p


 
p

  
? A syllogism which contains hypothetical propositions as
premises.

? There are 3 types of hypothetical syllogism:

1. Conditional
2. Disjunctive
3. Conjunctive

  
? Contains a conditional proposition as a major premise

? The minor premise and the conclusion are both categorical

? The conditional proposition which is the major premise

contains the two parts, the 

and the  

p

  
? The antecedent, the part introduced by the ´If µ is the condition

? The consequent, the part introduced by the ´thenµ is the result of

the effect

? If Peter is a surgeon, then, he is a doctor.

But Peter is a surgeon
Ergo, he is a doctor

? If a person is a Catholic, then he is a Christian

My friend is not a Christian
Therefore, he is not Catholic
p

  
? The antecedent is symbolized by V and the consequent by 
? The symbol of conditional is the horse shoe/ ellipse
? The symbol of a curl (tilde) ~ before the antecedent or the
consequent indicate that it is negative

? If Peter is a surgeon, then, he is a doctor. p q

But Peter is a surgeon p
Ergo, he is a doctor q
p

  
? If a person is a Catholic, then he is a Christian p q
My friend is not a Christian -q
Therefore, he is not Catholic -p

The Laws of the Conditional:

1. If the antecedent is true, the consequent is also true

2. If the consequent is false, the antecedent is also false
3. If the antecedent is false, the consequent is doubtful
4. If the consequent is true the antecedent is doubtful
J

 
  
? Positing (Modus Ponens) ² when the minor accepts the
antecedent and the conclusion accepts the consequent

? If the man is Catholic, then he is Christian. p q

He is Catholic p
He is a Christian q
J

 
  
? Denying (Modus Tolens) ² when the minor premise rejects
the consequent and the conclusion rejects the antecedent

? If the man is a catholic then he is a Christian p q

He is not Christian ~q
He is not a Catholic ~p
J 
  
? Consists of a disjunctive proposition as the major premise
and categorical propositions as minor premise and conclusion

? If one part is denied, the other part must be accepted

? If one part is accepted, the other part may be denied or

accepted (depending on the type of disjunction)
J 
  
? The senate either approves or rejects the bill
The senate approves the bill
therefore, the senate did no reject the bill

pvq
p
~q
J 
  
? TwoTypes of Disjunction

? 1. Proper (exclusive/ strict) ²if the parts of the disjunction

are mutually exclusive or contradictories

? 2. Improper (inclusive) ²if the parts are not mutually

exclusive. If one is false then the other must be true but if
one is true, the other maybe true or false
? Proper (exclusive)
The teacher is either present or absent. p v q
But the teacher is present P
He is not absent ~q

The teacher is either present or absent. pvq

He is not present ~p
He is absent q
? Improper (inclusive)
The student either studies math or english.
But he is not studying math
He is studying english

The student either studies math or english

He is studying math
He is not studying english
? ralid Process of Disjunctive Syllogism

1. Positing ² when the minor premise accepts one part and

the conclusion denies the other part
2. Denying ² when the minor premise denies one part and
the conclusion accepts the other part


? Consists of conjunctive proposition as the major premise and

categorical propositions as minor premise and conclusion

? The suspect cannot be in Aparri and Jolo at one time

But report says he is in Aparri
Therefore, he cannot be in Jolo
 

? ralidity of Conditional
1. Modus Ponens (affirm the antecedent in the minor, affirm the
consequent in the conclusion)
V
V

 V




   

 
 

V 
V




V V
 

? ralidity of Disjunction
  


? ...by the aid of symbolism, we can make transition in

reasoning almost mechanically be the eye, which otherwise
would call into play the higher faculties of the brain. ²Alfred
Northwhitehead

? The use of symbols enables us to analyze statements and

arguments quickly and efficiently

? Modern logic·s approach does not focus on syllogisms but

upon logical connectives that are fundamental in deductive
arguments
^ 


? Propositional Logic ² the logic of compound statements. It
uses variables and special symbols for operations. The logic
of compound statements which relies solely on three key
concepts: TRUTH rALUE, LOGICAL OPERATORS and
rARIABLES

? Simple Statement ² one that does not contain any other

statement as a component
Ex: Nature is changing drastically
Hydrogen is a gas
Shakespeare wrote, ´Hamletµ.
^ 


? Compound Statement² one that contains one simple or
atomic statement as a component
Ex: It is not the case that Jose Rizal wrote ´Hamletµ
If acorns are planted in the spring then oak trees will grow in the
fall.
Either Moriarty committed the murder or Stapleton lied.
John is a student or Mary is a teacher.
Gloria is an entrepreneur and Lalo is an employee.
^ 


? Connective ²any words attached to one or more statements in
order to create a new statement
? They join simple statements into compound statements
* in Symbolic Logic, they are called, TRUTH FUNCTIONAL

CONNECTIrE (v, . , ,Ë
a statement connective wherein the truth or falsity of such statement
created by its use would be depending solely on the truth or falsity
of the statement(s) to which it is attached

 


 


all lawyers are liars


 the class will have an open forum  forever hold their silence
 Napoleon wins the war   France will regain power

 they could rule over
Europe
^ 


? Truth Function ² a truth function that takes one or more
truth-values as its input and returns a single truth-value as its
output (Conjunction, Disjunction, Implication, Equivalence)

? Truth value ² refers to the falsity or truth of each statement

? Logical rariables ² the letters which stand for any logical unit
(Q, P, R, S,T...etc)
 









 






