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FINE 691

Winter 2024

Advanced Topics of Finance –


FinTech for Business

Prof. Katrin Tinn


In accordance with Canadian Copyright Law,
reproduction of the works in this anthology,
in whole or in part, without the express
permission of the author and/or publisher
is strictly prohibited.

2024 McGill University


All rights reserved for this anthology

For all works included in this anthology,


McGill University has obtained
express permission from COPIBEC,
Harvard Business Scho o l Publishing (HBSP)
or other holder of the publishing rights.

Images courtesy of McGill University Bookstore


FINE 691 – Advanced Topics of Finance – Fintech for Business
Professor katrin Tinn
Winter 2024

Table of Contents

AngelList in 2017; Ramana Nanda, Robert F. White, Liz Kind; Pub Date: Oct 11, 2017(Revised: Dec 4,
2017) ............................................................................................................................................................. 5
Product #: 818041-PDF-ENG
https://hbsp.harvard.edu/product/818041-PDF-ENG

AntChain's Blockchain as a Service: Digitising Industry Collaboration; S. Alex Yang, Nitish Jain; Pub
Date: Nov 16, 2023 ..................................................................................................................................... 27
Product #: LBS349-PDF-ENG
https://hbsp.harvard.edu/product/LBS349-PDF-ENG

Facebook's Libra: The Privatization of Money?; Marco Di Maggio, Ethan Rouen, George Serafeim, Aldo
Sesia; Pub Date: Oct 23, 2019..................................................................................................................... 39
Product #: 120021-PDF-ENG
https://hbsp.harvard.edu/product/120021-PDF-ENG

Fluidity: The Tokenization of Real Estate Asset; Marco Di Maggio, David Lane, Susie L. Ma; Pub
Date: Dec, 2018 (Revised: Apr 2020) .......................................................................................................... 60
Product #: 219057-PDF-ENG
https://hbsp.harvard.edu/product/219057-PDF-ENG

Jibo: A Social Robot for the Home; Jeffrey J. Bussgang, Christine Snively; Pub Date: Dec 3, 2015(Revised:
May 10, 2016) ............................................................................................................................................. 81
Product #: 816003-PDF-ENG
https://hbsp.harvard.edu/product/816003-PDF-ENG

M-Pesa and Mobile Money in Kenya: Pricing for Success; Sarit Markovich, Charlotte Snyder; Pub ....... 98
Date: Dec 4, 2013
Product #: KEL762-PDF-ENG
https://hbsp.harvard.edu/product/KEL762-PDF-ENG

Maersk: Betting on Blockchain; Rajiv Lal, Scott Johnson; Pub Date: Apr 3, 2018
(Revised: Jul 19, 2018) .............................................................................................................................. 115
Product #: 518089-PDF-ENG
https://hbsp.harvard.edu/product/518089-PDF-ENG

Ripple: The Business of Crypto; David B. Yoffie; George Gonzalez; Pub Date: Apr 2019 (Revised May
2020) ......................................................................................................................................................... 138
Product #: 719506-PDF-ENG
https://hbsp.harvard.edu/product/719506-PDF-ENG
R3 Corda: A Distributed Ledger Technology for Financial Services; Michael R Kind; Pub date: Sep 28,
2018 .......................................................................................................................................................... 162
Product #: W18592-PDF-ENG
https://hbsp.harvard.edu/product/W18592-PDF-ENG

What Is Strategy? (HBR Bestseller); Michael E. Porter; Pub Date: Oct 31, 1996 .................................... 176
Product #: 96608-PDF-ENG
https://hbsp.harvard.edu/product/96608-PDF-ENG

Raising Startup Capital; Jeffrey J. Bussgang; Pub Date: Feb 21, 2014 ..................................................... 197
Product #: 814089-PDF-ENG
https://hbsp.harvard.edu/product/814089-PDF-ENG

An Introduction to Blockchain; Yiorgos Allayannis, Aaron Fernstrom; Pub Date: Oct 3, 2017(Revised: Dec
7, 2017) ..................................................................................................................................................... 224
Product #: UV7356-PDF-ENG
https://hbsp.harvard.edu/product/UV7356-PDF-ENG?itemFindingMethod=Collections
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26
S. Alex Yang CS-23-011
Nitish Jain October 2023

AntChain’s Blockchain as a Service:


Digitising Industry Collaboration

AntChain’s management team was reviewing different proposals and ideas regarding which
applications and industries they should target for their blockchain AntChain, which was offered
as a Blockchain-as-a-Service (BaaS). AntChain’s parent company Ant Group had made
significant investments in the development of blockchain technologies for enterprise-to-
enterprise collaborations in industrial settings. AntChain’s aim was to enable a more efficient
and safer way for different types of company and local and regional public agencies to
collaborate and conduct business. This was often done in collaboration with other technologies,
such as Internet of Things (IoT) solutions. Ant Group’s blockchain solution had many potential
applications across energy, industrial connection, intelligent manufacturing and information-
sharing. The question was: Where should the team focus in order to maximise growth and
value?

Ant Group: a Brief History


Ant Group (previously known as Ant Financial) was a Chinese financial technology company
launched in 2014 by Jack Ma, who had founded the ecommerce giant Alibaba Group in 1999.
Alibaba provided B2B, B2C and C2C services through its platforms. The main means of
payment in the early 2000s was by bank draft or sending payments through the post; on receipt
of payment, the seller would ship the product. Lack of payment infrastructure and insufficient
consumer protection laws caused problems. The lack of trust between seller and buyer was a
particular problem, according to Ma. 1 To build trust and resolve the friction and effort of
payment, in 2004 Alibaba developed an online escrow payment service called Alipay. Alipay
withheld payment from the buyer until the buyer confirmed receipt of goods, whereupon it
released payment to the seller. Alipay enabled the exponential growth of Alibaba’s ecommerce
platforms, such as Taobao and T-Mall, and became the largest online payment system in
China. In 2010, before Alibaba went public, Alipay was spun off to avoid uncertainties in the
payment license application process because, at the time, it was not clear whether a non-PRC
entity could apply for a payment license in China.2
In October 2014 Ant Financial Services Group (Ant) was launched with a focus on facilitating
small transactions and targeting the underserved in China; particularly those in rural areas and
SME owners who were of little interest to incumbent banks. Being uncoupled from Alibaba
meant that Ant could offer financial services to anyone. It benefited from the growth in mobile
phone usage across China and interest in digital payments.
Ant’s ambitions went beyond China and, from as early as 2015, it invested in or partnered with
companies such as India’s Paytm, South Korea’s Kakao, Thailand’s Ascent and the Philippines’

S. Alex Yang is Associate Professor of Management Science & Operations at London Business School. Nitish Jain is Associate
Professor of Management Science & Operations at London Business School.
London Business School cases and teaching notes are developed solely as the basis for class discussion and are not intended
to serve as endorsements, sources of primary data, or illustrations of effective or ineffective management.
© 2023 London Business School. All rights reserved. No part of this case study may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, photocopying, recording or otherwise without written permission of London
Business School.

27
CS-23-011

Mynt and others. It launched a wealth-management platform, Ant Fortune, Xianghubao


(mutual protection plan for healthcare), Huabei (credit payments for ecommerce purchases),
Jiebei (a cash loans service), and other financial services, as well as different technology
solutions.
Positioned as a technology company, Ant increasingly became known for its innovative use of
technologies such as artificial intelligence and blockchain. In 2015 it developed a credit-scoring
system, Sesame Credit, which (after obtaining consent from users) used big-data analytics to
assess an individual’s creditworthiness based on their online behaviour using Alibaba’s data
on its marketplaces (Taobao Marketplace and Tmall.com.)3 Users with sufficiently high scores
were able to access benefits ranging from car-rental deposit wavers to faster airport security
checks.4
Ant attained unicorn status in 2016, valued at $60 billion.5 It continued to grow and in 2018
looked to go public. However, the Chinese government had concerns over Ant’s lending
practices and capital reserves. The company then underwent significant restructuring and its
IPO was postponed. In October 2020 regulators demanded that the company refocus and
return to its payment origins. 6 In response, Ant undertook a series of reorganisations in
corporate governance, organisational structure and business focus. Most recently, in January
2023, Ant Group overhauled its board ownership structure. As a result, four out of the eight
board directors become independent and the company no longer had a majority shareholder.7

AntChain
Ant Group began to invest in blockchain research in 2015 and founded its blockchain
innovation lab in 2016 (see Exhibit 1 for an introduction to blockchain). The company believed
blockchain would build trust between different actors in the system; much as Alipay had done
between sellers and buyers. In 2018 Ant launched a blockchain-based cross-border remittance
service with Standard Chartered Bank. The service allowed users to transfer money in real
time between Hong Kong and the Philippines with a ‘zero’ processing fee. In 2020 the “Ant
Blockchain” was officially upgraded to “AntChain”.
In September 2021 the Chinese government banned all cryptocurrency transactions, citing
financial crime and risk to the country’s financial system. 8 AntChain did not create any
cryptocurrency, however. Instead, it focused on permissioned consortium chains for enterprise
applications (See Exhibit 1 for the definition of a consortium chain). Other major players in this
space included Hyperledger Fabric, Quorum and Cobra.

