Eco Systems

Mod - 2
 Contents
• What is an ecosystem? Structure and function of ecosystem;
Energy flow in an ecosystem: food chain, food web and ecological
succession.
Case studies of the following ecosystems:
• a) Forest ecosystem

• b) Grassland ecosystem

• c) Desert ecosystem
• d) Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans,
estuaries)
 Eco System
• An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms,
as well as weather and landscape, work together to form a bubble of life.
• Ecosystems contain biotic or living, parts, as well as abiotic factors, or nonliving
parts.
• Biotic factors include plants, animals, and other organisms. Abiotic factors
include rocks, temperature, and humidity.
• A change in the temperature of an ecosystem will often affect what plants will
grow there, for instance.
• Animals that depend on plants for food and shelter will have to adapt to the
changes, move to another ecosystem, or perish.
 Eco System
• Ecosystems can be very large or very small. Tide pools, the
ponds left by the ocean as the tide goes out, are complete,
tiny ecosystems. Tide pools contain seaweed, a kind of algae,
which uses photosynthesis to create food.
• Tide pools depend on the changing level of ocean water.
Some organisms, such as seaweed, thrive in an aquatic
environment, when the tide is in and the pool is full. In this
way, the biotic parts of the ecosystem depend on abiotic
factors.
• The whole surface of Earth is a series of connected
ecosystems. Ecosystems are often connected in a larger
biome.
• Biomes are large sections of land, sea, or atmosphere.
Forests, ponds, reefs, and tundra are all types of biomes,
for example. They're organized very generally, based on
the types of plants and animals that live in them.
• Within each forest, each pond, each reef, or each section
of tundra, you'll find many different ecosystems.
• The biome of the Sahara Desert, for instance, includes a wide
variety of ecosystems.
• The arid climate and hot weather characterize the biome.
• Within the Sahara are oasis ecosystems, which have date
palm trees, freshwater, and animals such as crocodiles.
• The Sahara also has dune ecosystems, with the changing
landscape determined by the wind.
• Organisms in these ecosystems, such as snakes or scorpions,
must be able to survive in sand dunes for long periods of
time.
• The Sahara even includes a marine environment, where the
Atlantic Ocean creates cool fogs on the Northwest African
coast.
• Shrubs and animals that feed on small trees, such as goats,
live in this Sahara ecosystem.
 Contd…..
• The secondary and tertiary consumers (carnivores) eat
other consumers. For e.g. Tiger, Lion eat deer and other
animals for terrestrial ecosystems and fishes for aquatic
ecosystems.
• Decomposers are organisms that obtain energy and
nutrients from remains of dead producers and
consumers.
• Composition of species varies according to the Eco
system type.
 Food chain

• Food chain, in ecology, the sequence of transfers of matter and

energy in the form of food from organism to organism.
• Food chains intertwine locally into a food web because most
organisms consume more than one type of animal or plant.
• Plants, which convert solar energy to food by photosynthesis, are
the primary food source.
• In a predator chain, a plant-eating animal is eaten by a flesh-
eating animal.
• In a parasite chain, a smaller organism consumes part of a larger
host and may itself be parasitized by even smaller organisms.
• In a saprophytic chain, microorganisms live on dead organic
matter.
 Food web
• A food web consists of all the food chains in an ecosystem.
• Each living thing in an ecosystem is part of multiple food chains.
Each food chain is one possible path that energy and nutrients may
take as they move through the ecosystem.
• All of the interconnected and overlapping food chains in an
ecosystem make up a food web.
• Each organism in an ecosystem occupies a specific trophic level or
position in the food chain or web.
• Producers, who make their own food using photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis, make up the bottom of the trophic pyramid.
Primary consumers, mostly herbivores, exist at the next level, and
secondary and tertiary consumers, omnivores and carnivores,
follow.
FOOD WEB IN TROPICAL TERRAIN
 Abiotic components
• The abiotic components are air, water, salts,
light, temperature, nutrients etc. These are
basic components in the structure of every
ecosystem. In deserts, temperature and light
will be in excess, but with scarcity of water.
• All these components are vital and the species
composition if affected by these abiotic
factors. The amount of these nutrients present
in soil is known as standing state.
 Tropic relationships
• It’s a relationship of `who eats whom’ in a food
chain which forms a food web.!
• A food chain is a linear series of organisms
dependent on one another resulting in the
transfer of energy. Eg. Sheep eats grass, and
sheep eaten by a Lion
• A food web is interconnected set of food
chains..! Like mouse in a field may eat different
kinds of insects and mouse may be eaten by
different carnivorous animals.
 CONSUMERS- Types
• Herbivorous- Eat only plants
• Carnivorous – Eat meat- other animals
• Omnivorous- eat both plant & Animals
 Food pyramid or Energy pyramid

