliable and secure source of relay or static relay, digital relays have a wider range of settings,
power supply was an important consideration. greater accuracy and a communications link to a remote
To prevent maloperation or destruction of electronic devices computer. Figure 7.5 shows a typical digital relay.
during faults or switching operations, sensitive circuitry is Digital relays typically use 8 or 16-bit microprocessors that
housed in a shielded case to exclude common mode and were later used in modems, hard disk controllers or early car
radiated interference. The devices are also sensitive to engine management systems. The limited power of the
electrostatic discharge (ESD), requiring special precautions microprocessors used in digital relays restricts the number of
during handling. ESD damage may not be immediately samples of the waveform that can be measured per cycle. This
apparent but may cause premature failure of the relay. limits the speed of operation of the relay in certain
Therefore, radically different relay manufacturing facilities are applications. Therefore a digital relay for a particular
required compared to electromechanical relays. Calibration protection function may have a longer operation time than the
and repair is no longer a task performed in the field without static relay equivalent. However, the extra time is insignificant
specialised equipment. Figure 7.4 shows a typical static relay. compared to overall tripping time and possible effects on
power system stability.
7-3
Figure 7.7: First generation distribution numerical relay

Figure 7.5: Second generation distribution digital relay (1982)
The continuing reduction in the cost and size of
7.5 NUMERICAL RELAYS microprocessors, memory and I/O circuitry leads to a single
The distinction between digital and numerical relays is item of hardware for a range of functions. For faster real time
particular to Protection. Numerical relays are natural processing and more detailed analysis of waveforms, several
developments of digital relays due to advances in technology. DSPs can be run in parallel. Many functions previously
They use one or more digital signal processors (DSP) optimised implemented in separate items of hardware can then be
for real time signal processing, running the mathematical included in a single item. Table 7.1 provides a list of typical
algorithms for the protection functions. functions available, while Table 7.2 summarises the
advantages of a modern numerical relay over static relay
equivalents.
Figure 7.6, Figure 7.7 and Figure 7.8 show typical numerical
relays, while Figure 7.9 and Figure 7.10 show typical
numerical relay boards.
Figure 7.6: First generation transmission numerical relay (1986)
Figure 7.8: Typical modern numerical relay
Chapter 7 Relay Technology
Distance Protection- several schemes including user definable

Overcurrent Protection (directional/non-directional)
Several Setting Groups for protection values
Switch-on-to-Fault Protection
Power Swing Blocking
Voltage Transformer Supervision
Negative Sequence Current Protection
Undervoltage Protection
Overvoltage Protection
Figure 7.9: Numerical relay processor board CB Fail Protection
Fault Location
CT Supervision
VT Supervision
Check Synchronisation
Autoreclose
CB Condition Monitoring
CB State Monitoring
User-Definable Logic
Broken Conductor Detection
Measurement of Power System Quantities (Current, Voltage, etc.)
Fault/Event/Disturbance recorder
Table 7.1: Numerical distance relay features
Figure 7.10: Numerical relay redundant Ethernet board Several setting groups
Wider range of parameter adjustment
A numerical relay has the functionality that previously required
several discrete relays, therefore the relay functions such as Communications built in (serial, Ethernet, teleprotection, etc.)
overcurrent or earth fault are referred to as ‘relay elements’. Internal Fault diagnosis
Each relay element is in software so with modular hardware Power system measurements available
the main signal processor can run a vast variety of relay Distance to fault locator
elements. Disturbance recorder
The argument against putting many features into one piece of Auxiliary protection functions (broken conductor, negative sequence, etc.)
hardware centres on the issues of reliability and availability. A CB monitoring (state, condition)
failure of a numerical relay may cause many more functions to User-definable logic
be lost, compared to applications where different functions are Backup protection functions in-built
implemented by separate hardware items. Comparison of Consistency of operation times - reduced grading margin
reliability and availability between the two methods is complex Table 7.2: Advantages of numerical relays over static relays
as inter-dependency of elements of an application provided by
separate relay elements needs to be taken into account. 7.5.1 Hardware Architecture
With the experience gained with static and digital relays, most The typical architecture of a numerical relay is shown in Figure
hardware failure mechanisms are now well understood and 7.11. It consists of one or more DSPs, some memory, digital
suitable precautions taken at the design stage. Software and analogue input/output (I/O), and a power supply. Where
problems are minimised by rigorous use of software design multiple processors are used, one of them is a general
techniques, extensive prototype testing (see Chapter 21) and controller of the I/O, Human Machine Interface (HMI) and
the ability to download updated software. Practical experience any associated logic while the others are dedicated to the
indicates that numerical relays are as reliable as relays of protection relay algorithms. By organising the I/O on a set of
earlier technologies. Modern numerical relays will have plug-in printed circuit boards (PCBs), additional I/O up to the
comprehensive self monitoring to alert the user to any limits of the hardware/software can be easily added. The
problems. internal communications bus links the hardware and therefore
7-5
is a critical component in the design. It must work at high The frequency of sampling must be carefully considered, as the
speed, use low voltages, yet be immune to conducted and Nyquist criterion applies:
radiated interference from the electrically noisy substation
environment. Excellent shielding of the relevant areas is
fs t 2 fh
therefore required. Digital inputs are optically isolated to where:
prevent transients being transmitted to the internal circuitry.
Analogue inputs are isolated using precision transformers to f s = sampling rate
maintain measurement accuracy while removing harmful
f h = highest frequency of interest
transients. Additionally, the input signals must be amplitude
limited to avoid them exceeding the measurement range, +Vref
otherwise the waveform is clipped, introducing harmonics.
See Figure 7.12. Vref
SRAM SRAM Flash memory Vin Vout

Alarm, event, fault Executable code & Default settings &
disturbance & data, setting database paramaters, language text, Vref
maintenance records data code, present settings
-Vref
Main processor
board
Front LCD display CPU
Figure 7.12: Clipping due to excessive amplitude
IRIG-B FPGA If the sampling frequency is too low, aliasing of the input
Signal Comms between main
IRIG-B
and coprocessor board signal can occur (see Figure 7.13) so that high frequencies can
Parallel Data Bus
Ethernet
comms CPU SRAM 1pps
appear as part of the signal in the frequency range of interest.
Ethernet
GPS Incorrect results are then obtained. The solution is to use an
Serial data link
GPS input
Ethernet and IRIG-B board
interface anti-aliasing filter and the correct sampling frequency on the
Coprocessor board analogue signal, filtering out the frequency components that
Output relay
could cause aliasing. Digital sine and cosine filters (Figure

contacts
Output
Digital inputs
relays
Opto- 7.12) extract the real and imaginary components of the signal;
inputs
Relay board the frequency response of the filters is shown in Figure 7.13.
ADC
Power supply Input board
Frequency tracking of the input signals is applied to adjust the
Rear comms data Analogue sampling frequency so that the desired number of
Input signals
samples/cycle is always obtained. A modern numerical relay
Power Supply Board Transformer Board
can sample each analogue input quantity at typically between
Power Watchdog Rear
24 and 80 samples per cycle.
Current and voltage inputs
supply contacts RS485
comms
Actual
Figure 7.11: Typical numerical relay hardware architecture signal
Analogue signals are converted to digital form using an A/D

converter. The cheapest method is to use a single A/D
converter, preceded by a multiplexer to connect each of the
input signals in turn to the converter. The signals may be Apparent
signal
initially input to several simultaneous sample-and–hold
circuits before multiplexing, or the time relationship between
successive samples must be known if the phase relationship Sample points
between signals is important. The alternative is to provide Figure 7.13: Signal aliasing problem
each input with a dedicated A/D converter and logic to ensure
that all converters perform the measurement simultaneously.
7.5.2 Relay Operating System Software

The software provided is commonly organised into a series of
tasks operating in real time. An essential component is the
Real Time Operating System (RTOS) which ensures that the
other tasks are executed when required, in the correct priority.
Other software depends on the function of the relay, but can
be generalised as follows:
x system services software – this is comparable with the
BIOS of an ordinary PC and controls the low-level I/O
for the relay such as drivers for the relay hardware and
2 x1 x x x ½
xs ®0 x 2 3 0 5 x6 7 ¾ boot-up sequence.
8¯ 2 2 2 2¿
x HMI interface software – this is the high level software
for communicating with a user on the front panel
controls or through a data link to another computer to
store data such as settings or event records.
x application software – this is the software that defines
the protection function of the relay
x auxiliary functions – software to implement other
features in the relay, often structured as a series of
modules to reflect the options offered by the
manufacturer.
7.5.3 Relay Application Software

2 x1 x x x ½
xc ®x0 0 3 x4 5 0 7 ¾ The relevant software algorithm is then applied. Firstly the
8¯ 2 2 2 2¿
quantities of interest are determined from the information in
the data samples. This is often done using a Discrete Fourier
Figure 7.14: Sine and cosine filters (simple 8 sample per cycle Transform (DFT) and the result is magnitude and phase
example) information for the selected quantity. This calculation is
repeated for all of the quantities of interest. The quantities can
then be compared with the relay characteristic, and a decision
made in terms of the following:
x value above setting – start timers, etc.
x timer expired – action alarm/trip
x value returned below setting – reset timers, etc.
x value below setting – do nothing
x value still above setting – increment timer, etc.
Since the overall cycle time for the software is known, timers
are generally implemented as counters.
Figure 7.15: Filter frequency response

All subsequent signal processing is carried out in software. The
final digital outputs use relays to provide isolation or are sent
through an external communications bus to other devices.
7-7
7.6.2 VT/CT Supervision

7.6 ADDITIONAL FEATURES OF NUMERICAL
RELAYS If suitable VTs are used, supervision of the VT/CT supplies can
be made available. VT supervision is made more complicated
The DSP in a numerical relay normally can handle both the
by the different conditions under which there may be no VT
relay protection function calculations and general
signal, some of which indicate VT failure and some occur
management of the relay such as HMI and I/O. However, if
because a power system fault has occurred. If only one or two
the DSP is overloaded it cannot complete the protection
phases are lost, the VT failure algorithm can be accomplished
algorithm calculations in the required time and the protection
by detecting residual voltage without the presence of zero or
function is slowed.
negative phase sequence current. For loss of all three phases,
Typical functions that may be found in a numerical relay other a fault in the system would be accompanied by a change in the
than protection functions are described in this section. Note phase currents, so absence of such a change can be taken as
that not all functions are found in a particular relay. As with loss of the VT signal. However, this technique fails when
earlier generations of relays and according to market closing onto a dead but healthy line, so a level detector is also
segmentation, manufacturers offer different versions, each required to distinguish between current inrush due to line
with a different set of functions. Function parameters are charging and that due to a fault.
usually displayed on the front panel of the relay and through
CT supervision is carried out more easily. The general principle
an external communications port.
is the calculation of a level of negative sequence current that is
inconsistent with the calculated value of negative sequence
7.6.1 Measured Values Display voltage.
This is perhaps the most obvious and simple function to
implement, as it involves the least additional processor time. 7.6.3 CB Control/State Indication /Condition
The values that the relay must measure to perform its Monitoring
protection function have already been acquired and processed.
System operators normally require knowledge of the state of all
It is therefore a simple task to display them on the front panel,
circuit breakers under their control. The CB position-switch
or transmit them to a remote computer or HMI station.
outputs can be connected to the relay digital inputs and
Several extra quantities may be derived from the measured
therefore provide the indication of state through the
quantities, depending on the input signals available. These
communications bus to a remote control centre.
might include:
Circuit breakers also require periodic maintenance of their
x sequence quantities (positive, negative, zero)
operating mechanisms and contacts to ensure they operate
x power, reactive power and power factor when required and that the fault capacity is not affected
x energy (kWh, kVArh) adversely. The requirement for maintenance is a function of
x max. demand in a period ( kW, kVAr; average and peak the number of trip operations, the cumulative current broken
values) and the type of breaker. A numerical relay can record all of
these parameters and hence be configured to send an alarm
x harmonic quantities
when maintenance is due. If maintenance is not carried out
x frequency within a predefined time or number of trips after maintenance
x temperatures/RTD status is required, the CB can be arranged to trip and lockout or
x motor start information (start time, total no. of inhibit certain functions such as auto-reclose.
starts/reaccelerations, total running time Finally, as well as tripping the CB as required under fault
x distance to fault conditions, it can also be arranged for a digital output to be
The accuracy of the measured values can only be as good as used for CB closure, so that separate CB close control circuits
the accuracy of the transducers used such as VTs CTs, and the can be eliminated.
A/D converter. As CTs and VTs for protection functions may
have a different accuracy specification to those for metering 7.6.4 Disturbance Recorder (Oscillograph)
functions, such data may not be sufficiently accurate for tariff The relay memory requires a certain minimum number of
purposes. However, it is sufficiently accurate for an operator cycles of measured data to be stored for correct signal
to assess system conditions and make appropriate decisions. processing and detection of events. The memory can easily be
expanded to allow storage of a greater time period of input
data, both analogue and digital, plus the state of the relay operational reasons on a regular basis, such as supply from
outputs. It then has the capability to act as a disturbance normal or emergency generation. Different configurations may
recorder for the circuit being monitored, so that by freezing the require different relay settings to maintain the desired level of
memory at the instant of fault detection or trip, a record of the network protection. Fault levels are significantly different on
disturbance is available for later download and analysis. It parts of the network that are energised under normal and
may be inconvenient to download the record immediately, so emergency generation.
facilities may be provided to capture and store a number of
This problem can be overcome by the provision within the relay
disturbances. In industrial and small distribution networks,
of several setting groups, only one of which is in use at any one
this may be all that is required. In transmission networks, it
time. Changeover between groups can be achieved from a
may be necessary to provide a single recorder to monitor
remote command from the operator, or possibly through the
several circuits simultaneously, and in this case, a separate
programmable logic system. This may obviate the need for
disturbance recorder is still required. For more information on
duplicate relays to be fitted with some form of switching
the different types of disturbance recording, see Chapter 22.
arrangement of the inputs and outputs depending on network
configuration. Also the operator can program the relay
7.6.5 Time Synchronisation
remotely with a group of settings if required.
Disturbance records and data relating to energy consumption
requires time tagging to serve any useful purpose. Although 7.6.8 Conclusions
there is an internal clock, this is of limited accuracy and use of
The extra facilities in numerical relays may avoid the need for
this clock to provide time information may cause problems if
other measurement and control devices to be fitted in a
the disturbance record has to be correlated with similar records
substation. Also numerical relays have functionality that
from other sources to obtain a complete picture of an event.
previously required separate equipment. The protection relay
Many numerical relays have the facility for time
no longer performs a basic protection function but is an
synchronisation from an external clock. The standard normally
integral and major part of a substation automation scheme.
used is an IRIG-B or IEEE 1588 signal, which may be derived
The choice of a protection relay rather than some other device
from several sources including a GPS satellite receiver.
is logical as the protection relay is probably the only device that
is virtually mandatory on circuits of any significant rating.
7.6.6 Programmable Logic
Therefore the functions previously carried out by separate
Logic functions are well suited to implementation using devices such as bay controllers, discrete metering transducers
microprocessors. The implementation of logic in a relay is not and similar devices are now found in a protection relay. It is
new, as functions such as intertripping and auto-reclose now possible to implement a substation automation scheme
require a certain amount of logic. However, by providing a using numerical relays as the main hardware provided at bay
substantial number of digital I/O and making the logic capable level. As the power of microprocessors continues to grow and
of being programmed using suitable off-line software, the pressure on operators to reduce costs continues, this trend will
functionality of such schemes can be enhanced or additional continue; one obvious development is the provision of RTU
features provided. For instance, an overcurrent relay at the facilities in designated relays that act as local concentrators of
receiving end of a transformer feeder could use the information within the overall network automation scheme.
temperature inputs provided to monitor transformer winding
temperature and provide alarm or trip facilities to the operator 7.7 NUMERICAL RELAY CONSIDERATIONS
or upstream relay, eliminating the need for a separate winding
The introduction of numerical relays replaces some of the
temperature relay. There may be other advantages such as
issues of previous generations of relays with new ones. Some
different logic schemes required by different utilities that no
of the new issues that must be addressed are as follows:
longer need separate relay versions, or some hard-wired logic
to implement, and all of these reduce the cost of manufacture. x software version control
It is also easier to customise a relay for a specific application, x relay data management
and eliminate other devices that would otherwise be required.
x testing and commissioning
7.6.7 Provision of Setting Groups
Historically, electromechanical and static relays have been
provided with fixed plug settings applied to the relay.
Unfortunately, power systems change their topology due to
7-9
7.7.3 Relay Testing and Commissioning

7.7.1 Software Version Control
Numerical relays perform many more functions than earlier
Numerical relays perform their functions in software. The generations of relays so testing them is more complex. Site
process used for software generation is no different in principle commissioning is usually restricted to running the in-built
to that for any other device using real-time software, and software self-check, verifying that currents and voltages
includes the difficulties of developing code that is error-free. measured by the relay are correct, and exercising a subset of
Manufacturers must therefore pay particular attention to the the protection functions. Any problems revealed by such tests
methodology used for software generation and testing to require specialist equipment to resolve so it is simpler to
ensure that as far as possible, the code contains no errors. replace a faulty relay and send it for repair.
If a manufacturer advances the functionality available in a new
software version of a relay, or where problems are discovered
in software after the release of a numerical relay, a field
upgrade may be desirable. This process then requires a
rigorous system of software version control to keep track of:
x the different software versions in existence
x the differences between each version
x the reasons for the change
x relays fitted with each of the versions
With an effective version control system, manufacturers are
able to advise users in the event of reported problems if the
problem is a known software related problem and what Figure 7.16: Quality inspection of a numerical relay printed circuit
remedial action is required. With the aid of suitable software board
held by a user, it may be possible to download the new
software version instead of requiring a visit from a service
engineer.
7.7.2 Relay Data Management

A numerical relay usually provides many more features than a
relay using static or electromechanical technology. To use
these features, the appropriate data must be entered into the
relay’s memory and it is good practice to keep a backup copy.
The amount of data per numerical relay may be 10-100 times
that of an equivalent electromechanical relay, to which must
be added the possibility of user-defined logic functions. The
task of entering the data correctly into a numerical relay
becomes a much more complex task than previously, which
adds to the possibility of a mistake being made. Similarly, the
amount of data that must be recorded is much larger,
requiring larger storage.
The problems have been addressed with software to automate
the preparation and download of relay setting data from a
laptop PC connected to a communications port of the relay.
As part of the process, the setting data can be read back from
the relay and compared with the desired settings to ensure
that the download has been error-free. A copy of the setting
data (including user-defined logic schemes where used) can
also be stored on the computer. These can then be printed or
uploaded to the user’s database facilities.
7-11
Chapter 8
Protection Signalling and Intertripping

8.2 Unit Protection Schemes
Unit protection schemes can be formed by several relays
8.3 Teleprotection Commands located remotely from each other and some distance
8.4 Performance Requirements protectionn schemes. Such unit protection schemes need
8.5 Transmission Media, Interference and Noise communication between each location to achieve a unit
8.6 Signalling Methods protection function. This communication is known as
protection signalling. Communications facilities are also
needed when remote circuit breakers need to be operated due
to a local event. This communication is known as
intertripping.
The communication messages involved may be quite simple,
involving instructions for the receiving device to take some
defined action (trip, block, etc.), or it may be the passing of
measured data in some form from one device to another (as in
a unit protection scheme).
Various types of communication links are available for
protection signalling, for example:
x private pilot wires installed by the utility
x pilot wires or channels rented from a communications
company
x carrier channels at high frequencies over the power
lines
x radio channels at very high or ultra high frequencies
x optical fibres
Whether or not a particular link is used depends on factors
such as the availability of an appropriate communication
network, the distance between protection relaying points, the
terrain over which the power network is constructed, as well
as cost.
Protection signalling is used to implement unit protection
schemes, provide teleprotection commands, or implement
intertripping between circuit breakers.
8.2 UNIT PROTECTION SCHEMES

Phase comparison and current differential schemes use
signalling to convey information concerning the relaying
quantity - phase angle of current and phase and magnitude of
current respectively - between local and remote relaying
points. Comparison of local and remote signals provides the
basis for both fault detection and discrimination of the
schemes.
8-1
Figure 8.1: Application of protection signalling and its relationship to other systems using communication. (Shown as a unidirectional system for
simplicity)
Details of Unit Protection schemes are given in Chapter 10. x feeder protection applied to transformer–feeder circuits.
Communications methods are covered later in this Chapter. Faults on the transformer windings may operate the
transformer protection but not the feeder protection.
8.3 TELEPROTECTION COMMANDS Similarly, some earth faults may not be detected due to
Some Distance Protection schemes described in Chapter 12 transformer connections
use signalling to convey a command between local and remote x faults between the CB and feeder protection CTs, when
relaying points. Receipt of the information is used to aid or these are located on the feeder side of the CB. Bus-
speed up clearance of faults within a protected zone or to zone protection does not result in fault clearance – the
prevent tripping from faults outside a protected zone. fault is still fed from the remote end of the feeder, while
Teleprotection systems are often referred to by their mode of feeder unit protection may not operate as the fault is
operation, or the role of the teleprotection command in the outside the protected zone
system. x Some distance protection schemes use intertripping to
improve fault clearance times for particular kinds of
8.3.1 Intertripping fault – see Chapters 12/13
Intertripping is the controlled tripping of a circuit breaker to Intertripping schemes use signalling to convey a trip command
complete the isolation of a circuit or piece of apparatus in to remote circuit breakers to isolate circuits. For high reliability
sympathy with the tripping of other circuit breakers. The main EHV protection schemes, intertripping can be used to provide
use of such schemes is to ensure that protection at both ends back-up to main protection, or back-tripping in the case of
of a faulted circuit isolates the equipment concerned. Possible breaker failure. Three types of intertripping are commonly
circumstances when it may be used are: encountered, as described in the following sections.
x a feeder with a weak infeed at one end, insufficient to
operate the protection for all faults
Chapter 8 Protection Signalling and Intertripping
8.3.2 Direct Tripping High security means that an intertrip command does not
In direct tripping applications, intertrip signals are sent directly spuriously pick up due to a noisy channel. High dependability
to the master trip relay. Receipt of the command causes is the means by which a blocking or permissive command may
circuit breaker operation. The method of communication must easily pass through noise and still be received at the remote
be reliable and secure because any signal detected at the line end.
receiving end causes a trip of the circuit at that end. The Figure 8.1 shows the typical applications of protection
communications system must be designed so that interference signalling and their relationship to other signalling systems
on the communication circuit does not cause spurious trips. If commonly required for control and management of a power
a spurious trip occurs, the primary system might be system. Of course, not all of the protection signals shown are
unnecessarily isolated. required in any particular scheme.
8.3.3 Permissive Tripping 8.4 PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS

Permissive trip commands are always monitored by a Overall fault clearance time is the sum of:
protection relay. The circuit breaker is tripped when receipt of
x signalling time
the command coincides with a ‘start’ condition being detected
by the protection relay at the receiving end responding to a x protection relay operating time
system fault. Requirements for the communications channel x trip relay operating time
are less onerous than for direct tripping schemes, since receipt x circuit breaker operating time
of an incorrect signal must coincide with a ‘start’ of the
receiving end protection for a trip operation to take place. The The overall time must be less than the maximum time for
intention of these schemes is to speed up tripping for faults which a fault can remain on the system for minimum plant
occurring within the protected zone. damage, loss of stability, etc. Fast operation is therefore a pre-
requisite of most signalling systems.
8.3.4 Blocking Scheme Typically the time allowed for the transfer of a command is of
Blocking commands are initiated by a protection element that the same order as the operating time of the associated
detects faults external to the protected zone. Detection of an protection relays. Nominal operating times range from 4 to
external fault at the local end of a protected circuit results in a 40ms dependent on the mode of operation of the
blocking signal being transmitted to the remote end. At the teleprotection system.
remote end, receipt of the blocking signal prevents the remote
Protection signals are subjected to the noise and interference
end protection operating if it had detected the external fault.
associated with each communication medium. If noise
Loss of the communications channel is less serious for this
reproduces the signal used to convey the command, unwanted
scheme than in others as loss of the channel does not result in
commands may be produced, whilst if noise occurs when a
a failure to trip when required. However, the risk of a spurious
command signal is being transmitted, the command may be
trip is higher.
retarded or missed completely. Performance is expressed in
Figure 8.2 shows the typical trade-off triangle that applies terms of security, dependability and speed. Security is
when determining the required performance for teleprotection. assessed by the probability of an unwanted command
occurring, and dependability is assessed by the probability of
missing a command.
Poor security is indicated by a high probability of an unwanted
command being received (Puc), therefore a lower Puc figure is
generally preferable. Poor dependability is indicated by a high
probability of a missing command (Pmc). Generally a lower
Pmc figure is also preferable.
The required degree of security and dependability is related to
the mode of operation, the characteristics of the
communication medium and the operating standards of the
particular utility.
Typical design objectives for teleprotection systems are not
Figure 8.2: Teleprotection performance trade-off triangle
8-3
more than one incorrect trip per 500 equipment years and less greatly increases the number of communication channels
than one failure to trip in every 1000 attempts, or a delay of available for each physical fibre connection and thus enables
more than 50msec should not occur more than once per 10 more comprehensive monitoring of the power system to be
equipment years. To achieve these objectives, special achieved by the provision of a large number of communication
emphasis may be attached to the security and dependability of channels.
the teleprotection command for each mode of operation in the
system, as follows. 8.5.1 Private Pilot Wires and Channels
Pilot wires are continuous copper connections between
8.4.1 Performance Requirements – Intertripping signalling stations, while pilot channels are discontinuous pilot
Since any unwanted command causes incorrect tripping, very wires with isolation transformers or repeaters along the route
high security is required at all noise levels up to the maximum between signalling stations. They may be laid in a trench with
that might ever be encountered. high voltage cables, laid by a separate route or strung as an
open wire on a separate wood pole route.
8.4.2 Performance Requirements – Permissive
Distances over which signalling is required vary considerably.
Tripping At one end of the scale, the distance may be only a few tens of
Security somewhat lower than that required for intertripping is metres, where the devices concerned are located in the same
usually satisfactory, since incorrect tripping can occur only if substation. For applications on EHV lines, the distance
an unwanted command happens to coincide with operation of between devices may be between 10-100km or more. For
the protection relay for an out-of-zone fault. short distances, no special measures are required against
interference, but over longer distances, special send and
For permissive over-reach schemes, resetting after a
command should be highly dependable to avoid any chance of receive relays may be required to boost signal levels and
provide immunity against induced voltages from power
maloperations during current reversals.
circuits, lightning strikes to ground adjacent to the route, etc.
8.4.3 Performance Requirements – Blocking Schemes Isolation transformers may also have to be provided to guard
against rises in substation ground potential due to earth faults.
Low security is usually adequate since an unwanted command
can never cause an incorrect trip. High dependability is The capacity of a link can be increased if multiplexing
required since absence of the command could cause incorrect techniques are used to run parallel signalling systems but
tripping if the protection relay operates for an out-of-zone some utilities prefer the link to be used only for protection
fault. signalling.
Private pilot wires or channels can be attractive to a utility
8.5 TRANSMISSION MEDIA, INTERFERENCE running a very dense power system with short distances
AND NOISE between stations.
The transmission media that provide the communication links
involved in protection signalling are: 8.5.2 Rented Pilot Wires and Channels
x private pilots These are rented from national communication authorities
and, apart from the connection from the relaying point to the
x rented pilots or channels nearest telephone exchange, the routing is through cables
x power line carrier forming part of the national communication network.
x radio An economic decision has to be made between the use of
x optical fibres private or rented pilots. If private pilots are used, the owner
has complete control, but bears the cost of installation and
Historically, pilot wires and channels (discontinuous pilot wires
maintenance. If rented pilots are used, most of these costs are
with isolation transformers or repeaters along the route
eliminated, but fees must be paid to the owner of the pilots
between signalling points) have been the most widely used due
and the signal path may be changed without warning. This
to their availability, followed by Power Line Carrier
may be a problem in protection applications where signal
Communications (PLCC) techniques and radio. In recent
transmission times are critical.
years, fibre-optic systems have become the usual choice for
new installations, primarily due to their complete immunity The chance of voltages being induced in rented pilots is smaller
from electrical interference. The use of fibre-optic cables also than for private pilots, as the pilot route is normally not related
to the route of the power line with which it is associated. signalling has been achieved above speech together with
However, some degree of security and protection against metering and control signalling on an established control
induced voltages must be built into signalling systems. network. Consequently the protection signalling was achieved
at very low cost. High voltage systems; (220kV and above),
Station earth potential rise is a significant factor to be taken
have demanded shorter operating times and improved
into account and isolation must be provided to protect both the
security, which has led to the renting of pilot links exclusively
personnel and equipment of the communication authority.
for protection signalling purposes.
The most significant hazard to be withstood by a protection
signalling system using this medium arises when a linesman 8.5.3 Power Line Carrier Communications Techniques
inadvertently connects a low impedance test oscillator across Where long line sections are involved, or if the route involves
the pilot link that can generate signalling tones. Transmissions installation difficulties, the expense of providing physical pilot
by such an oscillator may simulate the operating code or tone connections or operational restrictions associated with the
sequence that, in the case of direct intertripping schemes, route length require that other means of providing signalling
would result in incorrect operation of the circuit breaker. facilities are required.
Communication between relaying points may be over a two- Power Line Carrier Communications (PLCC) is a technique
wire or four-wire link. Consequently the effect of a particular that involves high frequency signal transmission along the
human action, for example an incorrect disconnection, may overhead power line, typically in the 300Hz to 3400Hz band.
disrupt communication in one direction or both. It is robust and therefore reliable, constituting a low loss
The signals transmitted must be limited in both level and transmission path that is fully controlled by the Utility.
bandwidth to avoid interference with other signalling systems. High voltage capacitors are used, along with drainage coils, for
The owner of the pilots impose standards in this respect that the purpose of injecting the signal to and extracting it from the
may limit transmission capacity or transmission distance, or line. Injection can be carried out by impressing the carrier
both. signal voltage between one conductor and earth or between
With a power system operating at, say, 132kV, where any two phase conductors. The basic units can be built up into
relatively long protection signalling times are acceptable, a high pass or band pass filter as shown in Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3: Typical phase-to-phase coupling equipment
8-5
The high voltage capacitor is tuned by a tuning coil to present Receiving equipment commonly incorporates automatic gain
a low impedance at the signal frequency; the parallel circuit control (AGC) to compensate for variations in attenuation of
presents a high impedance at the signal frequency while signals.
providing a path for the power frequency currents passed by
High noise levels arise from lightning strikes and system fault
the capacitor.
inception or clearance. Although these are of short duration,
lasting only a few milliseconds at the most, they may cause
overloading of power line carrier receiving equipment.
8.5.3.1 Application Considerations

Signalling systems used for intertripping in particular must
incorporate appropriate security features to avoid
maloperation. The most severe noise levels are encountered
with operation of the line isolators, and these may last for
some seconds. Although maloperation of the associated
teleprotection scheme may have little operational significance,
since the circuit breaker at one end at least is normally already
open, high security is generally required to cater for noise
Figure 8.4: Carrier coupling equipment coupled between parallel lines or passed through line traps
It is necessary to minimise the loss of signal into other parts of from adjacent lines.
the power system, to allow the same frequency to be used on
Signalling for permissive intertrip applications needs special
another line. This is done with a 'line trap' or 'wave trap',
consideration, as this involves signalling through a power
which in its simplest form is a parallel circuit tuned to present
system fault. The increase in channel attenuation due to the
a very high impedance to the signal frequency. It is connected
fault varies according to the type of fault, but most utilities
in the phase conductor on the station side of the injection
select a nominal value, usually between 20 and 30dB, as an
equipment.
application guide. A protection signal boost facility can be
The single frequency line trap can be treated as an integral part employed to cater for an increase in attenuation of this order of
of the complete injection equipment to accommodate two or magnitude, to maintain an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio at
more carrier systems. However, difficulties may arise in an the receiving end, so that the performance of the service is not
overall design because at certain frequencies the actual station impaired.
reactance, which is normally capacitive, tunes with the trap
Most direct intertrip applications require signalling over a
which is inductive below its resonant frequency. The result is a
healthy power system, so boosting is not normally needed. In
low impedance across the transmission path, preventing
fact, if a voice frequency intertrip system is operating over a
operation at these frequencies. This situation can be avoided
carrier bearer channel, the dynamic operating range of the
by using an independent 'double frequency' or 'broad-band'
receiver must be increased to accommodate a boosted signal.
trap.
This makes it less inherently secure in the presence of noise
The attenuation of a channel is of prime importance in the during a quiescent signalling condition.
application of carrier signalling because it determines the
amount of transmitted energy available at the receiving end to 8.5.3.2 Digital Power Line Carrier
overcome noise and interfering voltages. The loss of each line The latest power line carrier equipment allows analogue,
terminal is 1 to 2dB through the coupling filter, a maximum of digital and mixed-mode communication. Digital
3dB through its broad-band trap and not more than 0.5dB per communication up to 128kbits/s can be achieved using a
100 metres through the high frequency cable. 16kHz bandwidth. Low-latency Ethernet bridging facilities are
The high frequency transmission characteristics of power a cost-effective communications solution for substations that
circuits are good the loss amounting to 0.02 to 0.2dB per have no access to any fibre network.
kilometre depending upon line voltage and frequency. Line
attenuation is not affected appreciably by rain, but serious 8.5.4 Radio Channels
increase in loss may occur when the phase conductors are At first consideration, the wide bandwidth associated with
thickly coated with hoar-frost or ice. Attenuations of up to radio frequency transmissions could allow the use of modems
three times the fair weather value have been experienced. operating at very high data rates. Protection signalling
commands could be sent by serial coded messages of sufficient have the minimum effect on their position.
length and complexity to give high security, but still achieve
fast operating times. In practice, it is seldom economic to 8.5.5 Optical Fibre Channels
provide radio equipment exclusively for protection signalling, so Optical fibres are fine strands of glass, which behave as wave
standard general-purpose telecommunications channel guides for light. This ability to transmit light over considerable
equipment is normally adopted. distances can be used to provide optical communication links
Typical radio bearer equipment operates at the microwave with enormous information carrying capacity and an inherent
frequencies of 0.2 to 10GHz. Because of the relatively short immunity to electromagnetic interference.
range and directional nature of the transmitter and receiver A practical optical cable consists of a central optical fibre which
aerial systems at these frequencies, large bandwidths can be comprises core, cladding and protective buffer coating
allocated without much chance of mutual interference with surrounded by a protective plastic oversheath containing
other systems. strength members which, in some cases, are enclosed by a
Multiplexing techniques allow several channels to share the layer of armouring.
common bearer medium and exploit the large bandwidth. In To communicate information a beam of light is modulated in
addition to voice frequency channels, wider bandwidth accordance with the signal to be transmitted. This modulated
channels or data channels may be available, dependent on the beam travels along the optical fibre and is subsequently
particular system. For instance, in analogue systems using decoded at the remote terminal into the received signal.
frequency division multiplexing, normally up to 12 voice On/off modulation of the light source is normally preferred to
frequency channels are grouped together in basebands at 12- linear modulation since the distortion caused by non-linearities
60kHz or 60-108kHz, but alternatively the baseband may be in the light source and detectors, as well as variations in
used as a 48kHz signal channel. Modern digital systems received light power, are largely avoided.
employing pulse code modulation and time division
multiplexing usually provide the voice frequency channels by The light transmitter and receiver are usually laser or LED
sampling at 8kHz and quantising to 8 bits; alternatively, devices capable of emitting and detecting narrow beams of
access may be available for data at 64kbits/s (equivalent to light at selected frequencies in the low attenuation 850, 1300
one voice frequency channel) or higher data rates. and 1550 nanometre spectral windows. The distance over
which effective communications can be established depends
Radio systems are well suited to the bulk transmission of on the attenuation and dispersion of the communication link
information between control centres and are widely used for and this depends on the type and quality of the fibre and the
this. When the route of the trunk data network coincides with wavelength of the optical source. Within the fibre there are
that of transmission lines, channels can often be allocated for many modes of propagation with different optical paths that
protection signalling. More generally, radio communication is cause dispersion of the light signal and result in pulse
between major stations rather than the ends of individual lines, broadening. The degrading of the signal in this way can be
because of the need for line-of-sight operation between aerials reduced by the use of 'graded index' fibres that cause the
and other requirements of the network. Roundabout routes various modes to follow nearly equal paths. The distance over
involving repeater stations and the addition of pilot channels to which signals can be transmitted is significantly increased by
interconnect the radio installation and the relay station may be the use of 'monomode' fibres that support only one mode of
possible, but overall dependability is normally much lower than propagation.
for PLCC systems in which the communication is direct from
one end of the line to the other. Optical fibre channels allow communication at data rates of
hundreds of megahertz over a few tens of kilometres, however,
Radio channels are not affected by increased attenuation due repeaters are needed for greater distances. An optical fibre can
to power system faults, but fading has to be taken into account be used as a dedicated link between two items of terminal
when the signal-to-noise ratio of a particular installation is equipment or as a multiplexed link that carries all
being considered. communication traffic such as voice, telecontrol and protection
Most of the noise in such a protection signalling system is signalling. For protection signalling, the available bandwidth
generated in the radio equipment. of a link is divided by time division multiplexing (T.D.M.)
techniques into several channels, each of 64kbits/s. Each
A polluted atmosphere can cause radio beam refraction that 64kbits/s channel is equivalent to one voice frequency channel,
interferes with efficient signalling. The height of aerial tower which typically uses 8-bit analogue-to-digital conversion at a
should be limited, so that winds and temperature changes sampling rate of 8kHz. Several utilities sell surplus capacity on
8-7
their links to telecommunications operators, or they may take optical cable helically around a phase or earth conductor. This
the opportunity to increase the data rate in end-to-end latter technique can be used without restringing of the line.
applications up to 2Mbits/s. The trend of using rented pilot
circuits is being reversed as the utilities revert to ownership of
the communication circuits that carry protection signalling.
The equipment that carries out this multiplexing at each end of
a line is known as 'Pulse Code Modulation' (P.C.M.) terminal
equipment. This approach is the one adopted by
telecommunications authorities and some utilities favour its
adoption on their private systems, for economic considerations.
Figure 8.6: Example digital teleprotection, e-terragridcom DIP
Optical fibre communications are well established in the
electrical supply industry. They are the preferred means for the 8.6 SIGNALLING METHODS
communications link between a substation and a telephone
Various methods are used in protection signalling; not all need
exchange when rented circuits are used, as trials have shown
be suited to every transmission medium. The methods to be
that this link is particularly susceptible to interference from
considered briefly are:
power system faults if copper conductors are used. Whilst
such fibres can be laid in cable trenches, there is a strong trend  d.c. voltage step or d.c. voltage reversals
to associate them with the conductors themselves by  plain tone keyed signals at high and voice frequencies
producing composite cables comprising optical fibres
 frequency shift keyed signals involving two or more
embedded in the conductors, either earth or phase. For
tones at high and voice frequencies
overhead lines use of OPGW (Optical Ground Wire) earth
conductors is very common, while an alternative is to wrap the General purpose telecommunications equipment operating
Figure 8.5: Communication arrangements commonly encountered in protection signalling
over power line carrier, radio or optical fibre media incorporate 8.6.3 Frequency Shift Keyed Signals
frequency translating or multiplexing techniques to provide the Frequency shift keyed high frequency signals can be used over
user with standardised communication channels. They have a a power line carrier link to give short operating times (15
nominal bandwidth/channel of 2kHz to 4kHz and are often milliseconds for blocking and permissive intertripping, 20
referred to as voice frequency (vf) channels. Protection milliseconds for direct intertripping) for all applications of
signalling equipment operating at voice frequencies exploits protection signalling. The required amount of security can be
the standardisation of the communication interface. Where achieved by using a broadband noise detector to monitor the
voice frequency channels are not available or suitable, actual operational signalling equipment.
protection signalling may make use of media or specialised
equipment dedicated entirely to the signalling requirements. Frequency shift keyed voice frequency signals can be used for
all protection signalling applications over all transmission
Figure 8.5 shows the communication arrangements media. Frequency modulation techniques make possible an
commonly encountered in protection signalling. improvement in performance, because amplitude limiting
rejects the amplitude modulation component of noise, leaving
8.6.1 D.C. Voltage Signalling only the phase modulation components to be detected.
A d.c. voltage step or d.c. voltage reversals may be used to
The operational protection signal may consist of tone sequence
convey a signalling instruction between protection relaying
codes with, say, three tones, or a multi-bit code using two
points in a power system, but these are suited only to private
discrete tones for successive bits, or of a single frequency shift.
pilot wires, where low speed signalling is acceptable, with its
inherent security. In all applications there is the need to Modern high-speed systems use multi-bit code or single
ensure that no maloperation can occur due to power frequency frequency shift techniques. Complex codes are used to give
interference. the required degree of security in direct intertrip schemes: the
short operating times needed may result in uneconomical use
8.6.2 Plain Tone Signals of the available voice frequency spectrum, particularly if the
Plain high frequency signals can be used successfully for the channel is not exclusively employed for protection signalling.
signalling of blocking information over a power line. A As noise power is directly proportional to bandwidth, a large
normally quiescent power line carrier equipment can be bandwidth causes an increase in the noise level admitted to
dedicated entirely to the transfer to teleprotection blocking the detector, making operation in the presence of noise more
commands. Phase comparison power line carrier unit difficult. So, again, it is difficult to obtain both high
protection schemes often use such equipment and take dependability and high security.
advantage of the very high speed and dependability of the The signal frequency shift technique has advantages where
signalling system. The special characteristics of dedicated fast signalling is needed for blocked distance and permissive
'on/off' keyed carrier systems are discussed later. A relatively intertrip applications. It has little inherent security, but
insensitive receiver is used to discriminate against noise on an additional algorithms responsive to every type of interference
amplitude basis, and for some applications the security may be can give acceptable security. This system does not require a
satisfactory for permissive tripping, particularly if the normal high transmission rate channel as the frequency changes once
high-speed operation of about 7ms or less is sacrificed by the only. The bandwidth can therefore be narrower than in coded
addition of delays. The need for regular reflex testing of a systems, giving better noise rejection as well as being
normally quiescent channel usually precludes any use for advantageous if the channel is shared with telemetry and
intertripping. control signalling, which is inevitably the case if a power line
Plain tone power line carrier signalling systems are particularly carrier bearer is used.
suited to providing the blocking commands often associated
with the protection of multi-ended feeders, as described in
Chapter 13. A blocking command sent from one end can be
received simultaneously at all the other ends using a single
power line carrier channel. Other signalling systems usually
require discrete communication channels between each of the
ends or involve repeaters, leading to decreased dependability of
the blocking command.
8-9
Chapter 9
Overcurrent Protection for Phase and
Earth Faults
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.1 Introduction Protection against excess current was naturally the earliest
9.2 Co-ordination Procedure protection system to evolve. From this basic principle, the
9.3 Principles of Time/Current Grading graded overcurrent system, a discriminative fault protection,
9.4 Standard IDMT Overcurrent Relays has been developed. This should not be confused with
‘overload’ protection, which normally makes use of relays that
9.5 Combined IDMT and High Set Instantaneous
operate in a time related in some degree to the thermal
Overcurrent Relays capability of the plant to be protected. Overcurrent protection,
9.6 Very Inverse (VI) Overcurrent Relays on the other hand, is directed entirely to the clearance of
9.7 Extremely Inverse (EI) Overcurrent Relays faults, although with the settings usually adopted some
9.8 Other Relay Characteristics measure of overload protection may be obtained.
9.9 Independent (definite) Time Overcurrent Relays
9.10 Relay Current Setting 9.2 CO-ORDINATION PROCEDURE
9.11 Relay Time Grading Margin Correct overcurrent relay application requires knowledge of the
9.12 Recommended Grading Margins fault current that can flow in each part of the network. Since
large-scale tests are normally impracticable, system analysis
9.13 Calculation of Phase Fault Overcurrent Relay
must be used – see Chapter 4 for details. The data required
Settings for a relay setting study are:
9.14 Directional Phase Fault Overcurrent Relays
x a one-line diagram of the power system involved,
9.15 Ring Mains showing the type and rating of the protection devices
9.16 Earth Fault Protection and their associated current transformers
9.17 Directional Earth Fault Overcurrent Protection x the impedances in ohms, per cent or per unit, of all
9.18 Earth Fault Protection on Insulated Networks power transformers, rotating machine and feeder
9.19 Earth Fault Protection on Petersen Coil Earthed circuits
Networks x the maximum and minimum values of short circuit
9.20 Examples of Time and Current Grading currents that are expected to flow through each
9.21 Hi-Z - High Impedance Downed Conductor protection device
Protection x the maximum load current through protection devices
9.22 References x the starting current requirements of motors and the
starting and locked rotor/stalling times of induction
motors
x the transformer inrush, thermal withstand and damage
characteristics
x decrement curves showing the rate of decay of the fault
current supplied by the generators
x performance curves of the current transformers
The relay settings are first determined to give the shortest
operating times at maximum fault levels and then checked to
see if operation will also be satisfactory at the minimum fault
current expected. It is always advisable to plot the curves of
relays and other protection devices, such as fuses, that are to
9-1
operate in series, on a common scale. It is usually more It is the time delay element, therefore, which provides the
convenient to use a scale corresponding to the current means of discrimination. The relay at B is set at the shortest
expected at the lowest voltage base, or to use the predominant time delay possible to allow the fuse to blow for a fault at A on
voltage base. The alternatives are a common MVA base or a the secondary side of the transformer. After the time delay has
separate current scale for each system voltage. expired, the relay output contact closes to trip the circuit
breaker. The relay at C has a time delay setting equal to t1
The basic rules for correct relay co-ordination can generally be
seconds, and similarly for the relays at D and E.
stated as follows:
If a fault occurs at F, the relay at B will operate in t seconds
x whenever possible, use relays with the same operating
and the subsequent operation of the circuit breaker at B will
characteristic in series with each other
clear the fault before the relays at C, D and E have time to
x make sure that the relay farthest from the source has operate. The time interval t1 between each relay time setting
current settings equal to or less than the relays behind must be long enough to ensure that the upstream relays do
it, that is, that the primary current required to operate not operate before the circuit breaker at the fault location has
the relay in front is always equal to or less than the tripped and cleared the fault.
primary current required to operate the relay behind it
The main disadvantage of this method of discrimination is that
9.3 PRINCIPLES OF TIME/CURRENT the longest fault clearance time occurs for faults in the section
closest to the power source, where the fault level (MVA) is
GRADING
highest.
Among the various possible methods used to achieve correct
relay co-ordination are those using either time or overcurrent, 9.3.2 Discrimination by Current
or a combination of both. The common aim of all three
Discrimination by current relies on the fact that the fault
methods is to give correct discrimination. That is to say, each
current varies with the position of the fault because of the
one must isolate only the faulty section of the power system
difference in impedance values between the source and the
network, leaving the rest of the system undisturbed.
fault. Hence, typically, the relays controlling the various circuit
breakers are set to operate at suitably tapered values of current
9.3.1 Discrimination by Time
such that only the relay nearest to the fault trips its breaker.
In this method, an appropriate time setting is given to each of Figure 9.2 illustrates the method.
the relays controlling the circuit breakers in a power system to
ensure that the breaker nearest to the fault opens first. A For a fault at F1, the system short-circuit current is given by:
simple radial distribution system is shown in Figure 9.1, to 6350
illustrate the principle. I A
Z S Z L1
where:
112
Z S = source impedance = = 0.485
250
Figure 9.1: Radial system with time discrimination Z L1 = cable impedance between C and B = 0.24
Overcurrent protection is provided at B, C, D and E, that is, at 6350
the infeed end of each section of the power system. Each Hence I = 8800A
0.725
protection unit comprises a definite-time delay overcurrent
relay in which the operation of the current sensitive element So, a relay controlling the circuit breaker at C and set to
simply initiates the time delay element. Provided the setting of operate at a fault current of 8800A would in theory protect the
the current element is below the fault current value, this whole of the cable section between C and B. However, there
element plays no part in the achievement of discrimination. are two important practical points that affect this method of
For this reason, the relay is sometimes described as an co-ordination:
‘independent definite-time delay relay’, since its operating time x it is not practical to distinguish between a fault at F1
is for practical purposes independent of the level of and a fault at F2, since the distance between these
overcurrent. points may be only a few metres, corresponding to a
change in fault current of approximately 0.1%
Chapter 9 Overcurrent Protection for Phase and Earth Faults
x in practice, there would be variations in the source fault 6350

level, typically from 250MVA to 130MVA. At this lower I
Z S Z L1 Z L 2
fault level the fault current would not exceed 6800A,
even for a cable fault close to C. A relay set at 8800A Thus, assuming a 250MVA source fault level:
would not protect any part of the cable section
6350
concerned I = 8300A
0.485 0.24 0.04
Discrimination by current is therefore not a practical
Alternatively, assuming a source fault level of 130MVA:
proposition for correct grading between the circuit breakers at
C and B. However, the problem changes appreciably when 6350
there is significant impedance between the two circuit breakers I = 5250A
0.93 0.214 0.04
concerned. Consider the grading required between the circuit
breakers at C and A in Figure 9.2. Assuming a fault at F4, the For either value of source level, the relay at B would operate
short-circuit current is given by: correctly for faults anywhere on the 11kV cable feeding the
transformer.
6350
I
Z S Z L1 Z L 2 Z T 9.3.3 Discrimination by both Time and Current
where Each of the two methods described so far has a fundamental
disadvantage. In the case of discrimination by time alone, the
112 disadvantage is due to the fact that the more severe faults are
Z S = source impedance = = 0.485 cleared in the longest operating time. On the other hand,
250
discrimination by current can be applied only where there is
Z L1 = cable impedance between C and B = 0.24 appreciable impedance between the two circuit breakers
concerned.
Z L 2 = cable impedance between B and 4MVA transformer =
0.04 It is because of the limitations imposed by the independent use
of either time or current co-ordination that the inverse time
§ 112 · overcurrent relay characteristic has evolved. With this
Z T = transformer impedance = 0.07¨¨ ¸¸ =2.12
characteristic, the time of operation is inversely proportional to
© 4 ¹
the fault current level and the actual characteristic is a function
6350 of both ‘time’ and 'current' settings. Figure 9.3 shows the
Hence I = 2200A
2.885 characteristics of two relays given different current/time
settings. For a large variation in fault current between the two
ends of the feeder, faster operating times can be achieved by
the relays nearest to the source, where the fault level is the
highest. The disadvantages of grading by time or current alone
are overcome.
Figure 9.2: Radial system with current discrimination