The Development Team and Capabilities


AntChain was made up of 60% technical staff, including the core blockchain team, IoT, AI and
other technical teams. The remaining 40% of employees were responsible for solutions,
products and markets. Between 2018 and 2021, Ant Group’s annual scientific research
investment grew at an annual rate of 39%. The Group’s R&D budget in 2021 was more than
18.8 billion RMB yuan (£2.2 billion).
With consistent investment in R&D, the AntChain team made a number of breakthroughs in
several fields of blockchain, including consensus protocols, smart contracts, cross-chain
technology and privacy. For example, by efficiently utilising virtual machine pre-compilation
and parallel optimisation, the team managed to improve the computing performance of
interpretive smart contracts by a factor of 15 compared with the mainstream interpretive
contracts in the market. In the field of network transmission, Ant launched a new generation of

© 2023 London Business School. Page 2

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CS-23-011

blockchain high-speed communication networks (BTNs). These could support high-speed,


flexible and stable large-scale network transmissions and reduce the bandwidth costs for each
blockchain node by 80% compared with traditional methods. Using its proprietary cross-chain
technology, AntChain was able to process more than 100,000 cross-chain transactions per
second. With these technological breakthroughs, AntChain could support large-scale
commercial applications with one billion accounts and one billion transactions per day.
The team won more than 60 Chinese and international awards in the fields of AI, information
security, blockchain and cybersecurity, including the prestigious State Science and
Technology Prize. By the end of 2021 Ant had 2,120 authorised patents in global blockchain;
the most in the world. In collaboration with international authorities such as the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE), Ant participated in the design of more than 10 core international standards for
blockchain technology.
Since 2020 Ant had partnered with more than 30 colleges and universities and built five training
centres with leading universities in China. It also launched a shared developer lab and online
teaching platform with more than 100 hours of free video courses aimed at users from beginner
to advanced levels. In June 2021 Ant released three levels of engineering certification for
Blockchain System Development and Application. A year later more than 3,800 people had
enrolled, with 1,200 obtaining their certificate and giving Ant a pipeline of talent.

The Business Model: Blockchain-as-a-Service (BaaS)


AntChain's major business model was Blockchain-as-a-Service (BaaS). Under this model
AntChain provided a set of tools that enabled clients to set up their own consortium blockchain
and conduct business on the chain. Dr Ying Yan, Technical Director of AntChain, explained:
BaaS is far more than simply building a blockchain. It also includes how to manage
[your] identity, how to write and update smart contracts, how to test and verify these
contracts, how to ensure their safety and interact with other systems, and how to
carry out high-quality operations, maintenance and upgrades across different
enterprises. There is also the challenge of alliance governance – how do I update
my contract, access the data on the chain and do other operations? Essentially, it
is a series of tools and capabilities provided to users [that empowers] them to build
better consortium chains, develop better contracts and access data. BaaS enables
this collaboration.
Under this BaaS model, applications were developed, hosted and deployed on the cloud.
AntChain offered different deployment options, including public cloud, private cloud and hybrid
options, offering different versions to customers depending on their needs. AntChain
supported multiple consensus protocols, including PBFT and ABFT. Ant also collaborated with
many independent developers who developed decentralised applications (dApps) that ran on
Ant’s blockchains. IDC ranked AntChain’s BaaS first in China for 2020 and 2021.
AntChain applied different monetisation strategies depending on the service offered. The most
basic service consisted of technical service fee for helping a company develop and deploy a
blockchain. In many other cases, a client using AntChain as the underlying blockchain also
used other technical services that it enabled, such as data products, forecasting models and
decision engines to support commercial functions. For example, in the insurance industry,
AntChain provided companies with tools that automated claim underwriting and settlement
under a subscription model. In addition to technical solutions, AntChain also facilitated other

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CS-23-011

business transactions enabled by blockchain. For example, it connected financing institutions


with SMEs who could better secure financing through blockchain.

The HelloBike Project


With some of the most densely populated cities in the world, China relied heavily on public
transport, such as underground metro railway systems. However, for smaller cities (with
populations below three million, known as third or higher-tier cities in China), constructing and
operating such railway systems was not cost-efficient. In even smaller cities, public transport
(bus) availability was limited outside business hours. The penetration of taxis and ride-sharing
service was also low, making it difficult for people to get around. As a solution, the Chinese
government wanted to encourage e-bike use in cities with under-developed short-range
transport options. It set a quota for e-bikes, with one bike for every 20-30 people (for example,
a city of a million residents would have a quota of approximately 50,000 e-bikes). While this
presented a major business opportunity, entering the market required significant investment,
with e-bikes costing around 3,000 to 4,000 RMB yuan (£340 to £450) each.
One ambitious player in this space was HelloBike. Launched in 2016, the company offered
bike sharing in smaller cities and towns in China where the larger incumbent companies at that
time – Ofo and Mobike – were not operating. By 2021 HelloBike had 500 million registered
users and offered them various mobility services, including e-bikes and electric scooters.9
When HelloBike moved into e-bikes, it opened kiosks that enabled riders to swap the battery
for a charged one rather than having to wait to charge the battery. By 2021 HelloBike had more
than 10 million bikes and e-bikes in China, with the number of daily rides peaking at 20 million.
HelloBike had also entered oversea markets, such as Singapore.
Its rapid expansion meant that HelloBike was constantly looking for financing. According to
sources, in 2019, after raising more than $1.8 billion, HelloBike sought a further $500 million
in financing.10 Raising money through traditional channels (such as bank loans) had proven
difficult as the business was still trying to generate a positive free cashflow.
The state of the bike-sharing industry in China made the situation more challenging for
HelloBike. After a period of frenetic expansion between 2015 and 2017, Ofo nearly went
bankrupt in 2019, and Mobike halted operations in 2020; the remaining bikes were acquired
by a Chinese on-demand platform. Fraud was rife, with the usage record being easy to tamper
with, potentially tricking investors into believing that the business was more profitable than it
actually was. For HelloBike, establishing data credibility would make its assets more attractive
to investors.
In February 2021 HelloBike started to talk to AntChain about the possibility of using blockchain
technology to enable easier access to financing. Xiaodong Chen, CFO of HelloBike, recalled:
The reputation of our industry is not very good. Our industry is chaotic to debt
investors. I think we have to show real numbers to get credibility. From the bank
or debt investor’s perspective, we want to demonstrate robust operating activities,
healthy revenue generation, strong cashflows and improved profitability of our fleet.
Everyone knows that blockchain is immutable and irreversible and Ant has a very
strong reputation in China – this will increase our credibility. Bond investors can
see the status of the bikes in real time. They can also trust the data.
The solution proposed by AntChain to resolve HelloBike’s challenges was to upload its e-bike
usage data to blockchain so it could be shared with investors, who also acted as nodes on the
blockchain. Lou Jianxun, General Manager of Trusted Device Business at Ant, who led the

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CS-23-011

project with HelloBike, stressed that “the ultimate value of blockchain is to build trust among
many players in the ecosystem.” He liked to use playing mahjong, a popular tile-based game
in China, as an analogy. “You need four people to play mahjong. When three people don’t
agree on your card, the game cannot continue.”
With the tools developed by Dr Yan and her team, such as ETL (Extract, Transform, and Load),
AntChain had the capability to deploy a blockchain on cloud within half an hour. After the
blockchain was constructed, user data could be “uploaded” to the blockchain through carefully
designed transactions. The e-bike operator would become a node on the chain. Under
AntChain’s BaaS model, the operator would not need to make a significant technical
investment to acquire servers or network bandwidth.
To access data directly, a communication module would be installed on the small electrical
circuit board in each e-bike’s engine. AntChain also developed the software that directly
connected this module to the blockchain. With this solution, as soon as the engine and the
module were switched on, the system could encrypt all the information regarding the e-bike’s
configuration and its operating status (i.e., unlocked or locked) and the data could be uploaded
to the blockchain via the cloud using wireless technology. In this way each e-bike would
become a “trusted device source” from which data would feed into the system, thereby
recreating the entire operating process digitally. Once in place, maintenance and upgrade of
the IoT modules were done remotely, so there was minimal operating cost.
Implementing this solution, however, was not straightforward. HelloBike operated several
dozen e-bike models; each with their own technical requirements and operating parameters,
such as power consumption. It took several rounds of discussion between Ant and HelloBike,
including its CEO Lei Yang, to scope out the project.
The first stage of the implementation started in June 2021. AIoT senior technical expert
Jinglong Gao and his 12-strong team worked closely with two HelloBike development teams,
batteries and shared e-bikes. He recalled:
There were several challenges. First, as we were doing an embedded retrofit, this
solution should not alter the original business process. More than 20 R&D people
from HelloBike worked with us side-by-side. It involved hardware, data channel
and transfer. The second challenge was power consumption, so we needed to
further optimise our modules. HelloBike also wanted to minimise the resources
they needed to invest. Each of their e-bike models has their hardware platforms
and operating systems, and we had to work with different constraints.
While IoT allowed the operating data of e-bikes to be directly uploaded to the blockchain,
stakeholders (e.g., investors) also wanted to have better visibility of the business flow. For
example, the IoT could record that a specific e-bike was unlocked at 8:55am on 15 June 2021
in a certain area of Shanghai and then locked again at 9:20am, while its battery charge had
dropped from 80% to 60%. However, it could not observe how much revenue this activity had
generated for HelloBike. To complete the picture, the AntChain team created a separate
channel so that HelloBike could also upload the payment data. The team then developed
algorithms to cross-check the consistency between these different data streams. The team
also developed a client interface, so other nodes on the blockchain could easily access the
status of a single e-bike in near real-time.
The first-stage implementation was carried out in August 2021. The second and third stages
quickly followed, with a broader coverage of more cities and new e-bike models. New data
fields were also added, based on operational need. Following this solution, HelloBike secured
a total of $1.8 billion in 13 rounds of financing. The solution was also implemented between

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HelloBike and two of its core suppliers, who could monitor the performance of the main
components for possible operating improvements.