• An energy pyramid, also known as a trophic or ecological

pyramid, is a graphical representation of the energy found
within the trophic levels of an ecosystem.
• The bottom and largest level of the pyramid is the producers
and contains the largest amount of energy.
• As you move up the pyramid, through the trophic levels to
primary, secondary and tertiary consumers, the amount of
energy decreases and the levels become smaller.
• While energy can not be created or destroyed is it released as
heat within each level.
• Approximately only 10% of energy is passed from one level to
the next.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k9-x_YYKaV4
 Functions of Eco Systems
1. Energy Flow – Energy flow is an important function that
sustains the ecosystem but the energy does not cycle
and so needs a constant input. Energy flow is a one-way
process in ecosystems. Two types-Single energy flow
model & Y shape flow-grazing food chain & detritus
chain.
2.Nutrient Cycling- Nutrients move through ecosystems by
way of biogeochemical cycles which by name indicate
that these cycles include biological, geological and
chemical cycles.
 Ecological Succession
• Within any community some species may become less
abundant over some time interval, or they may even
vanish from the ecosystem altogether. Similarly, over
some time interval, other species within the community
may become more abundant, or new species may even
invade into the community from adjacent eco systems.
This observed change over a period of time is called
ecological succession.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ceDE01iWLE
 Ecological succession-Process
1 Nudation-It is the development of a bare area without
any life form. The bare area may be caused due to
landslides, volcanic eruptions, drought, glaciers, frost,
overgrazing, outbreak of diseases, agricultural, industrial
activities etc
2. Invasion-It is the successful establishment of one or more
species on a bare area through dispersal (by wind water
birds etc) or migration, followed by ecesis or
establishment. As growth and reproduction start, these
pioneer species increase
 Ecological succession-Process
3.Competition and coactions- As the number of individuals
grows there is interspecific (between species) and
intraspecific (within species) competition for space water
and nutrition. This influence on each other in a number
of ways is called coactions.
4. Reaction- the cause of ecosystem change, is the impact
that established species have upon their own
environments, sometimes subtle and sometimes overt
alteration of one’s own environment. This modification of
environment by established species is called Reaction.
 Types of Eco systems
• Forest eco system
• Grassland Eco system
• Desert Eco system
• Aquatic Eco System
• Marine Eco system
 Forest Eco System
• Forest Eco system is complex and can be disrupted and
harmed if not properly sustained. Its complex-from dry desert
shrub land to large temperate rain forests.
Based on the climate conditions, forests are classified into:
• Tropical rain Forests
• Tropical Deciduous forests
• Tropical scrub forests
• Temperate rain forests
• Temperate deciduous forests
• Evergreen Coniferous forests
 Tropical Rain forests
• These are considered the storehouse of biodiversity and
found near the equator having high temperature,
humidity and rainfall favouring broad leaved evergreen
tree growth which forms a dense canopy not allowing
sunlight coming in. hence only shade loving small trees
exist in these forests.
• Silent valley forest in Kerala is only rain forest In India
other examples are Amazon forest in South America,
kilum-Ijium forest west Africa.
 Other types of forests
• Tropical Deciduous Forests-Found a little away from equator,
having warm climate, rainfall only during monsoon,(moderate
amount of precipitation), ), a large part of year remaining dry and
so favouring deciduous trees which lose their leaves in autumn.
• Tropical Shrub Forests- Found in areas where the dry season is
very long favouring small deciduous trees and shrubs. Some areas
of Western Ghats in India have shrub forests.
• Temperate Rain Forests- Found in temperate areas with
adequate rainfall dominated by coniferous trees like pines, firs,
redwood and also some evergreen broad leaved trees owing to the
plentiful rainfall. Found in United States along the coastline of the
Pacific Northwest and in Canada, and Alaska.
 Contd…….
• Temperate Deciduous Forests- Found in areas with marked
seasonality but moderate temperature and abundant
rainfallthroughout the year favouring broad leaf deciduous trees
like oak(Quercus), hickory, poplar etc. Therefore they are more
precisely termed as temperate broadleaf forest, and are found
in North America, southern South America, Europe, and Asia.
• Evergreen Coniferous Forests(Boreal Forests)- Found south of
arctic tundra having long cold and dry winters, sunlight being
available for a few hours only and summer season being mild
and short favouring coniferous trees like fir, cedar, pines, spruce
etc. having tiny needle shaped leaves with wax coating to
withstand the cold.
 Grassland Eco system
• Grasslands are open areas where grasses or grass-like
plants are the dominant vegetation and where there are
few trees. Grasses came to dominate over other species,
such as trees, because they are better able to thrive in
hot, dry climates where spring and summer rain is
sparse. Shrubs are also an important component of
grasslands, and in some areas they are the dominant
plants which have long, deep tap roots that search for
water well below the surface. The rolling landscape of
grasslands includes hills, river valleys, canyons and cliffs.
 Types of Grasslands
• Three types of grasslands are found to occur in different climatic region
• Tropical Grasslands-In Africa these are known as Savannas, which have tall
grasses, scattered shrubs, stunted trees and perennating bulbs, rhizomes,
runners etc. Termite mounds are very common. Animal diversity is high
including Zebras, giraffes, gazelle, antelope