For this reason, a relay controlling the circuit breaker at B and
set to operate at a current of 2200A plus a safety margin
would not operate for a fault at F4 and would thus
discriminate with the relay at A. Assuming a safety margin of
20% to allow for relay errors and a further 10% for variations in
the system impedance values, it is reasonable to choose a relay
setting of 1.3 x 2200A, that is, 2860A, for the relay at B. Now,
assuming a fault at F3, at the end of the 11kV cable feeding
the 4MVA transformer, the short-circuit current is given by:
9-3
The tripping characteristics for different TMS settings using the

SI curve are shown in Figure 9.6.
Relay Characteristic Equation (IEC 60255)
0.14
Standard Inverse (SI) t TMS u
I r0.02 1
13.5
Very Inverse (VI) t TMS u
Ir 1
80
Extremely Inverse (EI) t TMS u
I r2 1
120
Long time standby earth fault t TMS u
Ir 1
Table 9.1: Definitions of standard relay characteristics
Characteristic Equation
TD ª§ 0.0515 · º
IEEE Moderately Inverse t «¨ ¸ 0.114»
7 ¬¨© I r0.02 1 ¸¹ ¼
TD ª§ 19.61 · º
IEEE Very Inverse t «¨ ¸ 0.491»
7 ¬¨© I r2 1 ¸¹ ¼
TD ª§ 28.2 · º
IEEE Extremely Inverse t «¨ ¸ 0.1217 »
7 ¬¨© I r2 1 ¸¹ ¼
TD ª§ 5.95 · º
US CO8 Inverse t «¨ ¸ 0.18»
7 ¬¨© I r2 1 ¸¹ ¼
TD ª§ 0.02394 · º
US CO2 Short Time Inverse t «¨ ¸ 0.01694»
7 ¬¨© I r0.02 1 ¸¹ ¼
Table 9.2: North American IDMT definitions of standard relay
characteristics
For Table 9.1 and Table 9.2:
Ir = I / Is
Where:
I = Measured current
Figure 9.3: Relay characteristics for different settings Is = Relay setting current
TMS = Time Multiplier Setting
9.4 STANDARD IDMT OVERCURRENT RELAYS TD = Time Dial setting

The current/time tripping characteristics of IDMT relays may
need to be varied according to the tripping time required and
the characteristics of other protection devices used in the
network. For these purposes, IEC 60255 defines a number of
standard characteristics as follows:
x Standard Inverse (SI)
x Very Inverse (VI)
x Extremely Inverse (EI)
x Definite Time (DT)
The mathematical descriptions of the curves are given in Table
9.1, and the curves based on a common setting current and
time multiplier setting of 1 second are shown in Figure 9.4.
1000.00 1000.00
100.00 100.00
10.00 10.00
Standard Inverse (SI)
1.00 1.00
Moderately Inverse
Very Inverse
Very Inverse (VI)
CO 2 Short
Time Inverse
Extremely Inverse (EI) CO 8 Inverse

Extremely
Inverse
0.10 0.10
1 10 100 1 10 100
Current (multiples of Is) Current (multiples of Is )
Figure 9.4: IEC 60255 IDMT relay characteristics; TMS=1.0 Figure 9.5: North American IDMT relay characteristics; TD=7
9-5
10 source impedance is small in comparison with the protected

8 circuit impedance. This makes a reduction in the tripping time
6
at high fault levels possible. It also improves the overall
system grading by allowing the 'discriminating curves' behind
4
the high set instantaneous elements to be lowered.
3 As shown in Figure 9.7, one of the advantages of the high set

TMS instantaneous elements is to reduce the operating time of the
1.0
2 0.9 circuit protection by the shaded area below the 'discriminating
0.8
0.7
curves'. If the source impedance remains constant, it is then
0.6 possible to achieve high-speed protection over a large section
1
0.5 of the protected circuit. The rapid fault clearance time
0.4 achieved helps to minimise damage at the fault location.
0.8
0.3
Figure 9.7 also shows a further important advantage gained by
0.6 the use of high set instantaneous elements. Grading with the
relay immediately behind the relay that has the instantaneous
0.2
0.4
elements enabled is carried out at the current setting of the
0.3 instantaneous elements and not at the maximum fault level.
For example, in Figure 9.7 relay R2 is graded with relay R3 at
0.1
0.2 500A and not 1100A, allowing relay R2 to be set with a TMS of
0.15 instead of 0.2 while maintaining a grading margin
between relays of 0.4s. Similarly, relay R1 is graded with R2 at
0.1 1400A and not at 2300A.
1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30
Current (multiples of plug settings)
Figure 9.6: Typical time/current characteristics of standard IDMT relay

Although the curves are only shown for discrete values of TMS,
continuous adjustment may be possible in an
electromechanical relay. For other relay types, the setting
steps may be so small as to effectively provide continuous
adjustment. In addition, almost all overcurrent relays are also
fitted with a high-set instantaneous element. In most cases,
use of the standard SI curve proves satisfactory, but if
satisfactory grading cannot be achieved, use of the VI or EI
curves may help to resolve the problem. When digital or
numeric relays are used, other characteristics may be provided,
including the possibility of user-definable curves. More details
are provided in the following sections.
Relays for power systems designed to North American practice
utilise ANSI/IEEE curves. Table 9.2 gives the mathematical
description of these characteristics and Figure 9.5 shows the
curves standardised to a time dial setting of 7.
Take great care that different vendors may standardise their
curves at different settings other than TD=7. The protection Figure 9.7: Characteristics of combined IDMT and high-set
engineer must ensure whether the factor of 7, or some other instantaneous overcurrent relays
nominal, is applied.
9.5.1 Transient Overreach
9.5 COMBINED IDMT AND HIGH SET The reach of a relay is that part of the system protected by the
INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT RELAYS relay if a fault occurs. A relay that operates for a fault that lies
beyond the intended zone of protection is said to overreach.
A high-set instantaneous element can be used where the
When using instantaneous overcurrent elements, care must be

exercised in choosing the settings to prevent them operating
for faults beyond the protected section. The initial current due
to a d.c. offset in the current wave may be greater than the
relay pick-up value and cause it to operate. This may occur
even though the steady state r.m.s. value of the fault current
for a fault at a point beyond the required reach point may be
less than the relay setting. This phenomenon is called
transient over-reach, and is defined as:
I1 I 2
% Transient over-reach = x 100%
I2
Equation 9.1
where:
I1 = r.m.s steady state pickup current
I 2 = steady state r.m.s current which when fully offset just

causes relay pickup
When applied to power transformers, the high set
instantaneous overcurrent elements must be set above the
maximum through fault current than the power transformer
can supply for a fault across its LV terminals, to maintain
discrimination with the relays on the LV side of the
transformer. Figure 9.8: Comparison of SI and VI relay characteristics
9.6 VERY INVERSE (VI) OVERCURRENT 9.7 EXTREMELY INVERSE (EI)

RELAYS OVERCURRENT RELAYS
Very inverse overcurrent relays are particularly suitable if there With this characteristic, the operation time is approximately
is a substantial reduction of fault current as the distance from inversely proportional to the square of the applied current.
the power source increases, i.e. there is a substantial increase This makes it suitable for the protection of distribution feeder
in fault impedance. The VI operating characteristic is such circuits in which the feeder is subjected to peak currents on
that the operating time is approximately doubled for reduction switching in, as would be the case on a power circuit supplying
in current from 7 to 4 times the relay current setting. This refrigerators, pumps, water heaters and so on, which remain
permits the use of the same time multiplier setting for several connected even after a prolonged interruption of supply. The
relays in series. long time operating characteristic of the extremely inverse
Figure 9.8 comparies the SI and VI curves for a relay. The VI relay at normal peak load values of current also makes this
curve is much steeper and therefore the operation increases relay particularly suitable for grading with fuses. Figure 9.9
much faster for the same reduction in current compared to the shows typical curves. The EI characteristic gives a satisfactory
SI curve. This enables the requisite grading margin to be grading margin, but the VI or SI characteristics at the same
obtained with a lower TMS for the same setting current, and settings does not. Another application of this relay is in
hence the tripping time at source can be minimised. conjunction with auto-reclosers in low voltage distribution
circuits. The majority of faults are transient in nature and
unnecessary blowing and replacing of the fuses present in final
circuits of such a system can be avoided if the auto-reclosers
are set to operate before the fuse blows. If the fault persists,
the auto-recloser locks itself in the closed position after one
opening and the fuse blows to isolate the fault.
9-7
200.0 9.9 INDEPENDENT (DEFINITE) TIME

OVERCURRENT RELAYS
100.0 Overcurrent relays are normally also provided with elements
having independent or definite time characteristics. These
characteristics provide a ready means of co-ordinating several
relays in series in situations in which the system fault current
varies very widely due to changes in source impedance, as
there is no change in time with the variation of fault current.
The time/current characteristics of this curve are shown in
10.0
Figure 9.10, together with those of the standard IDMT
characteristic, to indicate that lower operating times are
achieved by the inverse relay at the higher values of fault
Standard
current, whereas the definite time relay has lower operating
Inverse (SI) times at the lower current values.
Very Inverse (VI)
1.0
Extremely
Inverse (EI)
200A Fuse
0.1
100 1000 10000
Current (Amps)
Figure 9.9: Comparison of relay and fuse characteristics
9.8 OTHER RELAY CHARACTERISTICS

User definable curves may be provided on some types of digital
or numerical relays. The general principle is that the user
enters a series of current/time co-ordinates that are stored in
the memory of the relay. Interpolation between points is used
to provide a smooth trip characteristic. Such a feature, if
Figure 9.10: Comparison of definite time and standard IDMT relay
available, may be used in special cases if none of the standard
tripping characteristics is suitable. However, grading of Vertical lines T1, T2, T3, and T4 indicate the reduction in
upstream protection may become more difficult, and it is operating times achieved by the inverse relay at high fault
necessary to ensure that the curve is properly documented, levels.
along with the reasons for use. Since the standard curves
provided cover most cases with adequate tripping times, and 9.10 RELAY CURRENT SETTING
most equipment is designed with standard protection curves in An overcurrent relay has a minimum operating current, known
mind, the need to utilise this form of protection is relatively as the current setting of the relay. The current setting must be
rare. chosen so that the relay does not operate for the maximum
load current in the circuit being protected, but does operate for
Digital and numerical relays may also include pre-defined logic
a current equal or greater to the minimum expected fault
schemes utilising digital (relay) I/O provided in the relay to
current. Although by using a current setting that is only just
implement standard schemes such as CB failure and trip
above the maximum load current in the circuit a certain degree
circuit supervision. This saves the provision of separate relay
of protection against overloads as well as faults may be
hardware to perform these functions.
provided, the main function of overcurrent protection is to
isolate primary system faults and not to provide overload IEC 60255, a relay error index is quoted that determines the
protection. In general, the current setting will be selected to be maximum timing error of the relay. The timing error must be
above the maximum short time rated current of the circuit taken into account when determining the grading margin.
involved. Since all relays have hysteresis in their current
settings, the setting must be sufficiently high to allow the relay 9.11.3 Overshoot
to reset when the rated current of the circuit is being carried. When the relay is de-energised, operation may continue for a
The amount of hysteresis in the current setting is denoted by little longer until any stored energy has been dissipated. For
the pick-up/drop-off ratio of a relay – the value for a modern example, an induction disc relay will have stored kinetic energy
relay is typically 0.95. Thus, a relay minimum current setting in the motion of the disc; static relay circuits may have energy
of at least 1.05 times the short-time rated current of the circuit stored in capacitors. Relay design is directed to minimising
is likely to be required. and absorbing these energies, but some allowance is usually
necessary.
9.11 RELAY TIME GRADING MARGIN
The overshoot time is defined as the difference between the
The time interval that must be allowed between the operation
operating time of a relay at a specified value of input current
of two adjacent relays to achieve correct discrimination
and the maximum duration of input current, which when
between them is called the grading margin. If a grading
suddenly reduced below the relay operating level, is insufficient
margin is not provided, or is insufficient, more than one relay
to cause relay operation.
will operate for a fault, leading to difficulties in determining the
location of the fault and unnecessary loss of supply to some
9.11.4 CT Errors
consumers.
Current transformers have phase and ratio errors due to the
The grading margin depends on a number of factors: exciting current required to magnetise their cores. The result is
1. the fault current interrupting time of the circuit that the CT secondary current is not an identical scaled replica
breaker of the primary current. This leads to errors in the operation of
relays, especially in the operation time. CT errors are not
2. relay timing errors
relevant for independent definite-time delay overcurrent relays.
3. the overshoot time of the relay
4. CT errors 9.11.5 Final Margin
5. final margin on completion of operation After allowances have been made for circuit breaker
Factors (2) and (3) depend on the relay technology used. For interrupting time, relay timing error, overshoot and CT errors,
example, an electromechanical relay has a larger overshoot the discriminating relay must just fail to complete its operation.
time than a numerical relay. Some extra safety margin is required to ensure that relay
operation does not occur.
Grading is initially carried out for the maximum fault level at
the relaying point under consideration, but a check is also 9.11.6 Overall Accuracy
made that the required grading margin exists for all current
The overall limits of accuracy according to IEC 60255-4 for an
levels between relay pick-up current and maximum fault level.
IDMT relay with standard inverse characteristic are shown in
Figure 9.11.
9.11.1 Circuit Breaker Interrupting Time
The circuit breaker interrupting the fault must have completely
interrupted the current before the discriminating relay ceases
to be energised. The time taken is dependent on the type of
circuit breaker used and the fault current to be interrupted.
Manufacturers normally provide the fault interrupting time at
rated interrupting capacity and this value is invariably used in
the calculation of grading margin.
9.11.2 Relay Timing Error

All relays have errors in their timing compared to the ideal
characteristic as defined in IEC 60255. For a relay specified to
9-9
50
Pick-up 1.05 - 1.3 times setting operating times, the permitted error specified in IEC 60255
40
(7.5% of operating time) may exceed the fixed grading margin,
resulting in the possibility that the relay fails to grade correctly
30
while remaining within specification. This requires
consideration when considering the grading margin at low
20
fault current levels.
A practical solution for determining the optimum grading
10
margin is to assume that the relay nearer to the fault has a
Time (seconds)
8
maximum possible timing error of +2E, where E is the basic
timing error. To this total effective error for the relay, a further
6
10% should be added for the overall current transformer error.
5
4 Relay Technology
3
Electro-
Static Digital Numerical
mechanical
2
Typical basic timing error (%) 7.5 5 5 5
Overshoot time (s) 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.02
Safety margin (s) 0.1 0.05 0.03 0.03
1 Typical overall grading margin

0.4 0.35 0.3 0.3
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20 30 - relay to relay(s)
Current (multiples of plug settings) Table 9.3: Typical relay timing errors – standard IDMT relays
Time/Current characteristic allowable limit A suitable minimum grading time interval, t c , may be
At 2 times setting 2.5 x declared error
At 5 times setting 1.5 x declared error calculated as follows:
ª 2 ER ECT º
«¬ 100 »¼t tCB to t S seconds
Figure 9.11: Typical limits of accuracy from IEC 60255-4 for an t'
inverse definite minimum time overcurrent relay
9.12 RECOMMENDED GRADING MARGINS Equation 9.2
The following sections give the recommended overall grading where:

margins for between different protection devices. ER = relay timing error (IEC60255-4)
ECT = allowance for CT ratio error (%)
9.12.1 Grading: Relay to Relay t = nominal operating time of relay nearer to fault (sec)
The total interval required to cover circuit breaker interrupting tCB = CB interrupting time (sec)
time, relay timing error, overshoot and CT errors, depends on tO = relay overshoot time (sec)
the operating speed of the circuit breakers and the relay tS = safety margin (sec)
performance. At one time 0.5s was a normal grading margin. if, for example t=0.5s, the time interval for an
With faster modern circuit breakers and a lower relay electromechanical relay tripping a conventional circuit breaker
overshoot time, 0.4s is reasonable, while under the best would be 0.375s, whereas, at the lower extreme, for a static
conditions even lower intervals may be practical. relay tripping a vacuum circuit breaker, the interval could be as
The use of a fixed grading margin is popular, but it may be low as 0.25s.
better to calculate the required value for each relay location. When the overcurrent relays have independent definite time
This more precise margin comprises a fixed time, covering delay characteristics, it is not necessary to include the
circuit breaker fault interrupting time, relay overshoot time and allowance for CT error. Hence:
a safety margin, plus a variable time that allows for relay and
ª 2 ER º
«¬ 100 »¼t tCB to t S seconds
CT errors. Table 9.3 gives typical relay errors according to the t'
technology used.
It should be noted that use of a fixed grading margin is only Equation 9.3
appropriate at high fault levels that lead to short relay Calculation of specific grading times for each relay can often be
operating times. At lower fault current levels, with longer tedious when performing a protection grading calculation on a
power system. Table 9.3 also gives practical grading times at setting calculation to proceed is given in Section 9.2. The
high fault current levels between overcurrent relays for main relay data can be recorded in a table such as that shown
different technologies. Where relays of different technologies in Table 9.4, populating the first five columns.
are used, the time appropriate to the technology of the
Relay Current
downstream relay should be used. Fault Current (A)
Maximum Setting Relay Time
Load CT
Location Primary Multiplier
Current Ratio Per
9.12.2 Grading: Fuse to Fuse Maximum Minimum (A) Current Setting
Cent
(A)
The operating time of a fuse is a function of both the pre-
arcing and arcing time of the fusing element, which follows an
2
I t law. So, to achieve proper co-ordination between two
2
fuses in series, it is necessary to ensure that the total I t
taken by the smaller fuse is not greater than the pre-arcing Table 9.4: Typical relay data table
2
I t value of the larger fuse. It has been established by tests It is usual to plot all time/current characteristics to a common
that satisfactory grading between the two fuses will generally voltage/MVA base on log/log scales. The plot includes all
be achieved if the current rating ratio between them is greater relays in a single path, starting with the relay nearest the load
than two. and finishing with the relay nearest the source of supply. A
separate plot is required for each independent path The
9.12.3 Grading: Fuse to Relay settings of any relays that lie on multiple paths must be
For grading inverse time relays with fuses, the basic approach carefully considered to ensure that the final setting is
is to ensure whenever possible that the relay backs up the fuse appropriate for all conditions. Earth faults are considered
and not vice versa. If the fuse is upstream of the relay, it is separately from phase faults and require separate plots.
very difficult to maintain correct discrimination at high values
After relay settings have been finalised they are entered into a
of fault current because of the fast operation of the fuse.
table such as that shown in Table 9.4, populating the last three
The relay characteristic best suited for this co-ordination with columns. This also assists in record keeping during
fuses is normally the extremely inverse (EI) characteristic as it commissioning of the relays at site.
2
follows a similar I t characteristic. To ensure satisfactory co-
ordination between relay and fuse, the primary current setting 9.13.1 Independent (Definite) Time Relays
of the relay should be approximately three times the current The selection of settings for independent (definite) time relays
rating of the fuse. The grading margin for proper co- presents little difficulty. The overcurrent elements must be
ordination, when expressed as a fixed quantity, should not be given settings that are lower, by a reasonable margin, than the
less than 0.4s or, when expressed as a variable quantity, fault current that is likely to flow to a fault at the remote end of
should have a minimum value of: the system up to which back-up protection is required, with
the minimum plant in service. The settings must be high
t' 0.4t 0.15 seconds
enough to avoid relay operation with the maximum probable
Equation 9.4 load, a suitable margin being allowed for large motor starting
where t is the nominal operating time of the fuse. currents or transformer inrush transients. Time settings will be
chosen to allow suitable grading margins, as discussed in
Section 9.20.1 gives an example of fuse to relay grading.
Section 9.12.
9.13 CALCULATION OF PHASE FAULT

9.13.2 Inverse Time Relays
OVERCURRENT RELAY SETTINGS
When the power system consists of a series of short sections
The correct co-ordination of overcurrent relays in a power of cable, so that the total line impedance is low, the value of
system requires the calculation of the estimated relay settings fault current will be controlled principally by the impedance of
in terms of both current and time. The resultant settings are transformers or other fixed plant and will not vary greatly with
then traditionally plotted in suitable log/log format to show the location of the fault. In such cases, it may be possible to
pictorially that a suitable grading margin exists between the grade the inverse time relays in very much the same way as
relays at adjacent substations. Plotting is usually done using definite time relays. However, when the prospective fault
suitable software although it can be done by hand. current varies substantially with the location of the fault, it is
The information required at each relaying point to allow a relay possible to make use of this fact by employing both current
9-11
and time grading to improve the overall performance of the the protection of plain feeders with the zero sequence source
relay. behind the relaying point.
The procedure begins by selection of the appropriate relay Ia
characteristics. Current settings are then chosen, with finally
the time multiplier settings to give appropriate grading
margins between relays. Otherwise, the procedure is similar to
Zero torque line Va
that for definite time delay relays. An example of a relay
A
setting study is given in Section 9.20.1. MT
'
Vbc
9.14 DIRECTIONAL PHASE FAULT 30°
150°
OVERCURRENT RELAYS
When fault current can flow in both directions through the 30°
relay location, it may be necessary to make the response of the
relay directional by the introduction of a directional control Vbc
facility. The facility is provided by use of additional voltage

inputs to the relay.
Vc Vb
9.14.1 Relay Connections

There are many possibilities for a suitable connection of
voltage and current inputs. The various connections are
dependent on the phase angle, at unity system power factor, A phase element connected Ia Vbc
by which the current and voltage applied to the relay are B phase element connected Ib Vca
displaced. Reference [9.1] details all of the connections that C phase element connected Ic Vab
have been used. However, only very few are used in current Figure 9.12: Vector diagram for the 90o-30o connection (phase A
practice and these are described below. element)
In a digital or numerical relay, the phase displacements are 9.14.2.2 90°-45° characteristic (45° RCA)
obtained by software, while electromechanical and static relays
The A phase relay element is supplied with current Ia and
generally obtain the required phase displacements by
voltage Vbc displaced by 45o in an anti-clockwise direction.
connecting the input quantities to the relay. The history of the
The relay maximum sensitivity is produced when the current
topic results in the relay connections being defined as if they
lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 45o. This
were obtained by suitable connection of the input quantities,
connection gives a correct directional tripping zone over the
irrespective of the actual method used.
current range of 45o leading to 135o lagging. The relay
sensitivity at unity power factor is 70.7% of the maximum
9.14.2 90° Relay Quadrature Connection torque and the same at zero power factor lagging; see Figure
This is the standard connection for static, digital or numerical 9.13.
relays. Depending on the angle by which the applied voltage is
This connection is recommended for the protection of
shifted to produce maximum relay sensitivity (the Relay
transformer feeders or feeders that have a zero sequence
Characteristic Angle, or RCA), two types are available.
source in front of the relay. It is essential in the case of parallel
9.14.2.1 90°-30° Characteristic (30° RCA) transformers or transformer feeders, to ensure correct relay
operation for faults beyond the star/delta transformer.
The A phase relay element is supplied with Ia current and Vbc
voltage displaced by 30o in an anti-clockwise direction. In this
case, the relay maximum sensitivity is produced when the
current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 60o. This
connection gives a correct directional tripping zone over the
current range of 30o leading to 150o lagging; see Figure 9.12.
The relay sensitivity at unity power factor is 50% of the relay
maximum sensitivity and 86.6% at zero power factor lagging.
This characteristic is recommended when the relay is used for
line faults. This is done by setting the directional relays R’1

and R’2 in Figure 9.14 with their directional elements looking
into the protected line, and giving them lower time and current
settings than relays R1 and R2. The usual practice is to set
relays R’1 and R’2 to 50% of the normal full load of the
protected circuit and 0.1TMS, but care must be taken to
ensure that the continuous thermal rating of the relays of twice
rated current is not exceeded. An example calculation is given
in Section 9.20.3
R1 R'1
Source I> I> Load
Fault
R2 R'2
I> I>
Figure 9.13: Vector diagram for the 90o-45o connection (phase A Figure 9.14: Directional relays applied to parallel feeders
element)
For a digital or numerical relay, it is common to allow user- 9.15 RING MAINS
selection of the RCA within a wide range. A particularly common arrangement within distribution
networks is the Ring Main. The primary reason for its use is to
Theoretically, three fault conditions can cause maloperation of
maintain supplies to consumers in case of fault conditions
the directional element:
occurring on the interconnecting feeders. A typical ring main
x a phase-phase-ground fault on a plain feeder with associated overcurrent protection is shown in Figure
x a phase-ground fault on a transformer feeder with the 9.15. Current may flow in either direction through the various
zero sequence source in front of the relay relay locations, and therefore directional overcurrent relays are
applied.
x a phase-phase fault on a power transformer with the
relay looking into the delta winding of the transformer In the case of a ring main fed at one point only, the settings of
the relays at the supply end and at the mid-point substation
These conditions are assumed to establish the maximum
are identical. They can therefore be made non-directional, if,
angular displacement between the current and voltage
in the latter case, the relays are located on the same feeder,
quantities at the relay. The magnitude of the current input to
that is, one at each end of the feeder.
the relay is insufficient to cause the overcurrent element to
operate. The possibility of maloperation with the 90o-45o It is interesting to note that when the number of feeders round
connection is non-existent. the ring is an even number, the two relays with the same
operating time are at the same substation. They will therefore
9.14.3 Application of Directional Relays have to be directional. When the number of feeders is an odd
If non-unit, non-directional relays are applied to parallel number, the two relays with the same operating time are at
feeders having a single generating source, any faults that different substations and therefore do not need to be
might occur on any one line will, regardless of the relay directional. It may also be noted that, at intermediate
settings used, isolate both lines and completely disconnect the substations, whenever the operating time of the relays at each
power supply. With this type of system configuration, it is substation are different, the difference between their operating
necessary to apply directional relays at the receiving end and to times is never less than the grading margin, so the relay with
grade them with the non-directional relays at the sending end, the longer operating time can be non-directional. With
to ensure correct discriminative operation of the relays during modern numerical relays, a directional facility is often available
9-13
for little or no extra cost, so that it may be simpler in practice direction. The directional relays are set in accordance with the
to apply directional relays at all locations. Also, in the event of invariable rule, applicable to all forms of directional protection,
an additional feeder being added subsequently, the relays that that the current in the system must flow from the substation
can be non-directional need to be re-determined and will not busbars into the protected line so the relays may operate.
necessarily be the same – giving rise to problems of changing
Disconnection of the faulted line is carried out according to
a non-directional relay for a directional one. If a VT was not
time and fault current direction. As in any parallel system, the
provided originally, this may be very difficult to install at a later
fault current has two parallel paths and divides itself in the
date.
inverse ratio of their impedances. Thus, at each substation in
the ring, one set of relays will be made inoperative because of
9.15.1 Grading of Ring Mains
the direction of current flow, and the other set operative. It
The usual grading procedure for relays in a ring main circuit is will also be found that the operating times of the relays that
to open the ring at the supply point and to grade the relays first are inoperative are faster than those of the operative relays,
clockwise and then anti-clockwise. That is, the relays looking with the exception of the mid-point substation, where the
in a clockwise direction around the ring are arranged to operating times of relays 3 and 3’ happen to be the same.
operate in the sequence 1-2-3-4-5-6 and the relays looking in
the anti-clockwise direction are arranged to operate in the The relays that are operative are graded downwards towards
sequence 1’-2’-3’-4’-5’-6’, as shown in Figure 9.15. the fault and the last to be affected by the fault operates first.
This applies to both paths to the fault. Consequently, the
faulted line is the only one to be disconnected from the ring
and the power supply is maintained to all the substations.
When two or more power sources feed into a ring main, time
graded overcurrent protection is difficult to apply and full
discrimination may not be possible. With two sources of
supply, two solutions are possible. The first is to open the ring
at one of the supply points, whichever is more convenient, by
means of a suitable high set instantaneous overcurrent relay.
The ring is then graded as in the case of a single infeed. The
second method is to treat the section of the ring between the
two supply points as a continuous bus separate from the ring
and to protect it with a unit protection system, and then
proceed to grade the ring as in the case of a single infeed.
Section 9.20.4 provides a worked example of ring main
grading.
9.16 EARTH FAULT PROTECTION

In the foregoing description, attention has been principally
directed towards phase fault overcurrent protection. More
sensitive protection against earth faults can be obtained by
using a relay that responds only to the residual current of the
system, since a residual component exists only when fault
current flows to earth. The earth fault relay is therefore
completely unaffected by load currents, whether balanced or
Figure 9.15: Grading of ring mains not, and can be given a setting which is limited only by the
The arrows associated with the relaying points indicate the design of the equipment and the presence of unbalanced
direction of current flow that will cause the relay to operate. A leakage or capacitance currents to earth. This is an important
double-headed arrow is used to indicate a non-directional consideration if settings of only a few percent of system rating
relay, such as those at the supply point where the power can are considered, since leakage currents may produce a residual
flow only in one direction. A single-headed arrow is used to quantity of this order.
indicate a directional relay, such as those at intermediate On the whole, the low settings permissible for earth fault relays
substations around the ring where the power can flow in either are very useful, as earth faults are not only by far the most
frequent of all faults, but may be limited in magnitude by the sensitive earth fault protection must be used.
neutral earthing impedance, or by earth contact resistance.
9.16.1 Effective Setting of Earth Fault Relays
The residual component is extracted by connecting the line
current transformers in parallel as shown in Figure 9.16. The The primary setting of an overcurrent relay can usually be
simple connection shown in Figure 9.16(a) can be extended by taken as the relay setting multiplied by the CT ratio. The CT
connecting overcurrent elements in the individual phase leads, can be assumed to maintain a sufficiently accurate ratio so
as shown in Figure 9.16(b), and inserting the earth fault relay that, expressed as a percentage of rated current, the primary
between the star points of the relay group and the current setting is directly proportional to the relay setting. However,
transformers. this may not be true for an earth fault relay. The performance
varies according to the relay technology used.
Phase fault overcurrent relays are often provided on only two
phases since these will detect any interphase fault; the 9.16.1.1 Static, digital and numerical relays
connections to the earth fault relay are unaffected by this
When static, digital or numerical relays are used the relatively
consideration. The arrangement is shown in Figure 9.16(c).
low value and limited variation of the relay burden over the
relay setting range results in the above statement holding true.
The variation of input burden with current should be checked
to ensure that the variation is sufficiently small. If not,
substantial errors may occur, and the setting procedure will
have to follow that for electromechanical relays.
9.16.1.2 Electromechanical Relays

When using an electromechanical relay, the earth fault
element generally will be similar to the phase elements. It will
have a similar VA consumption at setting, but will impose a far
higher burden at nominal or rated current, because of its lower
setting. For example, a relay with a setting of 20% will have an
impedance of 25 times that of a similar element with a setting
of 100%. Very frequently, this burden will exceed the rated
burden of the current transformers. It might be thought that
correspondingly larger current transformers should be used,
but this is considered to be unnecessary. The current
transformers that handle the phase burdens can operate the
earth fault relay and the increased errors can easily be allowed
for.
Not only is the exciting current of the energising current
transformer proportionately high due to the large burden of the
earth fault relay, but the voltage drop on this relay is impressed
on the other current transformers of the paralleled group,
whether they are carrying primary current or not. The total
exciting current is therefore the product of the magnetising
loss in one CT and the number of current transformers in
parallel. The summated magnetising loss can be appreciable
Figure 9.16: Residual connection of current transformers to earth in comparison with the operating current of the relay, and in
fault relays
extreme cases where the setting current is low or the current
The typical settings for earth fault relays are 30%-40% of the transformers are of low performance, may even exceed the
full-load current or minimum earth fault current on the part of output to the relay. The ‘effective setting current’ in secondary
the system being protected. However, account may have to be terms is the sum of the relay setting current and the total
taken of the variation of setting with relay burden as described excitation loss. Strictly speaking, the effective setting is the
in Section 9.16.1. If greater sensitivity than this is required, vector sum of the relay setting current and the total exciting
one of the methods described in Section 9.16.3 for obtaining current, but the arithmetic sum is near enough, because of the
9-15
similarity of power factors. It is instructive to calculate the 30

effective setting for a range of setting values of a relay, a
Secondary voltage
process that is set out in Table 9.5, with the results shown in
20
Figure 9.17.
The effect of the relatively high relay impedance and the
summation of CT excitation losses in the residual circuit is 10
augmented still further by the fact that, at setting, the flux Current transformer
density in the current transformers corresponds to the bottom excitation characteristic
bend of the excitation characteristic. The exciting impedance 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
under this condition is relatively low, causing the ratio error to Exciting current (amperes)
be high. The current transformer actually improves in
performance with increased primary current, while the relay 100
impedance decreases until, with an input current several times
Effective setting (per cent)

80
greater than the primary setting, the multiple of setting current
in the relay is appreciably higher than the multiple of primary
60
setting current which is applied to the primary circuit. This
causes the relay operating time to be shorter than might be 40
expected.
20
At still higher input currents, the CT performance falls off until
finally the output current ceases to increase substantially.
Beyond this value of input current, operation is further 0 20 40 60 80 100
complicated by distortion of the output current waveform. Relay setting (per cent)
Figure 9.17: Effective setting of earth fault relay
Relay Plug Setting Coil voltage Exciting Effective Setting
% Current (A) at Setting (V) Current Ie Current (A) % 9.16.1.3 Time Grading of Electromechanical Earth Fault
5 0.25 12 0.583 2 40 Relays
10 0.5 6 0.405 1.715 34.3 The time grading of earth fault relays can be arranged in the
15 0.75 4 0.3 1.65 33 same manner as for phase fault relays. The time/primary
20 1 3 0.27 1.81 36 current characteristic for electromechanical relays cannot be
40 2 1.5 0.17 2.51 50 kept proportionate to the relay characteristic with anything like
60 3 1 0.12 3.36 67 the accuracy that is possible for phase fault relays. As shown
80 4 0.75 0.1 4.3 86 above, the ratio error of the current transformers at relay
100 5 0.6 0.08 5.24 105
setting current may be very high. It is clear that time grading
Table 9.5: Calculation of effective settings
of electromechanical earth fault relays is not such a simple
matter as the procedure adopted for phase relays in Table 9.4.
Either the above factors must be taken into account with the
errors calculated for each current level, making the process
much more tedious, or longer grading margins must be
allowed. However, for other types of relay, the procedure
adopted for phase fault relays can be used.
9.16.2 Sensitive Earth Fault Protection

LV systems are not normally earthed through an impedance,
due to the resulting overvoltages that may occur and
consequential safety implications. HV systems may be
designed to accommodate such overvoltages, but not the
majority of LV systems.
However, it is quite common to earth HV systems through an
impedance that limits the earth fault current. Further, in some
countries, the resistivity of the earth path may be very high due Cable gland
to the nature of the ground itself (e.g. desert or rock). A fault
Cable box
to earth not involving earth conductors may result in the flow
of only a small current, insufficient to operate a normal
protection system. A similar difficulty also arises in the case of
Cable gland /sheath I >
broken line conductors, which, after falling on to hedges or dry ground connection
metalled roads, remain energised because of the low leakage
current, and therefore present a danger to life. (a) Physical connections
To overcome the problem, it is necessary to provide an earth

fault protection system with a setting that is considerably
lower than the normal line protection. This presents no
difficulty to a modern digital or numerical relay. However,
older electromechanical or static relays may present difficulties
due to the high effective burden they may present to the CT.
The required sensitivity cannot normally be provided by means
of conventional CTs. A core balance current transformer No operation
(CBCT) will normally be used. The CBCT is a current I >
transformer mounted around all three phase (and neutral if

(b) Incorrect positioning
present) conductors so that the CT secondary current is
proportional to the residual (i.e. earth) current. Such a CT can
be made to have any convenient ratio suitable for operating a
sensitive earth fault relay element. By use of such techniques,
earth fault settings down to 10% of the current rating of the
circuit to be protected can be obtained.
Care must be taken to position a CBCT correctly in a cable
circuit. If the cable sheath is earthed, the earth connection
Operation
from the cable gland/sheath junction must be taken through I >
the CBCT primary to ensure that phase-sheath faults are
detected. Figure 9.18 shows the correct and incorrect (c) Correct positioning
methods. With the incorrect method, the fault current in the Figure 9.18: Positioning of core balance current transformers
sheath is not seen as an unbalance current and hence relay
operation does not occur. 9.17 DIRECTIONAL EARTH FAULT
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
The normal residual current that may flow during healthy
conditions limits the application of non-directional sensitive Directional earth fault overcurrent may need to be applied in
earth fault protection. Such residual effects can occur due to the following situations:
unbalanced leakage or capacitance in the system. x for earth fault protection where the overcurrent
protection is by directional relays
x in insulated-earth networks
x in Petersen coil earthed networks
x where the sensitivity of sensitive earth fault protection
is insufficient – use of a directional earth fault relay
may provide greater sensitivity
The relay elements previously described as phase fault
elements respond to the flow of earth fault current, and it is
important that their directional response be correct for this
condition. If a special earth fault element is provided as
described in Section 9.16 (which will normally be the case), a
related directional element is needed.
9-17
9.17.1 Relay Connections star point of the primary windings of the interposing voltage
The residual current is extracted as shown in Figure 9.16. transformers must be connected to the star point of the
Since this current may be derived from any phase, to obtain a secondary windings of the main voltage transformers.
directional response it is necessary to obtain an appropriate The residual voltage will be zero for balanced phase voltages.
quantity to polarise the relay. In digital or numerical relays For simple earth fault conditions, it will be equal to the
there are usually two choices provided. depression of the faulted phase voltage. In all cases the
residual voltage is equal to three times the zero sequence
9.17.2 Residual Voltage voltage drop on the source impedance and is therefore
A suitable quantity is the residual voltage of the system. This is displaced from the residual current by the characteristic angle
the vector sum of the individual phase voltages. If the of the source impedance. The residual quantities are applied to
secondary windings of a three-phase, five limb voltage the directional element of the earth fault relay.
transformer or three single-phase units are connected in The residual current is phase offset from the residual voltage
broken delta, the voltage developed across its terminals will be and hence angle adjustment is required. Typically, the current
the vector sum of the phase to ground voltages and hence the will lag the polarising voltage. The method of system earthing
residual voltage of the system, as shown in Figure 9.19. also affects the Relay Characteristic Angle (RCA), and the
A following settings are usual:
B x Resistance-earthed system: 0 RCA
o
C
x Distribution system, solidly-earthed: -45 RCA
o
x Transmission system, solidly-earthed: -60 RCA

o
The different settings for distribution and transmission systems

arise from the different X/R ratios found in these systems.
I >
9.17.3 Negative Sequence Current
(a) Relay connections The residual voltage at any point in the system may be
Va Va 3Io insufficient to polarise a directional relay, or the voltage
Va2 transformers available may not satisfy the conditions for
providing residual voltage. In these circumstances, negative
sequence current can be used as the polarising quantity. The
3Vo fault direction is determined by comparison of the negative
Vc Vb Vc Vb
sequence voltage with the negative sequence current. The
RCA must be set based on the angle of the negative phase
(b) Balanced system (c) Unbalanced system sequence source voltage.
(zero residual volts) phase A to ground
fault (3Vo residual volts)
Figure 9.19: Voltage polarised directional earth fault relay 9.18 EARTH FAULT PROTECTION ON
INSULATED NETWORKS
The primary star point of the VT must be earthed. However, a
three-phase, three limb VT is not suitable, as there is no path Occasionally, a power system is run completely insulated from
for the residual magnetic flux. earth. The advantage of this is that a single phase-earth fault
on the system does not cause any earth fault current to flow,
When the main voltage transformer associated with the high and so the whole system remains operational. The system
voltage system is not provided with a broken delta secondary must be designed to withstand high transient and steady-state
winding to polarise the directional earth fault relay, it is overvoltages however, so its use is generally restricted to low
permissible to use three single-phase interposing voltage and medium voltage systems.
transformers. Their primary windings are connected in star
and their secondary windings are connected in broken delta. It is vital that detection of a single phase-earth fault is
For satisfactory operation, however, it is necessary to ensure achieved, so that the fault can be traced and rectified. While
that the main voltage transformers are of a suitable system operation is unaffected for this condition, the
construction to reproduce the residual voltage and that the star occurrence of a second earth fault allows substantial currents
point of the primary winding is solidly earthed. In addition, the to flow.
The absence of earth fault current for a single phase-earth phase-earth fault is present. The relays on the healthy feeders
fault clearly presents some difficulties in fault detection. Two see the unbalance in charging currents for their own feeders.
methods are available using modern relays. The relay in the faulted feeder sees the charging currents in the
rest of the system, with the current of its’ own feeders
9.18.1 Residual Voltage cancelled out. Figure 9.21 shows the phasor diagram.
When a single phase-earth fault occurs, the healthy phase
voltages rise by a factor of 3 and the three phase voltages
no longer have a phasor sum of zero. Hence, a residual
voltage element can be used to detect the fault. However, the
method does not provide any discrimination, as the
unbalanced voltage occurs on the whole of the affected section
of the system. One advantage of this method is that no CTs
are required, as voltage is being measured. However, the
requirements for the VTs as given in Section 9.17.1.1 apply.
Grading is a problem with this method, since all relays in the
affected section will see the fault. It may be possible to use
definite-time grading, but in general, it is not possible to
provide fully discriminative protection using this technique.
Figure 9.21: Phasor diagram for insulated system with C phase-earth

fault
Use of Core Balance CTs is essential. With reference to Figure
9.21, the unbalance current on the healthy feeders lags the
residual voltage by 90º
. The charging currents on these feeders will be 3 times the
normal value, as the phase-earth voltages have risen by this
amount. The magnitude of the residual current is therefore
three times the steady-state charging current per phase. As
the residual currents on the healthy and faulted feeders are in
antiphase, use of a directional earth fault relay can provide the
discrimination required.
The polarising quantity used is the residual voltage. By shifting
this by 90o, the residual current seen by the relay on the
faulted feeder lies within the ‘operate’ region of the directional
characteristic, while the residual currents on the healthy
feeders lie within the ‘restrain’ region. Thus, the RCA required
is 90o. The relay setting has to lie between one and three
times the per-phase charging current.
Figure 9.20: Current distribution in an insulated system with a C This may be calculated at the design stage, but confirmation
phase–earth fault by means of tests on-site is usual. A single phase-earth fault is
deliberately applied and the resulting currents noted, a process
9.18.2 Sensitive Earth Fault made easier in a modern digital or numeric relay by the
This method is principally applied to MV systems, as it relies on measurement facilities provided. As noted earlier, application
detection of the imbalance in the per-phase charging currents of such a fault for a short period does not involve any
that occurs. disruption to the network, or fault currents, but the duration
should be as short as possible to guard against a second such
Figure 9.20 shows the situation that occurs when a single
fault occurring.
9-19
It is also possible to dispense with the directional element if the

relay can be set at a current value that lies between the
charging current on the feeder to be protected and the
charging current of the rest of the system.
V an
V an
jXL I f I B I C
9.19 EARTH FAULT PROTECTION ON jXL

V ab

V ac
V an j XC j XC
0 if I B IC
PETERSEN COIL EARTHED NETWORKS jXL
Petersen Coil earthing is a special case of high impedance

earthing. The network is earthed via a reactor, whose
reactance is made nominally equal to the total system
capacitance to earth. Under this condition, a single phase-
earth fault does not result in any earth fault current in steady-
state conditions. The effect is therefore similar to having an
insulated system. The effectiveness of the method is
dependent on the accuracy of tuning of the reactance value –
changes in system capacitance (due to system configuration
changes for instance) require changes to the coil reactance. In
practice, perfect matching of the coil reactance to the system
capacitance is difficult to achieve, so that a small earth fault
current will flow. Petersen Coil earthed systems are commonly
found in areas where the system consists mainly of rural Figure 9.22: Earth fault in Petersen Coil earthed system
overhead lines, and are particularly beneficial in locations
subject to a high incidence of transient faults.
To understand how to correctly apply earth fault protection to
such systems, system behaviour under earth fault conditions
must first be understood. Figure 9.22 shows a simple network
earthed through a Petersen Coil. The equations clearly show
that, if the reactor is correctly tuned, no earth fault current will
flow.
Figure 9.23 shows a radial distribution system earthed using a
Petersen Coil. One feeder has a phase-earth fault on phase C.
Figure 9.24 shows the resulting phasor diagrams, assuming
that no resistance is present. In Figure 9.24(a), it can be seen
that the fault causes the healthy phase voltages to rise by a
factor of 3 and the charging currents lead the voltages by
90o.
Figure 9.23: Distribution of currents during a C phase-earth fault –

radial distribution system
IOF
IROF Faulted
feeder
IROH
Healthy
IROH feeders
IL
IH3 IH2 IH1

3XL -Vo
Xco
Key :
IROF = Residual current on faulted feeder
IROH = Residual current on healthy feeder
It can therefore be seen that :-
IOF = IL - IH1 - IH2 - IH3
IROF = IH3 + IOF
So :-
IROF = IL - IH1 - IH2
Figure 9.25: Zero sequence network showing residual currents
Figure 9.24: C phase-earth fault in Petersen Coil earthed network:

theoretical case –no resistance present in XL or XC
Using a CBCT, the unbalance currents seen on the healthy
feeders can be seen to be a simple vector addition of Ia1 and
Ib1 and this lies at exactly 90o lagging to the residual voltage
(Figure 9.24(b)). The magnitude of the residual current IR1 is
equal to three times the steady-state charging current per
phase. On the faulted feeder, the residual current is equal to
IL - IH1 - IH2, as shown in Figure 9.24(c) and more clearly by
the zero sequence network of Figure 9.25.
However, in practical cases, resistance is present and Figure
9.26 shows the resulting phasor diagrams. If the residual
voltage Vres is used as the polarising voltage, the residual
current is phase shifted by an angle less than 90o on the
faulted feeder and greater than 90o on the healthy feeders.
Hence a directional relay can be used, and with an RCA of 0o,
the healthy feeder residual current will fall in the ‘restrain’ area Figure 9.26: C phase-earth fault in Petersen Coil earthed network:
of the relay characteristic while the faulted feeder residual practical case with resistance present in XL or XC
current falls in the ‘operate’ area. Often, a resistance is deliberately inserted in parallel with the
Petersen Coil to ensure a measurable earth fault current and
increase the angular difference between the residual signals to
aid relay application.
Having established that a directional relay can be used, two
possibilities exist for the type of protection element that can be
applied – sensitive earth fault and zero sequence wattmetric.
9-21
9.19.1 Sensitive Earth Fault Protection quantities instead of zero sequence ones. The resulting values
To apply this form of protection, the relay must meet two are therefore nine times the zero sequence quantities as the
requirements: residual values of current and voltage are each three times the
corresponding zero sequence values. The equation used is:
x current measurement setting capable of being set to
very low values Vres u I res u cosM M c
x an RCA of 0o, and capable of fine adjustment around 9 u VO u I O u cosM M c
this value
Equation 9.5
The sensitive current element is required because of the very
low current that may flow – so settings of less than 0.5% of where:
rated current may be required. However, as compensation by Vres = residual voltage
the Petersen Coil may not be perfect, low levels of steady-state
Ires = residual current
earth fault current will flow and increase the residual current
seen by the relay. An often used setting value is the per phase VO = zero sequence voltage
charging current of the circuit being protected. Fine tuning of
IO = zero sequence current
the RCA is also required about the 0o setting, to compensate
for coil and feeder resistances and the performance of the CT = angle between Vres and Ires
used. In practice, these adjustments are best carried out on
C = relay characteristic angle setting
site through deliberate application of faults and recording of
the resulting currents. The current and RCA settings are as for a sensitive earth fault
relay.
9.19.2 Sensitive Wattmetric Protection
It can be seen in Figure 9.26 that a small angular difference
9.20 EXAMPLES OF TIME AND CURRENT
exists between the spill current on the healthy and faulted GRADING
feeders. Figure 9.27 shows how this angular difference gives This section provides details of the time/current grading of
rise to active components of current which are in antiphase to some example networks, to illustrate the process of relay
each other. setting calculations and relay grading. They are based on the
use of a modern numerical overcurrent relay shown in Figure
9.28 with setting data taken from this relay.
Figure 9.27: Resistive components of spill current

Consequently, the active components of zero sequence power
will also lie in similar planes and a relay capable of detecting
active power can make a discriminatory decision. If the
wattmetric component of zero sequence power is detected in
the forward direction, it indicates a fault on that feeder, while a Figure 9.28: MiCOM numerical overcurrent relay
power in the reverse direction indicates a fault elsewhere on
the system. This method of protection is more popular than
the sensitive earth fault method, and can provide greater
security against false operation due to spurious CBCT output
under non-earth fault conditions.
Wattmetric power is calculated in practice using residual
9.20.1 Relay Phase Fault Setting Example – IDMT as 500MVA, as follows:

Relays/Fuses x Reactor R1
4 u 500
Z R1 100%
20
x Cable C1
0.096
Z C1 u2 0.038:
5
On 500MVA base,
0.038 u 100 u 500

Z C1 15.7%
112
x Cables C2,C3
ZC 2 , ZC3 0.158:
On 500MVA base,
0.158 u 100 u 500

ZC 2 , ZC3 65.3%
112
x Source Impedance (500MVA base)
500
ZS u 100% 100%
500
9.20.1.2 Fault Levels