Other AntChain Use Cases


Besides using IoT and blockchain to create a trusted device, AntChain also explored several
different major use cases of blockchain, ranging from digitising trade networks to digital
intellectual property (IP).

Trusple
Trusple (an abbreviation of “trust made simple”) was created in 2020. Having engaged in
international trade for 20 years, Ant Group recognised that the various players in the global
trade ecosystem – buyers, sellers, banks, freight forwarders, customs agencies and so on –
found that information was not transparent across parties, especially in cross-border
transactions. Delays in information-sharing often led to delays in production, payment and
delivery. Trusple is a blockchain-based solution intended to connect the parties involved in the
entire value chain to resolve these problems. Although initially designed to target the trade-
financing issue, the Ant team explored how to use blockchain to drive efficiencies and
transparency throughout the process, speeding up transaction times from order through to
delivery and reducing the friction points and blockages along the different steps in the process.
For example, in a traditional cross-border trade transaction, a buyer made a partial upfront
payment to the seller when placing the order, with the final payment only being made when
the seller shipped the goods. However, often the upfront payment was insufficient to cover the
cost of production of the goods ordered; the seller might then need additional financing for
production. Securing additional financing took time and this would spark a chain reaction of
delays, resulting in late delivery of the goods.
Trusple focused on supply chains with dispersed small suppliers selling overseas. Most of
these companies were based in China, with some in Vietnam, Malaysia and other Asian
countries. Freight forwarders constituted a core customer group for Trusple in these markets.
Traditionally, freight forwarders earned a small service fee by arranging logistics services or
by helping sellers with steps such as export and customs clearance. In doing so, they collected
useful information that tracked important steps in the trade process. However, being small,
most of these sellers could not provide further value-adding services by leveraging such data.
Ma Qisheng, General Manager of Trade Finance at AntChain, explained the value of Trusple:
We built a distributed trade network. After you participate in this network you can
use our payment systems, you have access to different financing channels, and
you can use our full set of tools for bookkeeping or to develop distributed apps that
your clients can use. You do not need to worry about performance issues.
When it could not provide end-to-end coverage by itself, Trusple connected participants in its
network to other data sources, sometimes through other blockchains. For example, when
processing a transaction required certain shipping data, Trusple would pull in the data from
Global Business Shipping Network (GBSN), a consortium blockchain focused on marine
shipping.
The Trusple ecosystem consisted of three tiers. The first tier consisted of major players in the
trade process, including banks, payment-processing companies and shipping companies.
They acted as consensus nodes on the blockchain with whom Ant actively consulted when

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designing trade frameworks and standards. The second tier (data nodes) included technology
providers (e.g., SaaS providers) and large freight forwarders, who participated with data
sharing and storage. Small freight forwarders, sellers and buyers formed the third tier. They
were not nodes on the blockchain but instead accessed data on it through apps developed by
companies in the first two tiers.
Ma Qisheng believed Trusple had huge potential:
Our first goal is to expand our ecosystem, increasing the number of consensus
nodes. By including more major players we are hoping to better discuss and design
the global standard of digital trade. In this way, the information they own can be
better utilised and everyone can make more money from the system. Second, in
the next three to five years, we want to further decentralise our network, so
everybody feels safer when doing business here. You keep your own clients and
you may be able to do more business with them.

Digital Intellectual Property (IP)


China was less developed than Europe and the US in terms of copyright protection. The cost
of fighting piracy was high; not only in financial terms but also in terms of effort. This was
particularly true for individual content creators. If they detected that their content had been
pirated, there was a long process to follow, including evidence gathering, notary involvement
and litigation. Eventually, even if they did win the case, which was difficult, compensation
awarded was not great. Regardless of any compensation received, anyone whose copyright
had been infringed still had to embark on another long process to get the infringing platform to
remove the pirated content.
To tackle this problem AntChain developed a consortium blockchain-based service called
“Quezao”, which translated literally as “Magpie Authenticity”. (Alibaba was famous for naming
its products and services after animals.) To gain legitimacy, AntChain invited the National
Copyright Centre to lead the consortium chain. In the past, for a copyright owner to register its
IP through the National Copyright Centre, it needed to pay a registration fee of 300 RMB (~£33)
as it was labour-intensive for the National Copyright Centre to confirm that the content was
indeed original. On Quezao the cost was reduced to between 5 and 20 RMB (~£0.5 to £2.25)
through automation.
After the IP was established Quezao could also add a digital watermark to the digital work.
This would allow piracy and infringement to be traced efficiently. In the event of an IP violation
the evidence of the piracy would be recorded on the blockchain, triggering litigation/mediation
to resolve the dispute. The last step acquired formal legal basis in 2017, when China’s
Supreme Court ruled that blockchain could be used as evidence of piracy.
With this blockchain solution content creators could establish their IP and record evidence
within one minute. The accuracy rate of images and short videos exceeded 99%. Up to 2023,
Quezao served more than one million content creators with more than 80 million original pieces
of content.
AntChain’s ambitions went beyond simply preventing IP piracy. The team believed that the
real value in IP was IP trading and revenue-sharing. Built on top of the underlying copyright
blockchain, Quezao provided functionalities that helped Chinese content creators who
sold/distributed their content on overseas platforms, such as YouTube. As videos in Chinese
accounted for less than 1% of content on YouTube, AntChain believed there was huge
potential. In the process of going overseas, Chinese YouTubers faced two challenges: the

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language barrier and lack of expertise in operating in foreign markets; thus they would typically
engage a foreign-channel distributor. In this value chain, AntChain not only provided IP
protection, but also ensured more transparent income-sharing. To facilitate this, the bank
account that YouTube paid revenue into would be monitored by AntChain; through a smart
contract, the revenue was automatically split between the content creator, the distributor and
the AntChain platform.
There were also challenges to the new IP business. Several Chinese internet giants, including
Tencent and Bytedance, who had access to a large base of content and creators, were also
developing their own blockchain-based solutions for digital IP protection and trading. Having
several independent consortium chains, each with a controlling party, might lead to IP silos,
making IP protecting or trading more costly and cumbersome. Xu Hui , Vice President of Digital
Technology Business at Ant Group, explained its vision:
We are now pushing a more unified copyright consortium chain. The key is that all
nodes on this chain are equal, with responsibilities and rights all decentralised. We
bear risks and share benefits together.
With the emergence of the Metaverse, AntChain believed that blockchain would become more
important in digital IP protection. As avatars and digital collectibles were indispensable
components of the Metaverse, ownership and copyright would be major issues. Xu Hui said:
If a particular digital human becomes popular, how should the associated income,
such as royalties, be distributed in the future? There are no legal precedents
currently. We believe that there will be a lot of digital-avatar piracy in the future. It
gets even more complicated if, for example, the avatar was created in Japan but
becomes popular in China, and eventually generates a significant stream of
income in the US – the laws and regulations are different in each territory. Forming
a consensus, defining ownership and distributing benefits is a huge value
proposition that blockchain can offer as it has no concept of national boundaries.

Carbon Matrix
Similar to other major economies in the world, China also developed its own decarbonisation
agenda; planning for its carbon emissions to peak by 2030 and reach net zero by 2060.
Carbon Matrix is an SaaS product built on blockchain to support organisations in managing
their carbon goals. It was developed from an internal platform that Ant Group used to manage
and record its own decarbonisation efforts and processes. The company believed that the
blockchain technology not only enabled it to store information securely, but also ensured that
information could be shared in a more open and transparent way. The technology included a
set of tools that provided enterprises with life-cycle carbon-management services, from
analysing and detecting carbon emissions to enabling green financing.
Seeking external clients, Ant looked to the property sector, which accounted for 6% of GDP in
China in 2022. In 2022 the Shenzhen Building Materials Trading Group (SBMTG) launched
the “Shenzhen Metro Building Materials” online trading platform, with a feature called the
“Green Building Materials Zone”, jointly created by SBMTG and AntChain Carbon Matrix.11
The goal was to promote the use of green building materials. Services included product
carbon-footprint accounting, an online application for green building materials certification and
subsequent certificate management, among others.

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Beyond the property sector, Ant also worked with the Huangpu District Government in
Shanghai on a system to allow citizens in the district to record their day-to-day activities that
involved carbon-reduction efforts.