• Temperate Grasslands-In United States and Canada these grasslands are known
as prairies, in South America as Pampas, in Africa as Velds and in central Europe
and Asia they are known as Steppes. The soils are very fertile and often cleared
for agriculture.

• Polar Grasslands- These grasslands are found in Arctic Tundra where the climate
is too cold and harsh for trees to grow. A thick layer of ice remains frozen under
the surface of soil throughout the year. Only in summers when the sun shine
round the clock some annual plants grow and even shallow lakes, bogs etc
appear which attract migratory birds. Animals include arctic wolf, weasel, arctic
fox, reindeer etc.
 DESERT ECO SYSTEM
• Deserts are defined as regions wherein the average
annual precipitation seldom exceeds more than 10
inches per year, and the amount of water lost to
evaporation is much more than the amount of water
gained by precipitation. Though a desert may seem like a
barren land devoid of forms of life, life does exist in this
harsh environment. Numerous plants and animal species
have adapted to these seemingly unsuitable conditions.
 Desert Animals
• Deserts are home to a number of species of the animal kingdom.
Biodiversity of the deserts is as unique as other biomes of the world.
• Plants are the primary producers
• Rodents, insects and reptiles which feed on these plants are the
primary consumers.
• Secondary consumers- comprise larger reptiles and insects which
feed on primary consumers.
• Apex predators in the form of birds and mammals. Most prominent
members of the desert animals list include the Gila monster,
chuckawallas, desert tortoise, rattlesnakes, hawks, ostriches, bobcat,
kangaroo rats, mountain lions, etc. Most of these desert animals are
nocturnal, i.e. active during the night, and spend the entire day
burrowing.
 Desert -Plants
• Desert vegetation is only thought about as cactus. However,
within cactus, there are different types which grow in
different deserts of the world. These plants have modified
themselves to sustain in the desert environment. Some plants
store water in the specialized tissues, while others have small
leaves with hair like structures which reduce the evaporation
of moisture.
• In North American deserts, barrel cactus is the most
abundantly found cacti species, while other species include
crimson hedgehog cactus, pancake prickly pear cactus,
saguaro cactus, etc. Other cactus plants such as brittle bush,
saltbush, creosote bush, desert ironwood, gravillias, Joshua
tree, Mojave aster, Soaptree yucca, hanging chain cholla, etc.,
are also quite common in deserts.
 Aquatic Eco systems
• Aquatic systems are those that contain plants and animals
that predominantly depend on a significant amount of water
to be present for at least part of the year. They are either
freshwater or marine.
• Pond Ecosystem- Ponds are often shallow water bodies and
seasonal. Like in a forest, the top, middle, and bottom of a
pond can be vastly different from each other, and even the
layers in between.
• Under different temperature or light conditions the water in a
pond can vary greatly in oxygen, clarity, and other factors that
effect where plants and animals might live.
 Pond Eco system…..
• Diversity - A pond is not just a small lake with frogs and fishes,
rather there are thousands of different species of plants, algae,
insects fishes and animals living together in a natural pond. The
more diverse a pond is (more species that it has) the stronger and