The fault levels are calculated as follows:
x (i) At bus C, For 2 feeders,
500 u 100
Fault Level = MVA
Z R1 Z S Z C1 Z C 2
2
Figure 9.29: IDMT relay grading example = 201MVA = 10.6kA on 11kV base. For a single feeder,
In the system shown in Figure 9.29., the problem is to fault level = 178MVA = 9.33kA
calculate appropriate relay settings for relays 1-5 inclusive. x (ii) At bus B
Because the example is concerned with grading,
500 u 100
considerations such as bus-zone protection and CT knee-point Fault Level = MVA
voltage requirements are not dealt with. All curves are plotted Z S Z C1 Z R1
to an 11kV base. The contactors in series with fuses FS1/FS2 = 232MVA = 12.2kA
have a maximum breaking capacity of 3kA, and relay F2 has x (iii) At bus A
been set to ensure that the fuse operates before the contactor
for currents in excess of this value. CTs for relays F1, F2 and 5
are existing CTs with 5A secondaries, while the remaining CTs 500 u 100
Fault Level = MVA
are new with 1A secondaries. Relay 5 is the property of the Z S Z C1
supply utility, and is required to be set using an SI
= 432MVA = 22.7kA
characteristic to ensure grading with upstream relays.
x (iv) Source
9.20.1.1 Impedance Calculations Fault Level = 500MVA = 26.3kA
All impedances must first be referred to a common base, taken
9-23
9.20.1.3 CT Ratio Selection The relay must discriminate with the longest operating time
This requires consideration not only of the maximum load between relays F1, F2 and fuse FS2 (being the largest fuse) at
current, but also of the maximum secondary current under the maximum fault level seen by relays 1 and 2. The
fault conditions. maximum fault current seen by relay 1 for a fault at Busbar C
occurs when only one of cables C2, C3 is in service. This is
CT secondaries are generally rated to carry a short-term because the whole of the fault current then flows through the
current equal to 100 x rated secondary current. Therefore, a feeder that is in service. With two feeders in service, although
check is required that none of the new CT secondaries has a the fault level at Busbar C is higher, each relay only sees half of
current of more than 100A when maximum fault current is the total fault current, which is less than the fault current with
flowing in the primary. Using the calculated fault currents, this a single feeder in service. With EI characteristics used for
condition is satisfied, so modifications to the CT ratios are not relays F1 and F2, the operating time for relay F1 is 0.02s at
required. TMS=0.1 because the fault current is greater than 20 times
relay setting, at which point the EI characteristic becomes
9.20.1.4 Relay Overcurrent Settings – Relays 1/2 definite time (Figure 9.4) and 0.05s for relay F2 (TMS=0.25).
These relays perform overcurrent protection of the cable
Hence select relay 1 operating time = 0.3+0.05=0.35s, to
feeders, Busbar C and backup-protection to relays F1, F2 and
ensure grading with relay F2 at a fault current of 9.33kA.
their associated fuses FS1 and FS2. The settings for Relays 1
and 2 will be identical, so calculations will only be performed With a primary setting of 480A, a fault current of 9.33kA
for Relay 1. Consider first the current setting of the relay. represents
Relay 1 must be able to reset at a current of 400A – the rating 9330/480 = 19.44 times setting
of the feeder. The relay has a drop-off/pick-up ratio of 0.95, so
Thus relay 1 operating time at TMS=1.0 is 0.21s. The required
the relay current setting must not be less than 400/0.95A, or
TMS setting is given by the formula:
421A. A suitable setting that is greater than this value is
450A. However, Section 9.12.3 also recommends that the Operation Time Required / Actual Operation Time @ TMS=1
current setting should be three times the largest fuse rating
0.35
(i.e. 3 x 160A, the rating of the largest fuse on the outgoing ?TMS 1.66
circuits from Busbar C), leading to a current setting of 480A, 0.21
or 96% of relay rated primary current. Note that in this If this value of TMS is outside the settable range of the relay
application of relays to a distribution system, the question of (maximum setting was 1.2 in historical variants), changes
maximum and minimum fault levels are probably not relevant must be made to the relay current setting. This is necessary to
as the difference between maximum and minimum fault levels bring the value of TMS required into the range available,
will be very small. However in other applications where provided this does not result in the inability of the relay to
significant differences between maximum and minimum fault operate at the minimum fault level.
levels exist, it is essential to ensure that the selection of a
By re-arrangement of the formula for the EI characteristic:
current setting that is greater than full load current does not
result in the relay failing to operate under minimum fault
§ 80 ·
current conditions. Such a situation may arise for example in a I srIf ¨ 1¸
self-contained power system with its own generation. © t ¹
Minimum generation may be represented by the presence of a Where
single generator and the difference between minimum fault
level and maximum load level may make the choice of relay t= the required operation time (sec)
current settings difficult. IsrIf = setting of relay at fault current
The grading margin now has to be considered. For simplicity, Hence, with t= 0.35, IsrIf = 15.16
a fixed grading margin of 0.3s between relays is used in the
calculations, in accordance with Table 9.3. Between fuse and 9330
Or, I srI 615.4 A
relay, Equation 9.4 is applied, and with fuse FS2 pre-arcing 15.16
time of 0.01s (from Figure 9.30), the grading margin is 616
0.154s. So, I srI 1.232
500
Consider first the IDMT overcurrent protection. Select the EI
Use 1.24 = 620A nearest available value
characteristic, as fuses exist downstream, to ensure grading.
At a TMS of 1.0, operation time at 9330A 5.3kA represents 5300/1060 = 5 times setting for relay 3, and
thus the time multiplier setting of relay 3 should be 0.33 to
80
0.355s give an operating time of 1.11s at 5 times setting. Thus
2
§ 9330 · condition 1 represents the worst case and the time multiplier
¨ ¸ 1
© 620 ¹ setting of relay 3 should be set at 0.84. In practice, a value of
0.85 is used as the nearest available setting on the relay.
Hence, required TMS = 0.35/0.355 = 0.99, for convenience,
use a TMS of 1.0, slightly greater than the required value. Relay 3 also has an instantaneous element. This is set so that
it does not operate for the maximum through-fault current
From the grading curves of Figure 9.30, it can be seen that seen by the relay and a setting of 130% of this value is
there are no grading problems with fuse FS1 or relays F1 and satisfactory. The setting is therefore:
F2.
1.3 x 12.2kA = 15.86kA
9.20.1.5 Relay Overcurrent Settings - Relay 3 This is equal to a current setting of 14.96 times the setting of
This relay provides overcurrent protection for reactor R1, and relay 3.
backup overcurrent protection for cables C2 and C3. The
overcurrent protection also provides busbar protection for 9.20.1.6 Relay 4
Busbar B. This must grade with relay 3 and relay 5. The supply authority
Again, the EI characteristic is used to ensure grading with requires that relay 5 use an SI characteristic to ensure grading
relays 1 and 2. The maximum load current is 1000A. Relay 3 with relays further upstream, so the SI characteristic will be
current setting is therefore: used for relay 4 also. Relay 4 must grade with relay 3 at Bus A
maximum fault level of 22.7kA. However with the use of an
feederFLC instantaneous high set element for relay 3, the actual grading
I sr 3 !
CTprimary u 0.95 point becomes the point at which the high set setting of relay 3
operates, i.e. 15.86kA. At this current, the operation time of
Substituting values, Isr3>1052A relay 3 is
Use a setting of 106% or 1060A, nearest available setting
80
above 1052A. u 0.85s 0.305s
14.962 1
Relay 3 has to grade with relays 1/2 under two conditions:
Thus, relay 4 required operating time is
x Condition 1: for a fault just beyond relays 1 and 2
where the fault current is the busbar fault current of 0.305 + 0.3 = 0.605s at a fault level of 15.86kA.
12.2kA Relay 4 current setting must be at least
x Condition 2: for a fault at Bus C where the fault current
2800
seen by either relay 1 or 2 is half the total Bus C fault 98%
current of 10.6kA, i.e. 5.3kA 3000 u 0.95
Examining first condition 1. With a current setting of 620A, a For convenience, use a value of 100% (=3000A). Thus relay 4
TMS of 1.0 and a fault current of 12.2kA, relay 1 operates in must operate in 0.605s at 15860/3000 = 5.29 times setting.
0.21s. Using a grading interval of 0.3s, relay 3 must therefore Thus select a time multiplier setting of 0.15, giving a relay
operate in operating time of 0.62s for a normal inverse type
characteristic.
0.3+0.21=0.51s at a fault current of 12.2kA
At this stage, it is instructive to review the grading curves,
12.2kA represents 12200/1060 = 11.51 times setting for relay which are shown in Figure 9.30(a). While it can be seen that
3 and thus the time multiplier setting of relay 3 should be 0.84 there are no grading problems between the fuses and relays
to give an operating time of 0.51s at 11.51 times setting. 1/2, and between relays F1/2 and relays 1/2, it is clear that
Consider now condition 2. With settings of 620A and TMS of relay 3 and relay 4 do not grade over the whole range of fault
1.0 and a fault current of 5.3kA, relay 1 operates in 1.11s. current. This is a consequence of the change in characteristic
Using a grading interval of 0.3s, relay 3 must therefore operate for relay 4 to SI from the EI characteristic of relay 3 to ensure
in grading of relay 4 with relay 5. The solution is to increase the
TMS setting of relay 4 until correct grading is achieved. The
0.3+1.11=1.41s at a fault current of 5.3kA
alternative is to increase the current setting, but this is
9-25
undesirable unless the limit of the TMS setting is reached, must operate in
because the current setting should always be as low as
0.3 + 0.93 = 1.23s at 22.7kA
possible to help ensure positive operation of the relay and A current setting of 110% of relay 4 current setting (i.e. 110%
provide overload protection. Trial and error is often used, but or 3300A) is chosen to ensure relay 4 picks up prior to relay 5.
suitable software can speed the task – for instance it is not Thus 22.7kA represents 6.88 times the setting of relay 5.
difficult to construct a spreadsheet with the fuse/relay Relay 5 must grade with relay 4 at a fault current of 22.7kA,
operation times and grading margins calculated. Satisfactory where the required operation time is 1.23s. At a TMS of 1.0,
grading can be found for relay 4 setting values of: relay 5 operation time is
IsrI4 = 1.0 or 3000A; TMS = 0.275
0.14
03.56s
At 22.7kA, the operation time of relay 4 is 0.93s. The revised
6.880.02 1
grading curves are shown in Figure 9.30(b).
Therefore, the required TMS is 1.23/3.56 = 0.345, use 0.35
100.00
nearest available value.
The protection grading curves that result are shown in Figure
10.00 9.31 and the setting values in Table 9.6. Grading is now
satisfactory.
1.00
In situations where one of the relays to be graded is provided
by a third party, it is common for the settings of the relay to be
specified and this may lead to a lack of co-ordination between
0.10 this relay and others (usually those downstream). Negotiation
is then required to try and achieve acceptable settings, but it is
often the case that no change to the settings of the relay
0.01
100 1000 10000 100000
provided by the third party is allowed. A lack of co-ordination
Current (A) between relays then has to be accepted over at least part of
(a) Initial grading curves. the range of fault currents.
100.00
Relay Settings
Max
Relay Load
Fault Current Setting
or current
Current CT Fuse
Characteristic TMS
10.00 Fuse Ratio Rating
Primary Per
(A) kA
Amps Cent
F1 190 10.6 200/5 EI 100 100 0.1
1.00
F2 130 10.6 150/5 EI 150 120 0.25
FS1 90 10.6 - 125A
0.10 FS2 130 10.6 - 160A - - -

1 400 12.2 500/1 EI 620 124 1
2 400 12.2 500/1 EI 620 124 1
0.01
100 1000 10000 100000
EI 1060 106 0.85
3 1000 22.7 1000/1
Current (A) Instantaneous 15860 14.96 -
(b) Revised grading curves 4 3000 22.7 3000/1 SI 3000 100 0.275
5 3000 26.25 3000/5 SI 3300 110 0.35
Relay F1 Relays 1/2
Table 9.6: Relay settings for overcurrent relay example
Relay F2 Relay 3
Fuse FS1 Relay 4
Fuse FS2
Figure 9.30: Overcurrent grading exercise - initial relay grading curves
9.20.1.7 Relay 5
Relay 5 must grade with relay 4 at a fault current of 22.7kA.
At this fault current, relay 4 operates in 0.93s and thus relay 5
100.00 detect and isolate low level earth faults not seen by the phase
fault elements. Following the guidelines of Section 9.16,
relays 1/2 can use a current setting of 30% (150A) and a TMS
10.00 of 0.2, using the EI characteristic. Grading of relays 3/4/5
Time (sec)
follows the same procedure as described for the phase-fault

elements of these relays.
1.00
9.20.3 Protection of Parallel Feeders

Figure 9.32(a) shows two parallel transformer feeders forming
0.10
part of a supply circuit. Impedances are as shown in the
diagram. The example shows that unless relays 2 and 3 are
made directional, they maloperate for a fault at F3. Also
0.01
100 1000 10000 100000 shown is how to calculate appropriate relay settings for all six
Current (A)
relays to ensure satisfactory protection for faults at locations
Relay F1 Relays 1/2 F1-F4.
Relay F2 Relay 3
Fuse FS1 Relay 4

Figure 9.32(b) shows the impedance diagram, to 100MVA,
Fuse FS2 Relay 5
110kV base. The fault currents for faults with various system
configurations are shown in Table 9.7.
Figure 9.31: Final relay grading curves for overcurrent relay example
4 T1 2
220/110kV
I> I>
9.20.2 Relay Earth Fault Settings Id
50MVA
Z=12.5%
Ia Ic
The procedure for setting the earth fault elements is identical IF4 IF3
6
to that for the overcurrent elements, except that zero sequence Source I>
Bus P
220kV F4 F3
10000MVA
impedances must be used if available and different from
If IF1
1
positive sequence impedances to calculate fault levels. T2
220/110kV Bus Q I>
50MVA 110kV F1
However, such impedances are frequently not available, or Ie
Z=12.5%
Ib
known only approximately and the phase fault current levels 5 3
IF2
have to be used. Note that earth fault levels can be higher I> I>
than phase fault levels if the system contains multiple earth F2

(a) Circuit diagram
points or if earth fault levels are considered on the star side of
a delta-star transformer when the star winding is solidly 4 2
I> I>
earthed. Z=0.25pu
Id Ia Ic
On the circuit with fuse F2, low-level earth faults may not be 6
IF4 IF3
Bus P
of sufficient magnitude to blow the fuse. Attempting to grade Source
0.01pu
I> F4 F3
If
the earth fault element of the upstream relay with fuse F2 will IF1
1
not be possible. Similarly, relays F1 and F2 have phase fault Bus Q I>
F1
settings that do not provide effective protection against earth Ie Z=0.25pu Ib
faults. The remedy would be to modify the downstream 5 3 IF2

I>
protection, but such considerations lie outside the scope of this I> All impedances to
100MVA, 110kV base
F2
example. In general therefore, the earth fault elements of (b) Impedance diagram
relays upstream of circuits with only phase fault protection (i.e. Figure 9.32: System diagram: Parallel feeder example
relays with only phase fault elements or fuses) will have to be
Fault System Currents (A)
set with a compromise that they will detect downstream earth
Position Configuration Fault Ia Ib Ic Id Ie If
faults but will not provide a discriminative trip. This illustrates
the practical point that it is rare in anything other than a very F1 2 fdrs 3888 1944 1944 0 972 972 1944
simple network to achieve satisfactory grading for all faults F1/F2 1 fdr 2019 2019 0 0 1009 0 1009
throughout the network. F2 2 fdrs 3888 1944 1944 0 972 972 1944
F3 2 fdrs 3888 1944 1944 1944 972 972 1944
In the example of Figure 9.29, the difference in fault levels
between phase to phase and phase to earth faults is probably F4 1 fdr 26243 0 0 0 26243 0 26243
very small so the only function of earth fault elements is to Table 9.7: Fault currents for parallel feeder example
9-27
If relays 2 and 3 are non-directional, then, using SI relay x relay 4 is graded with relay 1 for faults at location F1
characteristics for all relays, grading of the relays is dictated by with one transformer feeder in service
the following: x relay 4 is graded with relay 3 for faults at location F3
x fault at location F1, with 2 feeders in service with two transformer feeders in service
x fault at location F4, with one feeder in service x relay 6 grades with relay 4 for faults at F4
The settings shown in Figure 9.33(a) can be arrived at, with x relay 6 also has to grade with relay 4 for faults at F1
the relay operation times shown in Figure 9.33 (b). It is clear with both transformer feeders in service – relay 6 sees
that for a fault at F3 with both transformer feeders in service, the total fault current but relay 4 only 50% of this
relay 3 operates at the same time as relay 2 and results in total current
disconnection of Bus Q and all consumers supplied solely from Normal rules about calculating current setting values of relays
it. This is undesirable – the advantages of duplicated 100% in series apply. The settings and resulting operation times are
rated transformers have been lost. given in Figure 9.34(b) and(c) respectively.
T1
4 220/110kV 2
I> 50MVA I>
Z=12.5%
Id Ia Ic
IF4 IF3
6
Bus P
I> 220kV F4 F3
If
T2 1 IF1
Source 220/110kV Bus Q
10000MVA 50MVA I>
110kV F1
Z=12.5%
Ie Ib
5 3
IF2
I> I>
F2
(a) Circuit diagram
Current
Relay CT Primary TMS Characteristic
Setting
1 300 1 0.2 SI
2 300 0.42 0.1 SI
3 300 0.42 0.1 SI
4 300 0.6 0.275 SI
5 300 0.6 0.275 SI
6 300 0.7 0.475 SI
(b) Relay settings

100.00
10.00
1.00
Figure 9.33: Relay grading for parallel feeder example – non-

directional relays 0.10
100 1000 10000 100000
(ii) (i) (iii)
By making relays 2 and 3 directional as shown in Figure Current (A) - referred to 110kV
9.34 (a), lower settings for these relays can be adopted – they (i) Fault current 3888A - faults F1, F2, F3 - 2 feeders Relay 1
Relays 2/3
(ii) Fault current 2019A - faults F1, F2 - 1 feeder
can be set as low as reasonably practical but normally a (iii) Fault current 26243A - fault F4 - 1 feeder
Relays 4/5
Relay 6
current setting of about 50% of feeder full load current is used, (c) Relay characteristics
with a TMS of 0.1. Grading rules can be established as Figure 9.34: Relay grading for parallel feeder example – directional
follows: relays
In practice, a complete protection study would include
instantaneous elements on the primary side of the
transformers and analysis of the situation with only one
transformer in service. These have been omitted from this Figure 9.36 shows the impedance diagram for these two
example, as the purpose is to illustrate the principles of parallel cases. Three-phase fault currents I1 and I1c can be calculated
feeder protection in a simple fashion. as 2.13kA and 3.67kA respectively, so that the worst case is
with the ring open (this can also be seen from consideration of
9.20.4 Grading of a Ring Main the impedance relationships, without the necessity of
Figure 9.35 shows a simple ring main, with a single infeed at performing the calculation). Table 9.8 shows the fault currents
Bus A and three load busbars. Settings for the directional at each bus for open points at CB1 and CB8.
relays R2-R7 and non-directional relays R1/R8 are required. For grading of the relays, consider relays looking in a clockwise
Maximum load current in the ring is 785A (maximum direction round the ring, i.e. relays R1/R3/R5/R7.
continuous current with one transformer out of service), so
1000/1A CTs are chosen. The relay considered is a MiCOM
P140 series.
V
I1
° Z Z CD Z A D °½
Z S ®1 BC ¾ Z BC Z CD Z A D
°¯ Z AB °¿
V
I 1'
Z S Z BC Z CD Z A D
Figure 9.36: Impedance diagrams with ring open
Clockwise Anticlockwise
Open Point CB8 Open Point CB1
Bus Fault Current kA Bus Fault Current kA
Figure 9.35: Ring main grading example – circuit diagram
D 7.124 B 3.665
The first step is to establish the maximum fault current at each
C 4.259 C 5.615
relay location. Assuming a fault at Bus B (the actual location
B 3.376 D 8.568
is not important), two possible configurations of the ring have
Table 9.8: Fault current tabulation with ring open
to be considered, firstly a closed ring and secondly an open
ring. For convenience, the ring will be considered to be open
9.20.4.1 Relay R7
at CB1 (CB8 is the other possibility to be considered, but the
conclusion will be the same). Load current cannot flow from Bus D to Bus A since Bus A is
the only source. Hence low relay current and TMS settings
9-29
can be chosen to ensure a rapid fault clearance time. These 100.00
can be chosen arbitrarily, so long as they are above the cable

charging current and within the relay setting characteristics.
Select a relay current setting of 0.8 (i.e. 800A CT primary
current) and TMS of 0.05. This ensures that the other relays
will not pick up under conditions of normal load current. At a
fault current of 3376A, relay operating time on the SI
10.00
characteristic is:
ª 0.14 º
0.05 u « »s 0.24 s
¬ 4 . 22 0.02
1 ¼
9.20.4.2 Relay R5
This relay must grade with Relay R7 at 3376A and have a 1.00
Relay R1
minimum operation time of 0.54s. The current setting for
Relay R3
Relay R5 must be at least 110% that of relay R7 to prevent
unwanted pickup. Therefore select relay R5 current setting of Relay R5
0.88 (880A CT primary current).
Relay R5 operating time at TMS = 1.0 Relay R7
0.10
ª 0.14 º 1000 10000 100,000
« »s 5.14 s
¬ 3.84 1¼
0.02 Current (A)
Figure 9.37: Ring main example – relay grading curves. Clockwise
grading of relays (ring open at CB8)
Hence, relay R5 TMS = 0.54/5.14 = 0.105
100.00
Let’s assume that we have, for example, an earlier version of
the relay whose available TMS settings were less granular in
steps of 0.025. In this case use the nearest settable value of
TMS of 0.125. Table 9.9 summarises the relay settings while
Figure 9.37 and Figure 9.38 show the relay grading curves.
Max
Max Fault Current
Relay CT Load 10.00
Bus Relay Current (A) Setting TMS
Characteristic Ratio Current
(3.3kV base) p.u.
(A)
D R7 SI 1000/1 874 3376 0.8 0.05
C R5 SI 1000/1 874 4259 0.88 0.125
B R3 SI 1000/1 874 7124 0.97 0.2
A R1 SI 1000/1 874 14387 1.07 0.275
1.00
A R8 SI 1000/1 874 14387 1.07 0.3
Relay R8
D R6 SI 1000/1 874 8568 0.97 0.2
Relay R6
C R4 SI 1000/1 874 5615 0.88 0.125
Relay R4
B R2 SI 1000/1 874 3665 0.8 0.05
Table 9.9: Ring main example relay settings
Relay R2
0.10
1000 10000 100,000
Current (A)
Figure 9.38: Ring main example – relay grading curves. Anticlockwise
grading of relays (ring open at CB1)
9.21 HI-Z - HIGH IMPEDANCE DOWNED too can pose fault detection problems due to the natural good
CONDUCTOR PROTECTION insulating properties, especially if the road is dry.
High impedance (“Hi-Z”) faults are generally defined as the It has been explained that such a downed conductor will tend
unwanted contact of an electrical conductor with a non- to strike a fault arc. This offers a real advantage in terms of
conductive surface like asphalt road, concrete, tree limbs, detection of such faults, because arcs have particular
sand, wooden fences or some other surface or object which characteristics:
restricts the fault current to a level below that which can be
x Arcs are rich in harmonics, with a persistence and
reliably detected by conventional overcurrent and earth fault
randomness of the harmonic profile which is not
relays. In some cases even sensitive earth fault protection
typically seen in normal load current.
cannot reliably detect such low levels of fault current flow.
Undetected high impedance faults such as downed conductors x The heat and energy in the arc, plus any wind and
are dangerous for nearby staff, the public, and livestock. The remaining tension in the wire, tend to cause movement
primary objective of clearing such faults is therefore towards of the conductor – this leads to randomness in the flow
protection of human and animal life, and property, and not of fundamental current too.
towards the integrity and selectivity of the power system. x On certain surfaces, the heat from the arc will affect the
Therefore, high-impedance fault detection is becoming insulating properties, and any moisture in the contact
increasingly important for utilities and protection engineers, as area – this will further induce randomness in
moral and legal challenges press them to take a greater duty of harmonics, fundamental current, and the persistence of
care and social responsibility for all that may be in the any fault current flow.
proximity of their power assets. Modern feeder management relays offer numerical algorithms
The typical fault scenario is where a distribution overhead line which react to (1) prolonged intermittency in current flow, and
conductor has fallen, for example where corrosion or wind (2) unusual levels or prevalence of harmonics, to be used
and/or ice loading over time have caused the conductor to independently, or in combination, as a reliable method to
break free from its retaining clamp at the tower or pole. detect high impedance faults such as downed conductors.
Repeat failures of jumpers or previously-repaired spliced These techniques can be directionalised using power-based
sections may also give rise to a downed conductor, which then techniques.
will fall under a combination of gravity and any remaining
tension to rest on whatever surface lies below it. 9.22 REFERENCES
As previously described, non-conductive surfaces will tend to [9.1]. Directional Element Connections for Phase Relays.
limit the fault current which flows. This is due to their high W.K Sonnemann, Transactions A.I.E.E. 1950.
resistivity, and the need for the earth fault current to flow back
to the source of supply, and a legitimate zero sequence current
source. Typically, this will necessitate the current returning to
the nearest adjacent earthed tower, for the return current then
to flow in any aerial earth wire. If the circuit has no earth wire,
the fault current will need to return typically to the earthed
star-point of the upstream distribution transformer. In the
case of a conductor falling onto rock or sand, the challenge is
made all the harder in that the initial contact surface, and
many metres of fault current flow in the same material
composition which can drastically limit the prospective fault
current. In the case of a conductor falling onto a fence, if the
wood is dry this may have a high resistivity, but that high
resistance may only apply for a few metres, until the current
can flow in moist soil underground.
Sand poses a particular problem, because once a conductor
falls onto it and arc current strikes, the heat in the arc can
cause clumps of the surrounding sand to turn to glass, which
partially insulates the conductor from the earth. Asphalt roads
9-31
Chapter 10
Unit Protection of Feeders

10.2 Convention of Direction
The graded overcurrent systems described in Chapter 9,
10.3 Conditions for Direction Comparison though attractively simple in principle, do not meet all the
10.4 Circulating Current System protection requirements of a power system. Application
10.5 Balanced Voltage System difficulties are encountered for two reasons: firstly, satisfactory
10.6 Summation Arrangements grading cannot always be arranged for a complex network,
10.7 Examples of Electromechanical and Static Unit and secondly, the settings may lead to maximum tripping
Protection Systems times at points in the system that are too long to prevent
excessive disturbances occurring.
10.8 Digital/Numerical Current Differential
Protection Systems These problems led to the concept of 'Unit Protection',
10.9 Carrier Unit Protection Schemes whereby sections of the power system are protected
individually as a complete unit without reference to other
10.10 Current Differential Scheme – Analogue
sections. One form of ‘Unit Protection’ is also known as
Techniques ‘Differential Protection’, as the principle is to sense the
10.11 Phase Comparison Protection Scheme difference in currents between the incoming and outgoing
Considerations terminals of the unit being protected. Other forms can be
10.12 Examples based on directional comparison, or distance teleprotection
10.13 Reference schemes, which are covered in Chapter 12, or phase
comparison protection, which is discussed later in this chapter.
The configuration of the power system may lend itself to unit
protection; for instance, a simple earth fault relay applied at
the source end of a transformer-feeder can be regarded as unit
protection provided that the transformer winding associated
with the feeder is not earthed. In this case the protection
coverage is restricted to the feeder and transformer winding
because the transformer cannot transmit zero sequence
current to an out-of-zone fault.
In most cases, however, a unit protection system involves the
measurement of fault currents (and possibly voltages) at each
end of the zone, and the transmission of information between
the equipment at zone boundaries. It should be noted that a
stand-alone distance relay, although nominally responding
only to faults within their setting zone, does not satisfy the
conditions for a unit system because the zone is not clearly
defined; it is defined only within the accuracy limits of the
measurement. Also, to cater for some conditions, the setting
of a stand-alone distance relay may also extend outside of the
protected zone to cater for some conditions.
Merz and Price [10.1] first established the principle of current
differential unit systems; their fundamental differential systems
have formed the basis of many highly developed protection
arrangements for feeders and numerous other items of plant.
In one arrangement, an auxiliary ‘pilot’ circuit interconnects
10-1
similar current transformers at each end of the protected zone, negative at H, while the infeeds to the faulted section HJ are
as shown in Figure 10.1. Current transmitted through the both positive.
zone causes secondary current to circulate round the pilot
circuit without producing any current in the relay. For a fault
within the protected zone the CT secondary currents will not
balance, compared with the through-fault condition, and the
difference between the currents will flow in the relay.
An alternative arrangement is shown in Figure 10.2, in which
the CT secondary windings are opposed for through-fault
conditions so that no current flows in the series connected
Figure 10.3: Convention of current direction
relays. The former system is known as a ‘Circulating Current’
system, while the latter is known as a ‘Balanced Voltage’ Neglect of this rule has often led to anomalous arrangements
system. of equipment or difficulty in describing the action of a complex
system. When applied, the rule will normally lead to the use of
identical equipments at the zone boundaries, and is equally
suitable for extension to multi-ended systems. It also
conforms to the standard methods of network analysis
10.3 CONDITIONS FOR DIRECTION

COMPARISON
The circulating current and balanced voltage systems of Figure
Figure 10.1: Circulating current system
10.1 and Figure 10.2 perform full vectorial comparison of the
zone boundary currents. Such systems can be treated as
analogues of the protected zone of the power system, in which
CT secondary quantities represent primary currents and the
relay operating current corresponds to an in-zone fault current.
These systems are simple in concept; they are nevertheless
applicable to zones having any number of boundary
connections and for any pattern of terminal currents.
To define a current requires that both magnitude and phase be
Figure 10.2: Balanced voltage system
stated. Comparison in terms of both of these quantities is
Most systems of unit protection function through the performed in the Merz-Price systems, but it is not always easy
determination of the relative direction of the fault current. This to transmit all this information over some pilot channels.
direction can only be expressed on a comparative basis, and Chapter 8 provides a detailed description of modern methods
such a comparative measurement is the common factor of that may be used.
many systems, including directional comparison protection and
distance teleprotection schemes with directional impedance 10.4 CIRCULATING CURRENT SYSTEM
measurement. The principle of this system is shown in outline in Figure 10.1.
A major factor in consideration of unit protection is the method If the current transformers are ideal, the functioning of the
of communication between the relays. This is covered in detail system is straightforward. The transformers will, however,
in Chapter 8 in respect of the latest fibre-optic based digital have errors arising from both Wattmetric and magnetising
techniques. current losses that cause deviation from the ideal, and the
interconnections between them may have unequal
10.2 CONVENTION OF DIRECTION impedances. This can give rise to a ‘spill’ current through the
It is useful to establish a convention of direction of current relay even without a fault being present, thus limiting the
flow; for this purpose, the direction measured from a busbar sensitivity that can be obtained. Figure 10.4 shows the
outwards along a feeder is taken as positive. Hence the equivalent circuit of the circulating current scheme. If a high
notation of current flow shown in Figure 10.3; the section GH impedance relay is used, then unless the relay is located at
carries a through current which is counted positive at G but point J in the circuit a current will flow through the relay even
Chapter 10 Unit Protection of Feeders
with currents IPg and IPh being identical. If a low impedance 10.4.2 Bias
relay is used, voltage FF’ will be very small, but the CT exciting The 'spill' current in the relay arising from these various
currents will be unequal due to the unequal burdens and relay sources of error is dependent on the magnitude of the through
current IR will still be non-zero. current, being negligible at low values of through-fault current
but sometimes reaching a disproportionately large value for
more severe faults. Setting the operating threshold of the
protection above the maximum level of spill current produces
poor sensitivity. By making the differential setting
approximately proportional to the fault current, the low-level
fault sensitivity is greatly improved. Figure 10.5 shows a
typical bias characteristic for a modern relay that overcomes
the problem. At low currents, the bias is small, thus enabling
the relay to be made sensitive. At higher currents, such as
would be obtained from inrush or through fault conditions, the
bias used is higher, and thus the spill current required to cause
operation is higher. The relay is therefore more tolerant of spill
current at higher fault currents and therefore less likely to
maloperate, while still being sensitive at lower current levels.
I1 I2
I3
Figure 10.4: Equivalent circuit and potential diagram for circulating
current scheme
Idiff
= I1+ I2 + I3
10.4.1 Transient Instability
Percentage
It is shown in Section 6.4.10 that an asymmetrical current bias k2
Operate
applied to a current transformer will induce a flux that is
greater than the peak flux corresponding to the steady state
alternating component of the current. It may take the CT into
Percentage
saturation, with the result that the dynamic exciting bias k1
impedance is reduced and the exciting current greatly Restrain
Is1
increased.
When the balancing current transformers of a unit protection
Is2 I1 + I2 + I3
system differ in excitation characteristics, or have unequal Ibias =
2
burdens, the transient flux build-ups will differ and an
Figure 10.5: Typical bias characteristic of relay
increased 'spill' current will result. There is a consequent risk
of relay operation on a healthy circuit under transient
10.5 BALANCED VOLTAGE SYSTEM
conditions, which is clearly unacceptable. One solution is to
include a stabilising resistance in series with the relay. Details This section is included for historical reasons, mainly because
of how to calculate the value of the stabilising resistor are of the number of such schemes still to be found in service – for
usually included in the instruction manuals of all relays that new installations it has been almost completely superseded by
require one. circulating current schemes. It is the dual of the circulating
current protection, and is summarised in Figure 10.2 as used
When a stabilising resistor is used, the relay current setting in the ‘MHOR’ scheme.
can be reduced to any practical value, the relay now being a
voltage-measuring device. There is obviously a lower limit, With primary through current, the secondary e.m.f.s of the
below which the relay element does not have the sensitivity to current transformers are opposed, and provide no current in
pick up. the interconnecting pilot leads or the series connected relays.
An in-zone fault leads to a circulating current condition in the
CT secondaries and hence to relay operation.
10-3
An immediate consequence of the arrangement is that the 10.6 SUMMATION ARRANGEMENTS

current transformers are in effect open-circuited, as no Schemes have so far been discussed as though they were
secondary current flows for any primary through-current applied to single-phase systems. A polyphase system could be
conditions. To avoid excessive saturation of the core and provided with independent protection for each phase. Modern
secondary waveform distortion, the core is provided with non- digital or numerical relays communicating via fibre-optic links
magnetic gaps sufficient to absorb the whole primary m.m.f. at operate on this basis, since the amount of data to be
the maximum current level, the flux density remaining within communicated is not a major constraint. For older relays, use
the linear range. The secondary winding therefore develops an of this technique over pilot wires may be possible for relatively
e.m.f. and can be regarded as a voltage source. The shunt short distances, such as would be found with industrial and
reactance of the transformer is relatively low, so the device urban power distribution systems. Clearly, each phase would
acts as a transformer loaded with a reactive shunt; hence the require a separate set of pilot wires if the protection was
name of transactor. The equivalent circuit of the system is as applied on a per phase basis. The cost of providing separate
shown in Figure 10.6. pilot-pairs and also separate relay elements per phase is
The series connected relays are of relatively high impedance; generally prohibitive. Summation techniques can be used to
because of this the CT secondary winding resistances are not combine the separate phase currents into a single relaying
of great significance and the pilot resistance can be moderately quantity for comparison over a single pair of pilot wires.
large without significantly affecting the operation of the
system. This is why the scheme was developed for feeder 10.6.1 Summation Transformer Principle
protection. A winding, either within a measuring relay, or an auxiliary
current transformer, is arranged as in Figure 10.7.
The interphase sections of this winding, A-B, and B-C, often
have a relatively similar number of turns, with the neutral end
of the winding (C-N) generally having a greater number of
turns.
Figure 10.6: Equivalent circuit for balanced voltage system
10.5.1 Stability Limit of the Voltage Balance System

Unlike normal current transformers, transactors are not
subject to errors caused by the progressive build-up of exciting
Figure 10.7: Typical summation winding
current, because the whole of the primary current is expended
as exciting current. In consequence, the secondary e.m.f. is an This winding has a number of special properties, which are
accurate measure of the primary current within the linear discussed in the next section.
range of the transformer. Provided the transformers are
designed to be linear up to the maximum value of fault 10.6.2 Sensitivity Using Summation Transformers
current, balance is limited only by the inherent limit of This section shows the performance of the summation
accuracy of the transformers, and as a result of capacitance transformer in a typical MBCI ‘Translay’ scheme.
between the pilot cores. A broken line in the equivalent circuit
shown in Figure 10.6 indicates such capacitance. Under In the MBCI relay, the number of turns on the input side of the
through-fault conditions the pilots are energised to a summation CT is in the ratio:
proportionate voltage, the charging current flowing through x A-B 1.25
the relays. The stability ratio that can be achieved with this x B-C 1
system is only moderate and a bias technique is used to
overcome the problem. x C-N 3 (or 6)
Boosting the turns ratio to 6 for the neutral end of the winding which delivers the reference e.m.f. The secondary windings of
serves to increase the earth fault sensitivity of the scheme, as the conjugate relays are interconnected as a balanced voltage
is shown in the bracketed performance below. system over the pilot channel, the lower electromagnets of
both relays being included in this circuit.
Unbalanced fault currents will energise different numbers of
turns, according to which phase(s) is/are faulted. This leads to Through current in the power circuit produces a state of
relay settings which are in inverse ratio to the number of turns balance in the pilot circuit and zero current in the lower
involved. If the relay has a setting of 100% for a B-C fault, the electromagnet coils. In this condition, no operating torque is
following proportionate trip thresholds will apply: produced.
x A-B 80% An in-zone fault causing an inflow of current from each end of
x B-C 100% the line produces circulating current in the pilot circuit and the
energisation of the lower electromagnets. These co-operate
x C-A 44%
with the flux of the upper electromagnets to produce an
x A-B-C 50% operating torque in the discs of both relays. An infeed from
x A-N 19% (or 12% for N=6) one end only will result in relay operation at the feeding end,
x B-N 25% (or 14% for N=6) but no operation at the other, because of the absence of upper
magnet flux.
x C-N 33% (or 17% for N=6)
Bias is produced by a copper shading loop fitted to the pole of
10.7 EXAMPLES OF ELECTROMECHANICAL the upper magnet, thereby establishing a Ferraris motor action
AND STATIC UNIT PROTECTION SYSTEMS that gives a reverse or restraining torque proportional to the
square of the upper magnet flux value.
As mentioned above, the basic balanced voltage principle of
protection evolved to biased protection systems. Several of Typical settings achievable with such a relay are:
these have been designed, some of which appear to be quite x Least sensitive earth fault - 40% of rating
different from others. These dissimilarities are, however,
superficial. A number of these systems that are still in x Least sensitive phase-phase fault - 90% of rating
common use are described below. x Three-phase fault - 52% of rating
10.7.1 ‘Translay’ Balanced Voltage Electromechanical 10.7.2 Static Circulating Current Unit Protection
System System - ‘MBCI Translay’
A typical biased, electromechanical balanced voltage system, A typical static modular pilot wire unit protection system,
trade name ‘Translay’, still giving useful service on distribution operating on the circulating current principle is shown in
systems is shown in Figure 10.8. Figure 10.9. This uses summation transformers with a neutral
section that is tapped, to provide alternative earth fault
sensitivities. Phase comparators tuned to the power frequency
are used for measurement and a restraint circuit gives a high
level of stability for through faults and transient charging
currents. High-speed operation is obtained with moderately
sized current transformers and where space for current
transformers is limited and where the lowest possible
operating time is not essential, smaller current transformers
may be used. This is made possible by a special adjustment
Figure 10.8: ‘Translay’ biased electromechanical differential protection (Kt) by which the operating time of the differential protection
system can be selectively increased if necessary, thereby enabling the
The electromechanical design derives its balancing voltages use of current transformers having a correspondingly
from the transactor incorporated in the measuring relay at decreased knee-point voltage, whilst ensuring that through-
each line end. The latter are based on the induction-type fault stability is maintained to greater than 50 times the rated
meter electromagnet as shown in Figure 10.8. current.
The upper magnet carries a summation winding to receive the Internal faults give simultaneous tripping of relays at both ends
output of the current transformers, and a secondary winding of the line, providing rapid fault clearance irrespective of
10-5
whether the fault current is fed from both line ends or from A facility for vector/ratio compensation of the measured
only one line end. currents, so that transformer feeders can be included in the
unit protection scheme without the use of interposing CTs or
defining the transformer as a separate zone increases
versatility. Any interposing CTs required are implemented in
software. Maloperation on transformer inrush is prevented by
second harmonic detection. Care must be taken if the
transformer has a wide-ratio on-load tap changer, as this
Ic Ic results in the current ratio departing from nominal and may
cause maloperation, depending on the sensitivity of the relays.
The initial bias slope should be set taking this into
consideration.
Tuned measurement of power frequency currents provides a
high level of stability with capacitance inrush currents during
Ic
line energisation. The normal steady-state capacitive charging
current can be allowed for if a voltage signal can be made
available and the susceptance of the protected zone is known.
Figure 10.9: Typical static circulating current feeder unit protection
circuit diagram Where an earthed transformer winding or earthing
transformer is included within the zone of protection, some
10.8 DIGITAL/NUMERICAL CURRENT form of zero sequence current filtering is required. This is
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SYSTEMS because there will be an in-zone source of zero sequence
A digital or numerical unit protection relay may typically current for an external earth fault. The differential protection
provide phase-segregated current differential protection. This will see zero sequence differential current for an external fault
means that the comparison of the currents at each relay is and it could incorrectly operate as a result. In older protection
done on a per phase basis. For digital data communication schemes, the problem was eliminated by delta connection of
between relays, it is usual that a direct optical connection is the CT secondary windings. For a digital or numerical relay, a
used (for short distances) or a multiplexed link. Link speeds of selectable software zero sequence filter is typically employed.
64kbit/s (56kbit/s in N. America) are normal, and up to 2 The minimum setting that can be achieved with such
Mbit/s in some cases. Through current bias is typically applied techniques while ensuring good stability is 20% of CT primary
to provide through fault stability in the event of CT saturation. current.
A dual slope bias technique (Figure 10.5) is used to enhance
The problem remains of compensating for the time difference
stability for through faults. A typical trip criterion is as follows:
between the current measurements made at the ends of the
I bias I S 2 feeder, since small differences can upset the stability of the
For scheme, even when using fast direct fibre-optic links. The
I diff ! k1 I bias I S 1 problem is overcome by either time synchronisation of the
measurements taken by the relays, or calculation of the
propagation delay of the link continuously.
I bias ! I S 2 10.8.1 Time Synchronisation of Relays

For
I diff ! k 2 I bias k 2 k1I s 2 I S 1
Fibre-optic media allow direct transmission of the signals
between relays for distances of up to several km without the
Once the relay at one end of the protected section has need for repeaters. For longer distances repeaters will be
determined that a trip condition exists, an intertrip signal is required. Where a dedicated fibre pair is not available,
transmitted to the relay at the other end. Relays that are multiplexing techniques can be used. As phase comparison
supplied with information on line currents at all ends of the techniques are used on a per phase basis, time synchronisation
line may not need to implement intertripping facilities. of the measurements is vitally important. This requires
However, it is usual to provide intertripping in any case to knowledge of the transmission delay between the relays. Four
ensure the protection operates in the event of any of the relays techniques are possible for this:
detecting a fault.
a. assume a value if they start coincidentally, due to slight differences in sampling

b. measurement during commissioning only frequencies. At time TA1 relay A transmits its data to relay B,
containing a time tag and other data. Relay B receives it at
c. continuous online measurement
time TA1+Tp1 where Tp1 is the propagation time from relay A to
d. GPS time signal relay B. Relay B records this time as time TB*. Relay B also
Method (a) is not used, as the error between the assumed and sends messages of identical format to relay A. It transmits
actual value will be too great. such a message at time TB3, received by relay A at time TB3+Tp2
Method (b) provides reliable data if direct communication (say time TA*), where Tp2 is the propagation time from relay B
between relays is used. As signal propagation delays may to relay A. The message from relay B to relay A includes the
change over a period of years, repeat measurements may be time TB3, the last received time tag from relay A (TA1) and the
required at intervals and relays re-programmed accordingly. delay time between the arrival time of the message from A
There is some risk of maloperation due to changes in signal (TB*) and TB3 – call this the delay time Td. The total elapsed
propagation time causing incorrect time synchronisation time is therefore:
between measurement intervals. The technique is less suitable (T A T A 1) (T d T p1T p 2)
if rented fibre-optic pilots are used, since the owner may
perform circuit re-routing for operational reasons without If it is assumed that Tp1 = Tp2, then the value of Tp1 and Tp2 can
warning, resulting in the propagation delay being outside of be calculated, and hence also TB3. The relay B measured data
limits and leading to scheme maloperation. Where re-routing as received at relay A can then be adjusted to enable data
is limited to a few routes, it may be possible to measure the comparison to be performed. Relay B performs similar
delay on all routes and pre-program the relays accordingly, computations in respect of the data received from relay A
with the relay digital inputs and ladder logic being used to (which also contains similar time information). Therefore,
detect changes in route and select the appropriate delay continuous measurement of the propagation delay is made,
accordingly. thus reducing the possibility of maloperation due to this cause
to a minimum. Comparison is carried out on a per-phase
Method (c), continuous sensing of the signal propagation
basis, so signal transmission and the calculations are required
delay, also known as ‘ping-pong’, is a robust technique. One
for each phase. A variation of this technique is available that
method of achieving this is shown in Figure 10.10.
can cope with unequal propagation delays in the two
communication channels under well-defined conditions.
The technique can also be used with all types of pilots, subject
to provision of appropriate interfacing devices.
Method (d) is also a robust technique. It involves both relays
being capable of receiving a time signal from a GPS clock
source. The propagation delay on each communication
channel is no longer required to be known or calculated as
both relays are synchronised to a common time signal. For the
protection scheme to meet the required performance in respect
of availability and maloperation, the GPS signal must be
capable of reliable receipt under all atmospheric conditions.
There is extra satellite signal receiving equipment required at
both ends of the line, which implies extra cost.
In applications where SONET (synchronous digital hierarchy)
communication links are used, it cannot be assumed that TP1
is equal to TP2, as split path routings which differ from A to B,
and B to A are possible. In this scenario, method (d) is
highly recommended, as it is able to calculate the independent
propagation delays in each direction.
Figure 10.10: Signal propagation delay measurement
The minimum setting that can be achieved with such
Relays at ends A and B sample signals at time TA1, TA2 … and
techniques while ensuring good stability is 20% of CT primary
TB1, TB2 … respectively. The times will not be coincident, even
current.
10-7
10.8.2 Application to Mesh Corner and 1 1/2 Breaker directly on the communication medium. Instead a relaying
Switched Substations quantity may be used to vary the higher frequency associated
with each medium (or the light intensity for fibre-optic
These substation arrangements are quite common, and the
systems), and this process is normally referred to as
arrangement for the latter is shown in Figure 10.11. Problems
modulation of a carrier wave. Demodulation or detection of
exist in protecting the feeders due to the location of the line
the variation at a remote receiver permits the relaying quantity
CTs, as either Bus 1 or Bus 2 or both can supply the feeder.
to be reconstituted for use in conjunction with the relaying
Two alternatives are used to overcome the problem, and they
quantities derived locally, and forms the basis for all carrier
are shown in the Figure. The first is to common the line CT
systems of unit protection.
inputs (as shown for Feeder A) and the alternative is to use a
second set of CT inputs to the relay (as shown for Feeder B). Carrier systems are generally insensitive to induced power
system currents since the systems are designed to operate at
Bus 1 Bus 2
IF B2 IF B1 much higher frequencies, but each medium may be subjected
to noise at the carrier frequencies that may interfere with its
correct operation. Variations of signal level, restrictions of the
F bandwidth available for relaying and other characteristics
Id > unique to each medium influence the choice of the most
Id > appropriate type of scheme. Methods and media for
Stub
bus
communication are discussed in Chapter 8.
inputs
10.10 CURRENT DIFFERENTIAL SCHEME –