What next for AntChain?


For the AntChain team, there were abundant opportunities for further development of their
technical capabilities in blockchain and diversified business application. Lou Jianxun believed
that the HelloBike project demonstrated that, used in conjunction, blockchain and IoT could
enable easier access to financing. Could similar solutions be developed for other use cases,
such as industrial equipment and renewable-energy generation and storage? What
areas/industries should AntChain focus on?
The team also wondered about the scalability of other use cases, such as digital IP, global
trade and managing net-zero goals. Which were more promising in terms of the business value
of blockchain and thus warranted more resources? Beyond these, were there other potential
market opportunities?

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Exhibit 1: Introduction to Blockchain


Blockchain was originally developed in 2008 to record transactions in Bitcoin, the world’s first
cryptocurrency as a decentralised ledger, meaning that many computers held a record of who owned
the coin. Any alteration of the record had to be altered across all the subsequent blocks (or nodes) with
the agreement of the network. Since then, blockchain technology evolved to include a range of use
cases beyond cryptocurrency and attracted interest from governments, businesses, and individuals.
Blockchain Types
There were three main types of blockchain: public, private and consortium (the latter was what AntChain
used). Public blockchain was open to everyone. Anyone could create a new block and read the data
stored on the blockchain. There was no central authority controlling the network. Public blockchain
examples were mainly cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin, Ethereum and Litecoin. A private blockchain
did have a single organisation in control and only authorised participants could access it. This type of
blockchain was typically used for internal business processes such as supply chain management or
record-keeping. Private blockchains, as per their name, offered greater privacy and security than public
ones but sacrificed the decentralisation that made public blockchains powerful. Consortium
blockchains were hybrid public/private and controlled by a group of organisations although participation
in the network was limited to authorised members. The benefits of consortium blockchains were
decentralisation and privacy, while still allowing for greater control over the network.
Technical Features
Distributed ledger technology (DLT), encryption and smart contracts were three key features to
blockchain. DLT was the way that blockchain recorded data that was transparent, immutable
(undisputable), and decentralised. Unlike centralised systems where data was controlled/stored in a
central location and could be changed or deleted by any actor with access to the database, in a DLT
system, data was stored in a decentralised network of nodes. Every transaction had to be verified by
the network before it could be recorded on the blockchain. This made data stored on the blockchain
highly secure and tamper resistant. All transactions on blockchain were encrypted using complex
cryptographic algorithms. These made it virtually impossible for anyone to access the data without the
proper authorisation. Each block on the blockchain contained a unique cryptographic hash used to verify
the authenticity of the data in that block. If someone tried to tamper with a block’s data, the hash would
change, and the network would reject the block. A smart contract was a computer programme stored
on the blockchain that would execute immediately when certain conditions were met. Smart contracts
were particularly useful to automate complex business processes such as supply chain management.
They had the advantage of not needed intermediaries to execute which made them more efficient. They
were also transparent and immutable, so that once executed, they could not be changed.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Like any technology, blockchain had its advantages and disadvantages including positive and negatively
publicity and actions from governments such as banning cryptocurrencies in some instances. The
technology was also used by fraudsters, particularly hackers who would steal a company’s data or
freeze their systems and demand payments in cryptocurrencies to unlock the data. Hackers would flip
the payments across different cryptocurrencies, making it extremely difficult to identify who the hackers
were.
Advantages of blockchain included:
• Decentralisation – having no central authority meant blockchain was resistant to censorship,
tampering, was transparent and offered increased security as there was no single point of failure.
• Transparency and auditability – DLT required transactions to be verified by those with access
to the network, which helped reduce fraud, corruption and increased trust across participants.
• Security – the advanced cryptographic techniques used to secure transactions made the highly
secure and tamper proof as they were difficult to reverse or alter once recorded.

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• Efficiency and cost reduction – eliminating intermediaries in transactions reduced complexity,


paperwork and costs as well as enabling faster and more efficient transactions, reducing delays
and increasing operational efficiencies.
• Trust and ownership – blockchain participants had control over their data and digital assets and
could verify ownership and asset provenance, increasing trust and confidence in the system.
However, there were disadvantages to the technology:
• Scalability – the process of reaching consensus and recording transactions in public
blockchains could be time-consuming and resource-intensive, slowing down transaction times
and increasing costs
• Energy consumption – some blockchains, Bitcoin, for example, used a consensus mechanism
called Proof of Work (PoW) which required significant computational power and thus increasing
energy consumption, raising concerns about sustainability and environmental impact.
• Interoperability – blockchain networks were often created using different protocols and
standards hampering seamless data exchange and collaboration between different blockchains.
• Human error and governance – although designed to be immutable, human error was not
unknown during development, implementation and maintenance stages. Lack of clear
governance could also lead to disagreements and decision-making challenges.

• Regulatory and legal challenges – legislation in different territories was still nascent and legal
challenges concerning data privacy, intellectual property and cross-border transactions
occurred. Compliance with existing regulations was complex and time consuming.

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References

1
Honour International Symposium 2016, Jack Ma. www.youtube.com/watch?v=n1s8I2xREZs (accessed April 2023).
2
Digman, L. ‘Alibaba, Yahoo, Softbank settle Alipay rift’. CNET.com, July 29, 2011, www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-
software/alibaba-yahoo-softbank-settle-alipay-rift/ (accessed April 2023).
3
‘Ant Financial Unveils China’s First Credit-Scoring System Using Online Data’. Businesswire.com, January 27, 2015,
www.businesswire.com/news/home/20150127006582/en/Ant-Financial-Unveils-China%E2%80%99s-First-Credit-Scoring-
System-Using-Online-Data (accessed April 2023).
4
Ming, C. ‘FICO with Chinese characteristics: nice rewards, but punishing penalties’. CNBC.com, March 16, 2017,
www.cnbc.com/2017/03/16/china-social-credit-system-ant-financials-sesame-credit-and-others-give-scores-that-go-beyond-
fico.html (accessed April 2023).
5
Shead, S. ‘China’s Ant Financial just raised the biggest funding round in history’. Businessinsider.com, April 26, 2016,
www.businessinsider.com/ant-financial-raises-45-billion-at-a-60-billion-valuation-2016-4?r=US&IR=T.
6
Yang. J. ‘Jack Ma’s Ant Plans Major Revamp in Response to Chinese Pressure’. The Wall Street Journal, November 3, 2020,
www.wsj.com/articles/jack-mas-ant-plans-major-revamp-in-response-to-chinese-pressure-11611749842 (accessed April 2023).
7
Yang, Y., Goh, B. & Wu, K. ‘Ant Group founder Jack Ma to give up control in key revamp’. Reuters.com, January 7, 2023,
www.reuters.com/business/ant-group-says-jack-ma-relinquishes-control-company-2023-01-07/ (accessed April 2023).
8
Shin, F. ‘What’s behind China’s cryptocurrency ban?’ World Economic Forum, January 31. 2022,
www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/01/what-s-behind-china-s-cryptocurrency-
ban/#:~:text=In%20late%20September%202021%2C%20the,to%20their%20highly%20speculative%20nature (accessed April
2023).
9
Liao, R. ‘Hellobike, survivor of China’s bike-sharing craze, goes electric’. Techcrunch.com, July 15, 2019,
https://techcrunch.com/2019/07/14/china-micromobility-
hellobike/?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAM-
fu8VTEk5EYx1xOebLHlarKg6dOGKWlILID8hVMVPcZsFEz2EAXJzVa29dUfHiMOkwoFe9g4d8LC8qer5UGvVw72iRhSLq4SWP
9Sozp0vEXu1xp9WnQW3yci3J-bu80dSbxYA_4OuqbTeBA4Kk1Cxx2h6XJ1AsILEvB-TlbrPS (accessed April 2023).
10
Ibid.
11
‘Shenzhen Railway Building Materials and Ant Chain have reached a cooperation to jointly promote the green and low-carbon
development of the building materials industry’. Baidu.com, 12 August 2022,
https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1740936496142811099&wfr=spider&for=pc (accessed April 2023).

© 2023 London Business School. Page 12

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W18592

R3 CORDA: A DISTRIBUTED LEDGER TECHNOLOGY FOR FINANCIAL


SERVICES

Michael R. King wrote this case solely to provide material for class discussion. The author does not intend to illustrate either effective
or ineffective handling of a managerial situation. The author may have disguised certain names and other identifying information to
protect confidentiality.

This publication may not be transmitted, photocopied, digitized, or otherwise reproduced in any form or by any means without the
permission of the copyright holder. Reproduction of this material is not covered under authorization by any reproduction rights
organization. To order copies or request permission to reproduce materials, contact Ivey Publishing, Ivey Business School, Western
University, London, Ontario, Canada, N6G 0N1; (t) 519.661.3208; (e) [email protected]; www.iveycases.com.

Copyright © 2018, Ivey Business School Foundation Version: 2020-08-25

In December 2016, David Rutter, founder and chief executive officer of R3, was preparing for an offsite
meeting with his management team to discuss the future of his company. R3 was a blockchain technology
company with headquarters in New York. The company was leading a network of over 100 banks, financial
institutions, and technology companies to develop Corda, a distributed ledger technology (DLT) designed
specifically for the financial services industry. Since founding R3 in 2014, Rutter had built up the start-up’s
global team to comprise over 180 professionals in nine countries.