healthier it is.
• Micro-organisms - Some of the most important plants and animals
in a pond are micro organisms and while a few may cause disease,
almost all are very beneficial and important to a pond ecosystem.
While bigger animals may fly, walk, or swim away to other ponds,
micro-organisms are always present in large numbers.
• Macro-organisms - Larger plants and animals that are easy to see
on a pond are called “macro-organisms (macro=large). They are the
plants and animals that we often notice first, and can more easily
spread from pond to pond, for example water birds.
 Lake Eco System
• These are usually big water bodies having shallow water zone
called littoral zone, open water zone where effective
penetration of sunlight takes place called limnetic zone and a
deep bottom area where light penetration is negligible called
profundal zone.
• Organisms- Several types of organisms occur like
planktons(that float on water surface), nektons(that swim like
fishes), Neustons (rest ir swim on surface, like water insects,
Benthos(attached to bottom like snails), Periphytons(clinging to
other plants and surfaces like crustacians)

• Dal lake of Srinagar, Naini lake of Nainital , Loktak lake in

Manipur are some famous lakes of the country.
 Streams & rivers
• Streams and Rivers- Streams are shallow flowing water and
rivers are large streams flowing through plains and falling into
the sea.
• Stream organisms have to face extremes of temperature and
current but constant movement and shallow water provides
abundant oxygen.
• Large rivers are relatively deep and wide and rich in organic
matter but also contain a lot of inorganic sediment produced
by erosion and runoff into the upland waters.
• Fish species such as sturgeon and catfish, which feed on
sediments, are more common here than predatory fish.
 Marine Ecosystem
• These are among the largest of Earth’s aquatic
ecosystems. They include oceans, salt marsh and
estuaries and lagoons, mangroves and coral reefs, the
deep sea and the sea floor.
• Marine waters cover two-thirds of the surface of the
Earth. Such places are considered ecosystems because
the plant life supports the animal life and vice-versa.
 Estuaries
• Estuary is a partly enclosed coastal body of water with
one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a
free connection to the open sea.
• Estuaries form a transition zone between river
environments and ocean environments and are subject
to both marine influences, such as tides, waves, and the
influx of saline water.
• Plants which cope up with saline water will grow well,
short trees and plants.
 Estuarine Food web
An Estuarine food web contains the following elements:
• Phytoplankton. These microscopic organisms manufacture
food by photosynthesis and absorb nutrients such as
phosphorus and nitrogen from the water.
• Detritus (dead organic matter).
• Microscopic animals known as zooplankton eat some of the
phytoplankton. The remainder of the phytoplankton becomes
detritus, when it dies.
• Larger estuary animals such as filter-feeding worms, shellfish
and hungry young fish feed on the zooplankton and detritus.
There are many migratory species of fishes like eels and
salmons in which half of the life is spent in fresh water and
half in salty water.
 Bio- Diversity Types
• Genetic diversity is all the different genes contained in all the living
species including individual plants, animals, fungi, and
microorganisms.