A B
ANALOGUE TECHNIQUES
Figure 10.11: Breaker and a half switched substation
The carrier channel is used in this type of scheme to convey
In the case of a through fault as shown, the relay connected to both the phase and magnitude of the current at one relaying
Feeder A theoretically sees no unbalance current, and hence point to another for comparison with the phase and magnitude
will be stable. However, with the line disconnect switch open, of the current at that point. Transmission techniques may use
no bias is produced in the relay, so CTs need to be well either voice frequency channels using FM modulation or A/D
matched and equally loaded if maloperation is to be avoided. converters and digital transmission. Signal propagation delays
For Feeder B, the relay also theoretically sees no differential still need to be taken into consideration by introducing a
current, but it will see a large bias current even with the line deliberate delay in the locally derived signal before a
disconnect switch open. This provides a high degree of comparison with the remote signal is made.
stability, in the event of transient asymmetric CT saturation. A further problem that may occur concerns the dynamic range
Therefore, this technique is preferred. of the scheme. As the fault current may be up to 30 times the
Sensing of the state of the line isolator through auxiliary rated current, a scheme with linear characteristics requires a
contacts enables the current values transmitted to and wide dynamic range, which implies a wide signal transmission
received from remote relays to be set to zero when the isolator bandwidth. In practice, bandwidth is limited, so either a non-
is open. Hence, stub-bus protection for the energised part of linear modulation characteristic must be used or detection of
the bus is then possible, with any fault resulting in tripping of fault currents close to the setpoint will be difficult.
the relevant CB.
10.10.1 Phase Comparison Scheme
10.9 CARRIER UNIT PROTECTION SCHEMES The carrier channel is used to convey the phase angle of the
In earlier sections, the pilot links between relays have been current at one relaying point to another for comparison with
treated as an auxiliary wire circuit that interconnects relays at the phase angle of the current at that point.
the boundaries of the protected zone. In many circumstances, The principles of phase comparison are shown in Figure 10.12.
such as the protection of longer line sections or where the The carrier channel transfers a logic or 'on/off' signal that
route involves installation difficulties, it is too expensive to switches at the zero crossing points of the power frequency
provide an auxiliary cable circuit for this purpose, and other waveform. Comparison of a local logic signal with the
means are sought. corresponding signal from the remote end provides the basis
In all cases (apart from private pilots and some short rented for the measurement of phase shift between power system
pilots) power system frequencies cannot be transmitted currents at the two ends and hence discrimination between
internal and through faults. T 90 o
Load or through fault currents at the two ends of a protected

feeder are in antiphase (using the normal relay convention for
direction), whilst during an internal fault the (conventional)
currents tend towards the in-phase condition. Hence, if the
IS
phase relationship of through fault currents is taken as a T 180 o _ Tripping O Stability R
IS
reference condition, internal faults cause a phase shift of T 0o
approximately 180° with respect to the reference condition.
Phase comparison schemes respond to any phase shift from
the reference conditions, but tripping is usually permitted only
when the phase shift exceeds an angle of typically 30 to 90 T 270 o
degrees, determined by the time delay setting of the
T System differential phase shift referred to through fault reference condition
measurement circuit, and this angle is usually referred to as
I
the Stability Angle. Figure 10.13 is a polar diagram that Through fault G IG= -IH
reference condition G H
shows the discrimination characteristics that result from the
( IG, IH: conventional relay currents at ends of protected feeder)
measurement techniques used in phase comparison schemes. IS Discriminator stability angle setting
End G End H Figure 10.13: Polar diagram for phase comparison scheme
Signal transmission is usually performed by voice frequency
Signalling equipment and
communication channel channels using frequency shift keying (FSK) or PLC
A D C
Summation Squarer B Transmitter
network
Transmitter Squarer Summation
network
techniques.
D' Receiver Receiver
Phase
Voice frequency channels involving FSK use two discrete
E comparator
Phase frequencies either side of the middle of the voice band. This
Pulse length comparator
Discriminator arrangement is less sensitive to variations in delay or frequency
F Pulse length
Discriminator response than if the full bandwidth was used. Blocking or
Load or through fault Internal fault
GIG IH H GIG IH H permissive trip modes of operation may be implemented. In
A. Summation voltage at end G addition to the two frequencies used for conveying the squarer
information, a third tone is often used, either for channel
B. Squarer output at end G 1 1
0 0 monitoring or transfer tripping dependent on the scheme.
C. Summation voltage at end H For a sensitive phase comparison scheme, accurate
D. Squarer output at end H 1
0
1
0
compensation for channel delay is required. However, since
(Received at end G via
ideal carrier system as D' both the local and remote signals are logic pulses, simple time
E. Comparator output at end G 1
0
1
0
delay circuits can be used, in contrast to the analogue delay
E=B+D'
F. Discriminator output at end G 1 1 circuitry usually required for current differential schemes.
0 0
Stability setting
The principles of the Power Line Carrier channel technique are
Figure 10.12: Principles of phase comparison protection shown in Figure 10.14. The scheme operates in the blocking
Since the carrier channel is required to transfer only binary mode. The 'squarer' logic is used directly to turn a transmitter
information, the techniques associated with sending 'on' or 'off' at one end, and the resultant burst (or block) of
teleprotection commands. Blocking or permissive trip modes carrier is coupled to and propagates along the power line
of operation are possible, however Figure 10.12 shows the which is being protected to a receiver at the other end. Carrier
more usual blocking mode, since the comparator provides an signals above a threshold are detected by the receiver, and
output when neither squarer is at logic '1'. A permissive trip hence produce a logic signal corresponding to the block of
scheme can be realised if the comparator is arranged to give carrier. In contrast to Figure 10.12, the signalling system is a
an output when both squarers are at logic '1'. Performance of 2-wire rather than 4-wire arrangement, in which the local
the scheme during failure or disturbance of the carrier channel transmission is fed directly to the local receiver along with any
and its ability to clear single-end-fed faults depends on the received signal. The transmitter frequencies at both ends are
mode of operation, the type and function of fault detectors or nominally equal, so the receiver responds equally to blocks of
starting units, and the use of any additional signals or codes carrier from either end. Through-fault current results in
for channel monitoring and transfer tripping. transmission of blocks of carrier from both ends, each lasting
10-9
for half a cycle, but with a phase displacement of half a cycle, 10.11 PHASE COMPARISON PROTECTION
so that the composite signal is continuously above the SCHEME CONSIDERATIONS
threshold level and the detector output logic is continuously
One type of unit protection that uses carrier techniques for
'1'. Any phase shift relative to the through fault condition
communication between relays is phase comparison
produces a gap in the composite carrier signal and hence a
protection. Communication between relays commonly uses
corresponding '0' logic level from the detector. The duration of
PLCC or frequency modulated carrier modem techniques.
the logic '0' provides the basis for discrimination between
There are a number of considerations that apply only to phase
internal and external faults, tripping being permitted only when
comparison protection systems, which are discussed in this
a time delay setting is exceeded. This delay is usually
section.
expressed in terms of the corresponding phase shift in degrees
at system frequency s in Figure 10.13.
10.11.1 Lines with Shunt Capacitance
The advantages generally associated with the use of the power A problem can occur with the shunt capacitance current that
line as the communication medium apply namely, that a flows from an energising source. Since this current is in
power line provides a robust, reliable, and low-loss addition to the load current that flows out of the line, and
interconnection between the relaying points. In addition typically leads it by more than 90°, significant differential
dedicated 'on/off' signalling is particularly suited for use in phase shifts between the currents at the ends of the line can
phase comparison blocking mode schemes, as signal occur, particularly when load current is low.
attenuation is not a problem. This is in contrast to permissive
or direct tripping schemes, where high power output or The system differential phase shift may encroach into the
boosting is required to overcome the extra attenuation due to tripping region of the simple discriminator characteristic,
the fault. regardless of how large the stability angle setting may be.
Figure 10.15 shows the effect and indicates techniques that
The noise immunity is also very good, making the scheme very are commonly used to ensure stability.
reliable. Signal propagation delay is easily allowed for in the
stability angle setting, making the scheme very sensitive as
well.
End G End H
Line trap Line trap Tc
Line trap Line trap
Ms IC Through fault
Coupling Coupling
O
Summation filter filter
IL reference
network
A
Squarer Transmitter B Identical
relay
C Receiver to end G
Pulse length
discriminator
D Trip Trip Squarer threshold
1 Load or through fault 1 Internal fault
A. Squarer output at end Starter threshold
0 0
Blocks of carrier transmitted from end G

Limits of differential phase shift due to capacitive current IC
Encroachment into tripping region for discriminator with
Squarer output at end H 1 1 stability angle setting M s
0 0
`Keyhole' characteristic
capacitive current
Minimum starter threshold
Blocks of carrier transmitted from end H
sin M s
IC
B. Composite carrier signal at end G where M s tan 1
IL
C. Carrier detector output 1 1
0 0 Characteristic of system with amplitude dependent
1 1 CompensationM s angular compensation for current of
D. Discriminator output 0 0 magnitude OA
Stability setting § 1 IC ·
¨ 2 sin for squarer threshold IC ¸¸
Figure 10.14: Principles of power line carrier phase comparison ¨
© OA ¹
IL = load current
Figure 10.15: Capacitive current in phase comparison schemes and
techniques used to avoid instability
Operation of the discriminator can be permitted only when IG I G T G

current is above some threshold, so that measurement of the
large differential phase shifts which occur near the origin of the IH I H T H
polar diagram is avoided. By choice of a suitable threshold and
stability angle, a 'keyhole' characteristic can be provided so the Using the relay convention described in Section 10.2, the
capacitive current characteristic falls within the resultant reference through-fault condition is
stability region. Fast resetting of the fault detector is required
IG I H
to ensure stability following the clearance of a through fault
when the currents tend to fall towards the origin of the polar ?I GT G I H T H I H T H r 180D
diagram.
The mark-space ratio of the squarer (or modulating) waveform ? TG T H 180 D
can be made dependent on the current amplitude. Any During internal faults, the system tripping angle o is the
decrease in the mark-space ratio will permit a corresponding differential phase shift relative to the reference condition.
differential phase shift to occur between the currents before
any output is given from the comparator for measurement in ?T o 180 T G T H
the discriminator. A squarer circuit with an offset or bias can
provide a decreasing mark-space ratio at low currents, and Substituting o in Equation 10.1, the conditions for tripping
with a suitable threshold level the extra phase shift c which is are:
permitted can be arranged to equal or exceed the phase shift T o 180 TG T H t Is T c
due to capacitive current. At high current levels the capacitive
current compensation falls towards zero and the resultant ? T G T H d 180 I s T c
stability region on the polar diagram is usually smaller than on
the keyhole characteristic, giving improvements in sensitivity Equation 10.2
and/or dependability of the scheme. Since the stability region The term (Øs + c) is the effective stability angle setting of the
encompasses all through-fault currents, the resetting speed of scheme. Substituting a typical value of 60° in Equation 10.2,
any fault detectors or starter (which may still be required for gives the tripping condition as
other purposes, such as the control of a normally quiescent
scheme) is much less critical than with the keyhole T G T H d 120 D
characteristic.
Equation 10.3
10.11.2 System Tripping Angles In the absence of pre-fault load current, the voltages at the
two ends of a line are in phase. Internal faults are fed from
For the protection scheme to trip correctly on internal faults
both ends with fault contributions whose magnitudes and
the change in differential phase shift, o, from the through-
angles are determined by the position of the fault and the
fault condition taken as reference, must exceed the effective
system source impedances. Although the magnitudes may be
stability angle of the scheme. Hence:
markedly different, the angles (line plus source) are similar and
T 0 t Is T c seldom differ by more than about 20°
Equation 10.1 Hence T G T H d 20 D and the requirements of Equation

Where: 10.3 are very easily satisfied. The addition of arc or fault
resistance makes no difference to the reasoning above, so the
I s = stability angle setting scheme is inherently capable of clearing such faults.
T c = capacitive current compensation
10.11.3 Effect of Load Current
(when applicable)
When a line is heavily loaded prior to a fault the e.m.f.s of the
The currents at the ends of a transmission line IG and IH may sources which cause the fault current to flow may be displaced
be expressed in terms of magnitude and phase shift with by up to about 50°, that is, the power system stability limit. To
respect a common system voltage. this the differential line and source angles of up to 20°
mentioned above need to be added. So T G T H d 70 D and
the requirements of Equation 10.3 are still easily satisfied.
10-11
For three phase faults, or solid earth faults on phase-by-phase approximately in phase at the ends of the line and therefore
comparison schemes, through load current falls to zero during could form an ideal modulating quantity. To provide a
the fault and so need not be considered. For all other faults, modulating signal during three phase faults, which give rise to
load current continues to flow in the healthy phases and may positive phase sequence (PPS) currents, I1, only, a practical
therefore tend to increase T G T H towards the through modulating quantity must include some response to I1 in
addition to I2.
fault reference value. For low resistance faults the fault
current usually far exceeds the load current and so has little Typical values of the ratio M : N exceed 5:1, so that the
effect. High resistance faults or the presence of a weak source modulating quantity is weighted heavily in favour of NPS, and
at one end can prove more difficult, but high performance is any PPS associated with load current tends to be swamped
still possible if the modulating quantity is chosen with care out on all but the highest resistance faults.
and/or fault detectors are added.
For a high resistance phase-earth fault, the system remains
well balanced so that load current IL is entirely positive
10.11.4 Modulating Quantity
sequence. The fault contribution IF provides equal parts of
Phase-by-phase comparison schemes usually use phase
IF
current for modulation of the carrier. Load and fault currents positive, negative and zero sequence components .
are almost in antiphase at an end with a weak source. Correct 3
performance is possible only when fault current exceeds load Assuming the fault is on 'A' phase and the load is resistive, all
current, or sequence components are in phase at the infeed end G.
for I F I L , T G T H | 180
D
MI FG NI FG
? I mG NI L ?T G | 0
3 3
for I F ! I L , T G T H | 0
D
At the outfeed end load current is negative,

Equation 10.4
MI FH NI FH
where ? I mH NI L
3 3
I F = fault current contribution from weak source for
I L = load current flowing towards weak source I mH ! 0 , T H | 0 ? T G T H 0D
To avoid any risk of failure to operate, fault detectors with a
for
setting greater than the maximum load current may be
applied, but they may limit the sensitivity of scheme. When I mH 0, T H | 180D ? T G T H 180D
the fault detector is not operated at one end, fault clearance
invariably involves sequential tripping of the circuit breakers. Hence for correct operation I mH t 0
Most phase comparison schemes use summation techniques let ImH = 0
to produce a single modulating quantity, responsive to faults
then
on any of the three phases. Phase sequence components are
often used and a typical modulating quantity is 3I L
I FH IE
Im MI 2 NI1 §M ·
¨ 1¸
Equation 10.5
©N ¹
Equation 10.6
Where:
The fault current in Equation 10.6 is the effective earth fault
I1 = Positive Phase Sequence Component sensitivity IE of the scheme. For the typical values of
I 2 = Negative Phase Sequence Component
M , N = constants (N typically negative)
With the exception of three phase faults all internal faults give
rise to negative phase sequence (NPS) currents, I2, which are
M
M 6 and N 1, 6
N
3
? IE IL 1 .1
MIE
5 0 .9
MIE 3
ImH
3 NILH
Comparing this with Equation 10.4, a scheme using NILH ImH TH 0
o
NIE
NIE TH 0 1 .1
summation is potentially 1.667 times more sensitive than one 0 .9 3
3
using phase current for modulation.
I mG
ImG MIE TG
Even though the use of a negative value of M gives a lower o 1 .1 0
TG 180 3
value of IE than if it were positive, it is usually preferred since 0 .9
MIE NILG NILG
the limiting condition of Im = 0 then applies at the load 3 NIE NIE
0 .9 1 .1
infeed end. Load and fault components are additive at the 3 3
outfeed end so that a correct modulating quantity occurs there,
TG T H 180 o TG T H 0o
even with the lowest fault levels. For operation of the scheme
it is sufficient therefore that the fault current contribution from NIE
NIE NILH
the load infeed end exceeds the effective setting. 3 NILH
MIE
3
For faults on B or C phases, the NPS components are TH 3
displaced by 120° or 240° with respect to the PPS ImH TG ImH

components. No simple cancellation can occur, but instead a TH TG
phase displacement is introduced. For tripping to occur, NILG
NILG
Equation 10.2 must be satisfied, and to achieve high NIE NIE
ImG
dependability under these marginal conditions, a small ImG
3 3
effective stability angle is essential. Figure 10.16 shows MIE MIE
operation near to the limits of earth fault sensitivity. 3 3
Very sensitive schemes may be implemented by using high TG T H | 70 o TG T H | 70 o
M
values of but the scheme then becomes more sensitive to
N
differential errors in NPS currents such as the unbalanced
components of capacitive current or spill from partially
saturated CTs.
Techniques such as capacitive current compensation and
M Figure 10.16: Effect of load current on differential phase shift g-H
reduction of at high fault levels may be required to ensure for resistive earth faults at the effective earth fault sensitivity IE
N
stability of the scheme.
10.11.5 Fault Detection and Starting
For a scheme using a carrier system that continuously
transmits the modulating quantity, protecting an ideal line
(capacitive current = 0) in an interconnected transmission
system, measurement of current magnitude might be
unnecessary. In practice, fault detector or starting elements
are invariably provided and the scheme then becomes a
permissive tripping scheme in which both the fault detector
and the discriminator must operate to provide a trip output,
and the fault detector may limit the sensitivity of the scheme.
Requirements for the fault detectors vary according to the type
of carrier channel used, mode of operation used in the phase
angle measurement, that is, blocking or permissive, and the
features used to provide tolerance to capacitive current.
10-13
10.11.6 Normally Quiescent Power Line Carrier loaded and has a low fault level at the outfeed end, some faults
(Blocking Mode) can be accompanied by a fall in current, which would lead to
failure of such fault detection, resulting in sequential tripping
To ensure stability of through faults, it is essential that carrier
(for blocking mode schemes) or no tripping (for permissive
transmission starts before any measurement of the width of
schemes). Although fault detectors can be designed to
the gap is permitted. To allow for equipment tolerances and
respond to any disturbance (increase or decrease of current), it
the difference in magnitude of the two currents due to
is more usual to use phase sequence components. All
capacitive current, two starting elements are used, usually
unbalanced faults produce a rise in the NPS components from
referred to as 'Low Set' and 'High Set' respectively. Low Set
the zero level associated with balanced load current, whilst
controls the start-up of transmission whilst High Set, having a
balanced faults produce an increase in the PPS components
setting typically 1.5 to 2 times that of the Low Set element,
from the load level (except at ends with very low fault level) so
permits the phase angle measurement to proceed.
that the use of NPS and PPS fault detectors make the scheme
The use of impulse starters that respond to the change in sensitive to all faults. For schemes using summation of NPS
current level enables sensitivities of less than rated current to and PPS components for the modulating quantity, the use of
be achieved. Resetting of the starters occurs naturally after a NPS and PPS fault detectors is particularly appropriate since,
swell time or at the clearance of the fault. Dwell times and in addition to any reductions in hardware, the scheme may be
resetting characteristics must ensure that during through characterised entirely in terms of sequence components. Fault
faults, a High Set is never operated when a Low Set has reset sensitivities IF for PPS and NPS impulse starter settings I1s
and potential race conditions are often avoided by the and I2s respectively are as follows:
transmitting of an demodulated (and therefore blocking)
carrier for a short time following the reset of low set; this Three phase fault I F I 1S
feature is often referred to as 'Marginal Guard.'
Phase-phase fault I F 3 I2S
10.11.7 Scheme without Capacitive Current Phase-earth fault I F 3 I2S
Compensation
The 'keyhole' discrimination characteristic of depends on the 10.12 EXAMPLES
inclusion of a fault detector to ensure that no measurements of This section gives examples of setting calculations for simple
phase angle can occur at low current levels, when the unit protection schemes. It cannot and is not intended to
capacitive current might cause large phase shifts. Resetting replace a proper setting calculation for a particular application.
must be very fast to ensure stability following the shedding of It is intended to show the principles of the calculations
through load. required. The examples use the Alstom MiCOM P54x Current
Differential relay, which has the setting ranges given in Table
10.11.8 Scheme with Capacitive Current 10.1 for differential protection. The relay also has backup
Compensation (Blocking Mode) distance, high-set instantaneous, and earth-fault protection
When the magnitude of the modulating quantity is less than included in the basic model to provide a complete ‘one-box’
the threshold of the squarer, transmission if it occurred, would solution of main and backup protection.
be a continuous blocking signal. This might occur at an end
Parameter Setting Range
with a weak source, remote from a fault close to a strong
source. A fault detector is required to permit transmission only Differential Current Setting Is1 0.2 – 2.0 In
when the current exceeds the modulator threshold by some Bias Current Threshold Setting Is2 1.0 – 30.0 In
multiple (typically about 2 times) so that the effective stability Lower Percentage Bias Setting k1 0.3 – 1.5
angle is not excessive. For PLCC schemes, the low set element
Higher Percentage Bias Setting k2 0.3 – 1.5
referred to in Section 10.11.6 is usually used for this purpose.
If the fault current is insufficient to operate the fault detector, In = CT Rated Secondary Current
circuit breaker tripping will normally occur sequentially. Table 10.1: Relay Setting Ranges
10.11.9 Fault Detector Operating Quantities 10.12.1 Unit Protection of a Plain Feeder
Most faults cause an increase in the corresponding phase The circuit to be protected is shown in Figure 10.17. It
current(s) so measurement of current increase could form the consists of a plain feeder circuit formed of an overhead line
basis for fault detection. However, when a line is heavily 25km long. The relevant properties of the line are:
Line voltage: 33kV 8

Z 0.156 j 0.337: / km
7
Shunt charging current 0.065 A / km
To arrive at the correct settings, the characteristics of the
6
relays to be applied must be considered.
Idiff
4
Idiff
Figure 10.17: Protection of a plain feeder 3

K2
The recommended settings for three of the adjustable values slope
(taken from the relay manual) are: 2
I s2 2.0 pu
1
k1 30% K1
slope
k2 150% 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
To provide immunity from the effects of line charging current, Ibias
the setting of Is1 must be at least 2.5 times the steady-state Figure 10.18: Relay characteristic; plain feeder example
charging current, i.e. 4.1A or 0.01p.u., after taking into In cases where the capacitive charging current is very large
consideration the CT ratio of 400/1. The nearest available and hence the minimum tripping current needs to be set to an
setting above this is 0.20p.u. This gives the points on the relay unacceptably high value, some relays offer the facility of
characteristic as shown in Figure 10.18. subtracting the charging current from the measured value.
The minimum operating current Id min is related to the value of Use of this facility depends on having a suitable VT input and
Is1 by the formula knowledge of the shunt capacitance of the circuit.
I d min
k1 I L I S1 10.12.2 Unit Protection of a Transformer Feeder
1 0.5k1 Figure 10.19 shows unit protection applied to a transformer
for I bias I s2 feeder. The feeder is assumed to be a 100m length of cable,
such as might be found in some industrial plants or where a
and short distance separates the 33kV and 11kV substations.
I d min
k2 I L k2 k1 I S 2 I S1 While 11kV cable capacitance will exist, it can be regarded as
negligible for the purposes of this example.
1 0.5k2
I bias ! I s 2
for
where IL = load current and hence the minimum operating
current at no load is 0.235p.u. or 94A.
Figure 10.19: Unit Protection of a transformer feeder

The delta/star transformer connection requires phase shift
correction of CT secondary currents across the transformer,
10-15
and in this case software equivalents of interposing CTs are I S1 20%

(Minimum possible)
used.
Since the LV side quantities lag the HV side quantities by 30°, I S1 20%
it is necessary to correct this phase shift by using software CT k1 30%
settings that produce a 30° phase shift. There are two obvious k2 150%
possibilities:
x HV side: Yd1, LV side: Yy0 10.12.3 Unit Protection of Transmission Circuits
x HV side: Yy0, LV side: Yd11 Application of current differential to transmission circuits is
similar to that described in Section 10.12.1, except that:
Only the second combination is satisfactory, since only this one
provides the necessary zero-sequence current trap to avoid x Lines will often be longer, and hence have higher
maloperation of the protection scheme for earth faults on the charging current.
LV side of the transformer outside of the protected zone. x Signal attenuation in fibre optic channels will become
Ratio correction must also be applied, to ensure that the relays larger.
see currents from the primary and secondary sides of the x The relay may be expected to single-pole trip and
transformer feeder that are well balanced under full load reclose.
conditions. This is not always inherently the case, due to x High-speed backup distance protection elements may
selection of the main CT ratios. For the example of Figure be brought into service automatically, in instances
10.19, transformer turns ratio at nominal tap where signalling channel failure has been detected.
11
0.3333 10.13 REFERENCE
33
[10.1] Merz-Price Protective Gear. K. Faye-Hansen and G.
Required turns ratio according to the CT ratios used Harlow. IEE Proceedings, 1911.
400 1
0.32
1250 1
Spill current that will arise due to the incompatibility of the CT
ratios used with the power transformer turns ratio may cause
relay maloperation. This has to be eliminated by using the
facility in the relay for CT ratio correction factors. For this
particular relay, the correction factors are chosen so the full
load current seen by the relay software is equal to 1A.
The appropriate correction factors are:
400
HV: 1.14
350
1250
LV: 1.19
1050
where:
transformer rated primary current = 350A
transformer rated secondary current = 1050A
With the line charging current being negligible, the following
relay settings are then suitable, and allow for transformer
efficiency and mismatch due to tap-changing:
10-17
Chapter 11
Distance Protection

11.2 Principles of Distance Relays
The problem of combining fast fault clearance with selective
11.3 Relay Performance tripping of plant is a key aim for the protection of power
11.4 Relationship Between Relay Voltage and Zs/Zl systems. To meet these requirements, high-speed protection
Ratio systems for transmission and primary distribution circuits that
11.5 Voltage Limit for Accurate Reach Point are suitable for use with the automatic reclosure of circuit
Measurement breakers are under continuous development and are very
11.6 Zones of Protection widely applied.
11.7 Distance Relay Characteristics Distance protection, in its basic form, is a non-unit system of
11.8 Distance Relay Implementation protection offering considerable economic and technical
11.9 Effect of Source Impedance and Earthing advantages. Unlike phase and neutral overcurrent protection,
the key advantage of distance protection is that its fault
Methods
coverage of the protected circuit is virtually independent of
11.10 Distance Relay Application Problems source impedance variations. This is illustrated in Figure 11.1,
11.11 Other Distance Relay Features where it can be seen that overcurrent protection cannot be
11.12 Distance Relay Application Example applied satisfactorily.
11.13 References
115 u10
3
I F1 7380 A
3 u 5 4
115 u10 3
IF2 6640 A
3 u10
Figure 11.1: Advantages of distance over overcurrent protection

Distance protection is comparatively simple to apply and it can
be fast in operation for faults located along most of a protected
circuit. It can also provide both primary and remote back-up
functions in a single scheme. It can easily be adapted to create
a unit protection scheme when applied with a signalling
channel. In this form it is eminently suitable for application
11-1
with high-speed auto-reclosing, for the protection of critical 11.3.1 Electromechanical/Static Distance Relays
transmission lines. With electromechanical and earlier static relay designs, the
magnitude of input quantities particularly influenced both
11.2 PRINCIPLES OF DISTANCE RELAYS reach accuracy and operating time. It was customary to
Since the impedance of a transmission line is proportional to present information on relay performance by voltage/reach
its length, for distance measurement it is appropriate to use a curves, as shown in Figure 11.2, and operating time/fault
relay capable of measuring the impedance of a line up to a position curves for various values of system impedance ratios
predetermined point (the reach point). Such a relay is (S.I.R.s) as shown in Figure 11.3, where:
described as a distance relay and is designed to operate only
for faults occurring between the relay location and the selected ZS
S .I .R
reach point, thus giving discrimination for faults that may ZL
occur in different line sections.
and
The basic principle of distance protection involves the division
of the voltage at the relaying point by the measured current. Z S = system source impedance behind the relay
The apparent impedance so calculated is compared with the location
reach point impedance. If the measured impedance is less
Z L = line impedance equivalent to relay reach setting
than the reach point impedance, it is assumed that a fault
exists on the line between the relay and the reach point.
105
The reach point of a relay is the point along the line impedance
locus that is intersected by the boundary characteristic of the 100
relay. Since this is dependent on the ratio of voltage and
95
current and the phase angle between them, it may be plotted 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 65
on an R/X diagram. The loci of power system impedances as % relay rated voltage
seen by the relay during faults, power swings and load (a) Phase-earth faults
variations may be plotted on the same diagram and in this 105
manner the performance of the relay in the presence of system
faults and disturbances may be studied. 100
11.3 RELAY PERFORMANCE 95

0 20 40 60 80 100
Distance relay performance is defined in terms of reach % relay rated voltage
accuracy and operating time. Reach accuracy is a comparison
(b) Phase-phase faults
of the actual ohmic reach of the relay under practical
conditions with the relay setting value in ohms. Reach 105
accuracy particularly depends on the level of voltage presented
to the relay under fault conditions. The impedance measuring 100
techniques employed in particular relay designs also have an
impact. 95
0 20 40 60 80 100
Operating times can vary with fault current, with fault position % relay rated voltage
relative to the relay setting, and with the point on the voltage (c) Three-phase and three-phase-earth faults
wave at which the fault occurs. Depending on the measuring Figure 11.2: Typical impedance reach accuracy characteristics for Zone
techniques employed in a particular relay design, measuring 1
signal transient errors, such as those produced by Capacitor
Voltage Transformers or saturating CTs, can also adversely
delay relay operation for faults close to the reach point. It is
usual for electromechanical and static distance relays to claim
both maximum and minimum operating times. However, for
modern digital or numerical distance relays, the variation
between these is small over a wide range of system operating
conditions and fault positions.
Chapter 11 Distance Protection
available ensure optimum performance under adverse

Operation time (ms)
waveform conditions or for boundary fault conditions.
11.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELAY

VOLTAGE AND ZS/ZL RATIO
A single, generic, equivalent circuit, as shown in Figure 11.5,
may represent any fault condition in a three-phase power
system. The voltage V applied to the impedance loop is the
open circuit voltage of the power system. Point R represents
the relay location; IR and VR are the current and voltage
Operation time (ms)
measured by the relay, respectively.

The impedances Zs and ZL are described as source and line
impedances because of their position with respect to the relay
location. Source impedance Zs is a measure of the fault level
at the relaying point. For faults involving earth it is dependent
on the method of system earthing behind the relaying point.
Line impedance ZL is a measure of the impedance of the
Figure 11.3: Typical operation time characteristics for Zone 1 phase- protected section. The voltage VR applied to the relay is,
phase faults therefore, IRZL. For a fault at the reach point, this may be
Alternatively the above information was combined in a family alternatively expressed in terms of source to line impedance
of contour curves, where the fault position expressed as a ratio ZS /ZL using the following expressions:
percentage of the relay setting is plotted against the source to
line impedance ratio, as illustrated in Figure 11.4.
VR IRZL
where:
Fault position (p.u. relay setting ZL)
V
IR
ZS ZL
Therefore:
ZL
VR V
ZS ZL
Or
Fault position (p.u. relay setting ZL)
1
VR V
§ ZS ·
¨¨ ¸¸ 1
© ZL ¹
Equation 11.1
Figure 11.4: Typical operation-time contours
11.3.2 Digital/Numerical Distance Relays

Digital/Numerical distance relays tend to have more consistent
operating times. The best transmission-class relays can
achieve subcycle tripping, and the digital filtering techniques
11-3
x for earth faults, Vl-n is the phase-neutral source voltage

and ZS/ZL, is a composite ratio involving the positive
and zero sequence impedances. VR is the phase-neutral
relay voltage and IR is the relay current for the faulted
phase
1
VR Vl n
§ Z S ·§ 2 p ·
¨¨ ¸¸¨¨ ¸¸ 1
© Z L ¹© 2 q ¹
Equation 11.3
where:
ZS 2Z S1 Z S 0 Z S 1 2 p
ZL 2Z L1 Z L 0 Z L1 2 q
and
ZS0
p
Z S1
Z L0
q
Z L1
11.5 VOLTAGE LIMIT FOR ACCURATE REACH

POINT MEASUREMENT
The ability of a distance relay to measure accurately for a reach
point fault depends on the minimum voltage at the relay
location under this condition being above a declared value.
This voltage, which depends on the relay design, can also be
quoted in terms of an equivalent maximum ZS /ZL or S.I.R.
Distance relays are designed so that, provided the reach point
voltage criterion is met, any increased measuring errors for
Figure 11.5: Relationship between source to line ratio and relay faults closer to the relay will not prevent relay operation. Most
voltage modern relays are provided with healthy phase voltage
The above generic relationship between VR and ZS/ZL, polarisation and/or memory voltage polarisation. The prime
illustrated in Figure 11.5, is valid for all types of short circuits purpose of the relay polarising voltage is to ensure correct relay
provided a few simple rules are observed. These are: directional response for close-up faults, in the forward or
reverse direction, where the fault-loop voltage measured by the
x for phase faults, V is the phase-phase source voltage relay may be very small.
and ZS/ZL is the positive sequence source to line
impedance ratio. VR is the phase-phase relay voltage 11.6 ZONES OF PROTECTION
and IR is the phase-phase relay current, for the faulted
Careful selection of the reach settings and tripping times for
phases
the various zones of measurement enables correct co-
1 ordination between distance relays on a power system. Basic
VR V'
§ ZS · distance protection will comprise instantaneous directional
¨¨ ¸¸ 1 Zone 1 protection and one or more time-delayed zones.
© ZL ¹ Typical reach and time settings for a 3-zone distance
Equation 11.2 protection are shown in Figure 11.6. Digital and numerical
distance relays may have up to five or six zones, some set to
measure in the reverse direction. Typical settings for three Z3JR Z3JF
forward-looking zones of basic distance protection are given in Time Z2J
Y
the following sub-sections. To determine the settings for a Z1J X Z1L
particular relay design or for a particular distance Source Source
H J K L
0
teleprotection scheme, involving end-to-end signalling, the Z1H Z1K
relay manufacturer’s instructions should be referred to. X
Y Z2K
Z3KF Z3KR
Time
11.6.1 Zone 1 Setting
Electromechanical/static relays usually have a reach setting of Zone 1 = 80-85% of protected line impedance
up to 80% of the protected line impedance for instantaneous Zone 2 (minimum) = 120% of protected line
Zone 2 (maximum) < Protected line + 50% of shortest second line
Zone 1 protection. For digital/numerical distance relays,
Zone 3F = 1.2 (protected line + longest second line)
settings of up to 85% may be safe. The resulting 15-20% safety Zone 3R = 20% of protected line
margin ensures that there is no risk of the Zone 1 protection X = Circuit breaker tripping time
over-reaching the protected line due to errors in the current Y = Discriminating time
and voltage transformers, inaccuracies in line impedance data Figure 11.6: Typical time/distance characteristics for three zone
provided for setting purposes and errors of relay setting and distance protection
measurement. Otherwise, there would be a loss of
discrimination with fast operating protection on the following 11.6.3 Zone 3 Setting
line section. Zone 2 of the distance protection must cover the Remote back-up protection for all faults on adjacent lines can
remaining 15-20% of the line. be provided by a third zone of protection that is time delayed to
discriminate with Zone 2 protection plus circuit breaker trip
11.6.2 Zone 2 Setting time for the adjacent line. Zone 3 reach should be set to at
To ensure full coverage of the line with allowance for the least 1.2 times the impedance presented to the relay for a fault
sources of error already listed in the previous section, the reach at the remote end of the second line section.
setting of the Zone 2 protection should be at least 120% of the On interconnected power systems, the effect of fault current
protected line impedance. In many applications it is common infeed at the remote busbars will cause the impedance
practice to set the Zone 2 reach to be equal to the protected presented to the relay to be much greater than the actual
line section +50% of the shortest adjacent line. Where impedance to the fault and this needs to be taken into account
possible, this ensures that the resulting maximum effective when setting Zone 3. In some systems, variations in the
Zone 2 reach does not extend beyond the minimum effective remote busbar infeed can prevent the application of remote
Zone 1 reach of the adjacent line protection. This avoids the back-up Zone 3 protection but on radial distribution systems
need to grade the Zone 2 time settings between upstream and with single end infeed, no difficulties should arise.
downstream relays. In electromechanical and static relays,
Zone 2 protection is provided either by separate elements or by 11.6.4 Settings for Reverse Reach and Other Zones
extending the reach of the Zone 1 elements after a time delay Modern digital or numerical relays may have additional
that is initiated by a fault detector. In most digital and impedance zones that can be utilised to provide additional
numerical relays, the Zone 2 elements are implemented in protection functions. For example, where the first three zones
software. are set as above, Zone 4 might be used to provide back-up
Zone 2 tripping must be time-delayed to ensure grading with protection for the local busbar, by applying a reverse reach
the primary relaying applied to adjacent circuits that fall within setting of the order of 25% of the Zone 1 reach. Alternatively,
the Zone 2 reach. Thus complete coverage of a line section is one of the forward-looking zones (typically Zone 3) could be
obtained, with fast clearance of faults in the first 80-85% of the set with a small reverse offset reach from the origin of the R/X
line and somewhat slower clearance of faults in the remaining diagram, in addition to its forward reach setting. An offset
section of the line. impedance measurement characteristic is non-directional.
One advantage of a non-directional zone of impedance
measurement is that it is able to operate for a close-up, zero-
impedance fault, in situations where there may be no healthy
phase voltage signal or memory voltage signal available to
allow operation of a directional impedance zone. With the
offset-zone time delay bypassed, there can be provision of
11-5
‘Switch-on-to-Fault’ (SOTF) protection. This is required other type. For example, comparing V and I in an amplitude
where there are line voltage transformers, to provide fast comparator results in a circular impedance characteristic
tripping in the event of accidental line energisation with centred at the origin of the R/X diagram. If the sum and
maintenance earthing clamps left in position. Additional difference of V and I are applied to the phase comparator the
impedance zones may be deployed as part of a distance result is a similar characteristic.
protection scheme used in conjunction with a teleprotection
signalling channel. 11.7.2 Plain Impedance Characteristic
This characteristic takes no account of the phase angle
11.7 DISTANCE RELAY CHARACTERISTICS between the current and the voltage applied to it; for this
Some numerical relays measure the absolute fault impedance reason its impedance characteristic when plotted on an R/X
and then determine whether operation is required according to diagram is a circle with its centre at the origin of the co-
impedance boundaries defined on the R/X diagram. ordinates and of radius equal to its setting in ohms. Operation
Traditional distance relays and numerical relays that emulate occurs for all impedance values less than the setting, that is,
the impedance elements of traditional relays do not measure for all points within the circle. The relay characteristic, shown
absolute impedance. They compare the measured fault in Figure 11.7, is therefore non-directional, and in this form
voltage with a replica voltage derived from the fault current would operate for all faults along the vector AL and also for all
and the zone impedance setting to determine whether the fault faults behind the busbars up to an impedance AM. A is the
is within zone or out-of-zone. Distance relay impedance relaying point and RAB is the angle by which the fault current
comparators or algorithms which emulate traditional lags the relay voltage for a fault on the line AB and RAC is the
comparators are classified according to their polar equivalent leading angle for a fault on line AC. Vector AB
characteristics, the number of signal inputs they have, and the represents the impedance in front of the relay between the
method by which signal comparisons are made. The common relaying point A and the end of line AB. Vector AC represents
types compare either the relative amplitude or phase of two the impedance of line AC behind the relaying point. AL
input quantities to obtain operating characteristics that are represents the reach of instantaneous Zone 1 protection, set to
either straight lines or circles when plotted on an R/X diagram. cover 80% to 85% of the protected line.
At each stage of distance relay design evolution, the
Line AC Line AB
development of impedance operating characteristic shapes and
sophistication has been governed by the technology available C A B
and the acceptable cost. Since many traditional relays are still
in service and since some numerical relays emulate the Z
techniques of the traditional relays, a brief review of

impedance comparators is justified. X
B
11.7.1 Amplitude and Phase Comparison
Restrains
Relay measuring elements whose functionality is based on the L
comparison of two independent quantities are essentially either Line AB

Operates
amplitude or phase comparators. For the impedance elements
of a distance relay, the quantities being compared are the A
R
voltage and current measured by the relay. There are
numerous techniques available for performing the comparison, Line AC
depending on the technology used. They vary from balanced-
beam (amplitude comparison) and induction cup (phase M
comparison) electromagnetic relays, through diode and C

operational amplifier comparators in static-type distance Impedance
relay
relays, to digital sequence comparators in digital relays and to
algorithms used in numerical relays. Figure 11.7: Plain impedance relay characteristic
A relay using this characteristic has three important
Any type of impedance characteristic obtainable with one
disadvantages:
comparator is also obtainable with the other. The addition and
subtraction of the signals for one type of comparator produces
the required signals to obtain a similar characteristic using the
x it is non-directional; it will see faults both in front of IF1 to IF2 when C opens could then result in incorrect tripping
and behind the relaying point, and therefore requires a of the healthy line if the directional unit RD operates before the
directional element to give it correct discrimination impedance unit resets. This is an example of the need to
x it has non-uniform fault resistance coverage consider the proper co-ordination of multiple relay elements to
attain reliable relay performance during evolving fault
x it is susceptible to power swings and heavy loading of a
conditions. In older relay designs, the type of problem to be
long line because of the large area covered by the
addressed was commonly referred to as one of ‘contact race’.
impedance circle
Directional control is an essential discrimination quality for a 11.7.3 Self-Polarised Mho Relay
distance relay, to make the relay non-responsive to faults The mho impedance element is generally known as such
outside the protected line. This can be obtained by the because its characteristic is a straight line on an admittance
addition of a separate directional control element. The diagram. It cleverly combines the discriminating qualities of
impedance characteristic of a directional control element is a both reach control and directional control, thereby eliminating
straight line on the R/X diagram, so the combined the ‘contact race’ problems that may be encountered with
characteristic of the directional and impedance relays is the separate reach and directional control elements. This is
semi-circle APLQ shown in Figure 11.8. achieved by the addition of a polarising signal. Mho
X impedance elements were particularly attractive for economic
Impedance
element RZ<
reasons where electromechanical relay elements were
B
employed. As a result, they have been widely deployed
L
worldwide for many years and their advantages and limitations
P Operates
A
are now well understood. For this reason they are still
R
Restrains Q emulated in the algorithms of some modern numerical relays.
The characteristic of a mho impedance element, when plotted
Directional
element RD on an R/X diagram, is a circle whose circumference passes
through the origin, as illustrated in Figure 11.9. This
(a) Characteristic of combined directional/ demonstrates that the impedance element is inherently
impedance relay
directional and such that it will operate only for faults in the
A IF1 B forward direction along line AB.
IF2
Source Source The impedance characteristic is adjusted by setting Zn, the
Z<
impedance reach, along the diameter and , the angle of
C D displacement of the diameter from the R axis. Angle is
known as the Relay Characteristic Angle (RCA). The relay
F
operates for values of fault impedance ZF within its
(b) Illustration of use of directional/impedance relay: circuit characteristic.
diagram
The self-polarised mho characteristic can be obtained using a
RAZ<
RAD
&
& phase comparator circuit which compares input signals S2 and
RAD Trip relay S1 and operates whenever S2 lags S1 by between 90 and
270, as shown in the voltage diagram of Figure 11.9(a).
Combined directional/impedance relay
RAZ<: distance element at A
The two input signals are:
RAD : directional element at A
S2 = V-IZn
(c) Logic for directional and impedance elements at A
Figure 11.8: Combined directional and impedance relays
S1 = V
where:
If a fault occurs at F close to C on the parallel line CD, the
directional unit RD at A will restrain due to current IF1. At the V = fault voltage from VT secondary
same time, the impedance unit is prevented from operating by I = fault current from CT secondary
the inhibiting output of unit RD. If this control is not provided, Zn = impedance setting of the zone
the under impedance element could operate prior to circuit
breaker C opening. Reversal of current through the relay from
11-7
The characteristic of Figure 11.9(a) can be converted to the

impedance plane of Figure 11.9(b) by dividing each voltage by
I.
The impedance reach varies with fault angle. As the line to be
protected is made up of resistance and inductance, its fault
angle will be dependent upon the relative values of R and X at
the system operating frequency. Under an arcing fault
M condition, or an earth fault involving additional resistance,
such as tower footing resistance or fault through vegetation,
the value of the resistive component of fault impedance will
increase to change the impedance angle. Thus a relay having
a characteristic angle equivalent to the line angle will under-
reach under resistive fault conditions.
Some users set the RCA less than the line angle, so that it is
possible to accept a small amount of fault resistance without
causing under-reach. However, when setting the relay, the
difference between the line angle and the relay characteristic
angle Ø must be known. The resulting characteristic is shown
in Figure 11.9 where GL corresponds to the length of the line
M to be protected. With Ø set less than , the actual amount of
line protected, AB, would be equal to the relay setting value AQ
multiplied by cosine (-Ø). Therefore the required relay setting
AQ is given by:
AB
AQ
cosT I
Due to the physical nature of an arc, there is a non-linear
relationship between arc voltage and arc current, which results
in a non-linear resistance. Using the empirical formula derived
by A.R. van C. Warrington, [11.1] the approximate value of arc
resistance can be assessed as:
28,710
Ra L
I 1.4
Equation 11.4
T where:
M Ra = arc resistence (ohms)
L = length of arc (metres)
I = arc current (A)
On long overhead lines carried on steel towers with overhead
earth wires the effect of arc resistance can usually be
neglected. The effect is most significant on short overhead
M lines and with fault currents below 2000A (i.e. minimum plant
condition), or if the protected line is of wood-pole construction
T without earth wires. In the latter case, the earth fault
resistance reduces the effective earth-fault reach of a ‘mho’
Figure 11.9: Mho relay characteristic Zone 1 element to such an extent that the majority of faults
are detected in Zone 2 time. This problem can usually be 11.7.4.1 Third Zone and Busbar Back-Up Zone
overcome by using a relay with a cross-polarised mho or a In this application it is used in conjunction with mho
polygonal characteristic. measuring units as a fault detector and/or Zone 3 measuring
Where a power system is resistance-earthed, it should be unit. So, with the reverse reach arranged to extend into the
appreciated that this does not need to be considered with busbar zone, as shown in Figure 11.10, it will provide back-up
regard to the relay settings other than the effect that reduced protection for busbar faults. This facility can also be provided
fault current may have on the value of arc resistance seen. with quadrilateral characteristics. A further benefit of the Zone
The earthing resistance is in the source behind the relay and 3 application is for Switch-on-to-Fault (SOTF) protection,
only modifies the source angle and source to line impedance where the Zone 3 time delay would be bypassed for a short
ratio for earth faults. It would therefore be taken into account period immediately following line energisation to allow rapid
only when assessing relay performance in terms of system clearance of a fault anywhere along the protected line.
impedance ratio.
11.7.4.2 Carrier Starting Unit in Distance Schemes With
11.7.4 Offset Mho/Lenticular Characteristics Carrier Blocking
Under close up fault conditions, when the relay voltage falls to If the offset mho unit is used for starting carrier signalling, it is
zero or near-zero, a relay using a self-polarised mho arranged as shown in Figure 11.10. The carrier is transmitted
characteristic or any other form of self-polarised directional if the fault is external to the protected line but inside the reach
impedance characteristic may fail to operate when it is of the offset mho relay, to prevent accelerated tripping of the
required to do so. Methods of covering this condition include second or third zone relay at the remote station. Transmission
the use of non-directional impedance characteristics, such as is prevented for internal faults by operation of the local mho
offset mho, offset lenticular, or cross-polarised and memory measuring units, which allows high-speed fault clearance by
polarised directional impedance characteristics. the local and remote end circuit breakers.
If current bias is employed, the mho characteristic is shifted to 11.7.4.3 Application of Lenticular Characteristic
embrace the origin, so that the measuring element can operate
There is a danger that the offset mho relay shown in Figure
for close-up faults in both the forward and the reverse
11.10 may operate under maximum load transfer conditions if
directions. The offset mho relay has two main applications:
Zone 3 of the relay has a large reach setting. A large Zone 3
X reach may be required to provide remote back-up protection
for faults on the adjacent feeder. To avoid this, a shaped type
of characteristic may be used, where the resistive coverage is
Zone
3
restricted. With a ‘lenticular’ characteristic, the aspect ratio of
§a·
Zone the lens ¨ ¸ is adjustable, enabling it to be set to provide the
2
©b¹
Zone
1 maximum fault resistance coverage consistent with non-
R
operation under maximum load transfer conditions.
Busbar zone
Figure 11.11 shows how the lenticular characteristic can
(a) Busbar zone back-up using an offset mho relay tolerate much higher degrees of line loading than offset mho
and plain impedance characteristics. Reduction of load
X
J
impedance from ZD3 to ZD1 will correspond to an equivalent
Zone
increase in load current.
H 3
Zone Carrier stop

2
Zone
1
R
G
Carrier start
K
(b) Carrier starting in distance blocking schemes
Figure 11.10: Typical applications for the offset mho relay
11-9
X polarised, plain mho impedance characteristic, when applied to

Offset Lenticular overhead line circuits with high impedance angles, is that it
Characteristic has limited coverage of arc or fault resistance. The problem is
b Offset Mho aggravated in the case of short lines, since the required Zone 1
Characterisitc ohmic setting is low. The amount of the resistive coverage
ZA offered by the mho circle is directly related to the forward
a Z D3
Z D2
Z D1 reach setting. Hence, the resulting resistive coverage may be
Load too small in relation to the expected values of fault resistance.
0 Area R
One additional benefit of applying cross-polarisation to a mho
ZC
impedance element is that its resistive coverage will be
ZB
enhanced. This effect is illustrated in Figure 11.12, for the
case where a mho element has 100% cross-polarisation. With
Impedance cross-polarisation from the healthy phase(s) or from a memory
Characteristic system, the mho resistive expansion will occur during a
balanced three-phase fault as well as for unbalanced faults.
Figure 11.11: Minimum load impedance permitted with lenticular, The expansion will not occur under load conditions, when
offset mho and impedance relays there is no phase shift between the measured voltage and the
It can be observed in Figure 11.11 how the load area is defined polarising voltage. The degree of resistive reach enhancement
according to a minimum impedance arc, constrained by depends on the ratio of source impedance to relay reach
straight lines which emanate from the origin, 0. Modem (impedance) setting as can be deduced by reference to Figure
numerical relays typically do not use lenticular characteristic 11.13.
shaping, but instead use load encroachment (load blinder)
X
detection. This allows a full mho characteristic to be used, but
with tripping prevented in the region of the impedance plane Zs
2.5
ZL
known to be frequented by load (ZA-ZB-ZC-ZD).
11.7.5 Fully Cross-Polarised Mho Characteristic

The previous section showed how the non-directional offset Zs
0
mho characteristic is inherently able to operate for close-up ZL
zero voltage faults, where there would be no polarising voltage R
to allow operation of a plain mho directional element. One

way of ensuring correct mho element response for zero-voltage Figure 11.12: Fully cross-polarised mho relay characteristic with
faults is to add a percentage of voltage from the healthy variations of ZS/ZL ratio
phase(s) to the main polarising voltage as a substitute phase
reference. This technique is called cross-polarising, and it has
the advantage of preserving and indeed enhancing the
directional properties of the mho characteristic. By the use of
a phase voltage memory system, that provides several cycles of
pre-fault voltage reference during a fault, the cross-
polarisation technique is also effective for close-up three-phase
faults. For this type of fault, no healthy phase voltage
reference is available.
Early memory systems were based on tuned, resonant,
analogue circuits, but problems occurred when applied to
networks where the power system operating frequency could
vary. More modern digital or numerical systems can offer a
synchronous phase reference for variations in power system
frequency before or even during a fault.
As described in Section 11.7.3, a disadvantage of the self-
Positive current direction selection is not provided, a modern non-switched distance

for relay relay may only employ a relatively small percentage of cross
Source ZS ZL polarisation. The level selected must be sufficient to provide
~
reliable directional control in the presence of CVT transients for
Relay location IF close-up faults, and also attain reliable faulted phase selection.
Va1 By employing only partial cross-polarisation, the disadvantages
E1 ZS1 ZL1 of the fully cross-polarised characteristic are avoided, while still
N1 F1
Ia1 retaining the advantages. Figure 11.14 shows a typical
ZS2 Ia2 ZL2 characteristic that can be obtained using this technique
N2 F2
(reference Micromho, Quadramho and Optimho family).
Va2
Mho unit
characteristic
(not cross-polarised) X
S'2 = ZL1 - Zn1
Zn1
ZL1
Zn2
30° ZS1
S'1 = ZL1 + Zn2
Mho unit characteristic