R3 had crossed many milestones in its brief history. A first milestone had been the strategic decision not to
pursue the traditional Silicon Valley route of partnering with venture capitalists (VCs) but instead create a
consortium with banks to collaboratively explore this new technology. A second milestone had been the
decision to abandon existing DLTs and build an enterprise-grade blockchain from scratch called Corda. At
the end of 2016, R3 was at another turning point. Rutter had to decide on a business model to monetize
Corda without alienating R3’s bank members and other partners.

FOUNDING OF R3

By early 2012, Rutter had been the chief executive officer of British brokerage firm ICAP Plc’s electronic
brokerage businesses for a decade, with responsibility for the fixed income platform Brokertec and the
foreign exchange platform EBS. In this role, Rutter’s job had been to convince the banks to adopt new
electronic trading platforms that disrupted their traditional voice brokerage business. In March 2012, Rutter
had a disagreement on the direction of the business and left ICAP Plc to pursue other opportunities.

In early 2013, Rutter started two businesses: Liquidity Edge LLC and R3CEV (later renamed R3). Liquidity
Edge LLC focused on developing an electronic trading platform for U.S. Treasuries. R3CEV was a vehicle
for investing in technology ventures and consulting on electronic exchanges. Rutter recruited Jesse Edwards
and Todd McDonald as partners for R3CEV where the R represented Rutter’s name, 3 was the number of
partners, and CEV captured the focus on crypto, exchanges, and ventures. The term crypto describes the
use of cryptography to secure digital assets such as the electronic money bitcoin. The three partners were
fascinated by the emerging blockchain technology that underpinned bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies. In
November 2016, the CEV initials were dropped and the company became simply R3 (see Exhibit 1).

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Explorations in Silicon Valley

In early 2014, the R3 partners went to Palo Alto in California’s Silicon Valley to meet with bitcoin and
blockchain startups and scout out potential investments. Rutter was amazed at the number of young and
inexperienced entrepreneurs with a PowerPoint deck and shallow business plan who believed they could
disrupt huge financial incumbents, such as the Depository Trust & Clearing Corporation, CLS Bank, and J.P.
Morgan. Rutter saw that these entrepreneurs were “completely unaware of the crucial role these institutions
play in global financial markets.” 1 And yet, despite having no understanding of how Wall Street actually
worked, these entrepreneurs were raising millions of dollars from Silicon Valley VCs at ridiculous valuations.

Having spent over half of his career introducing new technologies to the financial industry’s incumbents,
Rutter was uniquely positioned to understand the promise of blockchain for solving a major pain point for
financial market participants—namely, the clearing, settlement, and record keeping of financial assets.
Clearing referred to the process of transmitting, reconciling, and confirming transactions prior to settlement.
Settlement referred to a business process whereby securities were delivered in simultaneous exchange for
payment of money. Rutter saw an opportunity to move this non-proprietary, back-office function out of
individual banks and into the cloud, where the expense could be shared across firms and where
cryptographic tools could be used to create trust among participants. Driving back from the meetings along
California’s Highway 405, Rutter had an epiphany. He realized that “distributed ledgers could be to finance
what the Internet was to media.” When he got back to New York, Rutter started calling his friends in the
banks to pitch his vision of a shared, cryptographically-secured ledger. Given his experience and credibility,
the bankers encouraged him to put together a business plan.

By the end of 2014, Rutter was a seed investor in several financial technology (fintech) start-ups, including
Align Commerce (later renamed Veem), the first global payments platform to use blockchain technology,
and Digital Asset Holdings, the DLT company headed by Blythe Masters. Rutter also thought that R3
should create its own solution. Realizing that they lacked the technical knowledge of blockchain, Rutter
reached out to IBM’s Richard Gendal Brown after reading his online blogs. After six months of
conversations, Rutter convinced Brown to join R3 as chief technology officer in late 2015. Rutter also hired
James Carlyle and Mike Hearn as chief engineer and lead platform engineer, respectively (see Exhibit 2).

Creating the R3 Consortium

Rutter chose a creative approach to learn what the banks needed and what they were doing in-house. R3 hosted
three roundtables to debate blockchain and its applications with bankers, VCs, technology companies, and
other stakeholders. The first roundtable discussion was held in New York in September 2014, the second one
in California in December 2014, and the third back in New York in May 2015. These eight-hour sessions were
part-education, part-sales opportunity. As Rutter explained, the goal was “to deeply consider what the
possible implications of the blockchain were, and what it could possibly do to save money, and time, and
to create a better paradigm for the world of Wall Street and finance.”2

These meetings led to wish lists of where blockchain could reduce back-office costs, covering everything
from security issuance to clearing and settlement. A promising area was smart contracts, which were
software programs that converted the terms of financial agreements into executable code secured on a

1
Tom Osborn, “David Rutter: Gambling on Blockchain and a Treasuries Revolution,” Digital Risk, May 5, 2016, accessed
August 3, 2018, www.risk.net/derivatives/2456959/david-rutter-gambling-on-blockchain-and-a-treasuries-revolution.
2
Katherine Fletcher, “Major Banks Form Consortium to Bring Blockchain Technology to Financial Markets,” CoinReport:
Global Digital Currency News, September 17, 2015, accessed August 3, 2018, https://coinreport.net/major-banks-form-
consortium-bring-blockchain-technology-financial-markets.

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blockchain. Smart contracts took the form of a decision tree: “If X, then Y.” The code executed without
human intervention when the terms of the contract were met, such as receipt of payment against a security.

Having spent a career working with banks, Rutter knew that they were hard to convince on a new idea but
quick to write a cheque once they got on board. The problem was that they liked to boss around their
partners. Rutter also knew that a shared DLT would disrupt bank business models, so he anticipated
disagreements along the way. He needed to maintain control and avoid giving any bank too much power.
He also had to satisfy their lawyers who were concerned about antitrust and the perception of collusion.

Rutter spent 10 months putting together a complicated but innovative investment deal. R3 would create a
joint venture (JV) with the banks to develop a blockchain solution. The banks would buy memberships at
three price levels: $1 million, $2.5 million, and $5 million.3 The largest amount would come with a board
seat and other special privileges. The banks would contribute staff to different working groups. Using the
analogy of a gym membership, Rutter explained that the JV members would only get out what they put into
it. In hindsight, Rutter realized that his smartest decision was not to sell equity too early, but to build a
viable business first while maintaining control.

On September 15, 2015, R3 issued a press release announcing that nine leading global banks had formed a
partnership to build a proprietary DLT for the global financial markets.4 Speaking to the Wall Street Journal,
Rutter explained that the collaboration had three main goals. 5 First, develop a platform that could handle the
billions of dollars’ worth of transactions that occur in the financial industry. Second, build a sandbox for
experimenting with blockchain and DLT tools. And third, learn from these experiments what worked and where
the technology could best be used in financial services. By establishing standards and protocols for this emerging
technology, they hoped to facilitate broader adoption and generate network effects. The closed-door strategy
worked, by year-end 2015, 42 banks had joined the club, each paying up to $5 million for the privilege. In
a stroke, Rutter had raised over $100 million and secured the best talent without giving up any equity.

DISTRIBUTED LEDGERS VERSUS BLOCKCHAINS

From the beginning, the R3 team faced confusion from its bank partners and other stakeholders about the
difference between a blockchain and a distributed ledger. Even experienced bankers had little idea how the
two concepts were related, and often incorrectly treated them as the same. This confusion arose because
most people first heard about blockchain when also learning about bitcoin—the digital currency launched
in 2009 that recorded transactions on a public, cryptographically-secured, distributed ledger.

Although the terms blockchain and distributed ledger were often used interchangeably, there were specific
differences that made the bitcoin blockchain special. It was a permissionless distributed ledger where
unrelated transactions were batch processed into blocks and secured using cryptography. Distributed
ledgers could be public or private, permissioned or permissionless, encrypted or not. Adding to the
confusion, “blockchain” rapidly became a generic term referring to all varieties of distributed ledgers with
different properties (similar to the brand name Aspirin becoming a generic term for all headache
medications). If a distributed ledger was a car, the blockchain was a Tesla. But not all cars were Teslas.

3
All currency amounts are in US$ unless otherwise specified.
4
The initial JV members were: Barclays, BBVA, Commonwealth Bank of Australia, Credit Suisse, Goldman Sachs, J.P.
Morgan, State Street, Royal Bank of Scotland, and UBS.
5
Paul Vigna, “BitBeat: Wall Street, City Banks Join Blockchain-Focused Consortium,” Wall Street Journal, September 15,
2015, accessed August 3, 2018, https://blogs.wsj.com/moneybeat/2015/09/15/bitbeat-wall-street-city-banks-join-blockchain-
focused-consortium.

