Chapter 5

ELEMENTARY LOGIC
Logic
Etymology. Logic comes from the classical Greek “logos,” meaning “word, thought, idea, argument, account,
reason or principle.” It is the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration. Aristotle is
considered as the Father of Logic.

Definition. It is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish valid from invalid reasoning. It is a
science that aims to develop the reasoning power of man. It is also the science of correct thinking.
Practically, logic is the methods and principles used to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning (Copi and
Cohem, 1998).

Division of Logic

Traditional Logic. This is another name for Aristotelian logic. This may be described as syllogistic logic, logic of
classes, or logic of terms. It’s the logic of statements that can be represented in terms of classes of things, and
relationships between those classes.

Propositional Logic. This is another name for Liebnizian logic. This is may be described as modern logic, logic of
statements, logic of proposition, or logic of sentences. Specifically, propositional logic studies the ways of joining and/or
modifying the entire propositions to form more complex propositions.

Proposition. A declarative statement which is either true or false but not both.

Practice exercise: Identify the following it is a proposition (P) or not proposition (NP).
1. When did you eat?
2. La Trinidad is one of the 13 municipalities of Benguet.
3. La Trinidad, Benguet is located in Abra.
4. Mathematics is hard!
5. x+6= 9.
6. 2-7 = -5.
7. 9+ 3 > 7 + 3.
8. What is your name?
9. Find a number which divides your age.
10. Blow your horns!
11. The earth is spherical in shape.
12. Is a square a triangle?
13. 2 is an even number and a prime number.
14. A square has four sides.

2 Types of Propositions
a. Simple proposition- A statement that conveys one thought with no connectives or logical operators. This is
usually symbolized by assigning a capital letter of the English alphabet.
b. Compound proposition- a statement comprises of more than one simple proposition (Compound statement)
combined by a connective or logical operator.

Logical operators- it transforms one or more propositions to a new proposition.

a. Negation is a unitary operator since it transforms one proposition to another.
b. Binary operators transform two propositions to a new proposition.

Logical Operators

Compound Proposition Symbol Connective

Conjunction ∧ And, but, however, moreover,
nevertheless, whereas, while, despite, yet,
furthermore, more so, although,
nonetheless
Disjunction ∨ Or, Either…or, Neither…nor, unless, or
else
Conditional/ Implication → If-then, implies that, entails that, granted
that, on the condition that, given that, is
sufficient for, is necessary for
Biconditional ↔ if and only if (abbreviated as “iff”)
 Component Parts
Conjunction Biconditional
P ∧
Q P ↔ Q
1st Conjunct 2nd
Conjunct 1st Conditional 2nd Conditional
1st Syndetic 2st
Syndetic

Conditional/ Implication Disjunction

P → Q P ∨ Q
st nd
1 Hypothesis 2 Conclusion 1 disjunct
st nd
2 disjunct
st
1 Antecedent 2nd Consequent 1st Alternative 2nd Alternative

Quality of a Proposition
Refers to whether a sentence is negative or affirmative.
Quality Symbol Expressions
Negative ¬ No, not, never, it is false that, it is not the case that, it is true that,
nowhere, no one, not in the least, in no wise, no means
Affirmative none none

Symbolizing Proposition Example:

T: Today is Tuesday.
C: My class ends at 12.
W: Today is Wednesday.

Compound Sentence Symbolic Representation

1. Today is Tuesday and my class ends at 12.

2. Today is Tuesday or Wednesday.
3. If today is Tuesday, then my class ends at 12.
4. My class ends today if and only if today is Tuesday.
5. It is not the case that if today is Wednesday then my class ends at 12.
6. If today is Wednesday, then my class does not end at 12.

P: Jack can swim.

Q: Ibagbaga can play the guitar.
1. Jack can not swim but Ibagbaga can play the guitar.
2. Jack can not swim or Ibagbaga can not play the guitar.
3. It is not the case that Jack can swim or Ibagbaga can play the guitar.
4. Jack can swim only if Ibagbaga can play the guitar.
5. Jack can swim if and only if Ibagbaga can not play the guitar.
6. Neither Jack can swim nor Ibagbaga can play the guitar.

Rewriting symbolic form to propositions

P: Pepito is handsome.

1. P ∧ Q
Q: He lives with integrity.

2. ¬P→ ¬Q

3. P ∨ Q

4. P ↔ Q

5. ¬(P ∨ Q)

P: The pancake is hot.

 K: The Coffee is hot.