_X
(fully cross-polarised)
Figure 11.13: Illustration of improvement in relay resistive coverage for
fully cross-polarised characteristic
It must be emphasised that the apparent extension of a fully
cross-polarised impedance characteristic into the negative
reactance quadrants of Figure 11.13 does not imply that there
would be operation for reverse faults. With cross-polarisation,
the relay characteristic expands to encompass the origin of the
impedance diagram for forward faults only. For reverse faults,
the effect is to exclude the origin of the impedance diagram, Figure 11.14: Partially cross-polarised characteristic with 'shield' shape
thereby ensuring proper directional responses for close-up
forward or reverse faults. 11.7.7 Quadrilateral Characteristic
Fully cross-polarised characteristics have now largely been This form of polygonal impedance characteristic is shown in
superseded, due to the tendency of comparators connected to Figure 11.15. The characteristic is provided with forward
healthy phases to operate under heavy fault conditions on reach and resistive reach settings that are independently
another phase. This is of no consequence in a switched adjustable. It therefore provides better resistive coverage than
distance relay, where a single comparator is connected to the any mho-type characteristic for short lines. This is especially
correct fault loop impedance by starting units before true for earth fault impedance measurement, where the arc
measurement begins. However, modern relays offer resistances and fault resistance to earth contribute to the
independent impedance measurement for each of the three highest values of fault resistance. To avoid excessive errors in
earth-fault and three phase-fault loops. For these types of the zone reach accuracy, it is common to impose a maximum
relay, mal-operation of healthy phases is undesirable, resistive reach in terms of the zone impedance reach.
especially when single-pole tripping is required for single- Recommendations in this respect can usually be found in the
phase faults. appropriate relay manuals.
Quadrilateral elements with plain reactance reach lines can
11.7.6 Partially Cross-Polarised Mho Characteristic introduce reach error problems for resistive earth faults where
Where a reliable, independent method of faulted phase the angle of total fault current differs from the angle of the
11-11
current measured by the relay. This will be the case where the impedance vector, as shown in Figure 11.16.
local and remote source voltage vectors are phase shifted with
The ohm impedance elements divide the R/X impedance
respect to each other due to pre-fault power flow. This can be
diagram into three zones, A, B and C. As the impedance
overcome by selecting an alternative to use of a phase current
changes during a power swing, the point representing the
for polarisation of the reactance reach line. Polygonal
impedance moves along the swing locus, entering the three
impedance characteristics are highly flexible in terms of fault
zones in turn and causing the ohm units to operate in
impedance coverage for both phase and earth faults. For this
sequence. When the impedance enters the third zone the trip
reason, most digital and numerical distance relays now offer
sequence is completed and the circuit breaker trip coil can be
this form of characteristic. A further factor is that the
energised at a favourable angle between system sources for
additional cost implications of implementing this characteristic
arc interruption with little risk of restriking.
using discrete component electromechanical or early static
relay technology do not arise.
X
Zone 3
C
Zone 2
B
Zone 1
Zone
s 1&
2
R
A
Zone 3
RZ1
RZ2
RZ3 Figure 11.16: Application of out-of-step tripping relay characteristic

Figure 11.15: Quadrilateral characteristic
Only an unstable power swing condition can cause the
impedance vector to move successively through the three
11.7.8 Protection against Power Swings – Use of the
zones. Therefore, other types of system disturbance, such as
Ohm Characteristic power system fault conditions, will not result in relay element
During severe power swing conditions from which a system is operation.
unlikely to recover, stability might only be regained if the
swinging sources are separated. Where such scenarios are 11.7.9 Other Characteristics
identified, power swing, or out-of-step, tripping protection can The execution time for the algorithm for traditional distance
be deployed, to strategically split a power system at a preferred protection using quadrilateral or similar characteristics may
location. Ideally, the split should be made so that the plant result in a relatively long operation time, possibly up to 40ms
capacity and connected loads on either side of the split are in some relay designs. To overcome this, some numerical
matched. distance relays also use alternative algorithms that can be
This type of disturbance cannot normally be correctly identified executed significantly faster. These algorithms are based
by an ordinary distance protection. As previously mentioned, it generally on detecting changes in current and voltage that are
is often necessary to prevent distance protection schemes from in excess of what is expected, often known as the ‘Delta’
operating during stable or unstable power swings, to avoid algorithm.
cascade tripping. To initiate system separation for a This algorithm detects a fault by comparing the measured
prospective unstable power swing, an out-of-step tripping values of current and voltage with the values sampled
scheme employing ohm impedance measuring elements can previously. If the change between these samples exceeds a
be deployed. predefined amount (the ‘delta’), it is assumed a fault has
Ohm impedance characteristics are applied along the forward occurred. In parallel, the distance to fault is also computed.
and reverse resistance axes of the R/X diagram and their Provided the computed distance to fault lies within the Zone
operating boundaries are set to be parallel to the protected line reach of the relay, a trip command is issued. This algorithm
can be executed significantly faster than the conventional type of relay is commonly referred to as a reach-
distance algorithm, resulting in faster overall tripping times. stepped distance relay
Faulted phase selection can be carried out by comparing the x each zone may be provided with independent sets of
signs of the changes in voltage and current. impedance measuring elements for each impedance
Relays that use the ‘Delta’ algorithm generally run both this loop. This is known as a full distance scheme, capable
and conventional distance protection algorithms in parallel, as of offering the highest performance in terms of speed
some types of fault (e.g. high-resistance faults) may not fall and application flexibility
within the fault detection criteria of the ‘Delta’ algorithm. Furthermore, protection against earth faults may require
different characteristics and/or settings to those required for
11.8 DISTANCE RELAY IMPLEMENTATION phase faults, resulting in additional units being required. A
Discriminating zones of protection can be achieved using total of 18 impedance-measuring elements or algorithms
distance relays, provided that fault distance is a simple would be required in a full scheme distance relay for three-
function of impedance. While this is true in principle for zone protection for all types of fault. With electromechanical
transmission circuits, the impedances actually measured by a or static technology, each of the measuring elements would
distance relay also depend on the following factors: have been a separate relay housed in its own case, so that the
distance relay comprised a panel-mounted assembly of the
x the magnitudes of current and voltage (the relay may
required relays with suitable inter-unit wiring. Figure 11.17(a)
not see all the current that produces the fault voltage)
shows an example of such a relay scheme.
x the fault impedance loop being measured
x the type of fault
x the fault resistance
x the symmetry of line impedance
x the circuit configuration (single, double or multi-
terminal circuit)
It is impossible to eliminate all of the above factors for all
possible operating conditions. However, considerable success
can be achieved with a suitable distance relay. This may
comprise relay elements or algorithms for starting, distance
measuring and for scheme logic. The distance measurement
elements may produce impedance characteristics selected
from those described in Section 11.7. Various distance relay
formats exist, depending on the operating speed required and
cost considerations related to the relaying hardware, software
or numerical relay processing capacity required. The most
common formats are:
x a single measuring element for each phase is provided,
that covers all phase faults
x a more economical arrangement is for ‘starter’
elements to detect which phase or phases have suffered
a fault. The starter elements switch a single measuring
element or algorithm to measure the most appropriate Figure 11.17a: Static distance relay
fault impedance loop. This is commonly referred to as a
switched distance relay
x a single set of impedance measuring elements for each
impedance loop may have their reach settings
progressively increased from one zone reach setting to
another. The increase occurs after zone time delays
that are initiated by operation of starter elements. This
11-13
current (the ‘delta’ algorithm). This enables very fast

detection of the faulted phases, within only a few
samples of the analogue current inputs
x change in voltage magnitude
x change in current magnitude
Numerical phase selection is much faster than traditional
starter techniques used in electromechanical or static distance
relays. It does not impose a time penalty as the phase
selection and measuring zone algorithms run in parallel. It is
possible to build a full-scheme relay with these numerical
techniques. The phase selection algorithm provides faulted
phase selection, together with a segregated measuring
Figure 11.17b: MiCOM P440 series numerical distance relay algorithm for each phase-ground and phase to phase fault loop
Digital/numerical distance relays (Figure 11.17(b) are likely to (AN, BN, CN, AB, BC, CA), thus ensuring full-scheme
have all of the above functions implemented in software. operation.
Starter units may not be necessary. The complete distance However, there may be occasions where a numerical relay that
relay is housed in a single unit, making for significant mimics earlier switched distance protection techniques is
economies in space, wiring and increased dependability, desired. The reasons may be economic (less software required
through the increased availability that stems from the – thus cheaper than a relay that contains a full-scheme
provision of continuous self-supervision. When the additional implementation) and/or technical. Some applications may
features detailed in Section 11.11 are taken into consideration, require the numerical relay characteristics to match those of
such equipment offers substantial user benefits. earlier generations already installed on a network, to aid
selectivity. Such relays are available, often with refinements
11.8.1 Starters for Switched Distance Protection such as multi-sided polygonal impedance characteristics that
Electromechanical and static distance relays do not normally assist in avoiding tripping due to heavy load conditions.
use an individual impedance-measuring element per phase. With electromechanical or static switched distance relays, a
The cost and the resulting physical scheme size made this selection of available starters often had to be made. The
arrangement impractical, except for the most demanding EHV choice of starter was dependent on power system parameters
transmission applications. To achieve economy for other such as maximum load transfer in relation to maximum reach
applications, only one measuring element was provided, required and power system earthing arrangements.
together with ‘starter’ units that detected which phases were
faulted, to switch the appropriate signals to the single Where overcurrent starters are used, care must be taken to
measuring function. A distance relay using this technique is ensure that, with minimum generating plant in service, the
known as a switched distance relay. A number of different setting of the overcurrent starters is sensitive enough to detect
types of starters have been used, the most common being faults beyond the third zone. Furthermore, these starters
based on overcurrent, undervoltage or under-impedance require a high drop-off to pick-up ratio, to ensure that they will
measurement. drop off under maximum load conditions after a second or
third zone fault has been cleared by the first zone relay in the
Numerical distance relays permit direct detection of the phases faulty section. Without this feature, indiscriminate tripping
involved in a fault. This is called faulted phase selection, often may result for subsequent faults in the second or third zone.
abbreviated to phase selection. Several techniques are For satisfactory operation of the overcurrent starters in a
available for faulted phase selection, which then permits the switched distance scheme, the following conditions must be
appropriate distance-measuring zone to trip. Without phase fulfilled:
selection, the relay risks having over or underreach problems,
or tripping three-phase when single-pole fault clearance is x the current setting of the overcurrent starters must be
required. Several techniques are available for faulted phase not less than 1.2 times the maximum full load current
selection, such as: of the protected line
x superimposed current comparisons, comparing the step x the power system minimum fault current for a fault at
change of level between pre-fault load, and fault the Zone 3 reach of the distance relay must not be less
than 1.5 times the setting of the overcurrent starters
On multiple-earthed systems where the neutrals of all the

power transformers are solidly earthed, or in power systems
where the fault current is less than the full load current of the
protected line, it is not possible to use overcurrent starters. In
these circumstances under-impedance starters are typically I ca I 1c
used. I bc a 2 I 1c a2 a I 1c
The type of under-impedance starter used is mainly dependent I cc aI 1c a a2 I 1c
on the maximum expected load current and equivalent
V ac Z L1 I 1c 2 Z S1 Z L1 I 1c
minimum load impedance in relation to the required relay
setting to cover faults in Zone 3. This is illustrated in Figure V bc a Z L1 I 1c
2
2a2Z L1 Z S1 I 1c
11.11 where ZD1, ZD2, and ZD3 are respectively the minimum V cc aZ L1 I 1c 2aZ L1 Z S1 I 1c
load impedances permitted when lenticular, offset mho and

impedance relays are used. 1
I 1c I ac aI bc a 2 I cc
3
I c and V c
11.9 EFFECT OF SOURCE IMPEDANCE AND Figure 11.19: Phase currents and voltages at relaying point for 3-phase
EARTHING METHODS and double-phase faults
For correct operation, distance relays must be capable of Applying the difference of the phase voltages to the relay
measuring the distance to the fault accurately. To ensure this, eliminates the dependence on ZS1. For example:
it is necessary to provide the correct measured quantities to
the measurement elements. It is not always the case that use Vbc' a a Z I for 3 phase faults
2 '
L1 1
2a a Z I for double phase faults

of the voltage and current for a particular phase will give the
correct result, or that additional compensation is required.
Vbc' 2 '
L1 1
Distance measuring elements are usually calibrated in terms of

11.9.1 Phase Fault Impedance Measurement the positive sequence impedance. Correct measurement for
Figure 11.18 shows the current and voltage relations for the both phase-phase and three-phase faults is achieved by
different types of fault. If ZS1 and ZL1 are the source and line supplying each phase-phase measuring element with its
positive sequence impedances, viewed from the relaying point, corresponding phase-phase voltage and difference of phase
the currents and voltages at this point for double phase faults currents. Thus, for the B-C element, the current measured will
are dependent on the source impedance as well as the line be:
impedance. The relationships are given in Figure 11.19.
I b' I c' a a I for 3 phase faults
2 '
1
I b' I c' 2a a I for double phase faults

2 '
1
and the relay will measure ZL1 in each case.
11.9.2 Earth Fault Impedance Measurement

When a phase-earth fault occurs, the phase-earth voltage at
the fault location is zero. It would appear that the voltage drop
to the fault is simply the product of the phase current and line
impedance. However, the current in the fault loop depends on
the number of earthing points, the method of earthing and
sequence impedances of the fault loop. Unless these factors
are taken into account, the impedance measurement will be
incorrect.
The voltage drop to the fault is the sum of the sequence
voltage drops between the relaying point and the fault. The
voltage drop to the fault and current in the fault loop are:
Figure 11.18: Current and voltage relationships for some shunt faults
11-15
Va' I1' Z L1 I 2' Z L1 I o' Z Lo
I a' I1' I 2' I o'

and the residual current I'N at the relaying point is given by:
I N' I a' I b' I c' 3I o'

' ' '
Where I a , I b , I c are the phase currents at the relaying point.
From the above expressions, the voltage at the relaying point
K 1 ½ ZLO
can be expressed in terms of: Z ®1 ¾ Z L1 where K
¯ 3 ¿ ZL1
x the phase currents at the relaying point,
x the ratio of the transmission line zero sequence to
positive sequence impedance, K, Z L O Z L1
x the transmission line positive sequence impedance ZL1:
K 1½
Va'

Z L1 ® I a' I a' I b' I c' ¾
¯ 3 ¿
Equation 11.5
The voltage appearing at the relaying point, as previously
mentioned, varies with the number of infeeds, the method of
system earthing and the position of the relay relative to the
infeed and earthing points in the system. Figure 11.20
illustrates the three possible arrangements that can occur in
practice with a single infeed. In Figure 11.20(a), the healthy
phase currents are zero, so that the phase currents Ia, Ib and Ic
have a 1-0-0 pattern. The impedance seen by a relay
comparing Ia and Va is:
K 1 ½
Z ®1 ¾Z L1
¯ 3 ¿
Equation 11.6
In Figure 11.20(b), the currents entering the fault from the
relay branch have a 2-1-1 distribution, so:
Z Z L1
Figure 11.20: Effect of infeed and earthing arrangements on earth
fault distance measurement
In Figure 11.20(c), the phase currents have a 1-1-1
distribution, and hence:
Z KZ L1
If there were infeeds at both ends of the line, the impedance
measured would be a superposition of any two of the above
examples, with the relative magnitudes of the infeeds taken
into account.
This analysis shows that the relay can only measure an
impedance which is independent of infeed and earthing
arrangements if a proportion K N
K 1 of the residual
application. Many of them have been overcome in the latest
3 numerical relays. Nevertheless, an awareness of the problems
current IN = Ia + Ib + Ic is added to the phase current Ia. This is useful where a protection engineer has to deal with older
technique is known as ‘residual compensation’. relays that are already installed and not due for replacement.
Static distance relays compensate for the earth fault conditions 11.10.1 Minimum Voltage at Relay Terminals
by using an additional replica impedance ZN within the
To attain their claimed accuracy, distance relays that do not
measuring circuits. This compensation is implemented in
employ voltage memory techniques require a minimum
software in numerical relays. Whereas the phase replica
voltage at the relay terminals under fault conditions. This
impedance Z1 is fed with the phase current at the relaying
voltage should be declared in the data sheet for the relay.
point, ZN is fed with the full residual current. The value of ZN is
With knowledge of the sequence impedances involved in the
adjusted so that for a fault at the reach point, the sum of the
fault, or alternatively the fault MVA, the system voltage and
voltages developed across Z1 and ZN equals the measured
the earthing arrangements, it is possible to calculate the
phase to neutral voltage in the faulted phase.
minimum voltage at the relay terminals for a fault at the reach
The required setting for ZN can be determined by considering point of the relay. It is then only necessary to check that the
an earth fault at the reach point of the relay. This is illustrated minimum voltage for accurate reach measurement can be
with reference to the A-N fault with single earthing point attained for a given application. Care should be taken that
behind the relay as in Figure 11.20(a) both phase and earth faults are considered.
Voltage supplied from the VT’s:
11.10.2 Minimum Length of Line
I 1 Z 1 Z 2 Z O I 1 2Z 1 Z O To determine the minimum length of line that can be protected
by a distance relay, it is necessary to check first that any
Voltage across replica impedances:
minimum voltage requirement of the relay for a fault at the
I A Z1 I N Z N Zone 1 reach is within the declared sensitivity for the relay.
Secondly, the ohmic impedance of the line (referred if
I A Z 1 Z N necessary to VT/CT secondary side quantities) must fall within
the ohmic setting range for Zone 1 reach of the relay. For very
I A Z 1 Z N 3I 1 Z 1 Z N short lines and especially for cable circuits, it may be found
that the circuit impedance is less than the minimum setting
Hence, the required setting of ZN for balance at the reach point
range of the relay. In such cases, an alternative method of
is given by equating the above two expressions:
protection will be required. A suitable alternative might be
3 I 1 Z 1 Z N I 1 2Z 1 Z 0 current differential protection, as the line length will probably
be short enough for the cost-effective provision of a high
Z O Z1 bandwidth communication link between the relays fitted at the
?ZN ends of the protected circuit. However, the latest numerical
3
distance relays have a very wide range of impedance setting
Z O Z1 ranges and good sensitivity with low levels of relaying voltage,
Z1 K N Z1 so such problems are now rarely encountered. Application
3Z 1
checks are still essential, though. When considering earth
Equation 11.7 faults, particular care must be taken to ensure that the
Z O Z1 appropriate earth fault loop impedance is used in the
With the replica impedance set to , earth fault calculation.
3
measuring elements will measure the fault impedance
11.10.3 Under-Reach - Effect of Remote Infeed
correctly, irrespective of the number of infeeds and earthing
points on the system. A distance relay is said to under-reach when the impedance
presented to it is apparently greater than the impedance to the
11.10 DISTANCE RELAY APPLICATION fault.
PROBLEMS Percentage under-reach is defined as:
Distance relays may suffer from a number of difficulties in their
11-17
ZR ZF
x 100%
ZR
where:
ZR = intended relay reach (relay reach setting)
ZF = effective reach
The main cause of under-reaching is the effect of fault current
infeed at remote busbars. This is best illustrated by an
example.
In Figure 11.21, the relay at A will not measure the correct
impedance for a fault on line section ZC due to current infeed Figure 11.21: Effect on distance relays of infeed at the remote busbar
IB.
Care should also be taken that large forward reach settings will
For a fault at point F, the relay is presented with an not result in operation of healthy phase relays for reverse earth
impedance: faults, see Section 11.10.5.
I A IB
ZA ZC 11.10.4 Over-Reach
IA
A distance relay is said to over-reach when the apparent
So, for relay balance: impedance presented to it is less than the impedance to the
Z A ZC ZA
I A I B Z fault.
C Percentage over-reach is defined by the equation:
IA
Therefore the apparent impedance is ZF ZR
x 100%
ZR
§I I ·
Z A ¨¨ A B ¸¸ Z C Equation 11.9
© IA ¹
where:
Equation 11.8
ZR = relay reach setting
It is clear from Equation 11.8 that the relay will underreach. It
is relatively easy to compensate for this by increasing the reach ZF = effective reach
setting of the relay, but care has to be taken. Should there be An example of the over-reaching effect is when distance relays
a possibility of the remote infeed being reduced or zero, the are applied on parallel lines and one line is taken out of service
relay will then reach further than intended. For example, and earthed at each end. This is covered in Section 13.2.3.
setting Zone 2 to reach a specific distance into an adjacent line
section under parallel circuit conditions may mean that Zone 2 11.10.5 Forward Reach Limitations
reaches beyond the Zone 1 reach of the adjacent line
There are limitations on the maximum forward reach setting
protection under single circuit operation. If IB = 91A and the
that can be applied to a distance relay. For example, with
relay reach is set to see faults at F, then in the absence of the
reference to Figure 11.6, Zone 2 of one line section should not
remote infeed, the relay effective setting becomes ZA + 10ZC.
reach beyond the Zone 1 coverage of the next line section
relay. Where there is a link between the forward reach setting
and the relay resistive coverage (e.g. a Mho Zone 3 element), a
relay must not operate under maximum load conditions. Also,
if the relay reach is excessive, the healthy phase-earth fault
units of some relay designs may be prone to operation for
heavy reverse faults. This problem only affected older relays
applied to three-terminal lines that have significant line section
length asymmetry. A number of the features offered with
modern relays can eliminate this problem.
11.10.6 Power Swing Blocking may maloperate if one or more voltage inputs are removed due
Power swings are variations in power flow that occur when to operation of these devices.
the internal voltages of generators at different points of the For these types of distance relay, supervision of the voltage
power system slip relative to each other. The changes in load inputs is recommended. The supervision may be provided by
flows that occur as a result of faults and their subsequent external means, e.g. separate voltage supervision circuits, or it
clearance are one cause of power swings. may be incorporated into the distance relay itself. On
A power swing may cause the impedance presented to a detection of VT failure, tripping of the distance relay can be
distance relay to move away from the normal load area and inhibited and/or an alarm is given. Modern distance
into the relay characteristic. In the case of a stable power protection relays employ voltage supervision that operates
swing it is especially important that the distance relay should from sequence voltages and currents. Zero or negative
not trip to allow the power system to return to a stable sequence voltages and corresponding zero or negative
conditions. For this reason, most distance protection schemes sequence currents are derived. Discrimination between
applied to transmission systems have a power swing blocking primary power system faults and wiring faults or loss of supply
facility available. Different relays may use different principles due to individual fuses blowing or MCB’s being opened is
for detection of a power swing, but all involve recognising that obtained by blocking the distance protection only when zero or
the movement of the measured impedance in relation to the negative sequence voltage is detected without the presence of
relay measurement characteristics is at a rate that is zero or negative sequence current. This arrangement will not
significantly less than the rate of change that occurs during detect the simultaneous loss of all three voltages and
fault conditions. When the relay detects such a condition, additional detection is required that operates for loss of voltage
operation of the relay elements can be blocked. Power swing with no change in current, or a current less than that
blocking may be applied individually to each of the relay zones, corresponding to the three phase fault current under minimum
or on an all zones applied/inhibited basis, depending on the fault infeed conditions. If fast-acting miniature circuit breakers
particular relay used. are used to protect the VT secondary circuits, contacts from
these may be used to inhibit operation of the distance
Various techniques are used in different relay designs to inhibit protection elements and prevent tripping.
power swing blocking in the event of a fault occurring while a
power swing is in progress. This is particularly important, for 11.11 OTHER DISTANCE RELAY FEATURES
example, to allow the relay to respond to a fault that develops
A modern digital or numerical distance relay will often
on a line during the dead time of a single pole autoreclose
incorporate additional features that assist the protection
cycle.
engineer in providing a comprehensive solution to the
Some Utilities may designate certain points on the network as protection requirements of a particular part of a network.
split points, where the network should be split in the event of Table 11.1 provides an indication of the additional features
an unstable power swing or pole-slipping occurring. A that may be provided in such a relay. The combination of
dedicated power swing tripping relay may be employed for this features that are actually provided is manufacturer and relay
purpose (see Section 11.7.8). Alternatively, it may be possible model dependent, but it can be seen from the Table that
to achieve splitting by strategically limiting the duration for steady progression is being made towards a ‘one-box’ solution
which the operation a specific distance relay is blocked during that incorporates all the protection and control requirements
power swing conditions. for a line or cable. However, at the highest transmission
voltages, the level of dependability required for rapid clearance
11.10.7 Voltage Transformer Supervision of any protected circuit fault will still demand the use of two
Fuses or sensitive miniature circuit breakers normally protect independent protection systems.
the secondary wiring between the voltage transformer
secondary windings and the relay terminals.
Distance relays having:
x self-polarised offset characteristics encompassing the
zero impedance point of the R/X diagram
x sound phase polarisation
x voltage memory polarisation
11-19
Fault location (distance to fault) Relay Parameter

Parameter Description Units
Instantaneous overcurrent protection Parameter Value
Tee’d feeder protection R1ph Phase fault resistive reach value - Zone 1 78 :
Alternative setting groups R2ph Phase fault resistive reach value - Zone 2 78 :
CT supervision R3ph Phase fault resistive reach value - Zone 3 78 :
Check synchroniser TZ1 Time delay - Zone 1 0 sec
Auto-reclose TZ2 Time delay - Zone 2 0.35 sec
CB state monitoring TZ3 Time delay - Zone 3 0.8 sec
CB condition monitoring R1G Ground fault resistive reach value - Zone 1 104 :
CB control R2G Ground fault resistive reach value - Zone 2 104 :
Measurement of voltages, currents, etc. R3G Ground fault resistive reach value - Zone 3 104 :
Event recorder Table 11.2: Distance relay parameters for example

Disturbance recorder Calculations are carried out in terms of primary system
CB failure detection/logic impedances in ohms, rather than the traditional practice of
Directional/Non-directional phase fault overcurrent protection (backup to distance protection) using secondary impedances. With numerical relays, where
Directional/Non-directional earth fault overcurrent protection (backup to distance protection) the CT and VT ratios may be entered as parameters, the
Negative sequence protection
scaling between primary and secondary ohms can be
performed by the relay. This simplifies the example by
Under/overvoltage protection
allowing calculations to be carried out in primary quantities
Stub-bus protection
and eliminates considerations of VT/CT ratios.
Broken conductor detection
User-programmable scheme logic
Table 11.1: Listing of possible additional features in a numerical
distance relay
11.12 DISTANCE RELAY APPLICATION

EXAMPLE
The system diagram shown in Figure 11.22 shows a simple
230kV network. The following example shows the calculations
necessary to apply three-zone distance protection to the line
interconnecting substations ABC and XYZ. All relevant data for
Z 0.089 j0.476/ km
this exercise are given in the diagram. The MiCOM P441 relay 1
Z o 0. 4 2 6 j 1 . 5 7 6 / km
with quadrilateral characteristics is considered in this example.
Relay parameters used in the example are listed in Table 11.2. Figure 11.22: Example network for distance relay setting calculation
For simplicity it is assumed that only a conventional 3-zone
Relay Parameter
Parameter Description Units distance protection is to be set and that there is no
Parameter Value
teleprotection scheme to be considered. In practice, a
ZL1 (mag) Line positive sequence impedance (magnitude) 48.42 :
teleprotection scheme would normally be applied to a line at
ZL1 (ang) Line positive sequence impedance (phase angle) 79.41 deg
this voltage level.
ZLO (mag) Line zero sequence impedance (magnitude) 163.26 :
ZLO (ang) Line zero sequence impedance (phase angle) 74.87 deg 11.12.1 Line Impedance
KZO (mag) Default residual compensation factor (magnitude) 0.79 -
The line impedance is:
KZO (ang) Default residual compensation factor (phase angle) -6.5 deg
Z1 (mag) Zone 1 reach impedance setting (magnitude) 38.74 : ZL 0.089 j 0.476 x 100:
Z1 (ang) Zone 1 reach impedance setting (phase angle) 80 deg
8.9 j 47.6:
Z2 (mag) Zone 2 reach impedance setting (magnitude) 62.95 :
Z2 (ang) Zone 2 reach impedance setting (phase angle) 80 deg
48.4279.41D :
Z3 (mag) Zone 3 reach impedance setting (magnitude) 83.27 :
Z3 (ang) Zone 3 reach impedance setting (phase angle) 80 deg Use values of 48.42: (magnitude) and 80o (angle) as nearest
settable values.
11.12.2 Residual Compensation 48.4279.41D (0.5 x 60 x (0.484 79.41D )) :

The relays used are calibrated in terms of the positive sequence
impedance of the protected line. Since the zero sequence 62.9579.41D :
D
impedance of the line between substations ABC and XYZ is Use 62.9580 : nearest available setting.
different from the positive sequence impedance, the
impedance seen by the relay in the case of an earth fault, 11.12.5 Zone 3 Phase Reach
involving the passage of zero sequence current, will be
Zone 3 is set to cover 120% of the sum of the lines between
different to that seen for a phase fault. Hence, the earth fault
substations ABC and PQR, provided this does not result in any
reach of the relay requires zero sequence compensation (see
transformers at substation XYZ being included. It is assumed
Section 11.9.2).
that this constraint is met. Hence, Zone 3 reach:
For the relay used, this adjustment is provided by the residual
(or neutral) compensation factor KZO, set equal to: 48.4279.41D (1.2 x 60 x (0.484 79.41D )) :
Z 0 Z1 83.27579.41D :
K ZO D
3Z 1 Use a setting of 83.2780 : , nearest available setting.
11.12.6 Zone Time Delay Settings

K Z 0
Z 0 Z1 Proper co-ordination of the distance relay settings with those
3Z1 of other relays is required. Independent timers are available for
the three zones to ensure this.
For each of the transmission lines:
For Zone 1, instantaneous tripping is normal. A time delay is
Z L1
0.089 j 0.476: 0.48479.41D : used only in cases where large d.c. offsets occur and old circuit
0.426 j1.576: 1.63274.87 : D

breakers, incapable of breaking the instantaneous d.c.
Z L0 component, are involved.
Hence, The Zone 2 element has to grade with the relays protecting the
line between substations XYZ and PQR since the Zone 2
KZ0 0.792
element covers part of these lines. Assuming that this line has
distance, unit or instantaneous high-set overcurrent protection
K Z 0 6.5 D applied, the time delay required is that to cover the total
clearance time of the downstream relays. To this must be
11.12.3 Zone 1 Phase Reach added the reset time for the Zone 2 element following
The required Zone 1 reach is 80% of the line impedance. clearance of a fault on the adjacent line, and a suitable safety
Therefore, margin. A typical time delay is 350ms, and the normal range

0.8x 48.4279.41D 38.7479.41D
is 200-500ms.
The considerations for the Zone 3 element are the same as for
D
Use 38.7480 : nearest settable value. the Zone 2 element, except that the downstream fault
clearance time is that for the Zone 2 element of a distance
11.12.4 Zone 2 Phase Reach relay or IDMT overcurrent protection. Assuming distance
Ideally, the requirements for setting Zone 2 reach are: relays are used, a typical time is 800ms. In summary:
x at least 120% of the protected line TZ 1 0ms

x less than the protected line + 50% of the next line
TZ 2 250ms
Sometimes, the two requirements are in conflict. In this case,
both requirements can be met. A setting of the whole of the TZ 3 800ms
line between substations ABC and XYZ, plus 50% of the
adjacent line section to substation PQR is used. Hence, Zone 11.12.7 Phase Fault Resistive Reach Settings
2 reach: With the use of a quadrilateral characteristic, the resistive
reach settings for each zone can be set independently of the
11-21
impedance reach settings. The resistive reach setting R1G 104:

represents the maximum amount of additional fault resistance
(in excess of the line impedance) for which a zone will trip, R2G 104:
regardless of the fault within the zone.
Two constraints are imposed upon the settings, as follows:
R3G 104:
x it must be greater than the maximum expected phase- This completes the setting of the relay. Table 11.2 also shows
phase fault resistance (principally that of the fault arc) the settings calculated.
x it must be less than the apparent resistance measured 11.13 REFERENCE

due to the heaviest load on the line, unless load
blinding (load encroachment) is applied [11.1] Protective Relays – their Theory and Practice. A.R. van
C. Warrington. Chapman and Hall, 1962
The minimum fault current at Substation ABC is of the order of
1.8kA, leading to a typical arc resistance Rarc using the van
Warrington formula (Equation 11.4) of 8:. Using the current
transformer ratio as a guide to the maximum expected load
current, the minimum load impedance Zlmin will be 130:.
Typically, the resistive reaches will be set to avoid the
minimum load impedance by a 40% margin for the phase
elements, leading to a maximum resistive reach setting of
78:.
Therefore, the resistive reach setting lies between 8: and
78:. Allowance should be made for the effects of any remote
fault infeed, by using the maximum resistive reach possible.
While each zone can have its own resistive reach setting, for
this simple example they can all be set equal. This need not
always be the case, it depends on the particular distance
protection scheme used and the need to include Power Swing
Blocking.
Suitable settings are chosen to be 80% of the load resistance:
R1 ph 78:
R2 ph 78:
R3 ph 78:
11.12.8 Earth Fault Impedance Reach Settings

By default, the residual compensation factor as calculated in
Section 11.12.2 is used to adjust the phase fault reach setting
in the case of earth faults, and is applied to all zones.
11.12.9 Earth Fault Resistive Reach Settings

The margin for avoiding the minimum load impedance need
only be 20%. Hence the settings are:
11-23
Chapter 12
Distance Protection Schemes

12.2 Zone 1 Extension Scheme (Z1x Scheme)
Conventional time-stepped distance protection is illustrated in
12.3 Transfer Tripping Schemes Figure 12.1. One of the main disadvantages of this scheme is
12.4 Blocking Overreaching Schemes that the instantaneous Zone 1 protection at each end of the
12.5 Directional Comparison Unblocking Scheme protected line cannot be set to cover the whole of the feeder
12.6 Comparison of Transfer Trip and Blocking length and is usually set to about 80%. This leaves two ‘end
Relaying Schemes zones’, each being about 20% of the protected feeder length.
Faults in these zones are cleared in Zone 1 time by the
protection at one end of the feeder and in Zone 2 time
(typically 0.25 to 0.4 seconds) by the protection at the other
end of the feeder.
Relay A
End Zone
Z3A
Z2A
Z1A
A B C
F
0
Z1B
Z2B
Z3B
Relay B
End Zone
(a) Stepped time/distance characteristics
Z1
Z2 Z2T 0
t1 Trip
Z3 Z3T 0
(b) Trip logic

Figure 12.1: Conventional distance scheme
This situation cannot be tolerated in some applications, for two
main reasons:
x faults remaining on the feeder for Zone 2 time may
cause the system to become unstable
x where high-speed auto-reclosing is used, the non-
simultaneous opening of the circuit breakers at both
ends of the faulted section results in no 'dead time'
during the auto-reclose cycle for the fault to be
extinguished and for ionised gases to clear. This results
12-1
in the possibility that a transient fault will cause 12.2 ZONE 1 EXTENSION SCHEME (Z1X
permanent lockout of the circuit breakers at each end of SCHEME)
the line section
This scheme is intended for use with an auto-reclose facility, or
Even where instability does not occur, the increased duration where no communications channel is available, or the channel
of the disturbance may give rise to power quality problems, has failed. Thus it may be used on radial distribution feeders,
and may result in increased plant damage. or on interconnected lines as a fallback when no
Unit schemes of protection that compare the conditions at the communications channel is available, e.g. due to maintenance
two ends of the feeder simultaneously positively identify or temporary fault. The scheme is shown in Figure 12.2.
whether the fault is internal or external to the protected section The Zone 1 elements of the distance relay have two settings.
and provide high-speed protection for the whole feeder length. One is set to cover 80% of the protected line length as in the
This advantage is balanced by the fact that the unit scheme basic distance scheme. The other, known as 'Extended Zone
does not provide the back up protection for adjacent feeders 1’ or ‘Z1X’, is set to overreach the protected line, a setting of
given by a distance scheme. 120% of the protected line being common. The Zone 1 reach is
The most desirable scheme is obviously a combination of the normally controlled by the Z1X setting and is reset to the basic
best features of both arrangements, that is, instantaneous Zone 1 setting when a command from the auto-reclose relay is
tripping over the whole feeder length plus back-up protection received.
to adjacent feeders. This can be achieved by interconnecting On occurrence of a fault at any point within the Z1X reach, the
the distance protection relays at each end of the protected relay operates in Zone 1 time, trips the circuit breaker and
feeder by a communications channel. Communication initiates auto-reclosure. The Zone 1 reach of the distance relay
techniques are described in detail in Chapter 8. is also reset to the basic value of 80%, prior to the auto-reclose
The purpose of the communications channel is to transmit closing pulse being applied to the breaker. This should also
information about the system conditions from one end of the occur when the auto-reclose facility is out of service.
protected line to the other, including requests to initiate or Reversion to the Z1X reach setting occurs only at the end of
prevent tripping of the remote circuit breaker. The former the reclaim time. For interconnected lines, the Z1X scheme is
arrangement is generally known as a 'transfer tripping established (automatically or manually) upon loss of the
scheme' while the latter is generally known as a 'blocking communications channel by selection of the appropriate relay
scheme'. However, the terminology of the various schemes setting (setting group in a numerical relay). If the fault is
varies widely, according to local custom and practice. transient, the tripped circuit breakers will reclose successfully,
but otherwise further tripping during the reclaim time is
Z3A subject to the discrimination obtained with normal Zone 1 and
Z2A
Zone 2 settings.
Z1A Z1extA
The disadvantage of the Zone 1 extension scheme is that
A B C external faults within the Z1X reach of the relay result in
tripping of circuit breakers external to the faulted section,
Z1extB Z1B increasing the amount of breaker maintenance needed and
Z2B needless transient loss of supply to some consumers. This is
Z3B illustrated in Figure 12.3(a) for a single circuit line where three
(a) Distance/time characteristics circuit breakers operate and in Figure 12.3(b) for a double
circuit line, where five circuit breakers operate.
Auto-reclose
Reset Zone 1ext
Zone 1ext &
1 Trip
Zone 1
(b) Simplified logic

Figure 12.2: Zone 1 extension scheme
Chapter 12 Distance Protection Schemes
t1
Figure 12.4: Logic for direct underreach transfer tripping scheme

A fault F in the end zone at end B in Figure 12.1(a) results in
operation of the Zone 1 relay and tripping of the circuit breaker
at end B. A request to trip is also sent to the relay at end A.
The receipt of a signal at A initiates tripping immediately
because the receive relay contact is connected directly to the
trip relay. The disadvantage of this scheme is the possibility of
undesired tripping by accidental operation or maloperation of
signalling equipment, or interference on the communications
channel. As a result, it is not commonly used.
12.3.2 Permissive Under-reach Transfer Tripping

(PUP) Scheme
The direct under-reach transfer tripping scheme described
above is made more secure by supervising the received signal
with the operation of the Zone 2 relay element before allowing
an instantaneous trip, as shown in Figure 12.5. The scheme is
then known as a 'permissive under-reach transfer tripping
Figure 12.3: Performance of Zone 1 extension scheme in conjunction scheme' (sometimes abbreviated as a PUTT, PUR or PUP Z2
with auto-reclose relays
scheme) or ‘permissive underreach distance protection’, as
both relays must detect a fault before the remote end relay is
12.3 TRANSFER TRIPPING SCHEMES
permitted to trip in Zone 1 time.
A number of these schemes are available, as described below.
Selection of an appropriate scheme depends on the
requirements of the system being protected.
12.3.1 Direct Under-reach Transfer Tripping Scheme

The simplest way of reducing the fault clearance time at the
terminal that clears an end zone fault in Zone 2 time is to
adopt a direct transfer trip or intertrip technique, the logic of
which is shown in Figure 12.4. A contact operated by the
Zone 1 relay element is arranged to send a signal to the
remote relay requesting a trip. The scheme may be called a
'direct under-reach transfer tripping scheme’, ‘transfer trip
under-reaching scheme', or ‘intertripping underreach distance
protection scheme’, as the Zone 1 relay elements do not cover
the whole of the line.
12-3
t1
Figure 12.6: PUP scheme: Single-end fed close-up fault on double

circuit line
Figure 12.5: Permissive under-reach transfer tripping scheme The PUP schemes require only a single communications
channel for two-way signalling between the line ends, as the
A variant of this scheme, found on some relays, allows tripping channel is keyed by the under-reaching Zone 1 elements.
by Zone 3 element operation as well as Zone 2, provided the
fault is in the forward direction. This is sometimes called the When the circuit breaker at one end is open, or there is a weak
PUP-Fwd scheme. infeed such that the relevant relay element does not operate,
instantaneous clearance cannot be achieved for end-zone
Time delayed resetting of the 'signal received' element is faults near the 'breaker open' terminal unless special features
required to ensure that the relays at both ends of a single-end are included, as detailed in Section 12.3.5.
fed faulted line of a parallel feeder circuit have time to trip
when the fault is close to one end. Consider a fault F in a 12.3.3 Permissive Under-reaching Acceleration
double circuit line, as shown in Figure 12.6. The fault is close
Scheme
to end A, so there is negligible infeed from end B when the
fault at F occurs. The protection at B detects a Zone 2 fault This scheme is applicable only to zone switched distance relays
only after the breaker at end A has tripped. It is possible for that share the same measuring elements for both Zone 1 and
the Zone 1 element at A to reset, thus removing the permissive Zone 2. In these relays, the reach of the measuring elements
signal to B and causing the 'signal received' element at B to is extended from Zone 1 to Zone 2 by means of a range
reset before the Zone 2 unit at end B operates. It is therefore change signal immediately, instead of after Zone 2 time. It is
necessary to delay the resetting of the 'signal received' element also called an ‘accelerated underreach distance protection
to ensure high speed tripping at end B. scheme’.
The under-reaching Zone 1 unit is arranged to send a signal to
the remote end of the feeder in addition to tripping the local
circuit breaker. The receive relay contact is arranged to extend
the reach of the measuring element from Zone 1 to Zone 2.
This accelerates the fault clearance at the remote end for faults
that lie in the region between the Zone 1 and Zone 2 reaches.
The scheme is shown in Figure 12.7. Most quality modern
distance relays do not employ switched measuring elements,
so the scheme is likely to fall into disuse.
t1
t1
Figure 12.8: Permissive over-reach transfer tripping scheme

Figure 12.7: Permissive under-reaching acceleration scheme Since the signalling channel is keyed by over-reaching Zone 2
elements, the scheme requires duplex communication
12.3.4 Permissive Over-reach Transfer Tripping (POP) channels - one frequency for each direction of signalling.
Scheme
If distance relays with mho characteristics are used, the
In this scheme, a distance relay element set to reach beyond
scheme may be more advantageous than the permissive
the remote end of the protected line is used to send an
under-reaching scheme for protecting short lines, because the
intertripping signal to the remote end. However, it is essential
resistive coverage of the Zone 2 unit may be greater than that
that the receive relay contact is monitored by a directional
of Zone 1.
relay contact to ensure that tripping does not take place unless
the fault is within the protected section; see Figure 12.8. The To prevent operation under current reversal conditions in a
instantaneous contacts of the Zone 2 unit are arranged to send parallel feeder circuit, it is necessary to use a current reversal
the signal, and the received signal, supervised by Zone 2 guard timer to inhibit the tripping of the forward Zone 2
operation, is used to energise the trip circuit. The scheme is elements. Otherwise maloperation of the scheme may occur
then known as a 'permissive over-reach transfer tripping under current reversal conditions, see Section 12.3.2 for more
scheme' (sometimes abbreviated to POTT, POR or POP), details. It is necessary only when the Zone 2 reach is set
'directional comparison scheme', or ‘permissive overreach greater than 150% of the protected line impedance.
distance protection scheme’. The timer is used to block the permissive trip and signal send
circuits as shown in Figure 12.9. The timer is energised if a
signal is received and there is no operation of Zone 2 elements.
An adjustable time delay on pick-up (tp) is usually set to allow
instantaneous tripping to take place for any internal faults,
taking into account a possible slower operation of Zone 2. The
timer will have operated and blocked the ‘permissive trip’ and
‘signal send’ circuits by the time the current reversal takes
place.
12-5
t1
t1
Figure 12.10: Weak Infeed Echo logic circuit

Signal transmission can take place even after the remote end
breaker has tripped. This gives rise to the possibility of
continuous signal transmission due to lock-up of both signals.
Figure 12.9: Current reversal guard logic – permissive over-reach Timer T2 is used to prevent this. After this time delay, 'signal
scheme send' is blocked.
The timer is de-energised if the Zone 2 elements operate or the A variation on the Weak Infeed Echo feature is to allow
'signal received' element resets. The reset time delay (td) of tripping of the remote relay under the circumstances described
the timer is set to cover any overlap in time caused by Zone 2 above, providing that an undervoltage condition exists, due to
elements operating and the signal resetting at the remote end, the fault. This is known as the Weak Infeed Trip feature and
when the current in the healthy feeder reverses. Using a timer ensures that both ends are tripped if the conditions are
in this manner means that no extra time delay is added in the satisfied.
permissive trip circuit for an internal fault.
The above scheme using Zone 2 relay elements is often 12.4 BLOCKING OVERREACHING SCHEMES
referred to as a POP Z2 scheme. An alternative exists that The arrangements described so far have used the signalling
uses Zone 1 elements instead of Zone 2, and this is referred to channel(s) to transmit a tripping instruction. If the signalling
as the POP Z1 scheme. However POP Z1 is unusual as it channel fails or there is no Weak Infeed feature provided, end-
requires Zone 1 to be set overreaching, which is not usual zone faults may take longer to be cleared.
practice.
Blocking over-reaching schemes use an over-reaching distance
scheme and inverse logic. Signalling is initiated only for
12.3.5 Weak Infeed Conditions
external faults and signalling transmission takes place over
In the standard permissive over-reach scheme, as with the healthy line sections. Fast fault clearance occurs when no
permissive under-reach scheme, instantaneous clearance signal is received and the over-reaching Zone 2 distance
cannot be achieved for end-zone faults under weak infeed or measuring elements looking into the line operate. The
breaker open conditions. To overcome this disadvantage, two signalling channel is keyed by reverse-looking distance
possibilities exist. elements (Z3 in the diagram, though which zone is used
The Weak Infeed Echo feature available in some protection depends on the particular relay, with a dedicated reverse zone
relays allows the remote relay to echo the trip signal back to such as Zone 4 now commonly-used in numerical relays). An
the sending relay even if the appropriate remote relay element ideal blocking scheme is shown in Figure 12.11.
has not operated. This caters for conditions of the remote end
having a weak infeed or circuit breaker open condition, so that
the relevant remote relay element does not operate. Fast
clearance for these faults is now obtained at both ends of the
line. The logic is shown in Figure 12.10. A time delay (T1) is
required in the echo circuit to prevent tripping of the remote
end breaker when the local breaker is tripped by the busbar
protection or breaker fail protection associated with other
feeders connected to the busbar. The time delay ensures that
the remote end Zone 2 element will reset by the time the
echoed signal is received at that end.
known as a ‘directional comparison blocking scheme’ or a

‘blocking over-reach distance protection scheme’.
t1
t1
Figure 12.12: Signal logic for BOP Z2 scheme
Operation of the scheme can be understood by considering the
faults shown at F1, F2 and F3 in Figure 12.11 along with the
signal logic of Figure 12.12.
A fault at F1 is seen by the Zone 1 relay elements at both ends
A and B; as a result, the fault is cleared instantaneously at both
ends of the protected line. Signalling is controlled by the Z3
elements looking away from the protected section, so no
transmission takes place, thus giving fast tripping via the
forward-looking Zone 1 elements.
A fault at F2 is seen by the forward-looking Zone 2 elements at
ends A and B and by the Zone 1 elements at end B. No signal
Figure 12.11: Ideal distance protection blocking scheme transmission takes place, since the fault is internal and the
fault is cleared in Zone 1 time at end B and after the short time
The single frequency signalling channel operates both local and
lag (STL) at end A.
remote receive relays when a block signal is initiated at any
end of the protected section. A fault at F3 is seen by the reverse-looking Z3 elements at end
B and the forward looking Zone 2 elements at end A. The
12.4.1 Practical Blocking Schemes Zone 1 relay elements at end B associated with line section B-
A blocking instruction has to be sent by the reverse-looking C would normally clear the fault at F3. To prevent the Z2
relay elements to prevent instantaneous tripping of the remote elements at end A from tripping, the reverse-looking Zone 3
relay for Zone 2 faults external to the protected section. To elements at end B send a blocking signal to end A. If the fault
achieve this, the reverse-looking elements and the signalling is not cleared instantaneously by the protection on line section
channel must operate faster than the forward-looking B-C, the trip signal will be given at end B for section A-B after
elements. In practice, this is seldom the case and to ensure the Z3 time delay.
discrimination, a short time delay is generally introduced into The setting of the reverse-looking Zone 3 elements must be
the blocking mode trip circuit. Either the Zone 2 or Zone 1 greater than that of the Zone 2 elements at the remote end of
element can be used as the forward-looking element, giving the feeder, otherwise there is the possibility of Zone 2 elements
rise to two variants of the scheme. initiating tripping and the reverse looking Zone 3 elements
failing to see an external fault. This would result in
12.4.1.1 Blocking over-reaching protection scheme using instantaneous tripping for an external fault. When the
Zone 2 element signalling channel is used for a stabilising signal, as in the
This scheme (sometimes abbreviated to ‘BLOCKING’ or BOP above case, transmission takes place over a healthy line
Z2) is based on the ideal blocking scheme of Figure 12.11, but section if power line carrier is used. The signalling channel
has the signal logic illustrated in Figure 12.12. It is also should then be more reliable when used in the blocking mode
than in tripping mode.
12-7
It is essential that the operating times of the various relays be 12.4.1.2 Blocking over-reaching protection scheme using
skilfully co-ordinated for all system conditions, so that Zone 1 element
sufficient time is always allowed for the receipt of a blocking This is similar to the BOP Z2 scheme described above, except
signal from the remote end of the feeder. If this is not done that an over-reaching Zone 1 element is used in the logic,
accurately, the scheme may trip for an external fault or instead of the Zone 2 element. It may also be known as the
alternatively, the end zone tripping times may be delayed BOP Z1 scheme, although it is rarely used.
longer than is necessary.
If the signalling channel fails, the scheme must be arranged to 12.4.2 Weak Infeed Conditions
revert to conventional basic distance protection. Normally, the The protection at the strong infeed terminal will operate for all
blocking mode trip circuit is supervised by a 'channel-in- internal faults, since a blocking signal is not received from the
service' contact so that the blocking mode trip circuit is weak infeed terminal end. In the case of external faults behind
isolated when the channel is out of service, as shown in Figure the weak infeed terminal, the reverse-looking elements at that
12.12. end will see the fault current fed from the strong infeed
In a practical application, the reverse-looking relay elements terminal and operate, initiating a block signal to the remote
may be set with a forward offset characteristic to provide back- end. The relay at the strong infeed end operates correctly
up protection for busbar faults after the zone time delay. It is without the need for any additional circuits. The relay at the
then necessary to stop the blocking signal being sent for weak infeed end cannot operate for internal faults, and so
internal faults. This is achieved by making the ‘signal send’ tripping of that breaker is possible only by means of direct
circuit conditional upon non-operation of the forward-looking intertripping from the strong source end.
Zone 2 elements, as shown in Figure 12.13.
12.5 DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON
UNBLOCKING SCHEME
The permissive over-reach scheme described in Section 12.3.4
can be arranged to operate on a directional comparison
unblocking principle by providing additional circuitry in the
signalling equipment. In this scheme (also called a ’deblocking
overreach distance protection scheme’), a continuous block (or
guard) signal is transmitted. When the over-reaching distance
elements operate, the frequency of the signal transmitted is
shifted to an 'unblock' (trip) frequency. The receipt of the
unblock frequency signal and the operation of over-reaching
distance elements allow fast tripping to occur for faults within
the protected zone. In principle, the scheme is similar to the
permissive over-reach scheme.
Figure 12.13: Blocking scheme using reverse-looking relays The scheme is made more dependable than the standard
Blocking schemes, like the permissive over-reach scheme, are permissive over-reach scheme by providing additional circuits
also affected by the current reversal in the healthy feeder due in the receiver equipment. These allow tripping to take place
to a fault in a double circuit line. If current reversal conditions for internal faults even if the transmitted unblock signal is
occur, as described in Section 12.3.2, it may be possible for the short-circuited by the fault. This is achieved by allowing aided
maloperation of a breaker on the healthy line to occur. To tripping for a short time interval, typically 100 to 150
avoid this, the resetting of the ‘signal received’ element milliseconds, after the loss of both the block and the unblock
provided in the blocking scheme is time delayed. frequency signals. After this time interval, aided tripping is
permitted only if the unblock frequency signal is received.
The timer with delayed resetting (td) is set to cover the time
difference between the maximum resetting time of reverse- This arrangement gives the scheme improved security over a
looking Zone 3 elements and the signalling channel. So, if blocking scheme, since tripping for external faults is possible
there is a momentary loss of the blocking signal during the only if the fault occurs within the above time interval of
current reversal, the timer does not have time to reset in the channel failure. Weak Infeed terminal conditions can be
blocking mode trip circuit and no false tripping takes place. catered for by the techniques detailed in 12.3.5 Weak Infeed
Conditions.
In this way, the scheme has the dependability of a blocking

scheme and the security of a permissive over-reach scheme.
This scheme is generally preferred when power line carrier is
used, except when continuous transmission of signal is not
acceptable.
12.6 COMPARISON OF TRANSFER TRIP AND

BLOCKING RELAYING SCHEMES
On normal two-terminal lines the main deciding factors in the
choice of the type of scheme, apart from the reliability of the
signalling channel previously discussed, are operating speed
and the method of operation of the system. Table 12.1
compares the important characteristics of the various types of
scheme.
Transfer Tripping
Criterion Blocking Scheme
Scheme
Speed of operation Fast Not as fast
Speed with in-service testing Slower As fast
Suitable for auto-reclose Yes Yes
Security against maloperation due to:
Current reversal Special features required Special features required
Loss of communications Poor Good
Weak Infeed/Open CB Special features required Special features required
Table 12.1: Comparison of different distance protection schemes
Modern digital or numerical distance relays are provided with a
choice of several schemes in the same relay. Thus scheme
selection is now largely independent of relay selection, and the
user is assured that a relay is available with all the required
features to cope with changing system conditions.
12-9
Chapter 13
Protection of Complex Transmission
Circuits
13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.1 Introduction Chapters 10-12 have covered the basic principles of protection
13.2 Parallel Feeders for two terminal, single circuit lines whose circuit impedance is
13.3 Multi-Ended Feeders – Unit Protection due solely to the conductors used. However parallel
Schemes transmission circuits are often installed, either as duplicate
circuits on a common structure, or as separate lines
13.4 Multi-Ended Feeders - Distance Relays
connecting the same two terminal points via different routes.
13.5 Multi-Ended Feeders – Application of Distance Also, circuits may be multi-ended, a three-ended circuit being
Protection Schemes the most common.
13.6 Protection of Series Compensated Lines
For economic reasons, transmission and distribution lines can
13.7 Example be much more complicated, maybe having three or more
13.8 References terminals (multi-ended feeder), or with more than one circuit
carried on a common structure (parallel feeders), as shown in
Figure 13.1. Other possibilities are the use of series capacitors
or direct-connected shunt reactors. The protection of such
lines is more complicated and requires the basic schemes
described in the above chapters to be modified.
The purpose of this chapter is to explain the special
requirements of some of these situations in respect of
protection and identify which protection schemes are
particularly appropriate for use in these situations.
Figure 13.1: Parallel and Multi-ended feeders
13.2 PARALLEL FEEDERS

If two overhead lines are supported on the same structures or
are otherwise in close proximity over part or whole of their
length, there is a mutual coupling between the two circuits.
The positive and negative sequence coupling between the two
circuits is small and is usually neglected. The zero sequence
coupling can be strong and its effect cannot be ignored.
The other situation that requires mutual effects to be taken
into account is when there is an earth fault on a feeder when
13-1
the parallel feeder is out of service and earthed at both ends.