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Centralized, Decentralized, and Distributed Ledgers

A ledger was an accounting term that referred to a record of the ownership of some asset. A cash ledger,
for example, showed the amount of cash held by a company and recorded any increases and decreases. In
financial markets, ledgers recorded ownership of financial assets, such as the number of shares issued by a
company, the names of shareholders, and any transfers of ownership due to purchases or sales. Historically,
ledgers were physical books (hence the term “bookkeeping”). Electronic (or digital) ledgers had become
the norm with the rise of computers.

A ledger could be centralized, decentralized, or distributed. A centralized ledger was a single complete
record of ownership and transactions for a given asset. The ledger was centralized because one true copy
was held by a party who maintained it. The ledger verified legal title to an asset, such as a stock or a bond.
Typically securities ledgers were entrusted to a third party such as a custodian or securities depository. The
shortcoming of a centralized ledger was that it presented a single point of failure – it could be accidentally
or maliciously altered, shut down, lost, or destroyed.

A decentralized ledger was a system (or network), where the ledger was broken up into parts held and
updated in different locations. Decentralized ledgers needed to be aggregated to create a single, definitive
record. For example, a department store chain could have many stores, with each keeping a ledger of its
inventory at its location. The head office would then keep a centralized ledger, recording all inventories
across these stores for use in accounting and planning. A decentralized ledger created more potential
sources of error or points of failure. If any of the decentralized ledgers was inaccurate, the centralized ledger
would be inaccurate by extension.

A distributed ledger was a complete record of ownership and transactions for a given asset, with multiple
identical copies held in different locations. This duplication avoided the single point of failure. However, a
distributed ledger needed to be synchronized frequently to ensure its accuracy and alignment across the
network. If an entry differed across ledgers, the correct entry could be verified by using the values recorded
by the majority of the ledgers. Synchronizing distributed ledgers held in physical books was complex and
time-consuming. However, current computer algorithms could synchronize electronic ledgers instantly,
economically, and securely without the need for a central bookkeeper. The software and protocols for
recording, sharing, and synchronizing distributed ledgers were referred to generically as DLT.

A DLT, therefore, was a type of software called middleware. Middleware acted as a bridge between an
operating system (OS) and databases, on one hand, and the applications built to provide functions for users
on the other. These software systems were collectively called the “stack” with the OS and databases at the
bottom, middleware in-between and applications at the top (see Exhibit 3). Middleware played a
particularly important role when running distributed applications (dapps) on a network of computers. From
the perspective of a bank, middleware connected easy-to-use graphical user interfaces with the legacy IT
systems built in the 1970s and 1980s on mainframe computers using computer languages such as C++ and
COBOL. As banks grew organically or through mergers, back-office functions became a hodgepodge of
incompatible IT systems with databases siloed in different parts of the organization, making it difficult to
get a centralized picture of a bank’s assets and earnings.

Security and Transparency of Ledgers

Two important features of ledgers were how they handled security and the degree of transparency. Security
referred to whom had the ability to make changes to the ledger. A ledger was a legal record of ownership,
so the level of security reflected the value of the assets and the degree of trust among participants. On a

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permissioned ledger, participants needed authority to make changes to the ledger. On a permissionless
ledger, any participant (or node on a network) could change or update the ledger.

A ledger could have different transparency levels, from public and fully transparent with the contents visible
to anyone, to private and closed to the public. Typically, some participants were certified as trusted
counterparties (or nodes) and were able to make changes. However, the participants needed to agree to a
set of consensus protocols to avoid accidental or malicious alterations. To use a real estate example,
municipal records of land titles were public and transparent, but only the land registry office was authorized
to make changes to the ownership records.

Most ledgers used for business (i.e., enterprise ledgers) recorded commercially sensitive information that
was private. Transactions were recorded privately by a trusted intermediary who maintained the ledger. An
example was share ownership records that were used for voting and the distribution of dividends. The
shareholders and changes in their holdings were not broadcast publicly. Transactions were only known to
the trading counterparties and a depositary institution was delegated authority to modify the corporation’s
share ledger.

THE FINANCIAL INDUSTRY’S SHARED PAIN POINT

The main pain point facing banks and other investors was the expensive and time-consuming process of
clearing, settlement, and record keeping when trading financial assets. A financial asset could be one of many
tradeable instruments that conferred some future economic claim to the owner. Stocks and corporate bonds,
for example, were contracts issued by a corporation that entitled the holder to a claim on the corporation’s
assets and cash flows. Other financial assets were foreign exchange (or currencies), money market
instruments, fixed income securities, property, commodities, and related derivative securities.

Over time, each financial asset had developed its own trading rules, clearing and settlement procedures with
some shared conventions but many idiosyncratic characteristics. Some financial assets were traded on
exchanges in standardized amounts with the exchange acting as an intermediary between the counterparties.
But the majority of financial assets were bought and sold in the over-the-counter (OTC) market directly
between counterparties. OTC trades were unstandardized, with no intermediary between the buyer and
seller. To complicate matters further, many financial assets were traded cross-border, denominated in
different currencies, and with different regulatory and compliance requirements.

Clearing and settlement was the complex process of transferring ownership of a financial asset from one
holder to another. Because counterparties did not trust each other, they had to agree on the terms of each
trade, sign documentation, and complete delivery versus payment on an agreed settlement date. Some trades
were agreed verbally and processed manually, leading to human error and failures to settle. This problem
was so pervasive that it had a special name: settlement risk—the risk that a counterparty failed to deliver a
security or transfer payment by the settlement date.

Financial market participants spent billions of dollars each year on this complex and time-consuming process.
The consultancy Santander InnoVentures estimated that the application of DLT could reduce banks’
infrastructure costs attributable to cross-border payments, securities trading, and regulatory compliance by
between $15 billion and $20 billion per year by 2022. 6 According to Capgemini, maintaining legacy IT
systems consumed 90 per cent of bank technology budgets, with the 10 largest investment banks employing

6
“The Fintech 2.0 Paper: Rebooting Financial Services,” Santander InnoVentures, 15, June 2015, accessed July 23, 2018,
http://santanderinnoventures.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/The-Fintech-2-0-Paper.pdf.

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two middle- or back-office staff for every front-office staff member. 7 Capgemini estimated that automating
these processes could reduce back-office costs by 30 per cent annually. These savings were enormous.

Rutter’s goal was to solve this massive industry pain point. He convinced R3’s member banks that it made
better economic sense to pool their resources and to collectively develop an encrypted distributed ledger in
the cloud for this back-office process, rather than each bank struggling individually through a long, painful
and expensive process to develop its own technological solution. After all, trading was a network problem.
Therefore, for the trade to be effective, any solution had to be adopted by both counterparties.

EXPERIMENTS WITH EXISTING BLOCKCHAINS

Having identified the pain-points and the functional requirements of the member banks, R3 and its partners
set about finding a solution. Being a pragmatic business man, Rutter only cared about solving the problem
and was agnostic about the technology to do it. Guided by the mantra “adopt, adapt, or build,” Rutter divided
the JV members’ staff into two working groups that began sprinting as fast as they could to find a solution.
The first working group, known as the Lab and Research Centre (LRC), was based out of New York. Its
mandate was to test existing DLTs and blockchains to see if they could be adopted and adapted to meet the
banks’ technical requirements. The second working group, known as the Architecture Working Group
(AWG), was based out of London, U.K., and began building a new DLT from scratch.

Project Genesis

Between January 19 and February 29, 2016, the LRC ran a trial project code-named Project Genesis, with
42 member banks. The group simulated the issuance, trading, and redemption of commercial paper (CP) 8
on a variety of blockchains. Project Genesis evaluated the strengths and weaknesses of five vendors: Chain,
Eris Industries, Ethereum, IBM Hyperledger, and Intel Sawtooth. CP was chosen as the first use-case due
to its relative simplicity, allowing a better comparison of the five solutions.

Project Genesis simulated both bilateral trades between two counterparties and multilateral trades between
multiple counterparties. The simulation covered four scenarios in the CP lifecycle: the issuer created (or issued)
the CP; the issuer sold the CP to a securities dealer; the dealer sold the CP to a trader; and the issuer redeemed
the CP to a dealer or a trader. Each of these transactions were recorded on distributed ledgers hosted on cloud
computing services provided by Microsoft Azure, IBM Cloud, and Amazon AWS. Project Genesis’s ledgers
were permissioned, private and encrypted. Smart contracts updated the ledger when specific events
occurred. By using smart contracts on a permissioned distributed ledger, Project Genesis avoided the time-
consuming and expensive proof-of-work consensus protocol used by bitcoin and many cryptocurrencies.

Project Genesis provided five valuable insights. First, it demonstrated how DLT could be applied to real-
world, financial market processes. Second, as the project unfolded, it became apparent that banks had
widely varying expertise and experience with DLT solutions. Project Genesis allowed the participants to
share knowledge and insights on the strengths and weaknesses of each of the five blockchain solutions.

7
Capgemini, “Backing up the Digital Front: Digitizing the Banking Back Office”, 2017, accessed September 20, 2018,
www.capgemini.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/backing_up_the_digital_front25_11_0.pdf.
8
Commercial paper was a short-term debt instrument issued by a corporation, typically to finance accounts receivable,
inventories, and short-term liabilities. Commercial paper was usually issued at a discount from face value and reflected
prevailing interest rates; “Commercial Paper,” Investopedia, accessed August 13, 2018, www.investopedia.com/terms/c/com
mercialpaper.asp.