Conjunction { Ampersand and

Disjunction Wedge or
Conditional Horseshoe If...,then
Biconditional Ë Triple Bar If and only If
Negation ~ Tilde not
? (Pedro passed the final exam) and (the course.)
p.c
' (Either Pedro passed the final exam) or (he passed the course).
pvq
' (If Pedro passes the final exam) then (he will pass the course).
p c
' (Pedro will pass the course) if and only if (he passed the final exam).
pUc
' Pedro passed the course but not the final exam.
p . ~c
’





1. Conjunction ² this is a compound statement whose
component statements are called 

{
-The connective is a centered dot (.) or the ampersand (&)
which means ´andµ
-other conjunction words used instead of ´andµ are: but, yet,
however, although, whereas, nevertheless, a comma, and a
semicolon
Maria and Celia are gamblers.
The president is happy but tired.
The students went to the event yet disappointed someone.
Pepito loves to eat crabs; though he is a vegetarian.
2. Disjunction ² a compound statement whose component
parts are called disjuncts

- The statement is connected by a ´veeµ or wedge which means

´orµ

Either the teacher passes the students or they fail.

Romeo either marries Juliet or he kills himself.
Either one is present or one is absent.
? 3. Material Implication / Conditional ² a statement that expresses
{{{
relationship between its component statements

? Other connectives
if P, Q P hence Q
P implies Q P if Q
P entails Q P since Q
P only if Q P because of Q
P thus Q P for Q
P therefore Q P when Q
? 4. Material Equivalence / Biconditional ² two conditional
statements which have been reversed but involving the same
propositions, conjoined together.

? Expresses an 

 
  relationship between each compound
statements

Ex:The plants are healthy if and only if my mother is home.

The students are behaved if and only if the teacher is present.
Some animals are in danger or extinction if and only if human
beings do not take care of the environment.
? š. Negation ² reversal of a statement
Ex: I am not worried about your grades in logic.
Mrs. Pirtola does not like working with plastic in her
artwork.
It is impossible for a sensible woman to like a conceited
man.
’
’ 





? 1. Conjunction
G G{
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

? P . Q is true only if each component is true

? Future lawyers were the ones who started the riot last night
and many people got hurt
’
’ 





? 2. Disjunction
G G 
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

? The only case in which a disjunction is false is when both its

disjuncts are false
? Either it was the group ¶s decision to create trouble or it was
their leader·s decision alone.
’
’ 





? 3. Material Implication / Conditional

G GÑ
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

? The only instance when the conditional is false is when the

antecedent is false and the consequent is true
? If Philip eats a piece of stone, then his teeth might break.
’
’ 





? 4. Material Equivalence / Bi conditional

G GË
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

? Friday is the happiest day of the week if and only if I am able

to sleep for 8 hours.
? Goodbyes are not sorrowful if and only it is for the best
interest of the parties involved.
’
’ 





? š. Negation
G
G
T F
F T

? Immanuel is not a teacher.

? The villagers are not contented.
? No fisherman wished to sail that fateful night.
? Neither Julian nor Martha, opted for a good but meaningless
life.
u  
If A, B and C are TRUE and X,Y and Z are false, which of the
following statements are true? Apply the truth table.

1. B 
  
   !
"  #!
$ !   #
% & # '  
’   


’   


? A compound statement is 
  if it is true
regardless of the truth value of its components

? All bachelors are either male or not male.

Œ
Œ Œ
Œ
T F T
F T T

? All crows are either black or not black.

’   

? A compound statement is self-contradictory if it is false
regardless of the truth value of its components.

? I am a liar and that is not true.

Œ
Œ Œ{
Œ
T F F
F T F

? Never say never.

’   

? A compound statement is 


t if its truth value
varies depending on the truth value of the components.
Π΄

T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

? If Marcos was a great public official, then Imelda was an

honest official.



 
? 1. Disjunctive Syllogism (DS) ² an argument that consists of a
disjunctive premise, a premise that denies one of the disjuncts and
a conclusion that affirms the other disjunct

? pvq
~p
q

Thisj will apologize or Cornelius will be angry

Thisj will not apologize
Cornelius will be angry



 
? 2. Pure Hypothetical Syllogism (HS) ² a syllogism whose
propositions are conditional statements.

? V 


 
V 

()*
  +,  
()+,  - ./ 
()*
  - ./ 



 
? 3. Modus Ponens (MP) ² affirming the antecedent

p 

V

()0)   1 


0
))   1 




 
? 4. Modus Tollens (MT) ² denying a consequent

p 



V

()0)   1 


0
))   1 




 
? Constructive Dilemma (CD) ² the first premise consists of two
conjoined conditional statements and, the second premise asserts the
truth of one of the two antecedents. The conclusion which follows
logically via 2 modus ponens steps asserts the truth value of at least one
of the consequents.

? p
  
V 



()  V
  ,  2  0 1   )  
 1   0 1 
 V
   ,   1
) 2  0 1    0 1 



 
? Õ. Destructive Dilemma ² the second premise asserts the falsity of at
least one of the consequents. The conclusion which follows via 2 modus
tollens asserts the falsity of atleast one of the antecedents.

? p
  


V 

()  V
  ,  2  0 1   )  
 1   0 1 
2 2  0  1    0  
)   V
    ,    
  1



 
? Ê. Absorption (Abs) ² p 

V V


(+V)  )0 


))V) V) 
  ) 



 
? 8. Simplification (Simp)² p . q
p

June is practicing in the gym while classmates have gone home.

June is practicing in the gym.

? 9. Addition (Add)- p
pvq
Today is Thursday.
Ergo, today is Thursday or else I will be wearing my favorite blouse.



 
? 10. Conjunction ² p
q
p.Q

Cornelia is beautiful.
Cornelia is smart.
Cornelia is beautiful and smart.