An earth fault in the feeder that is in service can induce current
in the earth loop of the earthed feeder, causing a misleading
mutual compensation signal.
13.2.1 Unit Protection Systems

Types of protection that use current only, for example unit
protection systems, are not affected by the coupling between
the feeders. Therefore, compensation for the effects of mutual
coupling is not required for the relay tripping elements.
If the relay has a distance-to-fault feature, mutual
compensation is required for an accurate measurement. Refer
to Section 13.2.2.3 for how this is achieved.
13.2.2 Distance Protection

There are a number of problems applicable to distance relays,
as described in the following sections.
13.2.2.1 Current Reversal on Double Circuit Lines

When a fault is cleared sequentially on one circuit of a double
Figure 13.2: Fault current distribution in double-circuit line
circuit line with generation sources at both ends of the circuit,
the current in the healthy line can reverse for a short time.
13.2.2.2 Under-Reach on Parallel Lines
Unwanted tripping of CBs on the healthy line can then occur if
a Permissive Overreach or Blocking distance scheme (see If a fault occurs on a line that lies beyond the remote terminal
Chapter 12) is used. Figure 13.2 shows how the situation can end of a parallel line circuit, the distance relay under-reaches
arise. The CB at D clears the fault at F faster than the CB at for those zones set to reach into the affected line. Analysis
shows that under these conditions, because the relay sees only
C. Before CB D opens, the Zone 2 elements at A may see the
50% (for two parallel circuits) of the total fault current for a
fault and operate, sending a permissive trip signal to the relay
fault in the adjacent line section, the relay sees the impedance
for CB B. The reverse looking element of the relay at CB B
of the affected section as twice the correct value. This may
also sees the fault and inhibits tripping of CBs A and B.
have to be allowed for in the settings of Zones 2 and 3 of
However, once CB D opens, the relay element at A starts to
conventionally set distance relays.
reset, while the forward looking elements at B pick up (due to
current reversal) and could initiate tripping. If the reset time of Since the requirement for the minimum reach of Zone 2 is to
the forward-looking elements of the relay at A is longer than the end of the protected line section and the under-reach effect
the operating time of the forward-looking elements at B, the only occurs for faults in the following line section(s), it is not
relays trip the healthy line. The solution is to incorporate a usually necessary to adjust Zone 2 impedance settings to
blocking time delay that prevents the tripping of the forward- compensate. However, Zone 3 elements are intended to
looking elements of the relays and is initiated by the reverse- provide backup protection to adjacent line sections and hence
looking element. This time delay must be longer than the reset the under-reaching effect must be allowed for in the
time of the relay elements at A. impedance calculations.
13.2.2.3 Behaviour of Distance Relays with Earth Faults

on the Protected Feeder
When an earth fault occurs in the system, the voltage applied
to the earth fault element of the relay in one circuit includes an
induced voltage proportional to the zero sequence current in
the other circuit.
Chapter 13 Protection of Complex Transmission Circuits
IB Z L1 Z LO ZM 0
Z Sc 1 ,Z SO
c Z Scc1 ,Z SO
cc
M
Z L1
Z MO
IA The true impedance to the fault is nZL1where n is the per unit
fault position measured from R and ZL1 is the positive
sequence impedance of a single circuit. The 'error' in
measurement is determined from the fraction inside the
bracket; this varies with the positive and zero sequence
currents in circuit A and the zero sequence current in circuit B.
I B1 Z L1
These currents are expressed below in terms of the line and
Z Sc 1 Z Scc1 source parameters:
I A1
I B0 nZ S'' 0 1 n Z S' 0
nZ L1 1 n Z L1 I A0
2 n Z S'' 0 1 n Z S' 0 Z L 0 Z M 0
2 n Z S'' 1 1 n Z S' 1 Z L1 I
I1
I BO Z LO Z M O
I A1

2 Z S' 1 Z S'' 1 Z L1
1
c
Z SO nZ M O 1 n Z M O cc
Z SO 2 n Z S'' 0 1 n Z S' 0 Z L 0 Z M 0 I
I AO
I A0

2 Z S' 0 Z S'' 0 Z L 0 Z M 0
0
n ZLO Z M O 1 n Z LO Z M O and
IO
ZM0 = zero sequence mutual impedance between two
circuits
Figure 13.3: General parallel circuit fed from both ends NOTE: For earth faults I1 = I0
As the current distribution in the two circuits is unaffected by
All symbols in the above expressions are either self-explanatory
the presence of mutual coupling, no similar variation in the
from Figure 13.3 or have been introduced in Chapter 11.
current applied to the relay element takes place and,
Using the above formulae, families of reach curves may be
consequently, the relay measures the impedance to the fault
constructed, of which Figure 13.4 is typical. In this figure, n’
incorrectly. Whether the apparent impedance to the fault is
is the effective per unit reach of a relay set to protect 80% of
greater or less than the actual impedance depends on the
the line. It has been assumed that an infinite busbar is located
direction of the current flow in the healthy circuit. For the
at each line end, that is, Z’S1 and Z”S1 are both zero. A family
common case of two circuits, A and B, connected at the local
of curves of constant n’ has been plotted for variations in the
and remote busbars, as shown in Figure 13.3, the impedance
source zero sequence impedances Z’S0 and Z”S0.
of Line A measured by a distance relay, with the normal zero
sequence current compensation from its own feeder, is given
by:
§ I B0 · ½
° ¨¨ ¸¸ M °
° © I A0 ¹ °
ZA nZ L1 ®1 ¾
§ I A1 ·
° ¨
2¨ ¸
¸ K°
° © I A0 ¹ °
¯ ¿
Equation 13.1
where:
13-3
100 VR
Limit of n' =0.67
75
Z L1
50 when y f 0 .6 IR
x 0 n' = 68
0.
n '=
0.
7 For a solid phase to earth fault at the theoretical reach of the
n' =
75 relay, the voltage and current in the faulty phase at the
10 0.
n' = .8 relaying point are given by:
=0 85
n' 0.
5
n'
=
VA I A1Z L1 I A 2 Z L 2 I A0 Z L 0 I B 0 Z M 0
1)
e
on
cc º
ª Z SO
9
(Z
.
y « »
=0
n'
I A1 I A 2 I A0
ng
¬ Z LO ¼
IA
tti
se
95
al
.
in
=0
Equation 13.2
m
n'
No
0.5
Limit of
The voltage and current fed into the relay are given by:
n'=1
when y 0
VR VA
f
0.1
x
IR I A K R I A0 K M I B 0
0.1 0.5 1 5 10 50 100
ª Z SO º Equation 13.3
x « »
¬ Z LO ¼
Figure 13.4: Typical reach curves showing the effect of mutual

where:
coupling
K R = the residual compensation factor
Figure 13.4 shows that relay R can under-reach or over-reach,
according to the relative values of the zero sequence source to K M = the mutual compensation factor
line impedance ratios; the extreme effective per unit reaches Thus:
for the relay are 0.67 and 1. Relay over-reach is not a
problem, as the condition being examined is a fault in the Z L 0 Z L1
KR
protected feeder, for which relay operation is desirable. In Z L1
Figure 13.4, relay R tends to under-reach whereas the relay at
the opposite line end tends to over-reach. As a result, the ZM 0
KM
Zone 1 characteristic of the relays at both ends of the feeder Z L1
overlap for an earth fault anywhere in the feeder – see Section
13.2.2.5 for more details. 13.2.2.4 Distance Relay Behaviour with Earth Faults on
Satisfactory protection can be obtained with a transfer trip, the Parallel Feeder
under-reach type distance scheme. Further, compensation for Although distance relays with mutual compensation measure
the effect of zero sequence mutual impedance is not necessary the correct distance to the fault, they may not operate correctly
unless a distance-to-fault facility is provided. Some if the fault occurs in the adjacent feeder. Davison and Wright
manufacturers compensate for the effect of the mutual [13.1] have shown that while distance relays without mutual
impedance in the distance relay elements, while others may compensation do not over-reach for faults outside the
restrict the application of compensation to the distance-to- protected feeder, the relays may see faults in the adjacent
fault function only. The latter is easy to implement in software feeder if mutual compensation is provided. With reference to
for a digital/numerical relay but is impractical in relays using Figure 13.3, the amount of over-reach is highest when
older technologies. Compensation is achieved by injecting a Z S'' 1 Z S'' 2 Z S'' 0 f. Under these conditions, faults
proportion of the zero sequence current flowing in the parallel occurring in the first 43% of feeder A appear to the distance
feeder into the relay. However, some Utilities do not permit relay in feeder B to be in its Zone 1 reach. The solution is to
this due to the potential hazards associated with feeding a limit the mutual compensation applied to 150% of the zero
relay protecting one circuit from a CT located in a different sequence compensation.
circuit.
For the relay to measure the line impedance accurately, the 13.2.2.5 Distance Relay Behaviour with Single-Circuit
following condition must be met: Operation
If only one of the parallel feeders is in service, the protection in
the remaining feeder measures the fault impedance correctly,
except when the feeder that is not in service is earthed at both of earth fault relays to around 0.65ZL1 when lines are taken
ends. In this case, the zero sequence impedance network is as out of service for maintenance. However, the probability of
shown in Figure 13.5. having a fault on the first section of the following line while
one line is out of service is very small, and many Utilities do
Humpage and Kandil [13.2] have shown that the apparent
not reduce the setting under this condition. It should be noted
impedance presented to the relay under these conditions is
that the use of mutual compensation would not overcome the
given by:
over-reaching effect since earthing clamps are normally placed
I A0 Z M2 0 on the line side of the current transformers.
ZR Z L1
I R Z L0 Typical values of zero sequence line impedances for HV lines in
the United Kingdom are given in Table 13.1, where the
Equation 13.4
2
§Z ·
where: maximum per unit over-reach error ¨¨ M 0 ¸¸ is also given.
I R is the current fed into the relay © Z L0 ¹
The over-reach values quoted in this table are maxima, and
I A K R I A0 are found only in rare cases. In most cases, there is generation
at both ends of the feeder and the amount of over-reach is
FO therefore be reduced. In the calculations carried out by
Humpage and Kandil, with more realistic conditions, the
IO maximum error found in a 400kV double circuit line was
c
Z SO 1 n Z LO cc
Z SO 18.6%.
nZ LO
I GO Zero sequence
Zero sequence line
Conductor size mutual
Relay mZ LO 1 n Z M O impedance ZL0 Per unit
Location Line impedance ZM0 over-reach
volts Metric error
I HO Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms (ZM0/ZL0)2
Z LO (in2) equiv.
2 /mile /km /mile /km
(mm )
0.3 + 0.19+ 0.41+j 0.25+
132kV 0.4 258 0.264
j0.81 j0.5 1.61 j1.0
0.18+ 0.11+ 0.24+ 0.15+
NO 275kV 2 x 0.4 516 0.292
j0.69 j0.43 j1.3 j0.81
Figure 13.5: Zero sequence impedance network during single circuit 0.135+ 0.80+ 0.16+ 0.1+
operation 400kV 4 x 0.4 1032 0.2666
j0.6 j0.37 j1.18 j0.73
Table 13.1: Maximum over-reach errors found during single circuit
I A0 working
The ratio varies with the system conditions, reaching a
IR
maximum when the system is earthed behind the relay with 13.3 MULTI-ENDED FEEDERS – UNIT
I A0 PROTECTION SCHEMES
no generation at that end. In this case, the ratio is equal
IR A multi-ended feeder is defined as one having three or more
Z L1 terminals, with either load or generation, or both, at any
to , and the apparent impedance presented to the relay terminal. Those terminals with load only are usually known as
Z L0
’taps’.
is:
The simplest multi-terminal feeders are three-ended, and are
§ Z M2 0 · generally known as tee’d feeders. This is the type most
ZR Z L1 ¨¨1 2 ¸¸
Z L0 ¹ commonly found in practice.
©
The protection schemes described previously for the protection
It is apparent from the above formulae that the relay has a
of two-ended feeders can also be used for multi-ended feeders.
tendency to over-reach. Care should be taken when Zone 1
However, the problems involved in the application of these
settings are selected for the distance protection of lines in
schemes to multi-ended feeders are much more complex and
which this condition may be encountered. To overcome this
require special attention.
possible over-reaching effect, some Utilities reduce the reach
13-5
The protection schemes that can be used with multi-ended feeder. When the phase angle difference exceeds a pre-set
feeders are unit protection and distance schemes. Each uses value, the ‘trip angle’, a trip signal is sent to the corresponding
some form of signalling channel, such as fibre-optic cable, circuit breakers. To prevent incorrect operation for external
power line carrier or pilot wires. The specific problems that faults, two different detectors, set at different levels, are used.
may be met when applying these protections to multi-ended The low-set detector starts the transmission of carrier signal,
feeders are discussed in the following sections. while the high-set detector is used to control the trip output.
Without this safeguard, the scheme could operate incorrectly
13.3.1 Balanced Voltage Schemes for Tee’d Circuits for external faults because of operating tolerances of the
Although pilot wire schemes are uncommon in the protection equipment and the capacitive current of the protected feeder.
of transmission circuits (as per the strict title of this chapter), This condition is worse with multi-terminal feeders, since the
they are discussed here for completeness. currents at the feeder terminals can be very dissimilar for an
external fault. In the case of the three-terminal feeder in
The balanced voltage scheme is a modification of the Figure 13.7, if incorrect operation is to be avoided, it is
MHOA04 / H0A4 scheme described in Section 10.7.1. Since necessary to make certain that the low-set detector at end A or
it is necessary to maintain linearity in the balancing circuit, end B is energised when the current at end C is high enough to
though not in the sending element, the voltage reference is operate the high-set detector at that end. As only one low-set
derived from separate quadrature transformers, as shown in starter, at end A or end B, needs to be energised for correct
Figure 13.6. These are auxiliary units with summation operation, the most unfavourable condition is when currents IA
windings energised by the main current transformers in series and IB are equal. To maintain stability under this condition,
with the upper electromagnets of the sensing elements. The the high-set to low-set setting ratio of the fault detectors needs
secondary windings of the quadrature current transformers at to be twice as large as that required when the scheme is
all ends are interconnected by the pilots in a series circuit that applied to a plain feeder. This results in a loss of sensitivity,
also includes the lower electromagnets of the relays. which may make the equipment unsuitable if the minimum
Secondary windings on the relay elements are not used, but fault level of the power system is low.
these elements are fitted with bias loops in the usual way.
The plain feeder settings are increased in the tee'd scheme by
50% for one tee and 75% for two.
Figure 13.7: External fault conditions
Figure 13.6: Balanced voltage Tee’d feeder scheme
13.3.2 Power Line Carrier Phase Comparison

Figure 13.8: Internal fault with current flowing out at one line end
Schemes
A further unfavourable condition is that shown in Figure 13.8.
The operating principle of these protection schemes has
If an internal fault occurs near one of the ends of the feeder
already been covered in detail in Section 10.9. It involves
(end B in Figure 13.8) and there is little or no generation at
comparing the phase angles of signals derived from a
end C, the current at this end may be flowing outwards. The
combination of the sequence currents at each end of the
protection is then prevented from operating, since the fault
current distribution is similar to that for an external fault; see

Figure 13.7. The fault can be cleared only by the back-up Trip
protection and, if high speed of operation is required, an DifferentiaI
Current
alternative type of primary protection must be used. | Idiff |
A point that should also be considered when applying this I di f f K I bi as
scheme is the attenuation of carrier signal at the 'tee'
junctions. This attenuation is a function of the relative Restrain
IS
impedances of the branches of the feeder at the carrier
frequency, including the impedance of the receiving
equipment. When the impedances of the second and third
Bias current | Ibias |
terminals are equal, a power loss of 50% takes place. In other
words, the carrier signal sent from terminal A to terminal B is Figure 13.10: Percentage biased differential protection characteristic
attenuated by 3dB by the existence of the third terminal C. If If IA , IB , IC are the current vector signals at line ends A, B, C,
the impedances of the two branches corresponding to terminal then for a healthy circuit:
B to C are not equal, the attenuation may be either greater or
less than 3dB.
I A I B IC 0
The basic principles of operation of the system are that each
13.3.3 Differential Relay using Optical Fibre relay measures its local three phase currents and sends its
Signalling values to the other relays. Each relay then calculates, for each
Current differential relays can provide unit protection for multi- phase, a resultant differential current and also a bias current,
ended circuits without the restrictions associated with other which is used to restrain the relay in the manner conventional
forms of protection. In Section 8.6.5, the characteristics of for biased differential unit protection.
optical fibre cables and their use in protection signalling are The bias feature is necessary in this scheme because it is
outlined. designed to operate from conventional current transformers
Their use in a three-ended system is shown in Figure 13.9, that are subject to steady-state and transient transformation
where the relays at each line end are digital/numerical relays errors.
interconnected by optical fibre links so that each can send The two quantities are:
information to the others. In practice the optical fibre links can
be dedicated to the protection system or multiplexed, in which I diff I A I B IC
case multiplexing equipment, not shown in Figure 13.9,is used
to terminate the fibres.
I bias
1
I A I B IC
2
Figure 13.10 shows the percentage biased differential
characteristic used, the tripping criteria being:
I diff ! K I bias
and
I diff ! I S
where:
Figure 13.9: Current differential protection for tee’d feeders using

K percentage bias setting
optical fibre signalling
IS minimum differential current setting
If the magnitudes of the differential currents indicate that a

fault has occurred, the relays trip their local circuit breaker.
The relays also continuously monitor the communication
channel performance and carry out self-testing and diagnostic
13-7
operations. The system measures individual phase currents the currents IA and IC are in phase and their ratio is a real
and so single phase tripping can be used when required. number. The apparent impedance presented to the relay in
Relays are provided with software to re-configure the this case can be expressed in terms of the source impedances
protection between two and three terminal lines, so that as follows:
modification of the system from two terminals to three
Z SA Z LA
terminals does not require relay replacement. Further, loss of ZA Z LA Z LB Z
a single communications link only degrades scheme Z SC Z LC LB
performance slightly. The relays can recognise this and use
The magnitude of the third term in this expression is a function
alternate communications paths. Only if all communication
of the total impedances of the branches A and B and can
paths from a relay fail does the scheme have to revert to
reach a relatively high value when the fault current
backup protection.
contribution of branch C is much larger than that of branch A.
Figure 13.12 shows how a distance relay with a mho
13.4 MULTI-ENDED FEEDERS - DISTANCE
characteristic located at A with a Zone 2 element set to 120%
RELAYS of the protected feeder AB, fails to see a fault at the remote
Distance protection is widely used at present for tee'd feeder busbar B. The ’tee’ point T in this example is halfway between
protection. However, its application is not straightforward, substations A and B Z LA Z LB and the fault currents IA
requiring careful consideration and systematic checking of all
and IC have been assumed to be identical in magnitude and
the conditions described later in this section.
phase angle. With these conditions, the fault appears to the
Most of the problems found when applying distance protection relay to be located at B' instead of at B so the relay under-
to tee’d feeders are common to all schemes. A preliminary reaches.
discussion of these problems will assist in the assessment of
the performance of the different types of distance schemes.
13.4.1 Apparent Impedance Seen by Distance Relays

The impedance seen by the distance relays is affected by the
current infeeds in the branches of the feeders. Referring to
Figure 13.11, for a fault at the busbars of the substation B, the
voltage VA at busbar A is given by:
VA I A Z LA I B Z LB
Figure 13.11: Fault at substation B busbars
so the impedance ZA seen by the distance relay at terminal A is
given by: X
VA IB B'
ZA Z LA Z LB
IA IA
Or
B
IB
ZA Z LA Z LB
IA
Equation 13.5
or T
IC
ZA Z LA Z LB Z LB
IA
R
The apparent impedance presented to the relay has been A
Figure 13.12: Apparent impedance presented to the relay at
§ IC ·
modified by the term ¨¨ ¸¸ Z LB . If the pre-fault load is zero, substation A for a fault at substation B busbars
© IA ¹ The under-reaching effect in tee’d feeders can be found for any
kind of fault. For the sake of simplicity, the equations and the reduction in zero sequence current. However, the solution
examples mentioned so far have been for balanced faults only. has two possible limitations:
For unbalanced faults, especially those involving earth, the
x over-reach occurs when the transformer is not
equations become somewhat more complicated, as the ratios
connected so operation for faults outside the protected
of the sequence fault current contributions at terminals A and
zone may occur
C may not be the same. An extreme example of this condition
is found when the third terminal is a tap with no generation x the inherent possibility of maloperation of the earth
but with the star point of the primary winding of the fault elements for earth faults behind the relay location
transformer connected directly to earth, as shown in Figure is increased
13.13. The corresponding sequence networks are shown in
Figure 13.14. 13.4.2 Effect of Pre-fault Load
In all the previous discussions it has been assumed that the
power transfer between terminals of the feeder immediately
before the fault occurred was zero. If this is not the case, the
fault currents IA and IC in Figure 13.11 may not be in phase,
and the factor IC / IA in the equation for the impedance seen
by the relay at A, is a complex quantity with a positive or a
negative phase angle according to whether the current IC
leads or lags the current IA. For the fault condition previously
considered in Figure 13.11 and Figure 13.12, the pre-fault
load current may displace the impedance seen by the distance
' '
relay to points such as B1 or B2 , shown in Figure 13.15,
Figure 13.13: Transformer tap with primary winding solidly earthed according to the phase angle and the magnitude of the pre-
fault load current. Humpage and Lewis [13.3] have analysed
Z SA1 Z LA1 T1 Z LB1 Z SH1
the effect of pre-fault load on the impedances seen by distance
A1 I A1 B1 relays for typical cases. Their results and conclusions point out
Z LJ1
EA EB
some of the limitations of certain relay characteristics and
Z T1
schemes.
Z M1
Z SA 2 Z LA 2 T2 Z LB2 Z SB2
G1 I A2 Z LC2 B2
ZT2
ZM2
Z SA O Z LA O TO Z LBO Z SBO
AO I AO BO
Z LCO
I CO
Z TO
Figure 13.14: Sequence networks for a phase A to earth fault at

busbar B in the system shown in Figure 13.13
Figure 13.14 shows that the presence of the tap has little
Figure 13.15: effects of the pre-fault load on the apparent impedance
effect in the positive and negative sequence networks.
presented to the relay
However, the zero sequence impedance of the branch actually
shunts the zero sequence current in branch A. As a result, the 13.4.3 Effect of the Fault Current Flowing Outwards
distance relay located at terminal A tends to under-reach. One
at One Terminal
solution to the problem is to increase the residual current
compensating factor in the distance relay, to compensate for Up to this point it has been assumed that the fault currents at
terminals A and C flow into the feeder for a fault at the busbar
13-9
B. Under some conditions, however, the current at one of 13.4.4 Maloperation with Reverse Faults
these terminals may flow outwards instead of inwards. A Earth fault distance relays with a directional characteristic tend
typical case is shown in Figure 13.16; that of a parallel tapped to lose their directional properties under reverse unbalanced
feeder with one of the ends of the parallel circuit open at fault conditions if the current flowing through the relay is high
terminal A. and the relay setting relatively large. These conditions arise
A B principally from earth faults. The relay setting and the reverse
IA T IB
fault current are now related, the first being a function of the
ZA ZB maximum line length and the second depending mainly on the
impedance of the shortest feeder and the fault level at that
terminal. For instance, referring to Figure 13.18, the setting of
the relay at terminal A depends on the impedance ZA+ZB and
I'B
the fault current infeed IC, for a fault at B, while the fault
current IA for a reverse fault may be quite large if the T point is
IC I'C near the terminals A and C.
Fault
Figure 13.16: Internal Fault at busbar B with current flowing out at

terminal C
A IA B
T IB
Fault Figure 13.18: External fault behind the relay at terminal A

A summary of the main problems met in the application of
I'B distance protection to tee'd feeders is given in Table 13.2 .
Case Description Relevant figure number
IC I'C
Under-reaching effect for internal faults due to
1 13.12 to 13.15
current infeed at the T point
C Effect of pre-fault load on the impedance 'seen'

2 13.16
by the relay
Over-reaching effect for external faults, due to
3 13.17
current flowing outwards at one terminal
Figure 13.17: Internal fault near busbar B with current flowing out at Failure to operate for an internal fault, due to
4 13.18
terminal C current flowing out at one terminal
As the currents IA and IC now have different signs, the factor Incorrect operation for an external fault, due to
5 13.19
high current fed from nearest terminal
IC / IA becomes negative. Consequently, the distance relay at
Table 13.2: Main problems met in the application of distance
terminal A sees an impedance smaller than that of the protection to tee'd feeders.
protected feeder ZA+ZB and therefore has a tendency to over-
reach. In some cases the apparent impedance presented to 13.5 MULTI-ENDED FEEDERS – APPLICATION
the relay may be as low as 50% of the impedance of the OF DISTANCE PROTECTION SCHEMES
protected feeder, and even lower if other lines exist between
The schemes that have been described in Chapter 12 for the
terminals B and C.
protection of plain feeders may also be used for tee'd feeder
If the fault is internal to the feeder and close to the busbar B, protection. However, the applications of some of these
as shown in Figure 13.17, the current at terminal C may still schemes are much more limited in this case.
flow outwards. As a result, the fault appears as an external
Distance schemes can be subdivided into two main groups;
fault to the distance relay at terminal C, which fails to operate.
transfer trip schemes and blocking schemes. The usual
considerations when comparing these schemes are security, requirements mentioned later on, make transfer trip over-
that is, no operation for external faults, and dependability, that reach schemes unattractive for multi-ended feeder protection.
is, assured operation for internal faults.
13.5.3 Blocking Schemes
In addition, it should be borne in mind that transfer trip
schemes require fault current infeed at all the terminals to Blocking schemes are particularly suited to the protection of
achieve high-speed protection for any fault in the feeder. This multi-ended feeders, since high-speed operation can be
is not the case with blocking schemes. While it is rare to find obtained with no fault current infeed at one or more terminals.
a plain feeder in high voltage systems where there is current The only disadvantage is when there is fault current outfeed
infeed at one end only, it is not difficult to envisage a tee’d from a terminal, as shown in Figure 13.17. This is case 4 in
feeder with no current infeed at one end, for example when the Table 13.2. The protection units at that terminal may see the
tee’d feeder is operating as a plain feeder with the circuit fault as an external fault and send a blocking signal to the
breaker at one of the terminals open. Nevertheless, transfer remote terminals. Depending on the scheme logic either relay
trip schemes are also used for tee’d feeder protection, as they operation is blocked or clearance is in Zone 2 time.
offer some advantages under certain conditions. The directional unit should be set so that no maloperation can
occur for faults in the reverse direction; case 5 in Table 13.2.
13.5.1 Transfer Trip Under-Reach Schemes
The main requirement for transfer trip under-reach schemes is 13.5.4 Signalling Channel Considerations
that the Zone 1 of the protection, at one end at least, shall see The minimum number of signalling channels required depends
a fault in the feeder. To meet this requirement, the Zone 1 on the type of scheme used. With under-reach and blocking
characteristics of the relays at different ends must overlap, schemes, only one channel is required, whereas a permissive
either the three of them or in pairs. Cases 1, 2 and 3 in Table over-reach scheme requires as many channels as there are
13.2. should be checked when the settings for the Zone 1 feeder ends. The signalling channel equipment at each
characteristics are selected. If the conditions mentioned in terminal should include one transmitter and (N-1) receivers,
case 4 are found, direct transfer tripping may be used to clear where N is the total number of feeder ends. This may not be a
the fault; the alternative is to trip sequentially at end C when problem if fibre-optic cables are used, but could lead to
the fault current IC reverses after the circuit breaker at problems otherwise.
terminal B has opened; see Figure 13.17.
If frequency shift channels are used to improve the reliability of
Transfer trip schemes may be applied to feeders that have the protection schemes, mainly with transfer trip schemes, N
branches of similar length. If one or two of the branches are additional frequencies are required for the purpose. Problems
very short, and this is often the case in tee'd feeders, it may be of signal attenuation and impedance matching should also be
difficult or impossible to make the Zone 1 characteristics carefully considered when power line carrier frequency
overlap. Alternative schemes are then required. channels are used.
Another case for which under-reach schemes may be
advantageous is the protection of tapped feeders, mainly when 13.5.5 Directional Comparison Blocking Schemes
the tap is short and is not near one of the main terminals. The principle of operation of these schemes is the same as that
Overlap of the Zone 1 characteristics is then easily achieved, of the distance blocking schemes described in the previous
and the tap does not require protection applied to the terminal. section. The main advantage of directional comparison
schemes over distance schemes is their greater capability to
13.5.2 Transfer Trip Over-Reach Schemes detect high-resistance earth faults. The reliability of these
For correct operation when internal faults occur, the relays at schemes, in terms of stability for through faults, is lower than
the three ends should see a fault at any point in the feeder. that of distance blocking schemes. However, with the
This condition is often difficult to meet, since the impedance increasing reliability of modern signalling channels, directional
seen by the relays for faults at one of the remote ends of the comparison blocking schemes offer good solutions to the many
feeder may be too large, as in case 1 in Table 13.2, increasing difficult problems encountered in the protection of multi-ended
the possibility of maloperation for reverse faults, case 5 in feeders. For further information see Chapter 12 and specific
Table 13.2. In addition, the relay characteristic might relay manuals.
encroach on the load impedance.
These considerations, in addition to the signalling channel
13-11
13.6 PROTECTION OF SERIES COMPENSATED

LINES
The basic power transfer equation in Figure 13.19 shows that
transmitted power is proportional to the system voltage level
and load angle while being inversely proportional to system
impedance. Series compensated lines are used in transmission
networks where the required level of transmitted power can
not be met, either from a load requirement or system stability
requirement. Series compensated transmission lines introduce
a series connected capacitor, which has the net result of
reducing the overall inductive impedance of the line, hence
increasing the prospective, power flow. Typical levels of Figure 13.20: Voltage inversion on a transmission line
compensation are 35%, 50% and 70%, where the percentage
level dictates the capacitor impedance compared to the A second problem is that of current inversion which is
transmission line it is associated with. demonstrated in Figure 13.21. In this case, the overall fault
impedance is taken to be capacitive. The fault current
therefore leads the system e.m.f. by 90o whilst the measured
fault voltage remains in phase with system e.m.f. Again this
condition can give rise to directional stability problems for a
variety of protection devices. Practically, the case of current
E A EB
PT sin G inversion is difficult to obtain. To protect capacitors from high
XT
over voltages during fault conditions some form of voltage
Figure 13.19: Power transfer in a transmission line
limiting device (usually in the form of MOVs) is installed to
The introduction of a capacitive impedance to a network can bypass the capacitor at a set current level. In the case of
give rise to several relaying problems. The most common of current inversion, the overall fault impedance has to be
these is the situation of voltage inversion, which is shown in capacitive and is generally small. This leads to high levels of
Figure 13.20. In this case a fault occurs on the protected line. fault current, which triggers the MOVs and bypasses the
The overall fault impedance is inductive and hence the fault capacitors, leaving an inductive fault impedance and
current is inductive (shown lagging the system e.m.f. by 90 preventing the current inversion.
degrees in this case). However, the voltage measured by the
relay is that across the capacitor and therefore lags the fault
current by 90 degrees. The net result is that the voltage
measured by the relay is in anti-phase to the system e.m.f.
Whilst this view is highly simplistic, it adequately demonstrates
potential relay problems, in that any protection reliant upon
making a directional decision bases its decision on an inductive
system i.e. one where a forward fault is indicated by fault
current lagging the measured voltage. A good example of this
is a distance relay, which assumes the transmission line is an
evenly distributed inductive impedance. Presenting the relay
with a capacitive voltage (impedance) can lead the relay to Figure 13.21: Current inversion in a transmission line
make an incorrect directional decision.
The application of protective relays in a series compensated
power system needs careful evaluation. The problems
associated with the introduction of a series capacitor can be
overcome by a variety of relaying techniques so it is important
to ensure the suitability of the chosen protection. Each
particular application requires careful investigation to
determine the most appropriate solution in respect of
protection – there are no general guidelines that can be given.
13.7 EXAMPLE Relay Parameter Parameter Description Parameter Value Units

In this section, an example calculation showing the solution to Line positive sequence impedance
ZL1 (mag) 21.95
(magnitude)
a problem mentioned in this chapter is given.
Line positive sequence impedance
ZL1 (ang) 66.236 deg
(phase angle)
13.7.1 Distance Relay applied to Parallel Circuits
Line zero sequence impedance
ZLO (mag) 54.1
The system diagram shown in Figure 13.22 indicates a simple (magnitude)
110kV network supplied from a 220kV grid through two auto- Line zero sequence impedance
ZLO (ang) 70.895 deg
transformers. The following example shows the calculations (phase angle)
necessary to check the suitability of three zone distance Default residual compensation
KZO (mag) 0.49 -
protection to the two parallel feeders interconnecting factor (magnitude)
substations A and B, Line 1 being selected for this purpose. All Default residual compensation
KZO (ang) 7.8 deg
factor (phase angle)
relevant data for this exercise are given in the diagram. The
MiCOM P441 relay with quadrilateral characteristics is used to Zone 1 reach impedance setting
Z1 (mag) 17.56
(magnitude)
provide the relay data for the example. Relay quantities used
Zone 1 reach impedance setting
in the example are listed in Table 13.3, and calculations are Z1 (ang)
(phase angle)
66.3 deg
carried out in terms of actual system impedances in ohms,
rather than CT secondary quantities. This simplifies the Z2 (mag) 30.73
(magnitude)
calculations, and enables the example to be simplified by Zone 2 reach impedance setting
Z2 (ang) 66.3 deg
excluding considerations of CT ratios. Most modern distance (phase angle)
relays permit settings to be specified in system quantities Zone 3 reach impedance setting
Z3 (mag) 131.8
rather than CT secondary quantities, but older relays may (magnitude)
require the system quantities to be converted to impedances as Z3 (ang)
66.3 deg
seen by the relay. (phase angle)
Phase fault resistive reach value -
R1ph 84.8
Zone 1
R2ph 84.8
Zone 2
R3ph 84.8
Zone 3
Zone 1 residual compensation
KZ1 (mag) 0.426 -
factor (magnitude)
KZ1 (ang) 9.2 deg
KZ2 (mag) not used -
factor (magnitude)
KZ2 (ang) not used deg
TZ1 Time delay - Zone 1 0 s
TZ2 Time delay - Zone 2 0.25 s
TZ3 Time delay - Zone 3 0.45 s
Earth fault resistive reach value -
R1G 84.8
Zone 1
Earth fault resistive reach value -
R2G 84.8
Zone 2
Z1 0 . 17 7 j 0 . 4 0 2: / k m Earth fault resistive reach value -

R3G 84.8
Zo 0 .3 5 4 j 1 . 0 2 2: / km Zone 3
Table 13.3: Distance relay settings
13.7.1.1 Residual Compensation

Figure 13.22: Example network for distance relay setting calculation
The relays used are calibrated in terms of the positive sequence
impedance of the protected line. Since the earth fault
impedance of Line 1 is different from the positive sequence
13-13
impedance, the impedance seen by the relay in the case of a ii. 21.9566.236D 0.5 u 40 u 0.43966.236D :
fault involving earth is different to that seen for a phase fault.
Therefore the reach of the earth fault elements of the relay
It is clear that condition (ii) governs the setting, and therefore
needs to be different.
the initial Zone 2 reach setting is:
For the relay used, this adjustment is provided by the residual
(or neutral) compensation factor Kzo, set equal to: Z2 30.7366.3D :
The effect of parallel Line 2 is to make relay 1 underreach for
KZ0
Z 0 Z 1 faults on adjacent line sections, as discussed in Section 11.9.3.
3Z1 This is not a problem for the phase fault elements because Line
1 is always protected.
K Z 0
Z 0 Z1
3Z 1 13.7.1.5 Zone 3 Reach
For Lines 1 and 2, The function of Zone 3 is to provide backup protection for
uncleared faults in adjacent line sections. The criterion used is
Z L1 0.177 j 0.402: that the relay should be set to cover 120% of the impedance
0.43966.236 : D between the relay location and the end of the longest adjacent
line, taking account of any possible fault infeed from other
Z L0 0.354 j1.022: circuits or parallel paths. In this case, faults in Line 3 results in
1.08270.895 : D the relay under-reaching due to the parallel Lines 1 and 2, so
the impedance of Line 3 should be doubled to take this effect
Hence, into account. Therefore,
KZ0 0.490 Z 3 1.2 u 21.9566.3D 100 u 2 u 0.43966.3D :
K Z 0 7.8D 131.866.3D :
13.7.1.2 Zone Impedance Reach Settings – Phase 13.7.1.6 Zone Time Delay Settings
Faults Proper co-ordination of the distance relay settings with those
Firstly, the impedance reaches for the three relay zones are of other relays is required. Independent timers are available for
calculated. the three zones to ensure this.
For Zone 1, instantaneous tripping is normal. A time delay is
13.7.1.3 Zone 1 Reach used only in cases where large d.c. offsets occur and old circuit
Zone 1 impedance is set to 80% of the impedance of the breakers, incapable of breaking the instantaneous d.c.
protected line. Hence, component, are involved.
Z1 0.8 u 50 u 0.43966.236D : The Zone 2 element has to grade with the relays protecting
Lines 3 and 4 since the Zone 2 element covers part of these
0.8 u 21.9566.236D : lines. Assuming that Lines 3/4 have distance, unit or
instantaneous high-set overcurrent protection applied, the
17.5666.236D : time delay required is that to cover the total clearance time of
D
Use a value of 17.5666.3 : the downstream relays. To this must be added the reset time
for the Zone 2 elements following clearance of a fault on an
13.7.1.4 Zone 2 Reach adjacent line, and a suitable safety margin. A typical time
delay is 250ms, and the normal range is 200-300ms.
Zone 2 impedance reach is set to cover the maximum of:
The considerations for the Zone 3 element are the same as for
i. 120% of Line 1 length
the Zone 2 element, except that the downstream fault
ii. Line 1 + 50% of shortest line from Substation B clearance time is that for the Zone 2 element of a distance
i.e. 50% of Line 4 relay or IDMT overcurrent protection. Assuming distance
From the line impedances given, relays are used, a typical time is 450ms. In summary:
i. 1.2 u 21.9566.236 D 26.3466.236 D : TZ 1 = 0ms (instantaneous)
TZ 2 = 250ms 13.7.1.9 Zone 1 Earth Fault Reach

Where distance protection is applied to parallel lines (as in this
TZ 3 = 450ms
example), the Zone 1 earth fault elements may sometimes
overreach and therefore operate when one line is out of service
13.7.1.7 Phase Fault Resistive Reach Settings and earthed at both ends
With the use of a quadrilateral characteristic, the resistive
The solution is to reduce the earth fault reach of the Zone 1
reach settings for each zone can be set independently of the
element to typically 80% of the default setting. Hence:
impedance reach settings. The resistive reach setting
represents the maximum amount of additional fault resistance K Z1 0.8 u K Z 0
(in excess of the line impedance) for which a zone trips,
0.8 u 0.532
regardless of the fault in the zone.
0.426
Two constraints are imposed upon the settings, as follows:
In practice, the setting is selected by using an alternative
x it must be greater than the maximum expected phase- setting group, selected when the parallel line is out of service
phase fault resistance (principally that of the fault arc) and earthed.
x it must be less than the apparent resistance measured
due to the heaviest load on the line 13.7.1.10 Zone 2 Earth Fault Reach
The minimum fault current at Substation B is of the order of With parallel circuits, the Zone 2 element tends to under-reach
1.5kA, leading to a typical arc resistance Rarc using the van due to the zero sequence mutual coupling between the lines.
Warrington formula (equation 11.6) of 9. Maloperation may occur, particularly for earth faults occurring
on the remote busbar. The effect can be countered by
Using the current transformer ratio on Line 1 as a guide to the increasing the Zone 2 earth fault reach setting, but first it is
maximum expected load current, the minimum load necessary to calculate the amount of under-reach that occurs.
impedance Zlmin is 106
I fltp
. Typically, the resistive reaches are set to avoid the minimum Underreach = Z adj u
load impedance by a 20% margin for the phase elements, I flt
leading to a maximum resistive reach setting of 84.8..
where:
Therefore, the resistive reach setting lies between 9 and
84.8. While each zone can have its own resistive reach
Z adj = impedance of adjacent line covered by Zone 2
setting, for this simple example, all of the resistive reach
I fltp = fault current in parallel line
settings can be set equal (depending on the particular distance
protection scheme used and the need to include Power Swing I flt = total fault current
Blocking, this need not always be the case).
Suitable settings are chosen to be 80% of the load resistance: since the two parallel lines are identical, I fltp = 0.5 I flt and
hence, for Lines 1 and 2,
R3 ph = 84.8
D
Underreach = 8.7866.3 u 0.5 4.3966.3D
R2 ph = 84.8
% Underreach = Underreach / Reach of Protected Zone, and
R1 ph = 84.8 hence:
% Underreach =14.3%
13.7.1.8 Earth Fault Reach Settings This amount of under-reach is not significant and no
By default, the residual compensation factor as calculated in adjustment need be made. If adjustment is required, this can
section 13.7.1.1 is used to adjust the phase fault reach setting be achieved by using the KZ2 relay setting, increasing it over
in the case of earth faults, and is applied to all zones. the KZ0 setting by the percentage under-reach. When this is
However, it is also possible to apply this compensation to done, care must also be taken that the percentage over-reach
zones individually. Two cases in particular require during single circuit operation is not excessive – if it is then use
consideration, and are covered in this example can be made of the alternative setting groups provided in most
modern distance relays to change the relay settings according
13-15
to the number of circuits in operation.
13.7.1.11 Earth Fault Resistive Reach Settings

The same settings can be used as for the phase fault resistive
reaches. Hence,
R3G = 84.8
R2G = 84.8
R1G = 84.8
This completes the setting of the relay. Table 13.3 also shows
the settings calculated.
13.8 REFERENCES
[13.1] Some factors affecting the accuracy of distance type
protective equipment under earth fault conditions.
Davison, E.B. and Wright, A. Proc. IEE Vol. 110, No. 9,
Sept. 1963, pp. 1678-1688.
[13.2] Distance protection performance under conditions of
single-circuit working in double-circuit transmission
lines. Humpage, W.D. and Kandil, M.S. Proc. IEE. Vol.
117. No. 4, April 1970, pp. 766-770.
[13.3] Distance protection of tee'd circuits. Humpage, W.A.
and Lewis, D.W. Proc. IEE, Vol. 114, No. 10, Oct.
1967, pp. 1483-1498.
13-17
Chapter 14
Auto-Reclosing

14.2 Application of Auto-Reclosing
Faults on overhead lines fall into one of three categories:
14.3 Auto-Reclosing on HV Distribution Networks
14.4 Factors Influencing HV Auto-Reclose Schemes x transient
14.5 Auto-Reclosing on EHV Transmission Lines x semi-permanent
14.6 High Speed Auto-Reclosing on EHV Systems x permanent
14.7 Single-Phase Auto-Reclosing 80-90% of faults on any overhead line network are transient in
14.8 High-Speed Auto-Reclosing on Lines Employing nature. The remaining 10%-20% of faults are either semi-
Distance Schemes permanent or permanent.
14.9 Delayed Auto-Reclosing on EHV Systems Transient faults are commonly caused by lightning or
14.10 Operating Features of Auto-Reclose Schemes temporary contact with foreign objects, and immediate
14.11 Auto-Close Schemes tripping of one or more circuit breakers clears the fault.
14.12 Examples of Auto-Reclose Applications Subsequent re-energisation of the line is usually successful.
A small tree branch falling on the line could cause a semi-
permanent fault. The cause of the fault would not be removed
by the immediate tripping of the circuit, but could be burnt
away during a time-delayed trip. HV overhead lines in forest
areas are prone to this type of fault. Permanent faults, such as
broken conductors, and faults on underground cable sections,
must be located and repaired before the supply can be
restored.
Use of an auto-reclose scheme to re-energise the line after a
fault trip permits successful re-energisation of the line.
Sufficient time must be allowed after tripping for the fault arc
to de-energise before reclosing otherwise the arc will re-strike.
Such schemes have been the cause of a substantial
improvement in continuity of supply. A further benefit,
particularly to EHV systems, is the maintenance of system
stability and synchronism.
A typical single-shot auto-reclose scheme is shown in Figure
14.1 and Figure 14.2. Figure 14.1 shows a successful
reclosure in the event of a transient fault, and Figure 14.2 an
unsuccessful reclosure followed by lockout of the circuit
breaker if the fault is permanent.
14-1
Figure 14.1: Single-shot auto-reclose scheme operation for a transient fault
Figure 14.2: Single-shot auto-reclose scheme operation for a permanent fault
Chapter 14 Auto-Reclosing
14.2 APPLICATION OF AUTO-RECLOSING ensuing loss of supply to a number of healthy sections. Auto-
The most important parameters of an auto-reclose scheme reclosing allows these circuit breakers to be reclosed within a
are: few seconds. With transient faults, the overall effect would be
loss of supply for a very short time but affecting a larger
x dead time number of consumers. If only time-graded protection without
x reclaim time auto-reclose were used, a smaller number of consumers might
x single or multi-shot be affected, but for a longer time period.
These parameters are influenced by: When instantaneous protection is used with auto-reclosing,
the scheme is normally arranged to inhibit the instantaneous
x type of protection protection after the first trip. For a permanent fault, the time-
x type of switchgear graded protection will give discriminative tripping after
x possible stability problems reclosure, resulting in the isolation of the faulted section.
Some schemes allow a number of reclosures and time-graded
x effects on the various types of consumer loads trips after the first instantaneous trip, which may result in the
The weighting given to the above factors is different for HV burning out and clearance of semi-permanent faults. A further
distribution networks and EHV transmission systems and benefit of instantaneous tripping is a reduction in circuit
therefore it is convenient to discuss them under separate breaker maintenance by reducing pre-arc heating when
headings. Sections 14.3 and 14.4 cover the application of clearing transient faults.
auto-reclosing to HV distribution networks while Sections 14.5 When considering feeders that are partly overhead line and
to 14.9 cover EHV schemes. partly underground cable, any decision to install auto-reclosing
The rapid expansion in the use of auto-reclosing has led to the would be influenced by any data known on the frequency of
existence of a variety of different control schemes. The various transient faults. Where a significant proportion of faults are
features in common use are discussed in Section 14.10. The permanent, the advantages of auto-reclosing are small,
related subject of auto-closing, that is, the automatic closing of particularly since reclosing on to a faulty cable is likely to
normally open circuit breakers, is dealt with in Section 14.11. aggravate the damage.
14.3 AUTO-RECLOSING ON HV DISTRIBUTION 14.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING HV AUTO-