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Third, Project Genesis demonstrated that it was possible, with the right structure and governance, for banks
and other partners to collaborate on the development of a shared distributed ledger.

The fourth insight was that R3’s members were not looking for proprietary solutions but rather an open-
source industry standard that included opportunities for hands-on development, code review, and testing.
Banks were risk-adverse, particularly when it came to risk management, compliance, regulation, and IT
systems. Being able to review and modify the code to meet their specific requirements was critical for R3
members. Open source had the advantage of code accessibility, familiarity, and as a result, potentially
quicker adoption as an industry standard.

Finally, Project Genesis demonstrated that none of the five blockchains was enterprise-grade or near-
production, despite being considered the most advanced. There was clearly an unmet market need. Rutter
made the decision to put all of R3’s resources into developing a financial services blockchain from scratch.

A DISTRIBUTED LEDGER FOR FINANCIAL SERVICES

Starting in mid-September 2015, R3’s chief technology officer Brown led the AWG as it began putting ideas on
a white board for an enterprise-grade blockchain. Brown understood from the start that the bitcoin blockchain
would be inappropriate for financial markets, both from a processing capacity and from a transparency point of
view. The bitcoin blockchain was permissionless and consensus-based, with costly proof-of-work, slow
verification of transactions, and low throughput due to the restriction on the block size. Because it was built to
be fully transparent, every node on the bitcoin network saw and received all transactions distributed across the
system. This full transparency was anathema to financial market participants, who wanted their transactions and
holdings to be private. The bitcoin blockchain was also a self-contained system that recorded transactions in only
one asset: bitcoin. It was not interoperable with other blockchain networks. For these reasons, Brown realized
that simply “forking” or cloning the bitcoin blockchain was a non-starter.

The AWG began the arduous process of detailing the regulatory requirements that financial institutions had
to comply with when managing post-trade processes. To be successful, their blockchain would need to meet
three main goals. First, it had to provide an immutable (i.e. unable to be changed) record of past transactions.
Second, it had to combine cryptography and smart contracts with features such as privacy and
interoperability, which were standard in financial markets. Third, it had to satisfy the risk and compliance
requirements demanded in the highly-regulated, financial services industry. Brown explained: “The reality
is that solutions based on selecting the design first and then trying to apply it to arbitrary problems never
work out well. Every successful project I’ve worked on started with the requirements, not some cool piece
of technology, and I was determined to bring that discipline into our work at R3.” 9

The Problem of Untrusting Nodes

A key problem was how to tackle the lack of trust among financial counterparties. This lack of trust was
the source of most of the costs and difficulties with post-trade processes. Counterparties kept their own
internal ledgers that needed to be reconciled after every trade. When the records did not match, back-office
staff from both sides needed to reach agreement. Because one side’s profit often came at the other’s expense,
this process was inherently contentious and counterparties invariably disagreed. If these disputes escalated,

9
“Introducing R3 Corda: A Distributed Ledger Designed for Financial Services,” Richard Gendal Brown, April 5, 2016,
accessed August 3, 2018, https://gendal.me/2016/04/05/introducing-r3-corda-a-distributed-ledger-designed-for-financial-
services.

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lawyers and the courts might get involved, making the process expensive, time-consuming, and frustrating
for everyone involved.

One solution was to pay a trusted intermediary to maintain a centralized ledger and to verify transactions
between counterparties. In securities markets, this entity might be a central securities depositary, such as
the U.S. Depository Trust Company. But a trusted intermediary was expensive and still did not solve all
post-trade processing problems.

R3’s solution was to design a distributed ledger to reflect the fact that counterparties did not trust each other,
which Brown referred to as the problem of untrusting nodes. As he explained, “Distributed ledgers are systems
that enable parties who don’t fully trust each other to form and maintain consensus about the existence, status,
and evolution of a set of shared facts.”10 Nodes on R3’s distributed ledger would need to independently verify
data they received from each other and only share data they were happy to broadly share.

The Solution: R3 Corda

By March 2016, the AWG had developed a new DLT called Corda. Corda was not a traditional blockchain. It
did not bundle transactions in blocks but instead validated each transaction individually, speeding up the
processing time. Corda was a permissioned distributed ledger. No wasteful mining was required to reach
consensus on transactions; instead trusted intermediaries (called notaries) verified transactions. The ledger
was immutable and encrypted. Corda was private with no unnecessary sharing of data; only the counterparties
to a trade were sent the data. Consensus occurred between counterparties, not between all participants.

Corda featured smart contracts, with an explicit link between human-language legal documents and the
smart contract code. Smart contracts allowed settlement to occur directly on the ledger without the need for
human intermediaries. Corda’s design allowed regulators to use see transactions and verify compliance.
Corda was interoperable with other networks, and could be integrated with private business networks.
Finally, Corda did not require a native cryptocurrency or crypto-token to operate.

On April 5, 2016, Brown published a non-technical Corda white paper accompanied by a simple description
on his R3 blog. 11 His light-hearted explanation of “The Corda Way of Thinking” illustrated Corda using a
bet between two people on whether it will rain on a given day. The bet relied on physical letters, signatures,
filing cabinets, the newspaper, and the postal service, with each one corresponding to a feature in Corda
(see Exhibit 4). 12

MAKING A DECISION

By the fall of 2016, R3 had launched the first version of Corda – a blockchain built to meet the demanding
security, privacy, scalability, reliability, and throughput requirements of the regulated financial services
industry. But two problems still remained. First, Rutter had to decide how best to charge for this product.
After the business model was decided, the second issue was how best to finance the future growth of R3.

10
“On Distributed Databases and Distributed Ledgers,” Richard Gendal Brown, November 8, 2016, accessed August 3, 2018,
https://gendal.me/2016/11/08/on-distributed-databases-and-distributed-ledgers.
11
Richard G. Brown, James Carlyle, Ian Grigg, and Mike Hearn, “Corda: An Introduction,” Corda, August 2016, accessed
August 3, 2018, https://docs.corda.net/_static/corda-introductory-whitepaper.pdf.
12
“The Corda Way of Thinking”, Richard Gendal Brown, February 21, 2017, accessed August 3, 2018,
https://gendal.me/2017/02/21/the-corda-way-of-thinking.

169
Page 9 9B18M141

Should he continue with the membership model, sell equity in R3 privately, or take the company public
through an initial public offering?

Rutter saw at least three possibilities for monetizing Corda.


• One option was to follow the traditional software product strategy (such as Microsoft) or software-as-
a-service strategy (SAAS). In this business model, R3 would sell or license the Corda as a plug-and-
play middleware software solution.
• A second option was to go further and pursue a full-stack, vertically-integrated strategy. R3 would
provide an end-to-end back-office solution for its customers, developing top-of-stack distributed
applications (dapps) and a bottom-of-stack operating system and database, with Corda running as
middleware.
• A third option was to pursue a platform-as-a-service strategy built around Corda where R3 would build
a technology ecosystem involving 3rd party developers, consultants and other suppliers interacting with
banks, insurance companies, and other financial institutions.

All three business models had the potential to generate revenues but they had different implications for
costs, staffing, and relationships with R3’s members and partners (see Exhibit 5). Rutter knew this decision
would be contentious. Some of R3’s bank members favoured a proprietary solution; others were concerned
that R3 might become a direct competitor. Holding the consortium together as Corda was developed had
been a difficult balancing act. Rutter realized that this decision could easily open divisions among R3’s
members, causing the joint venture to fall apart. Any appearance of dissent or conflict would also jeopardize
plans to raise capital, possibly through a private or public sale of equity. Deep in thought, he walked into
the management offsite.

The Ivey Business School gratefully acknowledges the generous support


of the Scotiabank Digital Banking Lab in the development of this case.

170
Page 10 9B18M141

EXHIBIT 1: R3 TIMELINE, 2012 TO 2016

Date Event
David Rutter leaves ICAP Plc, where he was head of electronic
2012
brokerage.
Rutter founds R3CEV (later renamed R3), a blockchain technology
January 2013 solutions group, with Jesse Edwards and Todd McDonald as the first
two hires.
R3 founders meet with bitcoin and blockchain companies in Palo
January 2014 Alto, California, with the purpose of finding ventures to invest in. They
instead decide to create their own company.
R3 organizes round-table talks with banks in New York and San
September to December 2014
Francisco.
R3 announces the formation of a partnership to design and deliver
advanced distributed ledger technologies to global financial markets
September 15, 2015 with nine banks: Barclays, BBVA, Commonwealth Bank of Australia,
Credit Suisse, Goldman Sachs, J.P. Morgan, State Street, Royal
Bank of Scotland, and UBS.
September 29, 2015 An additional 13 banks join the R3 consortium.
The R3 consortium reaches a total of 42 banks and closes
December 31, 2015
membership for the next 12 months.
R3 and 12 member banks execute transactions on a global
January 20, 2016 distributed ledger using Ethereum tools running on Microsoft’s Azure
cloud.
R3 and 40 banks strike Project Genesis to simulate the issuing,
trading, and redemption of commercial paper via blockchain
January to February 2016
technology. The tests trial five distributed ledgers built by technology
providers Chain, Eris Industries, Ethereum, IBM, and Intel.
R3, Payments Canada, the Bank of Canada, and Canada’s five
largest banks complete tests of the viability of Ethereum as the basis
June 16, 2016
for wholesale interbank payment settlements (Project Jasper, Phase
1).
R3, Barclays, ISDA, Norton Rose Fullbright, and UCL collaborate to
July 13, 2016 address the challenges of developing master templates for smart
contracts.
R3 and over 15 banks trial smart contracts for invoice financing and
August 10, 2016
letter of credit transactions for international trade.
August 24, 2016 The first non-technical Corda white paper is released.