• Species diversity is all the different species, as well as the differences

within and between different species. Roughly 1.4 million species
are known to science, but because many species are undescribed, an
estimated 10-30 million species likely exist at present.

• Ecosystem diversity is all the different habitats, biological com-

munities and ecological processes, as well as variation within
individual ecosystems.
 Biodiversity Loss Concerns

• Biodiversity found on Earth today is the result of 3.5 billion

years of evolution. In the geological history there has been not
only evolution but also diversification and extinctions.
Extinction is a natural event which from a geological
perspective can be said to be routine. Most species that lived
have gone extinct. The average rate over the past 200 million
years (my) is 1-2 species per year, and 3-4 families per my.
The average duration of a species is 2-10 million years (based
on last 200 million years). There have also been occasional
episodes of mass extinction, when many taxa representing a
wide array of life forms have gone extinct in the same blink of
geological time.
 Reasons for bio-diversity loss
• Habitat loss and destruction: This is one of the greatest threats to
biodiversity. Habitat loss is directly linked to human induced pressures on
land.
• Alterations in ecosystem composition: Variety of species and their
interactions with their ecosystems is critical for not only saving the
species, but also for their successful future evolution. In the event of
alterations, either within species groups, or within the environment, entire
ecosystems can begin to change. Alterations to ecosystems are a critical
factor contributing to species and habitat loss.
• Invasive alien species: The introduction of exotic species that replace local
and native species is cited as the second largest cause of biodiversity loss.
Alien invasive species replace, and often result in the extinction of native
species.
 Loss of bio-diversity….
• Over-exploitation: Over-hunting, over-fishing or over-collecting of a
species can quickly lead to its decline. Changing consumption pat-
terns of humans is often cited as the key reason for this
unsustainable.
• Pollution and contamination: Biological systems respond slowly to
changes in their surrounding environment and so pollution and con-
tamination cause irreversible damage to species and varieties as
spe-cies cannot immediately adapt. High level of DDT in birds
affects their ability to reproduce as it leads to thinning of egg shells.
•
• Global climate change: Both climate variability and climate change
cause biodiversity loss. Species and populations may be lost per-
manently, if they are not provided with enough time to adapt to
chang-ing climatic conditions.
 SOLUTIONS
• Conservation of wildlife
• In Situ Conservation Methods:
• In-situ conservation, is the conservation of
species in their natural habitats and is
considered the most appropriate way of
conserving biodiversity. It involves conserving
the areas where populations of species exist
naturally and is an underlying condition for
the conservation of biodiversity
 Conservation methods
• Biosphere reserves- These conserve some representative ecosystems as a
whole. In India there are 17 biosphere reserves. e.g. Nanda Devi (U.P)
and Manas (Assam).
• National Park- It is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife
along with its environment. It is also open to tourists. Within a Biosphere
reserve there may be one or more national parks. e.g. Nilgiri Biosphere
Reserve (covering areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu) has two
National Parks viz. Bandipur and Nagarhole National Park. Recently
(Feb 2011) a deer was photographed in Nagarhole eating a plastic cover.
It reflects the negligent attitudes of tourists and officials alike and is a big
blot on conservation efforts. There are 99 National Parks in the country
and each National Park usually aims at conservation of some particular
species of wildlife along with others. For example, Elephant in Bandipur
(Karnataka), Tiger in Kanha (M.P.) etc.