NETWORKS RECLOSE SCHEMES
On HV distribution networks, auto-reclosing is applied mainly The factors that influence the choice of dead time, reclaim
to radial feeders where problems of system stability do not time, and the number of shots are now discussed.
arise, and the main advantages to be derived from its use can
be summarised as follows: 14.4.1 Dead Time
x reduction to a minimum of the interruptions of supply Several factors affect the selection of system dead time as
to the consumer follows:
x instantaneous fault clearance can be introduced, with x system stability and synchronism
the accompanying benefits of shorter fault duration, x type of load
less fault damage, and fewer permanent faults
x CB characteristics
As 80% of overhead line faults are transient, elimination of loss x fault path de-ionisation time
of supply from this cause by the introduction of auto-reclosing
x protection reset time
gives obvious benefits through:
These factors are discussed in the following sections.
x improved supply continuity
x reduction of substation visits 14.4.1.1 System stability and synchronism
Instantaneous tripping reduces the duration of the power arc To reclose without loss of synchronism after a fault on the
resulting from an overhead line fault to a minimum. The interconnecting feeder, the dead time must be kept to the
chance of permanent damage occurring to the line is reduced. minimum permissible consistent with de-ionisation of the fault
The application of instantaneous protection may result in non- arc. Other time delays that contribute to the total system
selective tripping of a number of circuit breakers and an disturbance time must also be kept as short as possible. The
14-3
problem arises only on distribution networks with more than mechanism to reset before applying a closing impulse.
one power source, where power can be fed into both ends of Where high speed reclosing is required, a latch check
an inter-connecting line. A typical example is embedded interlock is desirable in the reclosing circuit
generation (see Chapter 17), or where a small centre of x Closing time: This is the time interval between the
population with a local diesel generating plant may be energisation of the closing mechanism and the making
connected to the rest of the supply system by a single tie-line. of the contacts. Owing to the time constant of the
The use of high-speed protection, such as unit protection or solenoid and the inertia of the plunger, a solenoid
distance schemes, with operating times of less than 0.05s is closing mechanism may take 0.3s to close. A spring-
essential. The circuit breakers must have very short operation operated breaker, on the other hand, can close in less
times and then be able to reclose the circuit after a dead time than 0.2s. Modern vacuum circuit breakers may have a
of the order of 0.3s - 0.6s to allow for fault-arc de-ionisation. closing time of less than 0.1s
It may be desirable in some cases to use synchronism check The circuit breaker mechanism imposes a minimum dead time
logic, so that auto-reclosing is prevented if the phase angle has made up from the sum of (a) and (b) above. Figure 14.3
moved outside specified limits. The matter is dealt with more shows the performance of modern HV/EHV circuit breakers in
fully in Section 14.9. this respect. Older circuit breakers may require longer times
than those shown.
14.4.1.2 Type of load Arc Time (s)
extinguished
On HV systems, the main problem to be considered in relation Contacts Contacts
to dead time is the effect on various types of consumer load. separate make
Trip Breaker fully open:
Breaker
x Industrial consumers: Most industrial consumers initiation closing circuit energised
fully
closed
operate mixed loads comprising induction motors,
lighting, process control and static loads. Synchronous t1
t3 t4
motors may also be used. The dead time has to be long t2 t6
enough to allow motor circuits to trip out on loss of t5
supply. Once the supply is restored, restarting of drives
can then occur under direction of the process control Oil Vacuum Oil Air SF6 SF6
system in a safe and programmed manner, and can 11kV 15kV 132kV 380kV 132kV 380kV
t1 0.06 0.038 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.02
often be fast enough to ensure no significant loss of t2 0.1 0.053 0.06 0.045 0.07 0.05
production or product quality t3 0.08 0.023 0.2 0.235 0.03 0.01
t4 0.16 0.048 0.35 0.065 0.08 0.06
x Domestic consumers: It is improbable that expensive t5 0.24 0.28 0.55 0.3 0.11 0.07
processes or dangerous conditions will be involved with t6 0.02 0.07 0.01 0.02 0.12 0.04
domestic consumers and the main consideration is that Note: 380kV data applicable to 400kV also. All times in seconds
of inconvenience and compensation for supply Figure 14.3: Typical circuit breaker trip-close operation times
interruption. A dead time of seconds or a few minutes
is of little importance compared with the loss of cooking 14.4.1.4 De-ionisation of the fault path
facilities, central heating, light and audio/visual As mentioned above, successful high speed reclosure requires
entertainment resulting from a longer supply failure the interruption of the fault by the circuit breaker to be
that could occur without auto-reclosing followed by a time delay long enough to allow the ionised air to
disperse. This time is dependent on the system voltage, cause
14.4.1.3 Circuit breaker characteristics of fault, weather conditions and so on, but at voltages up to
The time delays imposed by the circuit breaker during a 66kV, 0.1s - 0.2s should be adequate. On HV systems,
tripping and reclosing operation must be taken into therefore, fault de-ionisation time is of less importance than
consideration, especially when assessing the possibility of circuit breaker time delays.
applying high speed auto-reclosing.
14.4.1.5 Protection reset time
x Mechanism resetting time: Most circuit breakers are
‘trip free’, which means that the breaker can be tripped If time delayed protection is used, it is essential that the timing
during the closing stroke. After tripping, a time of the device shall fully reset during the dead time, so that correct
order of 0.2s must be allowed for the trip-free time discrimination will be maintained after reclosure on to a
fault. The reset time of the electromechanical I.D.M.T. relay is
10 seconds or more when on maximum time setting, and dead are rarely used in practice, to relieve the duty on the circuit
times of at least this value may be required. breaker.
When short dead times are required, the protection relays
14.4.2.2 Spring winding time
must reset almost instantaneously, a requirement that is easily
met by the use of static, digital and numerical I.D.M.T. relays. The reclaim time of motor-wound spring-closed breakers must
be at least as long as the spring winding time, to ensure that
14.4.2 Reclaim Time the breaker is not subjected to a further reclosing operating
with a partly wound spring.
Factors affecting the setting of the reclaim time are discussed
in the following sections.
14.4.3 Number of Shots
14.4.2.1 Type of protection There are no definite rules for defining the number of shots for
any particular auto-reclose application, but a number of factors
The reclaim time must be long enough to allow the protection
must be taken into account.
relays to operate when the circuit breaker is reclosed on to a
permanent fault. The most common forms of protection
14.4.3.1 Circuit breaker limitations
applied to HV lines are I.D.M.T. or definite time over-current
and earth-fault relays. The maximum operating time for the Important considerations are the ability of the circuit breaker to
former with very low fault levels could be up to 30 seconds, perform several trip and close operations in quick succession
while for fault levels of several times rating the operating time and the effect of these operations on the maintenance period.
may be 10 seconds or less. Maintenance periods vary according to the type of circuit
breaker used and the fault current broken when clearing each
In the case of definite time protection, settings of 3 seconds or fault. Use of modern numerical relays can assist, as they often
less are common, with 10 seconds as an absolute maximum. have a CB condition-monitoring feature included that can be
It has been common practice to use reclaim times of 30 arranged to indicate to a Control Centre when maintenance is
seconds on HV auto-reclose schemes. However, there is a required. Auto-reclose may then be locked out until
danger with a setting of this length that during a maintenance has been carried out.
thunderstorm, when the incidence of transient faults is high,
the breaker may reclose successfully after one fault, and then 14.4.3.2 System conditions
trip and lock out for a second fault within this time. Use of a
If statistical information on a particular system shows a
shorter reclaim time of, say, 15 seconds may enable the
moderate percentage of semi-permanent faults that could be
second fault to be treated as a separate incident, with a further
burned out during 2 or 3 time-delayed trips, a multi-shot
successful reclosure.
scheme may be justified. This is often the case in forest areas.
Where fault levels are low, it may be difficult to select I.D.M.T. Multi-shot schemes may also be applicable where fused ‘tees’
time settings to give satisfactory grading with an operating are used and the fault level is low, since the fusing time may
time limit of 15 seconds, and the matter becomes a question not discriminate with the main I.D.M.T. relay. The use of
of selecting a reclaim time compatible with I.D.M.T. several shots will heat the fuse to such an extent that it would
requirements. eventually blow before the main protection operated.
It is common to fit sensitive earth-fault protection to
14.5 AUTO-RECLOSING ON EHV
supplement the normal protection to detect high resistance
earth faults. This protection is usually set to have an operating TRANSMISSION LINES
time longer than that of the main protection. This longer time The most important consideration in the application of auto-
may have to be taken into consideration when deciding on a reclosing to EHV transmission lines is the maintenance of
reclaim time. A broken overhead conductor in contact with dry system stability and synchronism. The problems involved are
ground or a wood fence may cause this type of fault. It is dependent on whether the transmission system is weak or
rarely if ever transient and may be a danger to the public. It is strong. With a weak system, loss of a transmission link may
therefore common practice to use a contact on the sensitive lead quickly to an excessive phase angle across the CB used for
earth fault relay to block auto-reclosing and lock out the circuit re-closure, thus preventing a successful re-closure. In a
breaker. relatively strong system, the rate of change of phase angle will
be slow, so that delayed auto-reclose can be successfully
Where high-speed protection is used, reclaim times of 1
applied.
second or less would be adequate. However, such short times
14-5
An illustration is the interconnector between two power 14.6 HIGH SPEED AUTO-RECLOSING ON EHV
systems as shown in Figure 14.4. Under healthy conditions, SYSTEMS
the amount of synchronising power transmitted, P, crosses the
The first requirement for the application of high-speed auto-
power/angle curve OAB at point X, showing that the phase
reclosing is knowledge of the system disturbance time that can
displacement between the two systems is 0. Under fault
be tolerated without loss of system stability. This will normally
conditions, the curve OCB is applicable, and the operating
require transient stability studies to be conducted for a defined
point changes to Y. Assuming constant power input to both
set of power system configurations and fault conditions. With
ends of the line, there is now an accelerating power XY. As a
knowledge of protection and circuit breaker operating
result, the operating point moves to Z, with an increased phase
characteristics and fault arc de-ionisation times, the feasibility
displacement, 1, between the two systems. At this point the
of high-speed auto-reclosing can then be assessed. These
circuit breakers trip and break the connection. The phase
factors are now discussed.
displacement continues to increase at a rate dependent on the
inertia of the two power sources. To maintain synchronism,
14.6.1 Protection Characteristics
the circuit breaker must be reclosed in a time short enough to
prevent the phase angle exceeding 2. This angle is such that The use of high-speed protection equipment, such as distance
the area (2) stays greater than the area (1), which is the or unit protection schemes, giving operating times of less than
condition for maintenance of synchronism. 40ms, is essential. In conjunction with fast operating circuit
breakers, high-speed protection reduces the duration of the
fault arc and thus the total system disturbance time.
It is important that the circuit breakers at both ends of a fault
line should be tripped as rapidly as possible. The time that the
line is still being fed from one end represents an effective
reduction in the dead time, and may well jeopardise the
chances of a successful reclosure. When distance protection is
used, and the fault occurs near one end of the line, special
measures have to be adopted to ensure simultaneous tripping
at each end. These are described in Section 14.8.
14.6.2 De-Ionisation of the Fault Arc

It is important to know the time that must be allowed for
complete de-ionisation of the arc, to prevent the arc restriking
when the voltage is re-applied.
The de-ionisation time of an uncontrolled arc, in free air
depends on the circuit voltage, conductor spacing, fault
Figure 14.4: Effect of high-speed three-phase auto-reclosing on currents, fault duration, wind speed and capacitive coupling
system stability for a weak system from adjacent conductors. Of these, the circuit voltage is the
This example, for a weak system, shows that the successful most important, and as a general rule, the higher the voltage
application of auto-reclosing in such a case needs high-speed the longer the time required for de-ionisation. Typical values
protection and circuit breakers, and a short dead time. On for three-phase faults are given in Table 14.1.
strong systems, synchronism is unlikely to be lost by the Line Voltage (kV) Minimum De-energisation Time (Seconds)
tripping out of a single line. For such systems, an alternative
66 0.2
policy of delayed auto-reclosing may be adopted. This enables
110 0.28
the power swings on the system resulting from the fault to
132 0.3
decay before reclosure is attempted.
220 0.35
The various factors to be considered when using EHV auto-
275 0.38
reclose schemes are now dealt with. High-speed and delayed
400 0.45
auto-reclose schemes are discussed separately.
525 0.55
Table 14.1: Fault-arc de-ionisation times
If single-phase tripping and auto-reclosing is used, capacitive 14.6.3.2 Air blast circuit breakers
coupling between the healthy phases and the faulty phase Air blast breakers have been developed for voltages up to the
tends to maintain the arc and hence extend the dead time highest at present in use on transmission lines. They fall into
required from the values given in the Table. This is a particular two categories:
problem on long distance EHV transmission lines. However
where shunt compensation is applied, a neutral reactor can x pressurised head circuit breakers
often be used to balance system inter-phase capacitance and x non-pressurised head circuit breakers
thus reduce the arcing time.
In pressurised head circuit breakers, compressed air is
maintained in the chamber surrounding the main contacts.
14.6.3 Circuit Breaker Characteristics
When a tripping signal is received, an auxiliary air system
The high fault levels involved in EHV systems impose a very separates the main contacts and allows compressed air to
severe duty on the circuit breakers used in high-speed auto- blast through the gap to the atmosphere, extinguishing the
reclose schemes. The accepted breaker cycle of break-make- arc. With the contacts fully open, compressed air is
break requires the circuit breaker to interrupt the fault current, maintained in the chamber.
reclose the circuit after a time delay of upwards of 0.2s and
then break the fault current again if the fault persists. The Loss of air pressure could result in the contacts reclosing, or, if
types of circuit breaker commonly used on EHV systems are a mechanical latch is employed, restriking of the arc in the de-
oil, air blast and SF6 types. pressurised chamber. For this reason, sequential series
isolators, which isolate the main contacts after tripping, are
14.6.3.1 Oil circuit breakers commonly used with air blast breakers. Since these are
comparatively slow in opening, their operation must be
Oil circuit breakers are used for transmission voltages up to
inhibited when auto-reclosing is required. A contact on the
300kV, and can be subdivided into the two types: ‘bulk oil’ and
auto-reclose relay is made available for this purpose.
‘small oil volume’. The latter is a design aimed at reducing the
fire hazard associated with the large volume of oil contained in Non-pressurised head circuit breakers are slower in operation
the bulk oil breaker. than the pressurised head type and are not usually applied in
high-speed reclosing schemes.
The operating mechanisms of oil circuit breakers are of two
types, ‘fixed trip’ and ‘trip free’, of which the latter is the most
14.6.3.3 SF6 circuit breakers
common. With trip-free types, the reclosing cycle must allow
time for the mechanism to reset after tripping before applying Most EHV circuit breaker designs now manufactured use SF6
the closing impulse. gas as an insulating and arc-quenching medium. The basic
design of such circuit breakers is in many ways similar to that
Special means have to be adopted to obtain the short dead of pressurised head air blast circuit breakers. Voltage
times required for high-speed auto-reclosing. Various types of withstand capability depends on a minimum gas pressure
tripping mechanism have been developed to meet this being available, and gas pressure monitors are fitted and
requirement. arranged to block CB operation in the event of low gas
The three types of closing mechanism fitted to oil circuit pressure occurring. Sequential series isolators are normally
breakers are: used, to prevent damage to the circuit breaker in the event of
voltage transients due to lightning strikes, etc. occurring when
x solenoid the CB is open. Provision should therefore be made to inhibit
x spring sequential series isolation during an auto-reclose cycle.
x pneumatic
14.6.4 Choice of Dead Time
CBs with solenoid closing are not suitable for high-speed auto-
At voltages of 220kV and above, the de-ionisation time will
reclose due to the long time constant involved. Spring,
probably dictate the minimum dead time, rather than any
hydraulic or pneumatic closing mechanisms are universal at
circuit breaker limitations. This can be deduced from Table
the upper end of the EHV range and give the fastest closing
14.1. The dead time setting on a high-speed auto-reclose
time. Figure 14.3 shows the operation times for various types
relay should be long enough to ensure complete de-ionisation
of EHV circuit breakers, including the dead time that can be
of the arc. On EHV systems, an unsuccessful reclosure is more
attained.
detrimental to the system than no reclosure at all.
14-7
14.6.5 Choice of Reclaim Time x three-phase trip and lockout for phase-phase or 3-
Where EHV oil circuit breakers are concerned, the reclaim time phase faults, or if either of the remaining phases should
should take account of the time needed for the closing develop a fault during the dead time
mechanism to reset ready for the next reclosing operation. x use of a selector switch to give a choice of single or
three-phase reclosing
14.6.6 Number of Shots x combined single and three-phase auto-reclosing; single
High-speed auto-reclosing on EHV systems is invariably single phase to earth faults initiate single-phase tripping and
shot. Repeated reclosure attempts with high fault levels would reclosure, and phase-phase faults initiate three-phase
have serious effects on system stability, so the circuit breakers tripping and reclosure
are locked out after one unsuccessful attempt. Also, the
Modern numerical relays often incorporate the logic for all of
incidence of semi-permanent faults that can be cleared by
the above schemes for the user to select as required. Use can
repeated reclosures is less likely than on HV systems. Multi-
be made of any user-definable logic feature in a numerical
shot schemes have, however, occasionally been used on EHV
relay to implement other schemes that may be required.
systems, specifically to deal with bush fire faults prevalent in
Africa. The advantages of single-phase auto-reclosing are:
x the maintenance of system integrity
14.7 SINGLE-PHASE AUTO-RECLOSING
x on multiple earth systems, negligible interference with
Single phase to earth faults account for the majority of the transmission of load. This is because the current in
overhead line faults. When three-phase auto-reclosing is the unfaulted phases can continue to flow until the fault
applied to single circuit interconnectors between two power is cleared and the faulty phase restored
systems, the tripping of all three phases may cause the two
systems to drift apart in phase, as described in Section 14.5. The main disadvantage is the longer de-ionisation time
No interchange of synchronising power can take place during resulting from capacitive coupling between the faulty and
the dead time. If only the faulty phase is tripped, healthy lines. This leads to a longer dead time being required.
synchronising power can still be interchanged through the Maloperation of earth fault relays on double circuit lines owing
healthy phases. Any difference in phase between the two to the flow of zero sequence currents may also occur. These
systems will be correspondingly less, leading to a reduction in are induced by mutual induction between faulty and healthy
the disturbance on the system when the circuit breaker lines (see Chapter 13 for details).
recloses.
14.8 HIGH-SPEED AUTO-RECLOSING ON
For single-phase auto-reclosing each circuit breaker pole must
LINES EMPLOYING DISTANCE SCHEMES
be provided with its own closing and tripping mechanism; this
is normal with EHV air blast and SF6 breakers. The associated The importance of rapid tripping of the circuit breakers at each
tripping and reclosing circuitry is therefore more complicated, end of a faulted line where high-speed auto-reclosing is
as it must be inherently phase-selective. employed has already been covered in Section 14.6. Simple
distance protection presents some difficulties in this respect.
On the occurrence of a phase-earth fault, single-phase auto-
reclose schemes trip and reclose only the corresponding pole of Owing to the errors involved in determining the ohmic setting
the circuit breaker. The auto-reclose function in a relay of the distance relays, it is not possible to set Zone 1 of a
therefore has three separate elements, one for each phase. distance relay to cover 100% of the protected line – see
Operation of any element energises the corresponding dead Chapter 11 for more details. Zone 1 is set to cover 80-85% of
timer, which in turn initiates a closing pulse for the appropriate the line length, with the remainder of the line covered by time-
pole of the circuit breaker. A successful reclosure results in the delayed Zone 2 protection.
auto-reclose logic resetting at the end of the reclaim time,
ready to respond to a further fault incident. If the fault is
persistent and reclosure is unsuccessful, it is usual to trip and
lock out all three poles of the circuit breaker.
The above describes only one of many variants. Other
possibilities are:
14.8.2 Zone 1 Extension

In this scheme, the reach of Zone 1 is normally extended to
120% of the line length and is reset to 80% when a command
from the auto-reclose logic is received. This auto-reclose logic
signal should occur before a closing pulse is applied to the
circuit breaker and remain operated until the end of the
reclaim time. The logic signal should also be present when
auto-reclose is out of service.
14.9 DELAYED AUTO-RECLOSING ON EHV

SYSTEMS
On highly interconnected transmission systems, where the loss
Figure 14.5: Typical three zone distance scheme
of a single line is unlikely to cause two sections of the system
Figure 14.5 shows this for a typical three-zone distance to drift apart significantly and lose synchronism, delayed auto-
scheme covering two transmission lines. reclosing can be employed. Dead times of the order of 5s -
For this reason, a fault occurring in an end zone would be 60s are commonly used. No problems are presented by fault
cleared instantaneously, by the protection at one end of the arc de-ionisation times and circuit breaker operating
feeder. However, the CB at the other end opens in 0.3 - 0.4 characteristics, and power swings on the system decay before
seconds (Zone 2 time). High-speed auto-reclosing applied to reclosing. In addition, all tripping and reclose schemes can be
the circuit breakers at each end of the feeder could result either three-phase only, simplifying control circuits in comparison
in no dead time or in a dead time insufficient to allow de- with single-phase schemes. In systems on which delayed
ionisation of the fault arc. A transient fault could therefore be auto-reclosing is permissible, the chances of a reclosure being
seen as a permanent one, resulting in the locking out of both successful are somewhat greater with delayed reclosing than
circuit breakers. would be the case with high-speed reclosing.
Two methods are available for overcoming this difficulty. 14.9.1 Scheme Operation
Firstly, one of the transfer-trip or blocking schemes that
The sequence of operations of a delayed auto-reclose scheme
involves the use of an intertrip signal between the two ends of
can be best understood by reference to Figure 14.6. This
the line can be used. Alternatively, a Zone 1 extension scheme
shows a transmission line connecting two substations A and B,
may be used to give instantaneous tripping over the whole line
with the circuit beakers at A and B tripping out in the event of
length. Further details of these schemes are given in Chapter
a line fault. Synchronism is unlikely to be lost in a system that
12, but a brief description of how they are used in conjunction
employs delayed auto-reclose. However, the transfer of power
with an auto-reclose scheme is given below.
through the remaining tie-lines on the system could result in
the development of an excessive phase difference between the
14.8.1 Transfer-Trip or Blocking Schemes
voltages at points A and B. The result, if reclosure takes place,
This involves use of a signalling channel between the two ends is an unacceptable shock to the system. It is therefore usual
of the line. Tripping occurs rapidly at both ends of the faulty practice to incorporate a synchronism check relay into the
line, enabling the use of high-speed auto-reclose. Some reclosing system to determine whether auto-reclosing should
complication occurs if single-phase auto-reclose is used, as the take place.
signalling channel must identify which phase should be
tripped, but this problem does not exist if a modern numerical
relay is used.
Irrespective of the scheme used, it is customary to provide an
auto-reclose blocking relay to prevent the circuit breakers
auto-reclosing for faults seen by the distance relay in Zones 2
and 3.
14-9
A B x phase angle difference

~ ~ x voltage
x rate of change of slip frequency
(a) Network diagram
The phase angle setting is usually set to between 20 – 45,
and reclosure is inhibited if the phase difference exceeds this
Protn. operated
(local or intertrip) value. The scheme waits for a reclosing opportunity with the
&
phase angle within the set value, but locks out if reclosure does
AR in
progress
not occur within a defined period, typically 5s.
AR lockout S Q
_
1
R Q A voltage check is incorporated to prevent reclosure under
CB closed various circumstances. A number of different modes may be
0 ti
1
& available. These are typically undervoltage on either of the two
AR inhibit measured voltages, differential voltage, or both of these
time
conditions.
Reclaim timer
tR 0
The logic also incorporates a frequency difference check, either
by direct measurement or by using a timer in conjunction with
Dead time
& td 0
CB close the phase angle check. In the latter case, if a 2 second timer is
CB open & command
Protn. reset
employed, the logic gives an output only if the phase difference
CB healthy does not exceed the phase angle setting over a period of 2
System S Q
_
healthy R Q seconds. This limits the frequency difference (in the case of a
tR: reclaim time
ti: inhibit time
phase angle setting of 20) to a maximum of 0.11% of 50Hz,
td: dead time corresponding to a phase swing from +20 to -20 over the
(b) Autoreclose logic for each CB measured 2 seconds. While a significant frequency difference
Figure 14.6: Delayed auto-reclose scheme logic is unlikely to arise during a delayed auto-reclose sequence, the
After tripping on a fault, it is normal procedure to reclose the time available allows this check to be carried out as an
breaker at one end first, a process known as ‘live bus/dead line additional safeguard.
charging’. Reclosing at the other and is then under the control As well as ‘live bus/dead line’ and ‘live bus/live line’ reclosing,
of a synchronism check relay element for what is known as sometimes ‘live line/dead bus’ reclosing may need to be
‘live bus/live line reclosing’. implemented. A numerical relay will typically allow any
For example, if it were decided to charge the line initially from combination of these modes to be implemented. The voltage
station A, the dead time in the auto-reclose relay at A would be settings for distinguishing between ‘live’ and ‘dead’ conditions
set at, say, 5 seconds, while the corresponding timer in the must be carefully chosen. In addition, the locations of the VTs
auto-reclose relay at B would be set at, say, 15 seconds. The must be known and checked so that the correct voltage signals
circuit beaker at A would then reclose after 5 seconds provided are connected to the ‘line’ and ‘bus’ inputs.
that voltage monitoring relays at A indicated that the busbars
were alive and the line dead. With the line recharged, the 14.10 OPERATING FEATURES OF AUTO-
circuit breaker at B would then reclose with a synchronism RECLOSE SCHEMES
check, after a 2 second delay imposed by the synchronism The extensive use of auto-reclosing has resulted in the
check relay element. existence of a wide variety of different control schemes. Some
If for any reason the line fails to ‘dead line charge’ from end A, of the more important variations in the features provided are
reclosure from end B would take place after 15 seconds. The described below.
circuit breaker at A would then be given the opportunity to
reclose with a synchronism check. 14.10.1 Initiation
Modern auto-reclosing schemes are invariably initiated by the
14.9.2 Synchronism Check Relays tripping command of a protection relay function. Some older
The synchronism check relay element commonly provides a schemes may employ a contact on the circuit breaker. Modern
three-fold check: digital or numerical relays often incorporate a comprehensive
auto-reclose facility, thus eliminating the need for a separate
auto-reclose relay.
14.10.2 Type of Protection closed on to a fault and the closing pulse is longer than the
On HV distribution systems, advantage is often taken of auto- sum of protection relay and circuit breaker operating times.
reclosing to use instantaneous protection for the first trip, Circuit breakers with trip free mechanisms do not require this
followed by I.D.M.T. for subsequent trips in a single fault feature.
incident. In such cases, the auto-reclose relay must provide a
means of isolating the instantaneous relay after the first trip. 14.10.6 Reclaim Timer
In older schemes, this may be done with a normally closed Electromechanical, static or software-based timers are used to
contact on the auto-reclose starting element wired into the provide the reclaim time, depending on the relay technology
connection between the instantaneous relay contact and the used. If electromechanical timers are used, it is convenient to
circuit breaker trip coil. With digital or numerical relays with employ two independently adjustable timed contacts to obtain
in-built auto-reclose facilities, internal logic facilities will both the dead time and the reclaim time on one timer. With
normally be used. static and software-based timers, separate timer elements are
generally provided.
For certain utility companies, it is the rule to fit tripping relays
to every circuit breaker. If auto-reclosing is required, self or
14.10.7 CB Lockout
electrically reset tripping relays must be used. If the later is
used, a contact must be provided either in the auto-reclose If reclosure is unsuccessful the auto-reclose relay locks out the
logic or by separate trip relay resetting scheme to energise the circuit breaker. Some schemes provide a lockout relay with a
reset coil before reclosing can take place. flag, with provision of a contact for remote alarm. The circuit
breaker can then only be closed by hand; this action can be
14.10.3 Dead Timer arranged to reset the auto-reclose relay element automatically.
Alternatively, most modern relays can be configured such that
This will have a range of settings to cover the specified high-
a lockout condition can be reset only by operator action.
speed or delayed reclosing duty. Any interlocks that are
needed to hold up reclosing until conditions are suitable can be Circuit breaker manufacturers state the maximum number of
connected into the dead timer circuit. Section 14.12.1 operations allowed before maintenance is required. A number
provides an example of this applied to transformer feeders. of schemes provide a fault trip counting function and give a
warning when the total approaches the manufacturer's
14.10.4 Reclosing Impulse recommendation. These schemes will lock out when the total
The duration of the reclosing impulse must be related to the number of fault trips has reached the maximum value allowed.
requirements of the circuit breaker closing mechanism. On
auto-reclose schemes using spring-closed breakers, it is 14.10.8 Manual Closing
sufficient to operate a contact at the end of the dead time to It is undesirable to permit auto-reclosing if circuit breaker
energise the latch release coil on the spring-closing closing is manually initiated. Auto-reclose schemes include the
mechanism. A circuit breaker auxiliary switch can be used to facility to inhibit auto-reclose initiation for a set time following
cancel the closing pulse and reset the auto-reclose relay. With manual CB closure. The time is typically in the range of 2 - 5
solenoid operated breakers, it is usual to provide a closing seconds.
pulse of the order of 1 - 2 seconds, to hold the solenoid
energised for a short time after the main contacts have closed. 14.10.9 Multi-Shot Schemes
This ensures that the mechanism settles in the fully latched-in Schemes providing up to three or four shots use timing circuits
position. The pneumatic or hydraulic closing mechanisms are often included in an auto-reclose relay to provide different,
fitted to oil, air blast and SF6 circuit breakers use a circuit independently adjustable, dead times for each shot.
breaker auxiliary switch for terminating the closing pulse Instantaneous protection can be used for the first trip, since
applied by the auto-reclose relay. each scheme provides a signal to inhibit instantaneous tripping
after a set number of trips and selects I.D.M.T. protection for
14.10.5 Anti-Pumping Devices subsequent ones. The scheme resets if reclosure is successful
The function of an anti-pumping device is to prevent the circuit within the chosen number of shots, ready to respond to further
breaker closing and opening several times in quick succession. fault incidents.
This might be caused by the application of a closing pulse
while the circuit breaker is being tripped via the protection
relays. Alternatively, it may occur if the circuit breaker is
14-11
14.11 AUTO-CLOSE SCHEMES scheme. The auto-close relay used in practice is a variant of
Auto-close schemes are employed to close automatically circuit one of the standard auto-reclose relays.
breakers that are normally open when the supply network is
healthy. This may occur for a variety of reasons, for instance 14.12 EXAMPLES OF AUTO-RECLOSE
the fault level may be excessive if the CBs were normally APPLICATIONS
closed. The circuits involved are very similar to those used for The following sections describe auto-reclose facilities in
auto-reclosing. Two typical applications are described in the common use for several standard substation configurations.
following sections.
14.12.1 Double Busbar Substation
14.11.1 Standby Transformers A typical double busbar station is shown in Figure 14.8. Each
Figure 14.7 shows a busbar station fed by three transformers, of the six EHV transmission lines brought into the station is
T1, T2 and T3. The loss of one transformer might cause under the control of a circuit breaker, CB1 to CB6 inclusive,
serious overloading of the remaining two. However, and each transmission line can be connected either to the
connection of a further transformer to overcome this may main or to the reserve busbars by manually operated isolators.
increase the fault level to an unacceptable value. Line 1 Line 2 Line 3 Line 4 Line 5 Line 6
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
T1
CB1A I T1
T1 T2 T3 T4 T2
(Standby)
CB2A I T2
CB1 CB2 CB3 CB4 CB5 CB6

Bus C
Main
CB1 CB2 CB3 CB4
with
auto-closing EHV BC
Busbars
Reserve
Figure 14.7: Standby transformer with auto-closing Figure 14.8: Double busbar substation
The solution is to have a standby transformer T4 permanently Bus section isolators enable sections of busbar to be isolated in
energised from the primary side and arranged to be switched the event of a fault and the bus coupler breaker BC permits
into service if one of the others trips on fault. sections of main and reserve bars to be interconnected.
The starting circuits for breaker CB4 monitor the operation of 14.12.1.1 Basic scheme – banked transformers omitted
transformer protection on any of the transformers T1, T2 and
Each line circuit breaker is provided with an auto-reclose relay
T3 together with the tripping of an associated circuit breaker
that recloses the appropriate circuit breakers in the event of a
CB1 - CB3. In the event of a fault, the auto-close circuit is
line fault. For a fault on Line 1, this would require opening of
initiated and circuit breaker CB4 closes, after a short time
delay, to switch in the standby transformer. Some schemes
CB1 and the corresponding CB at the remote end of the line.
The operation of either the busbar protection or a VT Buchholz
employ an auto-tripping relay, so that when the faulty
relay is arranged to lock out the auto-reclosing sequence. In
transformer is returned to service, the standby is automatically
the event of a persistent fault on Line 1, the line circuit
disconnected.
breakers trip and lock out after one attempt at reclosure.
14.11.2 Bus Coupler or Bus Section Breaker
14.12.1.2 Scheme with banked transformers
If all four power transformers are normally in service for the
Some utilities use a variation of the basic scheme in which
system of Figure 14.7, and the bus sections are interconnected
Transformers T1 and T2 are banked off Lines 1 and 2, as
by a normally-open bus section breaker instead of the isolator,
shown in Figure 14.8. This provides some economy in the
the bus section breaker should be auto-closed in the event of
number of circuit breakers required. The corresponding
the loss of one transformer, to spread the load over the
transformer circuits 1 and 2 are tee'd off Lines 1 and 2
remaining transformers. This, of course, is subject to the fault
respectively. The transformer secondaries are connected to a
level being acceptable with the bus-section breaker closed.
separate HV busbar system via circuit breakers CB1A and
Starting and auto-trip circuits are employed as in the stand-by CB2A.
Auto-reclose facilities can be extended to cover the circuits for recloses again, followed by B1, so that both transformers T1
banked transformers where these are used. For example, a and T2 are then supplied from Line 2.
fault on line 1 would cause the tripping of circuit breakers CB1,
A transformer fault causes the automatic opening of the
CB1A and the remote line circuit breaker. When Line 1 is re-
appropriate transformer isolator, lock-out of the transformer
energised, either by auto-reclosure of CB1 or by the remote
secondary circuit breaker and reclosure of circuit breaker 120.
circuit breaker, whichever is set to reclose first, transformer T1
Facilities for dead line charging or reclosure with synchronism
is also energised. CB1A will not reclose until the appearance
check are provided for each circuit breaker.
of transformer secondary voltage, as monitored by the
secondary VT; it then recloses on to the HV busbars after a
14.12.3 Four-Switch Mesh Substation
short time delay, with a synchronism check if required.
The mesh substation shown in Figure 14.10 is extensively used
In the event of a fault on transformer T1, the local and remote by some utilities, either in full or part. The basic mesh has a
line circuit breakers and breaker CB1A trip to isolate the fault. feeder at each corner, as shown at mesh corners MC2, MC3
Automatic opening of the motorised transformer isolator IT1 and MC4. One or two transformers may also be banked at a
follows this. The line circuit breakers then reclose in the mesh corner, as shown at MC1. Mesh corner protection is
normal manner and circuit breaker CB1A locks out. required if more than one circuit is fed from a mesh corner,
A shortcoming of this scheme is that this results in healthy irrespective of the CT locations – see Chapter 15 for more
transformer T1 being isolated from the system; also, isolator details.
L1 must be opened manually before circuit breakers CB1 and
CB1A, can be closed to re-establish supply to the HV busbars
via the transformer. A variant of this scheme is designed to
instruct isolator L1 to open automatically following a persistent
fault on Line 1 and provide a second auto-reclosure of CB1
and CB1A. The supply to Bus C is thereby restored without
manual intervention.
14.12.2 Single Switch Substation

The arrangement shown in Figure 14.9 consists basically of
two transformer feeders interconnected by a single circuit
breaker 120. Each transformer therefore has an alternative Figure 14.10: Four-switch mesh substation
source of supply in the event of loss of one or other of the Considerable problems can are encountered in the application
feeders. of auto-reclosing to the mesh substation. For example, circuit
breakers 120 and 420 in Figure 14.10 are tripped out for a
variety of different types of fault associated with mesh corner 1
(MC1), and each requires different treatment as far as auto-
reclosing is concerned. Further variations occur if the faults
are persistent.
Following normal practice, circuit breakers must be reclosed in
sequence, so sequencing circuits are necessary for the four
mesh breakers. Closing priority may be in any order, but is
normally 120, 220, 320, and 420.
A summary of facilities is now given, based on mesh corner
Figure 14.9: Single switch substation MC1 to show the inclusion of banked transformers; facilities at
For example, a transient fault on Line 1 causes tripping of other corners are similar but omit the operation of equipment
circuit breakers 120 and B1 followed by reclosure of CB 120. solely associated with the banked transformers.
If the reclosure is successful, Transformer T1 is re-energised
and circuit breaker B1 recloses after a short time delay. 14.12.3.1 Transient fault on Line 1
Tripping of circuit breakers 120, 420, G1A and G1B is followed
If the line fault is persistent, 120 trips again and the motorised
by reclosure of 120 to give dead line charging of Line 1.
line isolator 103 is automatically opened. Circuit breaker 120
14-13
Breaker 420 recloses in sequence, with a synchronism check. be energised from each diameter, shown as Line 1 and Line 2.
Breakers G1A, G1B reclose with a synchronism check if It can therefore be seen that the ratio of circuit breakers to
necessary. lines is one-and-a-half, or breaker and a half. The advantage
of such a topology is that it reduces the number of costly
14.12.3.2 Persistent fault on Line 1 circuit breakers required, compared to a double-bus
Circuit breaker 120 trips again after the first reclosure and installation, but also it means that for any line fault, the
isolator 103 is automatically opened to isolate the faulted line. associated protection relay(s) must trip two circuit breakers to
Breakers 120, 420, G1A, and G1B then reclose in sequence as isolate it. Any autoreclose scheme will then need to manage
above. the closure of two breakers (e.g. CB1 and CB2 for reclosing
Line 1).
14.12.3.3 Transformer fault (local transformer 1A) Utilities usually select from one of three typical scheme
Automatic opening of isolator 113A to isolate the faulted philosophies in such a scenario:
transformer follows tripping of circuit breakers 120, 420, G1A
and G1B. Breakers 120, 420 and G1B then reclose in x Autoreclosure of an 'outer' (or 'diameter') breaker,
sequence, and breaker G1A is locked out. leaving the closing of the centre breaker for manual
remote control
14.12.3.4 Transformer fault (remote transformer) x A leader-follower autoreclosing scheme
For a remote transformer fault, an intertrip signal is received at x Autoreclosure of both breakers simultaneously
the local station to trip breakers 120, 420, G1A and G1B and
Bus 1
inhibit auto-reclosing until the faulted transformer has been VT
isolated at the remote station. If the intertrip persists for 60
seconds it is assumed that the fault cannot be isolated at the CB1 x
1
remote station. Isolator 103 is then automatically opened and
circuit breakers 120, 420, G1A and G1B are reclosed in Line 1
sequence. Line VT
CB2 x 3
14.12.3.5 Transient mesh corner fault A/R Relay
Any fault covered by the mesh corner protection zone, shown

Line 2
in Figure 14.10, results in tripping of circuit breakers 120, 420,
G1A and G1B. These are then reclosed in sequence. 1
CB3 x
There may be circumstances in which reclosure onto a VT
persistent fault is not permitted – clearly it is not known in
Bus 2
advance of reclosure if the fault is persistent or not. In these
circumstances, scheme logic inhibits reclosure and locks out Figure 14.11: Breaker and a half example
the circuit breakers. The first option offers re-energisation of the line, but leaves the
final topology restoration task of closing CB2 to the control
14.12.3.6 Persistent mesh corner fault operator.
The sequence described in Section 14.12.3.5 is followed A leader-follower scheme is one whereby just one circuit
initially. When CB 120 is reclosed, it will trip again due to the breaker is reclosed initially (CB1), and then only if this is
fault and lock out. At this point, the logic inhibits the reclosure successful, the second or 'follower' breaker (CB2) is reclosed
of CB’s 420, G1A and G1B and locks out these CBs. Line after a set follower time delay. The advantage here is that for
isolator 103 is automatically opened to isolate the fault from a persistent fault there is only the increased interrupting duty
the remote station. of a switch-on-to-fault trip for a single circuit breaker, not two.
Should a trip and lockout occur for CB1, then CB2 will also be
14.12.4Breaker and a Half Substations driven to lockout. Figure 14.11 shows how a single
A simplistic example of a breaker and a half substation is autoreclose relay, associated with Line 1, can exert control
shown in Figure 14.11. The substation has two busbars, Bus upon both CB1 and CB2 (it shares control of CB2 with the
1 and Bus 2, with lines being energised via a 'diameter' of autoreclose relay for Line 2). It is also important that before
three circuit breakers (CB1, CB2, CB3). Two line circuits can each circuit breaker is closed, the appropriate synchronism
check is made. For this reason, the relay requires two bus
synchronising voltages as inputs, in addition to the three-
phase line VT input shown. CB1 can be permitted to close
only if the voltage checks between Bus 1 and the Line VT are
favourable, CB2 can be permitted to close only if the checks
between Bus 2 and the Line VT are favourable
If a utility opts for a scheme which closes two circuit breakers
simultaneously, the line voltage checks against both bus
voltages need to be satisfied before the relay issues
synchronised closing commands.
14-15
Chapter 15
Busbar Protection

15.2 Busbar Faults
The protection scheme for a power system should cover the
15.3 Protection Requirements whole system against all probable types of fault. Unrestricted
15.4 Types of Protection System forms of line protection, such as overcurrent and distance
15.5 System Protection Schemes systems, meet this requirement, although faults in the busbar
15.6 Frame-Earth Protection (Howard Protection) zone are cleared only after some time delay. But if unit
15.7 Differential Protection Principles protection is applied to feeders and plant, the busbars are not
15.8 High Impedance Differential Protection inherently protected.
15.9 Low Impedance Biased Differential Protection Busbars have often been left without specific protection, for
15.10 Numerical Busbar Protection Schemes one or more of the following reasons:
15.11 Interlocked Overcurrent Busbar Schemes x the busbars and switchgear have a high degree of
15.12 Reference reliability, to the point of being regarded as intrinsically
safe
x it was feared that accidental operation of busbar
protection might cause widespread dislocation of the
power system, which, if not quickly cleared, would
cause more loss than would the very infrequent actual
bus faults
x it was hoped that system protection or back-up
protection would provide sufficient bus protection if
needed
It is true that the risk of a fault occurring on modern metal-
clad gear is very small, but it cannot be entirely ignored.
However, the damage resulting from one uncleared fault,
because of the concentration of fault MVA, may be very
extensive indeed, up to the complete loss of the station by fire.
Serious damage to or destruction of the installation would
probably result in widespread and prolonged supply
interruption.
Finally, system protection will frequently not provide the cover
required. Such protection may be good enough for small
distribution substations, but not for important stations. Even if
distance protection is applied to all feeders, the busbar will lie
in the second zone of all the distance protections, so a bus
fault will be cleared relatively slowly, and the resultant duration
of the voltage dip imposed on the rest of the system may not
be tolerable.
With outdoor switchgear the case is less clear since, although
the likelihood of a fault is higher, the risk of widespread
damage resulting is much less. In general then, busbar
protection is required when the system protection does not
15-1
cover the busbars, or when, in order to maintain power system years, it is clear that unless the stability of the protection is
stability, high-speed fault clearance is necessary. Unit busbar absolute, the degree of disturbance to which the power system
protection provides this, with the further advantage that if the is likely to be subjected may be increased by the installation of
busbars are sectionalised, one section only need be isolated to bus protection. The possibility of incorrect operation has, in
clear a fault. The case for unit busbar protection is in fact the past, led to hesitation in applying bus protection and has
strongest when there is sectionalisation. also resulted in application of some very complex systems.
Increased understanding of the response of differential systems
15.2 BUSBAR FAULTS to transient currents enables such systems to be applied with
The majority of bus faults involve one phase and earth, but confidence in their fundamental stability. The theory of
faults arise from many causes and a significant number are differential protection is given later in section 15.7.
interphase clear of earth. In fact, a large proportion of busbar Notwithstanding the complete stability of a correctly applied
faults result from human error rather than the failure of protection system, dangers exist in practice for a number of
switchgear components. reasons. These are:
With fully phase-segregated metalclad gear, only earth faults x interruption of the secondary circuit of a current
are possible, and a protection scheme need have earth fault transformer will produce an unbalance, which might
sensitivity only. In other cases, an ability to respond to phase cause tripping on load depending on the relative values
faults clear of earth is an advantage, although the phase fault of circuit load and effective setting. It would certainly
sensitivity need not be very high. do so during a through fault, producing substantial fault
current in the circuit in question
15.3 PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS
x a mechanical shock of sufficient severity may cause
Although not basically different from other circuit protection, operation, although the likelihood of this occurring with
the key position of the busbar intensifies the emphasis put on modern numerical schemes is reduced
the essential requirements of speed and stability. The special
x accidental interference with the relay, arising from a
features of busbar protection are discussed below.
mistake during maintenance testing, may lead to
operation
15.3.1 Speed
Busbar protection is primarily concerned with: In order to maintain the high order of integrity needed for
busbar protection, it is an almost invariable practice to make
x limitation of consequential damage tripping depend on two independent measurements of fault
x removal of busbar faults in less time than could be quantities. Moreover, if the tripping of all the breakers within a
achieved by back-up line protection, with the object of zone is derived from common measuring relays, two separate
maintaining system stability elements must be operated at each stage to complete a
tripping operation.
Some early busbar protection schemes used a low impedance
differential system having a relatively long operation time, of The two measurements may be made by two similar
up to 0.5 seconds. The basis of most modern schemes is a differential systems, or one differential system may be checked
differential system using either low impedance biased or high by a frame-earth system, by earth fault relays energised by
impedance unbiased relays capable of operating in a time of current transformers in the transformer neutral-earth
the order of one cycle at a very moderate multiple of fault conductors or by voltage or overcurrent relays. Alternatively, a
setting. To this must be added the operating time of any frame-earth system may be checked by earth fault relays.
tripping relays, but an overall tripping time of less than two
If two systems of the unit or other similar type are used, they
cycles can be achieved. With high-speed circuit breakers,
should be energised by separate current transformers in the
complete fault clearance may be obtained in approximately 0.1
case of high impedance unbiased differential schemes. The
seconds. When a frame-earth system is used, the operating
duplicate ring CT cores may be mounted on a common
speed is comparable.
primary conductor but independence must be maintained
throughout the secondary circuit.
15.3.2 Stability
The stability of bus protection is of paramount importance. In the case of low impedance, biased differential schemes that
cater for unequal ratio CTs, the scheme can be energised from
Bearing in mind the low rate of fault incidence, amounting to
no more than an average of one fault per busbar in twenty either one or two separate sets of main current transformers.
The criteria of double feature operation before tripping can be
Chapter 15 Busbar Protection
maintained by the provision of two sets of ratio matching

interposing CTs per circuit. When multi-contact tripping relays
are used, these are also duplicated, one being energised from
each discriminating relay; the contacts of the tripping relay are
then series-connected in pairs to provide tripping outputs.
Separate tripping relays, each controlling one breaker only, are
Figure 15.1: Two-out-of-three principle
usually preferred. The importance of such relays is then no
more than that of normal circuit protection, so no duplication
15.4 TYPES OF PROTECTION SYSTEM
is required at this stage. Not least among the advantages of
using individual tripping relays is the simplification of trip A number of busbar protection systems have been devised:
circuit wiring, compared with taking all trip circuits associated a. system protection used to cover busbars
with a given bus section through a common multi-contact b. frame-earth protection
tripping relay.
c. differential protection
In double busbar installations, a separate protection system is d. phase comparison protection
applied to each section of each busbar. An overall check
e. directional blocking protection
system is also provided, covering all sections of both busbars.
The separate zones are arranged to overlap the busbar section Of these, (a) is suitable for small substations only. Type (d) is
switches, so that a fault on the section switch trips both the often seen nowadays only as a supervision check element
adjacent zones. This has sometimes been avoided in the past within biased differential numerical schemes. Type (e) is
by giving the section switch a time advantage; the section receiving greater acceptance nowadays when implemented as
switch is tripped first and the remaining breakers delayed by IEC 61850 GOOSE-based schemes using overcurrent relays,
0.5 seconds. Only the zone on the faulty side of the section as described in section 15.11. Detailed discussion of types (b)
switch will remain operated and trip, the other zone resetting and (c) occupies most of this chapter.
and retaining that section in service. This gain, applicable only
Early forms of biased differential protection for busbars, such
to very infrequent section switch faults, is obtained at the
as versions of 'Translay' protection and also a scheme using
expense of seriously delaying the bus protection for all other
harmonic restraint, were superseded by unbiased high
faults. This practice is therefore not generally favoured. Some
impedance differential protection.
variations are dealt with later under the more detailed scheme
descriptions. There are many combinations possible, but the The relative simplicity of the latter, and more importantly the
essential principle is that no single accidental incident of a relative ease with which its performance can be calculated,
secondary nature shall be capable of causing an unnecessary have ensured its success up to the present day.
trip of a bus section. But in the 1980’s the advances in semiconductor technology,
Security against maloperation is only achieved by increasing coupled with a more pressing need to be able to accommodate
the amount of equipment that is required to function to CTs of unequal ratio, led to the re-introduction of biased
complete an operation; and this inevitably increases the schemes, generally using static relay designs, particularly for
statistical risk that a tripping operation due to a fault may fail. the most extensive and onerous applications.
Such a failure, leaving aside the question of consequential Frame-earth protection systems have been in use for many
damage, may result in disruption of the power system to an years, mainly associated with smaller busbar protection
extent as great, or greater, than would be caused by an schemes at distribution voltages and for metalclad busbars
unwanted trip. The relative risk of failure of this kind may be (e.g. SF6 insulated busbars). However, it has often been quite
slight, but it has been thought worthwhile in some instances to common for a unit protection scheme to be used in addition, to
provide a guard in this respect as well. provide two separate means of fault detection.
Security of both stability and operation is obtained by providing The different types of protection are described in the following
three independent channels (say X, Y and Z) whose outputs sections.
are arranged in a ‘two-out-of three’ voting arrangement, as
shown in Figure 15.1. 15.5 SYSTEM PROTECTION SCHEMES
System protection that includes overcurrent or distance
systems will inherently give protection cover to the busbars.
15-3
Overcurrent protection will only be applied to relatively simple

distribution systems, or as a back-up protection, set to give a
considerable time delay. Distance protection will provide cover
for busbar faults with its second and possibly subsequent
zones. In both cases the busbar protection obtained is slow
and suitable only for limiting the consequential damage.
The only exception is the case of a mesh-connected substation,
in which the current transformers are located at the circuit
breakers. Here, the busbars are included, in sections, in the
individual zones of the main circuit protection, whether this is
of unit type or not. In the special case when the current
transformers are located on the line side of the mesh, the
circuit protection will not cover the busbars in the
instantaneous zone and separate busbar protection, known as
mesh-corner protection, is generally used see section 15.7.2
for details.
15.6 FRAME-EARTH PROTECTION (HOWARD