Source: Company documents.

171
Page 11 9B18M141

EXHIBIT 2: R3 MANAGEMENT TEAM

David E. Rutter: Founder, Chief Executive Officer


With over 30 years of experience leading some of Wall Street’s top institutions, David Rutter is a long-
time creative thought leader in financial markets and innovation and has played a significant role in the
adoption of electronic trading in the global over-the-counter derivatives industry. Rutter served for 10
years as the chief executive officer (CEO) of electronic brokerage at ICAP Plc, the world’s largest
interdealer brokerage firm, where he led the Brokertec fixed income platform and the EBS foreign
exchange platform. Prior to ICAP Plc, Rutter was co-owner and CEO (Americas) of Prebon Yamane.

Todd McDonald: Co-Founder, Head of Partnerships


Todd McDonald is a co-founder of R3 and head of ecosystem development. McDonald focuses on building
the partner application ecosystem for R3’s Corda platform. Prior to R3, McDonald spent 14 years at
Standard Chartered Bank as a managing director in the financial markets group, where he held positions
such as global head of electronic foreign exchange (FX) trading and head of FX for the Americas. McDonald
holds a bachelor of arts degree in economics and political science from Colgate University.

Jesse Edwards: Co-Founder, Head of Corporate Development


Jesse Edwards is a co-founder of R3 and serves as the firm’s executive vice-president and head of
corporate development. Edwards helps lead execution of the firm’s strategic vision and directs
investments and partnerships. Prior to founding R3, Edwards was an investment banker at Sandler
O’Neill & Partners and more recently at AGC Partners, where he advised large global financial institutions
and financial technology companies. Edwards holds a bachelor of science degree and an MBA from
Cornell University.

Richard Gendal Brown: Chief Technology Officer


Richard Brown is the chief technology officer at R3 and is one of the world’s leading authorities on distributed
ledger systems and architectures. Previously, Brown was the executive architect for banking and financial
markets industry innovation at IBM United Kingdom. His previous roles with the company, for whom he worked
for almost 15 years, included lead account architect for a global investment banking client and a consultant
for IBM software products. Brown is a chartered engineer and holds an MBA with distinction from Warwick
Business School and a first-class degree in mathematics from Trinity College, Cambridge.

James Carlyle: Chief Engineer


James Carlyle is focused on defining a candidate architecture and building out a collaborative lab for
experimentation by network members. Previously, Carlyle was chief engineer within corporate banking
at Barclays, where he designed and delivered the bank’s corporate Internet channel and the bank’s US
banking and dollar clearing platforms. Before Barclays, Carlyle co-founded two start-ups. He holds
patents in mobile data search and directory technology. He is a chartered engineer and holds a degree
in engineering science from University College, Durham.

Mike Hearn: Lead Platform Engineer


Mike Hearn is lead platform engineer at R3. He has over five years of experience with bitcoin, blockchain,
and distributed ledger systems. He spent nearly eight years at Google, where he was a senior software
engineer. Hearn was one of the world’s first developers of software for the bitcoin platform, including its
smart contract capabilities. He developed the world’s most popular bitcoin wallet software.

Source: Company documents.

172
Page 12 9B18M141

EXHIBIT 3: ILLUSTRATION OF SOFTWARE STACK

This figure illustrates a stylized software stack for a bank. At the bottom of the stack sits the computer operating
system and databases. At the top of the stack are distributed applications run by users throughout the
organization. The middleware is the software that acts as a bridge between the operating system and
databases at the bottom and the distributed applications at the top. Collectively, all three levels are known as
the full stack. Bank applications were historically developed by Fidelity National Information Services Inc. (FIS)
Global, Fiserv Inc. (Fiserv), Microsoft Corporation, and SAP SE (SAP). Mainframe operating systems were
developed by Hewlett-Packard (HP), IBM, and Linux.org (Linux) with database software provided by Oracle
Corporation and International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), among others. Examples of distributed
ledger technology (DLT) middleware were R3 Corda, Hyperledger Fabric, and Ethereum.

Note: Fidelity National Information Services Inc. (FIS) Global, Fiserv Inc., SAP SE (SAP), Microsoft Corporation, Hewlett-
Packard (HP), International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), Linux.org, and Oracle Corporation.,
Source: Created by case author based on case information.

173
Page 13 9B18M141

EXHIBIT 4: CORDA KEY CONCEPTS—THE WEATHER BET ANALOGY

Richard Brown, R3’s chief technology officer, used the following analogy to explain Corda:

Imagine that two friends, Richard and Albert, make a bet that it will rain next Wednesday. If it does, Albert owes
Richard $10. Otherwise, Richard owes Albert. They agree on the rules: the winner will be decided by looking at
the weather report in a specific newspaper next Thursday. They write out the bet on a piece of paper, and both
sides keep a signed photocopy in their filing cabinets. On Thursday, the newspaper reports that it rained the
previous day so Albert wins the bet. Albert mails the newspaper weather report with a signed letter to Richard
asking for payment of $10. Albert’s letter is delivered by postal service to Richard’s address.

Analogy Responsibility Corda Component Digital Ledger Technology Role

Bet written on a Represents State object Stores smart contract with references
sheet of paper contract or deal to legal prose (i.e., the “rulebook”)

Filing cabinet Keeps track of Vault Stores state objects


papers

Rulebook Provides rules that Contract Code Provides verifications and rules that
govern the bet govern the state object’s evolution

Newspaper Provides weather Oracle Third-party trusted data source


weather report on day of bet referenced for specific deal

Cover letter One party updating Transactions Method of evolving the state objects
sent with the other party on as governed by contract code
newspaper the outcome of the
report bet, with evidence
attached

Signature Proof that the letter Signature (digital) Proof that a transaction was really
really did come done by who claims to have done the
from who it claims transaction (i.e., prevents
to be from repudiation)

Postal service Ensures that letters Network Map Provides a reliable way of ensuring
are sent to the Service & that transactions are delivered to
correct parties and Point-to-Point precisely the right parties and nobody
delivered reliably Messaging Network else

Source: Company documents.

174
Page 14 9B18M141

EXHIBIT 5: DIFFERENT BUSINESS MODELS TO MONETIZE CORDA

Software-as-a-Service Strategy

The first option is to follow a traditional software product strategy (such as a Microsoft’s model) or
software-as-a-service strategy (SAAS). R3 could sell or license Corda as a digital ledger technology
(DLT) solution for banks and institutional investors. Customers that buy Corda would need to
integrate it into their information technology (IT) systems, replacing their back-office processes with
Corda’s state-of-the-art, cryptographically-secure ledger, which can be connected with their trading
counterparties. Much like Microsoft, who sells an operating system but does not build the computer,
R3 would focus on developing the best DLT on the market but not on building or configuring the
hardware. In addition to revenues from software sales and licensing, R3 would earn additional
revenues from customer support, training, and customization of the product. And as Corda’s
software is improved, R3 can sell or licence the latest release, creating a recurring revenue stream.

Full-Stack, Vertically-Integrated Strategy

The second option is to go further and pursue a full-stack, vertically-integrated strategy, where R3
provides an end-to-end DLT solution for its customers. This full-stack approach allows R3 to bypass
incumbents who provide back-office services (such as depositaries and clearing houses) and deal
directly with the end customer. A good example is Apple’s strategy for its desktop computer, the
popular Apple Macintosh series. Apple manufactures the computer, develops the operating system
(i.e., Mac OS) and software applications (e.g., Apple Mail, iPhoto, iTunes, and Safari), and controls
the distribution and support (through Apple stores). By controlling the end-to-end customer experience
and the value-chain, R3 would capture a greater portion of Corda’s economic value.

Platform-as-a-Service Strategy

The third option is to pursue a platform-as-a-service strategy built around Corda. Under this
business model, which some call technology ecosystem, R3 would give away the proprietary Corda
software to encourage adoption, much like Google did with the Android operating system. R3 would
seek to establish Corda as the industry standard DLT and build network effects around a community
of users. For this to happen, Corda’s software would need to be open-source and available free to
download, encouraging a community of third-party developers and IT experts to modify it to meet
their customers’ needs. R3 would monetize the Corda platform by selling add-ons such as technical
support, training, reporting, middleware, storage, testing, and other services. R3 could also sell a
more sophisticated version of Corda that contains more features.

Source: Case writer.

175
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THIS COURSE PACK IS NON-REFUNDABLE
FINE 691 (Tinn) Advanced Topics of Finance – Fintech for Business W24

ISBN: 9781459963627

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