1. P ∧ K
C: I am happy.

2. ¬P → ¬C

3. ¬K ∨ ¬C

4. C↔(P ∧ K)

5. (P ∨ K)→C

A: I love Werpa.
B: Werpa loves Lodi.
C: I will let her go.
6. I love Werpa and Werpa loves Lodi.
7. I don’t love Werpa or Werpa doesn’t love Lodi.
8. It is not the case that If I love Werpa then Werpa doesn’t love
Lodi.
9. It is not the case that either I love Werpa or Werpa loves Lodi.
10. If Werpa loves Lodi then I will let her go.
11. I love Werpa if and only if I will let her go.
12. Neither I love Werpa nor Werpa loves Lodi if and only if I will let her
go.

Variants of the Conditional Statements/ Implication (P →Q) A. Converse

-the antecedent and the consequent component are interchanged. (Q→P)

-the antecedent and the consequent component are both negated. (¬P → ¬Q)
B. Inverse

-the antecedent and the consequent component are both interchanged and negated. (¬Q →
C. Contrapositive

¬P) Example: If you study hard, then you will get a good grade.
P Q
Converse: If you got a good grade, then you studied hard.
Inverse: If you do not study hard, then you will not get a good grade.
Contrapositive: If you do not get a good grade, then you did not study hard.
Write the converse, inverse, and the contrapositive of the following statements:
1. If you are honest, then tell the
truth. P Q
Converse:
Inverse:
Contrapositive:
2. If you love her, then let her go.
P Q
Converse:
Inverse:
Contrapositive:

Propositional Variable
Propositional variables are arbitrary propositions represented by uppercase letters. They serve as the building
blocks from which new propositions are formed. These variables assume two truth values, true (1) or false (0).
The number of rows (R) in a truth table is given by R=2𝑛 where n represents the number of letters used in the
symbolized
proposition.

Truth Values and Truth Tables

A truth table facilitates the determination of the truth values of a compound proposition under all circumstances. Also, it
can be used to determine whether two or more compound statements are equivalent. The truth table below shows the
truth values of a compound proposition with respect to the logical operator used.
 TRUTH VALUES

¬P P∧Q P∨Q P→Q

Summary of truth table for the logical operators or connectives
P Q P↔Q
Conjunction Disjunction Conditional Biconditional
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 1

ANSWER THIS:
1. The only case when a conjunction is _____is when both conjuncts are true.
2. The only case when a disjunction is _____is when both disjuncts are
false.
3. The only case when a conditional is _____is when the hypothesis is true and the conclusion is false.
4. The only case when a biconditional is ____is when the conditionals have the same truth value.

VI. CONSTRUCTING TRUTH TABLES

Classification based on the truth values

A. Tautology
- Is a propositional form that is always true regardless of the truth values of its component propositions.
B. Contradiction
- Is a propositional form that is always false regardless of the truth value of its component propositions.
C. Contingency
- Is a propositional form that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

1. P ∧ ¬Q
Practice Exercise: Generate the truth table of each compound proposition and determine its nature.

¬Q P∧
¬Q
P Q

1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 1

2. [P → (Q ∧ ¬Q)] → ¬P
P Q ¬Q ¬P Q ∧ P → (Q ∧ ¬Q) [P → (Q ∧ ¬Q)] →
¬Q ¬P
1 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 1

3. P → (Q ∨ R)
P Q R Q∨R P → (Q ∨ R)
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 1

4. (P ∧ ¬Q) ∧ (R ∧ Q)

¬Q P∧ R∧Q (P ∧ ¬Q) ∧ (R ∧ Q)
¬Q
P Q R

1 1 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 0
 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0

Equivalence (⇔ or ≡ )
Two propositions are logically equivalent if their truth tables have the same truth values.

𝑃 → (𝑄 → 𝑅) ≡ 𝑄 → (𝑃 ∨ 𝑅)
Example:

𝑃 𝑄 𝑅 𝑄 𝑃 → (𝑄 → 𝑃 𝑄 → (𝑃
→𝑅 𝑅) ∨𝑅 ∨ 𝑅)
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1

Hence, the two propositions are ___________________________.

1. Determine whether if 𝑃 ∨ (𝑄 ∧ 𝑅) ≡ (𝑃 ∨ 𝑄) ∧ (𝑃 ∨ 𝑅).

Practice Exercise:

𝑃 𝑄 𝑅 𝑄 𝑃 ∨ (𝑄 𝑃 𝑃∨𝑅 (𝑃 ∨ 𝑄) ∧ (𝑃 ∨
∧𝑅 ∧ 𝑅) ∨𝑄 𝑅)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Therefore, the two propositions are _________________________.