PROTECTION) Figure 15.2: Single zone frame-earth protection
Frame leakage protection has been extensively used in the past No other earth connections of any type, including incidental
in many different situations. There are several variations of connections to structural steelwork are allowed. This
frame leakage schemes available, providing busbar protection requirement is so that:
schemes with different capabilities. The following sections
schemes have thus been retained for historical and general x the principal earth connection and current transformer
reference purposes. A considerable number of schemes are are not shunted, thereby raising the effective setting.
still in service and frame leakage may provide an acceptable An increased effective setting gives rise to the possibility
solution in particular circumstances. However, the need to of relay maloperation. This risk is small in practice
insulate the switchboard frame and provide cable gland x earth current flowing to a fault elsewhere on the system
insulation and the availability of alternative schemes using cannot flow into or out of the switchgear frame via two
numerical relays, has contributed to a decline in use of frame earth connections, as this might lead to a spurious
leakage systems. operation
The switchgear must be insulated as a whole, usually by
15.6.1 Single-Busbar Frame-Earth Protection
standing it on concrete. Care must be taken that the
This is purely an earth fault system and, in principle, involves foundation bolts do not touch the steel reinforcement;
simply measuring the fault current flowing from the sufficient concrete must be cut away at each hole to permit
switchgear frame to earth. A current transformer is mounted grouting-in with no risk of touching metalwork. The insulation
on the earthing conductor and is used to energise a simple to earth finally achieved will not be high, a value of 10 ohms
instantaneous relay as shown in Figure 15.2. being satisfactory.
When planning the earthing arrangements of a frame-leakage
scheme, the use of one common electrode for both the
switchgear frame and the power system neutral point is
preferred, because the fault path would otherwise include the
two earthing electrodes in series. If either or both of these are
of high resistance or have inadequate current carrying
capacity, the fault current may be limited to such an extent
that the protection equipment becomes inoperative. In
addition, if the electrode earthing the switchgear frame is the
offender, the potential of the frame may be raised to a
dangerous value. The use of a common earthing electrode of
adequate rating and low resistance ensures sufficient current frame is also sub-divided, the sections mutually insulated, and
for scheme operation and limits the rise in frame potential. each provided with a separate earth conductor, current
When the system is resistance earthed, the earthing transformer and relay.
connection from the switchgear frame is made between the
Ideally, the section switch should be treated as a separate
bottom of the earthing resistor and the earthing electrode.
zone, as shown in Figure 15.4, and provided with either a
Figure 15.3 illustrates why a lower limit of 10 ohms insulation separate relay or two secondaries on the frame-leakage
resistance between frame and earth is necessary. current transformer, with an arrangement to trip both adjacent
zones. The individual zone relays trip their respective zone and
Outgoing
feeder Switchgear the section switch.
frame
Switchgear frame
Frame-leakage bonding bar
current
IF=I1+I2 transformer
Generator
System
earthing
Earth resistor
bar
I1+I2
I1
I1 I2
Frame insulation Earthing
resistance to electrode
earth resistance
Figure 15.3: Current distribution for external fault

Under external fault conditions, the current IF flows through Figure 15.4: Three zone frame-earth scheme
the frame-leakage current transformer. If the insulation If it is inconvenient to insulate the section switch frame on one
resistance is too low, sufficient current may flow to operate the side, this switch may be included in that zone. It is then
frame-leakage relay, and, as the check feature is unrestricted, necessary to intertrip the other zone after approximately 0.5
this will also operate to complete the trip circuit. The earth seconds if a fault persists after the zone including the section
resistance between the earthing electrode and true earth is switch has been tripped. This is illustrated in Figure 15.5.
seldom greater than 1:, so with 10: insulation resistance the
current I1 is limited to 10% of the total earth fault current I1
and I2. For this reason, the recommended minimum setting
for the scheme is about 30% of the minimum earth fault
current.
All cable glands must be insulated, to prevent the circulation of
spurious current through the frame and earthing system by
any voltages induced in the cable sheath. Preferably, the gland
insulation should be provided in two layers or stages, with an
interposing layer of metal, to facilitate the testing of the gland
insulation. A test level of 5kV from each side is suitable.
15.6.2 Frame-Earth Protection - Sectioned Busbars

Section 15.6.1 covered the basic requirements for a system to
protect switchgear as a whole. When the busbar is divided
into sections, these can be protected separately, provided the
15-5
Insulation barriers
Zone J
M
Zone G Zone H
L
g1 j1 h1 j2
K N
Zone H
I
relay
Zone G I
relay
+ _
g1
K
j1
M1
M2
Tripping
relays
Figure 15.5: Frame-earth scheme: bus section breaker insulated on L1
one side only
L2
For the above schemes to function it is necessary to have a
h1
least one infeed or earthed source of supply, and in the latter N
case it is essential that this source of supply be connected to
the side of the switchboard not containing the section switch. G HJ j2
Busbar isolator
Further, if possible, it is preferable that an earthed source of D.C. zone auxiliary switches
supply be provided on both sides of the switchboard, in order bus wires
to ensure that any faults that may develop between the Figure 15.6: Frame-earth scheme for double busbar substation
insulating barrier and the section switch will continue to be fed
with fault current after the isolation of the first half of the 15.6.4 Frame-Earth Protection - Check System
switchboard, and thus allow the fault to be removed. Of the On all but the smallest equipments, a check system should be
two arrangements, the first is the one normally recommended, provided to guard against such contingencies as operation due
since it provides instantaneous clearance of busbar faults on all to mechanical shock or mistakes made by personnel. Faults in
sections of the switchboard. the low voltage auxiliary wiring must also be prevented from
causing operation by passing current to earth through the
15.6.3 Frame-Earth Scheme - Double Bus Substation switchgear frame. A useful check is provided by a relay
It is not generally feasible to separately insulate the metal energised by the system neutral current, or residual current. If
enclosures of the main and auxiliary busbars. Protection is the neutral check cannot be provided, the frame-earth relays
therefore generally provided as for single bus installations, but should have a short time delay.
with the additional feature that circuits connected to the When a check system is used, instantaneous relays can be
auxiliary bus are tripped for all faults, as shown in Figure 15.6. used, with a setting of 30% of the minimum earth fault current
and an operating time at five times setting of 15 milliseconds
or less.
Figure 15.7 shows a frame-leakage scheme for a metalclad
switchgear installation similar to that shown in Figure 15.4
and incorporating a neutral current check obtained from a
suitable zero sequence current source, such as that shown in
Figure 15.2.
+ Trip relays - isolating switches - one switch per zone - are provided in the
In Out 64A-1 GH 64CH-1 trip supply circuits and an alarm cancellation relay is used.
K
CSS-G 64B-1
15.7 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION PRINCIPLES
CSS-H L1
The Merz-Price principle is applicable to a multi-terminal zone
such as a busbar. The principle is a direct application of
L2
Kirchhoff's first law. Usually, the circulating current
arrangement is used, in which the current transformers and
M
interconnections form an analogue of the busbar and circuit
L5 connections. A relay connected across the CT bus wires
represents a fault path in the primary system in the analogue
64CH-2 64A-2
I > and hence is not energised until a fault occurs on the busbar; it
64B-2 then receives an input that, in principle at least, represents the
fault current.
74-1
The scheme may consist of a single relay connected to the bus
74-2
wires connecting all the current transformers in parallel, one
In Out L3 set per circuit, associated with a particular zone, as shown in
Figure 15.8(a). This will give earth fault protection for the
L4 busbar. This arrangement has often been thought to be
CSS-G
L3 adequate.
L4 If the current transformers are connected as a balanced group

for each phase together with a three-element relay, as shown
CSS-H
L6 in Figure 15.8(b), additional protection for phase faults can be
obtained.
74 Alarm cancellation relay
CSS Control selector switch protection in/protection out
L3 Busbar protection in service lamp Differential relay
L4 Busbar protection out of service lamp G H J K
L5 Tripping supply healthy lamp
L6 Alarm and indication supply healthy lamp
Id >
Figure 15.7: Typical tripping and alarm circuits for a frame-leakage
scheme
The protection relays used for the discriminating and check
functions are of the attracted armature type, with two
normally open self reset contacts. The tripping circuits cannot
be complete unless both the discriminating and check relays
a) Basic circulating current scheme (earth fault protection only)
operate; this is because the discriminating and check relay
contacts are connected in series. The tripping relays are of the
attracted armature type. G H
It is usual to supervise the satisfactory operation of the

protection scheme with audible and visual alarms and
indications for the following:
A
x busbar faults B
C
x busbar protection in service N
x busbar protection out of service Differential relay Id > Id > Id >
x tripping supply healthy

b) Phase and earth fault circulating current scheme using
x alarm supply healthy three-element relay
To enable the protection equipment of each zone to be taken Figure 15.8: Circulating current scheme
out of service independently during maintenance periods, The phase and earth fault settings are identical, and this
15-7
scheme is recommended for its ease of application and good other and also the individual circuit protections. The overlap
performance. should occur across a circuit breaker, so that the latter lies in
both zones. For this arrangement it is necessary to install
15.7.1 Differential Protection for Sectionalised and current transformers on both sides of the circuit breakers,
Duplicate Busbars which is economically possible with many but not all types of
switchgear. With both the circuit and the bus protection
Each section of a divided bus is provided with a separate
circulating current system. The zones so formed are overcurrent transformers on the same side of the circuit breakers,
the zones may be overlapped at the current transformers, but a
lapped across the section switches, so that a fault on the latter
will trip the two adjacent zones. This is illustrated in Figure fault between the CT location and the circuit breaker will not
be completely isolated. This matter is important in all
15.9.
switchgear to which these conditions apply, and is particularly
Tripping two zones for a section switch fault can be avoided by important in the case of outdoor switchgear where separately
using the time-delayed technique of section 15.6.2. However mounted, multi-secondary current transformers are generally
instantaneous operation is the preferred choice. used. The conditions are shown in Figure 15.10.
(a) (b)
Zone A Zone B
Bus protection
BS
Fault
BC BC
Zone C
Circuit
protection
a. Current transformers mounted on both sides of breaker

Figure 15.9: Zones of protection for double bus station -no unprotected region
For double bus installation, the two busbars will be treated as b. Current transformers mounted on circuit side only of breaker
-fault shown not cleared by circuit protection
separate zones. The auxiliary busbar zone will overlap the
Figure 15.10: Unprotected zone with current transformers mounted
appropriate main busbar zone at the bus coupler. on one side of the circuit breaker only
Since any circuit may be transferred from one busbar to the Figure 15.10(a) shows the ideal arrangement in which both
other by isolator switches, these and the associated tripping the circuit and busbar zones are overlapped leaving no region
circuit must also be switched to the appropriate zone by 'early of the primary circuit unprotected.
make' and 'late break' auxiliary contacts. This is to ensure that
when the isolators are closing, the auxiliary switches make Figure 15.10(b) shows how mounting all current transformers
before the main contacts of the isolator, and that when the on the circuit side of the breaker results in a small region of the
isolators are opened, their main contacts part before the primary circuit unprotected. This unprotected region is
auxiliary switches open. The result is that the secondary typically referred to as the ‘short zone’. The fault shown will
circuits of the two zones concerned are briefly paralleled while cause operation of the busbar protection, tripping the circuit
the circuit is being transferred; these two zones have in any breaker, but the fault will continue to be fed from the circuit, if
case been united through the circuit isolators during the a source of power is present. It is necessary for the bus
transfer operation. protection to intertrip the far end of the circuit protection, if the
latter is of the unit type.
15.7.2 Location of Current Transformers With reference to Figure 15.10(b), special ‘short zone’
Ideally, the separate discriminating zones should overlap each protection can be provided to detect that the circuit breaker
has opened but that the fault current is still flowing. Under 15.8 HIGH IMPEDANCE DIFFERENTIAL
these conditions, the protection can initiate an intertrip to the PROTECTION
remote end of the circuit. This technique may be used,
This form of protection is still in common use. The
particularly when the circuit includes a generator. In this case
considerations that have to be taken into account are detailed
the intertrip proves that the fault is in the switchgear
in the following sections.
connections and not in the generator; the latter is therefore
tripped electrically but not shut down on the mechanical side
15.8.1 Stability
so as to be immediately ready for further service if the fault can
be cleared. The incidence of fault current with an initial unilateral transient
component causes an abnormal build-up of flux in a current
15.7.2.1 CT locations for mesh-connected substations transformer, as described in section 15.8.2. When through-
fault current traverses a zone protected by a differential
The protection of busbars in mesh connected substations gives
system, the transient flux produced in the current transformers
rise to additional considerations in respect of CT location. A
is not detrimental as long as it remains within the substantially
single mesh corner is shown in Figure 15.11(a). Where only
linear range of the magnetising characteristic. With fault
one connection to the mesh is made at a corner, CTs located
current of appreciable magnitude and long transient time
as shown will provide protection not only to the line but the
constant, the flux density will pass into the saturated region of
corner of the mesh included between them. However, this
the characteristic; this will not in itself produce a spill output
arrangement cannot be used where more than one connection
from a pair of balancing current transformers provided that
is made to a mesh corner. This is because a fault on any of the
these are identical and equally burdened. A group of current
connected circuits would result in disconnection of them all,
transformers, though they may be of the same design, will not
without any means of determining the faulted connection.
be completely identical, but a more important factor is
Protection CTs must therefore be located on each connection,
inequality of burden. In the case of a differential system for a
as shown in Figure 15.11(b). This leaves the corner of the
busbar, an external fault may be fed through a single circuit,
mesh unprotected, so additional CTs and a relay to provide
the current being supplied to the busbar through all other
mesh-corner protection are added, as also shown in Figure
circuits. The faulted circuit is many times more heavily loaded
15.11(b).
than the others and the corresponding current transformers
Mesh corner are likely to be heavily saturated, while those of the other
(Note 1)
circuits are not. Severe unbalance is therefore probable,
which, with a relay of normal burden, could exceed any
acceptable current setting. For this reason such systems were
Line protection at one time always provided with a time delay. This practice
relay
is, however, no longer acceptable.
Note 1: Only 1 connection to the mesh corner permitted It is not feasible to calculate the spill current that may occur,
(a) CT arrangements for protection including mesh corner
but, fortunately, this is not necessary; an alternative approach
provides both the necessary information and the technique
required to obtain a high performance.
An equivalent circuit, as in Figure 15.12, can represent a
Transformer circulating current system.
protection
Mesh corner
(Note 2)
Line
protection
Mesh corner
protection
Note 2: Multiple circuits may be connected to the mesh corner

(b) CT arrangements for protection - additional mesh corner protection required
Figure 15.11: Mesh-corner protection
15-9
Vf I f ( RLH RCTH )
IR
RR RR
Equation 15.3
or alternatively:
G H
I R RR Vf I f RLH RCTH
RCTG RLG RLH RCTH Equation 15.4
It is clear that, by increasing RR, the spill current IR can be
RR reduced below any specified relay setting. RR is frequently
increased by the addition of a series-connected resistor which
ZEG ZEH is known as the stabilising resistor.
Id >
It can also be seen from Equation 15.4 that it is only the
voltage drop in the relay circuit at setting current that is
Figure 15.12: Equivalent circuit of circulating current system important. The relay can be designed as a voltage measuring
device consuming negligible current; and provided its setting
The current transformers are replaced in the diagram by ideal voltage exceeds the value Vf of Equation 15.4, the system will
current transformers feeding an equivalent circuit that
be stable. In fact, the setting voltage need not exceed Vf, since
represents the magnetising losses and secondary winding
the derivation of Equation 15.4 involves an extreme condition
resistance, and also the resistance of the connecting leads.
of unbalance between the G and H current transformers that is
These circuits can then be interconnected as shown, with a
not completely realised. So a safety margin is built-in if the
relay connected to the junction points to form the complete
voltage setting is made equal to Vf.
equivalent circuit.
It is necessary to realise that the value of If to be inserted in
Saturation has the effect of lowering the exciting impedance,
Equation 15.4 is the complete function of the fault current and
and is assumed to take place severely in current transformer H
the spill current IR through the relay, in the limiting condition,
until, at the limit, the shunt impedance becomes zero and the
will be of the same form. If the relay requires more time to
CT can produce no output. This condition is represented by a
operate than the effective duration of the d.c. transient
short circuit, shown in broken line, across the exciting
component, or has been designed with special features to
impedance. It should be noted that this is not the equivalent
block the d.c. component, then this factor can be ignored and
of a physical short circuit, since it is behind the winding
only the symmetrical value of the fault current need be entered
resistance RCTH.
in Equation 15.4. If the relay setting voltage, VS , is made
Applying the Thévenin method of solution, the voltage equal to Vf, that is, If (RL + RCT), an inherent safety factor of
developed across the relay will be given by: the order of two will exist.
Vf I f RLH RCTH In the case of a faster relay, capable of operating in one cycle
Equation 15.1
and with no special features to block the d.c. component, it is
the r.m.s. value of the first offset wave that is significant. This
The current through the relay is given by: value, for a fully offset waveform with no d.c. decrement, is
Vf I f ( RLH RCTH ) 3If. If settings are then chosen in terms of the symmetrical
IR component of the fault current, the 3 factor which has been
RR RLH RCTH RR RLH RCTH
ignored will take up most of the basic safety factor, leaving
Equation 15.2 only a very small margin.
If RR is small, IR will approximate to If, which is unacceptable. Finally, if a truly instantaneous relay were used, the relevant
On the other hand, if RR is large IR is reduced. Equation 15.2 value of If would be the maximum offset peak. In this case,
can be written, with little error, as follows: the factor has become less than unity, possibly as low as 0.7.
It is therefore possible to rewrite Equation 15.4 as:
K u VS converted to the primary operating current by multiplying by

I SL the turns ratio of the current transformers. The operating
RL RCT
current so determined should be considered in terms of the
Equation 15.5 conditions of the application.
where: For a phase and earth fault scheme the setting can be based
ISL = stability limit of scheme on the fault current to be expected for minimum plant and
maximum system outage conditions. However, it should be
VS = relay circuit voltage setting remembered that:
RL + RCT = lead + CT winding resistance x phase-phase faults give only 86% of the three-phase
K = factor depending on relay design (range 0.7 - 2.0) fault current
It remains to be shown that the setting chosen is suitable in x fault arc resistance and earth path resistance reduce
section 15.8.2. fault currents somewhat
x a reasonable margin should be allowed to ensure that
The current transformers will have an excitation curve which
relays operate quickly and decisively
has not so far been related to the relay setting voltage, the
latter being equal to the maximum nominal voltage drop It is desirable that the primary effective setting should not
across the lead loop and the CT secondary winding resistance, exceed 30% of the prospective minimum fault current.
with the maximum secondary fault current flowing through
In the case of a scheme exclusively for earth fault protection,
them. Under in-zone fault conditions it is necessary for the
the minimum earth fault current should be considered, taking
current transformers to produce sufficient output to operate
into account any earthing impedance that might be present as
the relay. This will be achieved provided the CT knee-point
well. Furthermore, in the event of a double phase to earth
voltage exceeds the relay setting. In order to cater for errors, it
fault, regardless of the inter-phase currents, only 50% of the
is usual to specify that the current transformers should have a
system e.m.f. is available in the earth path, causing a further
knee-point e.m.f. of at least twice the necessary setting
reduction in the earth fault current. The primary operating
voltage; a higher multiple is of advantage in ensuring a high
current must therefore be not greater than 30% of the
speed of operation.
minimum single-phase earth fault current.
15.8.2 Effective Setting or Primary Operating Current In order to achieve high-speed operation, it is desirable that
The minimum primary operating current is a further criterion settings should be still lower, particularly in the case of the
of the design of a differential system. The secondary effective solidly earthed power system. The transient component of the
setting is the sum of the relay minimum operating current and fault current in conjunction with unfavourable residual flux in
the excitation losses in all parallel connected current the CT can cause a high degree of saturation and loss of
transformers, whether carrying primary current or not. This output, possibly leading to a delay of several cycles additional
summation should strictly speaking be vectorial, but is usually to the natural operating time of the element. This will not
done arithmetically. It can be expressed as: happen to any large degree if the fault current is a larger
multiple of setting; for example, if the fault current is five times
IR I S nI eS the scheme primary operating current and the CT knee-point
e.m.f. is three times the relay setting voltage, the additional
Equation 15.6
delay is unlikely to exceed one cycle.
where:
The primary operating current is sometimes designed to exceed
IR = effective setting the maximum expected circuit load in order to reduce the
IS = relay circuit setting current possibility of false operation under load current as a result of a
broken CT lead. Desirable as this safeguard may be, it will be
IeS = CT excitation current at relay voltage setting seen that it is better not to increase the effective current
n = number of parallel connected CTs setting too much, as this will sacrifice some speed; the check
feature in any case, maintains stability.
Having established the relay setting voltage from stability
considerations, as shown in section 15.8.1, and knowing the An overall earth fault scheme for a large distribution board
excitation characteristic of the current transformers, the may be difficult to design because of the large number of
effective setting can be computed. The secondary setting is current transformers paralleled together, which may lead to an
15-11
excessive setting. It may be advantageous in such a case to +

In Out 87M1-1 M1 M2 R 87CH-1
96
provide a three-element phase and earth fault scheme, mainly CSS-M1 87M2-1
D1
96
to reduce the number of current transformers paralleled into CSS-M2 87R-1
a1 D2
96
c1 E
one group. CSS-R 96
F1
96
Extra-high-voltage substations usually present no such b1 F2
96
c2 G
problem. Using the voltage-calibrated relay, the current 96
H1
consumption can be very small. A simplification can be 96
H2
D.C. Buswires
achieved by providing one relay per circuit, all connected to the 80
T
CT paralleling buswires. This enables the trip circuits to be 87CH-2 87M1-2

30
M1
87M2-2
confined to the least area and reduces the risk of accidental 30
M2
87R-2
operation. 95M1-1 95
30
R
95M2-1 M1X
95
95R-1 M2X
95
15.8.3 Check Feature 95CH-1 RX
95
30M1-1 CHX
74
Schemes for earth faults only can be checked by a frame-earth 30M2-1 74-1
30R-1 74-2
system, applied to the switchboard as a whole, no subdivision 95M1X-1
being necessary. 95M2X-1

95RX-1
95CHX-1
For phase fault schemes, the check will usually be a similar In Out
L1
type of scheme applied to the switchboard as a single overall L2
zone. A set of current transformers separate from those used CSS-M1 L1
in the discriminating zones should be provided. No CT L2

CSS-M2 L1
switching is required and no current transformers are needed
L2
for the check zone in bus-coupler and bus-section breakers. CSS-R 80
I
30 Zone indicating relay 95X Zone bus wires shorting relay
74 Alarm cancellation relay CSS Control selector switch
15.8.4 Supervision of CT Secondary Circuits 80 D.C. volts supervision relay L1 Indicating lamp protection in service
87 High impedance circulating current relay L2 Indicating lamp protection out of service
Any interruption of a CT secondary circuit up to the paralleling 95 Bus wires supervision relay
interconnections will cause an unbalance in the system, Figure 15.13: D.C. circuits for high impedance circulating current
scheme
equivalent to the load being carried by the relevant primary
circuit. Even though this degree of spurious output is below
the effective setting the condition cannot be ignored, since it is
likely to lead to instability under any through fault condition.
Supervision can be carried out to detect such conditions by
connecting a sensitive alarm relay across the bus wires of each
zone. For a phase and earth fault scheme, an internal three-
phase rectifier can be used to effect a summation of the bus
wire voltages on to a single alarm element; see Figure 15.14
and Figure 15.13.
The alarm relay is set so that operation does not occur with the
protection system healthy under normal load. Subject to this
proviso, the alarm relay is made as sensitive as possible; the
desired effective setting is 125 primary amperes or 10% of the
lowest circuit rating, whichever is the greater.
Since a relay of this order of sensitivity is likely to operate
during through faults, a time delay, typically of three seconds,
is applied to avoid unnecessary alarm signals.
Zone R
c1 c2
D H
Zone M1 Zone M2
a1 b1
E F G
c1 c2
a1 b1
Zone M1 A
Bus wires B
C
A
B Zone M2
C Bus wires
Zone R A
B
Bus wires C
N
A
Check zone B
Bus wires C
N
95 CHX-2
95 CHX-3
Zone R relay Zone M1 relay 95 CHX-4 Zone M2 relay

same as check same as check same as check
M1 First main busbar + Stabilising Resistor

M2 Second main busbar _ 95
R Reserve busbar CH v v v
High Impedance
Id Id Id Circulating Current
Supervision Relay
Relay Metrosil
(non-linear resistor)
Figure 15.14: A.C. circuits for high impedance circulating current panel and the bus section-switch marshalling cubicle. The
scheme for duplicate busbars reserve bar zone and the check zone relays will be connected
together by a cable running to the bus coupler circuit breaker
15.8.5 Arrangement of CT Connections
marshalling cubicle. It is possible that special circumstances
It is shown in Equation 15.4 how the setting voltage for a involving onerous conditions may over-ride this convenience
given stability level is directly related to the resistance of the CT and make connection to some other part of the ring desirable.
secondary leads. This should therefore be kept to a practical
minimum. Taking into account the practical physical laying of Connecting leads will usually be not less than 7/0.67mm
auxiliary cables, the CT bus wires are best arranged in the form (2.5mm2), but for large sites or in other difficult circumstances
of a ring around the switchgear site. it may be necessary to use cables of, for example 7/1.04mm
(6mm2) for the bus wire ring and the CT connections to it. The
In a double bus installation, the CT leads should be taken cable from the ring to the relay need not be of the larger
directly to the isolator selection switches. The usual section.
arrangement of cables on a double bus site is as follows:
When the reserve bar is split by bus section isolators and the
x current transformers to marshalling kiosk two portions are protected as separate zones, it is necessary to
x marshalling kiosk to bus selection isolator auxiliary common the bus wires by means of auxiliary contacts, thereby
switches making these two zones into one when the section isolators
are closed.
x interconnections between marshalling kiosks to form a
closed ring
15.8.6 Summary of Practical Details
The relay for each zone is connected to one point of the ring
This section provides a summary of practical considerations
bus wire. For convenience of cabling, the main zone relays will
when implementing a high-impedance busbar protection
be connected through a multicore cable between the relay
15-13
scheme. advantageous to keep the secondary fault current low; this is

done by making the CT turns ratio high. It is common practice
15.8.6.1 Designed stability level to use current transformers with a secondary rating of 1A.
For normal circumstances, the stability level should be It can be shown that there is an optimum turns ratio for the
designed to correspond to the switchgear rating; even if the current transformers; this value depends on all the application
available short-circuit power in the system is much less than parameters but is generally about 2000/1. Although a lower
this figure, it can be expected that the system will be developed ratio, for instance 400/1, is often employed, the use of the
up to the limit of rating. optimum ratio can result in a considerable reduction in the
physical size of the current transformers.
15.8.6.2 Current transformers
Current transformers must have identical turns ratios, but a 15.8.6.7 Peak voltage developed by current transformers
turns error of one in 400 is recognised as a reasonable Under in-zone fault conditions, a high impedance relay
manufacturing tolerance. Also, they should preferably be of constitutes an excessive burden to the current transformers,
similar design; where this is not possible the magnetising leading to the development of a high voltage; the voltage
characteristics should be reasonably matched. waveform will be highly distorted but the peak value may be
Current transformers for use with high impedance protection many times the nominal saturation voltage.
schemes should meet the requirements of Class PX of IEC When the burden resistance is finite although high, an
60044-1. approximate formula for the peak voltage is:
15.8.6.3 Setting voltage Vp 2 2 VK (VF VK )

The setting voltage is given by the equation:
Equation 15.7
VS t I f RL RCT where:
where: Vp = peak Voltage developed
If = Steady state through fault current VK = saturation Voltage
VS = relay circuit voltage setting VF = prospective Voltage in absence of saturation
RL = CT lead loop resistance This formula does not hold for the open circuit condition and is
inaccurate for very high burden resistances that approximate
RCT = CT secondary winding resistance
to an open circuit, because simplifying assumptions used in the
derivation of the formula are not valid for the extreme
15.8.6.4 Knee-point voltage of current transformers
condition.
This is given by the formula:
Another approach applicable to the open circuit secondary
VK t 2VS condition is:
15.8.6.5 Effective setting (secondary) If

Vp 2 VK
The effective setting of the relay is given by: I ek
IR I S nI eS Equation 15.8
where:
where:
If = fault current
IS = relay circuit setting current
Iek = exciting current at knee-point voltage
IeS = CT excitation current at relay voltage setting
Vk = knee-point voltage
n = number of parallel connected CTs
Any burden connected across the secondary will reduce the
For the primary fault setting multiply IR by the CT turns ratio.
voltage, but the value cannot be deduced from a simple
combination of burden and exciting impedances.
15.8.6.6 Current transformer secondary rating
It is clear from Equation 15.4 and Equation 15.6 that it is These formulae are therefore to be regarded only as a guide to
the possible peak voltage. With large current transformers, addition of a stabilising resistor, having a value which may be
particularly those with a low secondary current rating, the calculated as follows.
voltage may be very high, above a suitable insulation voltage.
The through current will increase the effective relay minimum
The voltage can be limited without detriment to the scheme by
operating current for a biased relay as follows:
connecting a ceramic non-linear resistor in parallel with the
relay having a characteristic given by: IR I S BI F
V CI E where:
where C is a constant depending on dimensions and is a IR = effective minimum operating current
constant in the range 0.2 - 0.25.
IS = relay setting current
The current passed by the non-linear resistor at the relay
IF = through fault current
voltage setting depends on the value of C; in order to keep the
shunting effect to a minimum it is recommended to use a non- B = percentage restraint
linear resistor with a value of C of 450 for relay voltages up to
As IF is generally much greater than IS, the relay effective
175V and one with a value of C of 900 for setting voltages up
current, IR = BIF approximately.
to 325V.
From Equation 15.4, the value of stabilising resistor is given
15.8.6.8 High impedance relay by:
Instantaneous attracted armature relays or numeric relays that I F RLH RCTH RLH RCTH
mimic the high impedance function are used. Simple fast- RR
IR B
operating relays would have a low safety factor constant in the
stability equation, Equation 15.5, as discussed in section It is interesting to note that the value of the stabilising
15.8.1. The performance is improved by series-tuning the resistance is independent of current level, and that there would
relay coil, thereby making the circuit resistive in effect. appear to be no limit to the through fault stability level. This
Inductive reactance would tend to reduce stability, whereas the has been identified [15.1] as ‘The Principle of Infinite Stability’.
action of capacitance is to block the unidirectional transient
The stabilising resistor still constitutes a significant burden on
component of fault current and so raise the stability constant.
the current transformers during internal faults.
An alternative technique used in some relays is to apply the
An alternative technique, used by the MBCZ system described
limited spill voltage principle shown in Equation 15.4. A tuned
in section 15.9.6, is to block the differential measurement
element is connected via a plug bridge to a chain of resistors;
during the portion of the cycle that a current transformer is
and the relay is calibrated in terms of voltage.
saturated. If this is achieved by momentarily short-circuiting
the differential path, a very low burden is placed on the current
15.9 LOW IMPEDANCE BIASED DIFFERENTIAL
transformers. In this way the differential circuit of the relay is
PROTECTION prevented from responding to the spill current.
The principles of low impedance differential protection have
It must be recognised though that the use of any technique for
been described in section 10.4.2, including the principle
inhibiting operation, to improve stability performance for
advantages to be gained by the use of a bias technique. Most
through faults, must not be allowed to diminish the ability of
modern busbar protection schemes use this technique.
the relay to respond to internal faults.
The principles of a check zone, zone selection, and tripping
arrangements can still be applied. Current transformer 15.9.2 Effective Setting or Primary Operating Current
secondary circuits are not switched directly by isolator contacts
For an internal fault, and with no through fault current
but instead by isolator repeat relays after a secondary stage of
flowing, the effective setting IR is raised above the basic relay
current transformation. These switching relays form a replica
setting IS by whatever biasing effect is produced by the sum of
of the busbar within the protection and provide the complete
the CT magnetising currents flowing through the bias circuit.
selection logic.
With low impedance biased differential schemes particularly
where the busbar installation has relatively few circuits, these
15.9.1 Stability
magnetising currents may be negligible, depending on the
With some biased relays, the stability is not assured by the value of IS.
through current bias feature alone, but is enhanced by the
15-15
The basic relay setting current was formerly defined as the prevent the busbar protection from operating spuriously from
minimum current required solely in the differential circuit to load current should a secondary circuit wiring fault develop.
cause operation – Figure 15.15(a). This approach simplified This consideration is particularly important where the check
analysis of performance, but was considered to be unrealistic, feature is either not used or is fed from common main CTs.
as in practice any current flowing in the differential circuit
must flow in at least one half of the relay bias circuit causing 15.9.3 Check Feature
the practical minimum operating current always to be higher For some low impedance schemes, only one set of main CTs is
than the nominal basic setting current. As a result, a later required. This seems to contradict the general principle of all
definition, as shown in Figure 15.15(b) was developed. busbar protection systems with a check feature that complete
Conversely, it needs to be appreciated that applying the later duplication of all equipment is required, but it is claimed that
definition of relay setting current, which flows through at least the spirit of the checking principle is met by making operation
half the bias circuit, the notional minimum operation current in of the protection dependent on two different criteria such as
the differential circuit alone is somewhat less, as shown in directional and differential measurements.
Figure 15.15(b). In the MBCZ scheme, described in section 15.9.6, the
Using the definition presently applicable, the effective provision of auxiliary CTs as standard for ratio matching also
minimum primary operating current provides a ready means for introducing the check feature
duplication at the auxiliary CTs and onwards to the relays. This
>
N I s B ¦ I es @ may be an attractive compromise when only one set of main
CTs is available.
Where N = CT ratio
Iop Iop 15.9.4 Supervision of CT Secondary Circuits
In low impedance schemes the integrity of the CT secondary
) IS )
circuits can also be monitored. A current operated auxiliary
(B % (B % relay, or element of the main protection equipment, may be
ine ine
IS sL I’S sL applied to detect any unbalanced secondary currents and give
Bia Bia
IB IB an alarm after a time delay. For optimum discrimination, the
IB IS
current setting of this supervision relay must be less than that
of the main differential protection.
IS In modern busbar protection schemes, the supervision of the

secondary circuits typically forms only a part of a
comprehensive supervision facility.
15.9.5 Arrangement of CT connections

IR I S BI B IR = IS It is a common modern requirement of low impedance
§ B· schemes that none of the main CT secondary circuits should be
I 's ¨1 ¸
© 2¹ switched, in the previously conventional manner, to match the
(a) Superseded definition (b) Current definition switching of primary circuit isolators.
Figure 15.15: Definitions of relay setting current for biased relays The usual solution is to route all the CT secondary circuits back
Unless the minimum effective operating current of a scheme to the protection panel or cubicle to auxiliary CTs. It is then
has been raised deliberately to some preferred value, it will the secondary circuits of the auxiliary CTs that are switched as
usually be determined by the check zone, when present, as the necessary. So auxiliary CTs may be included for this function
latter may be expected to involve the greatest number of even when the ratio matching is not in question.
current transformers in parallel. A slightly more onerous In static protection equipment it is undesirable to use isolator
condition may arise when two discriminating zones are auxiliary contacts directly for the switching without some form
coupled, transiently or otherwise, by the closing of primary of insulation barrier. Position transducers that follow the
isolators. opening and closing of the isolators may provide the latter.
It is generally desirable to attain an effective primary operating Alternatively, a simpler arrangement may be provided on
current that is just greater than the maximum load current, to multiple busbar systems where the isolators switch the
auxiliary current transformer secondary circuits via auxiliary

relays within the protection. These relays form a replica of the
busbar and perform the necessary logic. It is therefore
necessary to route all the current transformer secondary
circuits to the relay to enable them to be connected into this
busbar replica.
Some installations have only one set of current transformers
available per circuit. Where the facility of a check zone is still
required, this can still be achieved with the low impedance
biased protection by connecting the auxiliary current
transformers at the input of the main and check zones in
series, as shown in Figure 15.16. Figure 15.17: Type MBCZ busbar protection showing correlation
between circuit breakers and protection modules
The modules are interconnected via a multicore cable that is
plugged into the back of the modules. There are five main
groups of buswires, allocated for:
x protection for main busbar
x protection for reserve busbar
x protection for the transfer busbar. When the reserve
busbar is also used as a transfer bar then this group of
buswires is used
Figure 15.16: Alternative CT connections x auxiliary connections used by the protection to combine
modules for some of the more complex busbar
15.9.6 Low Impedance Biased Differential Protection configurations
- Type MBCZ x protection for the check zone
Numerical schemes are now prevalent in the majority of new
One extra module, not shown in this diagram, is plugged into
busbar protection installations. However, in order to
the multicore bus. This is the alarm module, which contains
appreciate the historical installed base, and due to the
the common alarm circuits and the bias resistors. The power
similarity of the basic operating principles, this section now
supplies are also fed in through this module.
considers a static scheme example – the MBCZ.
The Type MBCZ scheme conforms in general to the principles 15.9.6.1 Bias
outlined earlier and comprises a system of standard modules All zones of measurement are biased by the total current
that can be assembled to suit a particular busbar installation. flowing to or from the busbar system via the feeders. This
Additional modules can be added at any time as the busbar is ensures that all zones of measurement will have similar fault
extended. sensitivity under all load conditions. The bias is derived from
A separate module is used for each circuit breaker and also one the check zone and fixed at 20% with a characteristic generally
for each zone of protection. In addition to these there is a as shown in Figure 15.15(b). Thus some ratio mismatch is
common alarm module and a number of power supply units. tolerable.
Ratio correction facilities are provided within each differential
module to accommodate a wide range of CT mismatch. 15.9.6.2 Stability with saturated current transformers
The traditional method for stabilising a differential relay is to
Figure 15.17 shows the correlation between the circuit
add a resistor to the differential path. Whilst this improves
breakers and the protection modules for a typical double
stability it increases the burden on the current transformer for
busbar installation.
internal faults. The technique used in the MBCZ scheme
overcomes this problem.
The MBCZ design detects when a CT is saturated and short-
circuits the differential path for the portion of the cycle for
15-17
which saturation occurs. The resultant spill current does not

then flow through the measuring circuit and stability is
assured.
This principle allows a very low impedance differential circuit to
be developed that will operate successfully with relatively small
CTs.
Figure 15.19: Busbar protection trip logic
15.9.6.3 Operation for internal faults
If the CTs carrying fault current are not saturated there will be 15.9.6.5 Master/follower measuring units
ample current in the differential circuit to operate the When two sections of a busbar are connected together by
differential relay quickly for fault currents exceeding the isolators it will result in two measuring elements being
minimum operating level, which is adjustable between 20% - connected in parallel when the isolators are closed to operate
200% rated current. the two busbar sections as a single bar. The fault current will
then divide between the two measuring elements in the ratio
When the only CT(s) carrying internal fault current become
of their impedances. If both of the two measuring elements
saturated, it might be supposed that the CT saturation
are of low and equal impedance the effective minimum
detectors may completely inhibit operation by short-circuiting
operating current of the scheme will be doubled.
the differential circuit. However, the resulting inhibit pulses
remove only an insignificant portion of the differential current, This is avoided by using a 'master/follower' arrangement. By
so operation of the relay is therefore virtually unaffected. making the impedance of one of the measuring elements very
much higher than the other it is possible to ensure that one of
15.9.6.4 Discrepancy alarm feature the relays retains its original minimum operation current.
As shown in Figure 15.18, each measuring module contains Then to ensure that both the parallel-connected zones are
duplicated biased differential elements and also a pair of tripped the trip circuits of the two zones are connected in
supervision elements, which are a part of a comprehensive parallel. Any measuring unit can have the role of 'master' or
supervision facility. 'follower' as it is selectable by means of a switch on the front
of the module.
15.9.6.6 Transfer tripping for breaker failure

t1
Serious damage may result, and even danger to life, if a circuit
breaker fails to open when called upon to do so. To reduce this
Differential
t1 risk breaker fail protection schemes were developed some

years ago.
These schemes are generally based on the assumption that if
t1
current is still flowing through the circuit breaker a set time
after the trip command has been issued, then it has failed to
function. The circuit breakers in the next stage back in the
system are then automatically tripped.
Figure 15.18: Block diagram of measuring unit
For a bus coupler or section breaker this would involve tripping
This arrangement provides supervision of CT secondary circuits all the infeeds to the adjacent zone, a facility that is included in
for both open circuit conditions and any impairment of the the busbar protection scheme.
element to operate for an internal fault, without waiting for an
actual system fault condition to show this up. For a zone to 15.10 NUMERICAL BUSBAR PROTECTION
operate it is necessary for both the differential supervision SCHEMES
element and the biased differential element to operate. For a
The application of numeric relay technology to busbar
circuit breaker to be tripped it requires the associated main
protection has become the preferred solution, overtaking the
zone to be operated and also the overall check zone, as shown
use of static. The very latest developments in the technology
in Figure 15.19.
can be included, such as extensive use of a data bus to link the
various units involved, and fault tolerance against loss of a
particular link by providing multiple communications paths. The feeder units have responsibility for collecting the required
The development process has been very rigorous, because the data, such as voltages and currents, and processing it into
requirements for busbar protection in respect of immunity to digital form for onwards transmission to the central processing
maloperation are very high. unit. Modelling of the CT response is included, to eliminate
errors caused by effects such as CT saturation. Disturbance
A philosophy that can be adopted is one of distributed
recording for the monitored feeder is implemented, for later
processing of the measured values, as shown in Figure 15.20.
download as required. Because each feeder unit is concerned
Feeders each have their own processing unit, which collects
only with an individual feeder, the differential protection
together information on the state of the feeder (currents,
algorithms must reside in the central processing unit.
voltages, CB and isolator status, etc.) and communicates it
over high-speed fibre-optic data links to a central processing The differential protection algorithm can be much more
unit. For large substations, more than one central processing sophisticated than with earlier technology, due to
unit may be used, while in the case of small installations, all of improvements in processing power. In addition to calculating
the units can be co-located, leading to the appearance of a the sum of the measured currents, the algorithm can also
traditional centralised architecture. evaluate differences between successive current samples, since
a large change above a threshold may indicate a fault – the
Feeder 1 Feeder 2
threshold being chosen such that normal load changes, apart
CT CT CT CT from inrush conditions do not exceed the threshold. The same
DFU CB DFU CB DFU CB CB considerations can also be applied to the phase angles of
currents, and incremental changes in them.
Fibre optic link
Personal CFU
One advantage gained from the use of numerical technology is
Computer
Central Processing Unit the ability to easily re-configure the protection to cater for
CU
System Communication Network
changes in configuration of the substation. For example,
addition of an extra feeder involves the addition of an extra
DFU: Distributed Feeder Unit
CFU: Central Feeder Unit feeder unit, the fibre-optic connection to the central unit and
Figure 15.20: Architecture for numerical protection scheme entry via the HMI of the new configuration into the central
processor unit. Figure 15.21 illustrates the latest numerical
For simple feeders, interface units at a bay may be used with
technology employed.
the data transmitted to a single centrally located feeder
processing unit. The central processing unit performs the
calculations required for the protection functions. Available
protection functions are:
x protection
x backup overcurrent protection
x breaker failure
x dead zone protection (alternatively referred to as ‘short
zone’ protection - see section 15.7.2)
In addition, monitoring functions such as CB and isolator
monitoring, disturbance recording and transformer supervision
are provided.
Because of the distributed topology used, synchronisation of
the measurements taken by the Feeder Units is of vital
importance. A high stability numerically-controlled oscillator is
fitted in each of the central and feeder units, with time
synchronisation between them. In the event of loss of the
synchronisation signal, the high stability of the oscillator in the
affected feeder unit(s) enables processing of the incoming data
to continue without significant errors until synchronisation can
be restored.
15-19

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7 Network-Protection-And-Automation-Guide-2011 (001-267) PDF

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Network Protection & Automation

Previously called Protective Relays Application Guide

Network Protection & Automation Guide

Published by Alstom Grid

Tel: +44(0) 1785 250 070

2.1 Introduction 2.1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 2.1: Modern power station

Key Hydro power station

110kV C' 33kV B'

Steam power station CCGT power station

220kV D L7A 380kV E

33kV D' Grid 110kV G'

Figure 2.2: Example power system

Figure 2.4: Possible consequence of inadequate protection

2.2 PROTECTION EQUIPMENT

2.3 ZONES OF PROTECTION

Feeder 1 Feeder 2 Feeder 3

2.4 RELIABILITY recognised standards is carried out during design and

clearance. that detects an un-cleared primary system fault at its own

tripping batteries and of circuit breaker trip coils may be

x Interrupting duty (allowing the contacts to break trip PR 52a TC

2.11.2 Shunt reinforcing

2.11.3 Shunt reinforcement with sealing

2.11(c) illustrates such a scheme, which is applicable

Figure 2.12: Menu interrogation of numerical relays

3.1 Introduction 3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 VECTOR ALGEBRA Z x 2

and since cosT and sinT may be expressed in exponential

The representation of a vector quantity algebraically in terms of Z1  Z 2 x1  x2  j y1  y 2

Z1  Z 2 x1  x 2  j y1  y 2 such variables in differential equations it is useful to express

Z1 Z 2 Z1 Z 2 T1  T 2 3.3.2 The 'a' Operator

cos 2Sm  j sin 2Sm n

shown that complex variables are represented on a simple 2 2

the x-axis is also known as the phase. So a quantity lying along 2 2

terminals of the same transformer is as a result of current L

x Current source When the voltage is changing, the inductive component L

Impedance Figure 3.4: Simple RC circuit

It has been explained that in an inductor, the current lags the

Em potential difference in more exact terms. For this reason, the

Since the voltages are symmetrical, they may be expressed in ¦E ¦ IZ

Eb a 2 Ea 3.5.2 Circuit Theorems

Figure 3.8: Star/Delta network reduction Z AO Z BO

3.5.3 Network Reduction 1.2:

The network shown in Figure 3.12 may now be used to study Ia

system disturbances, for example power swings with and

where Z12 = Z21 and Y12 = Y21, if the network is assumed to

' Z11Z 22  Z12

Figure 3.14: Reduction of mutually-coupled branches with a common

(a) Actual circuit (b) Equivalent circuit 1

Z22 Z12 Z11'

and, provided the system is balanced, the base impedance may

where: Where power system simulation software is used, the software

x confusion caused by the introduction of powers of 100 100 112

Figure 3.17: Section of a power system

4.1 Introduction 4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 THREE-PHASE FAULT CALCULATIONS

F before the fault occurs is I . 1.55 : 0.39 :

Z1' Z1" 1.2 :

The representation of a vector quantity algebraically in terms of Z1 Z 2 x1 x2 j y1 y 2

Z1 Z 2 x1 x 2 j y1 y 2 such variables in differential equations it is useful to express

Z1 Z 2 Z1 Z 2 T1 T 2 3.3.2 The 'a' Operator

cos 2Sm j sin 2Sm n

' Z11Z 22 Z12

(a) Actual circuit (b) Equivalent circuit 1

V 0.97 E ' 1.55I

V E' IZ ' E" I Z "

V V1 under normal conditions, then negative sequence quantities

V 'b1 V 'b 2 V 'b 0 0

a 2 V ' a1 aV ' a 2 V ' a 0 0

V ' a1 a 2 V ' a 2 aV ' a 0 0

I 'b I 'c 0.373 0.112I 0 0.261I 0 I' a 26.8 90q A

V 'c 61.5116.4q and

V'2 I 2 >Z1 j 0.464@

V '0 I 0 >Z 0 j 0.165 u 2.6 0.112 u 1.6 @

V '0 I 0 >Z 0 j 0.608@

Ean Ebn Ecn 0 With a relay at X, residually connected as shown in Figure