Topic 1.2 - Uncertainties and Errors

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties
1.2 – Uncertainties and errors

Nature of science:
Uncertainties: “All scientific knowledge is uncertain.
When the scientist tells you he does not know the
answer, he is an ignorant man. When he tells you he
has a hunch about how it is going to work, he is
uncertain about it. When he is pretty sure of how it is
going to work, he still is in some doubt. And it is of
paramount importance, in order to make progress,
that we recognize this ignorance and this doubt.
Because we have the doubt, we then propose
looking in new directions for new ideas.”
– Feynman, Richard P. 1998. The Meaning of
It All: Thoughts of a Citizen-Scientist.
Reading, Massachusetts, USA. Perseus. P 13.
Understandings:
• Random and systematic errors
• Absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainties
• Error bars
• Uncertainty of gradients and intercepts
Applications and skills:
• Explaining how random and systematic errors can be
identified and reduced
• Collecting data that include absolute and/or fractional
uncertainties and stating these as an uncertainty
range (expressed as: best estimate ± uncertainty
range)
• Propagating uncertainties through calculations
involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
and raising to a power
• Determining the uncertainty in gradients and intercepts
Guidance:
• Analysis of uncertainties will not be expected for
trigonometric or logarithmic functions in
examinations
Data booklet reference:
• If y = a  b then y = a + b
• If y = a · b / c then y / y = a / a + b / b + c / c
• If y = a n then y / y = | n · a / a |
Random and systematic errors
Error in measurement is expected because of the
imperfect nature of us and our measuring devices.
For example a typical meter stick has marks at every
millimeter (10-3 m or 1/1000 m).
EXAMPLE: Consider the following line whose length we
wish to measure. How long is it?
0 1
SOLUTION: It is closer
1 cm 1 mm
to 1.2 cm than to 1.1 cm,
so we say it measures 1.2 cm (or 12 mm or 0.012
m).
Error in measurement is expected because of the
imperfect nature of us and our measuring devices.
We say the precision or uncertainty in our
measurement is  1 mm.
EXAMPLE: Consider the following line whose length we
wish to measure. How long is it?
0 1
SOLUTION: It is closer
1 cm 1 mm
to 1.2 cm than to 1.1 cm,
so we say it measures 1.2 cm (or 12 mm or 0.012
m).
FYI We record L = 12 mm  1 mm.
SOLUTION:
· 6.2 is the nearest reading.
· The uncertainty is certainly less than 0.5.
Random error is error due to the recorder, rather than
the instrument used for the measurement.
Different people may measure the same line
slightly differently. You may in fact measure the
same line differently on two different occasions.
EXAMPLE: Suppose Bob measures L = 11 mm
 1 mm and Ann measures L = 12 mm  1 mm.
0 1
· Then Bob guarantees that the line falls between 10
mm and 12 mm.
· Ann guarantees it is between 11 mm and 13 mm.
· Both are absolutely correct.
Random error is error due to the recorder, rather than
the instrument used for the measurement.
Different people may measure the same line
slightly differently. You may in fact measure the
same line differently on two different occasions.
Perhaps the ruler wasn’t perfectly lined up.
Perhaps your eye was viewing at an angle rather
than head-on. This is called a parallax error.
FYI
The only way to minimize random error
is to take many readings of the same
measurement and to average them all together.
Systematic error is error due to the instrument being
“out of adjustment.”
A voltmeter might have a zero offset error.
A meter stick might be rounded on one end.
Now Bob measures the same line at 13 mm  1 mm.
Worn
off end 0 1
Furthermore, every measurement Bob makes will be off

by that same amount.
FYI
Systematic errors are usually difficult to detect.
The following game where a catapult launches darts
with the goal of hitting the bull’s eye illustrates the
difference between precision and accuracy.
Trial 1 RE Trial 2 RE Trial 3 RE Trial 4 RE
SE SE SE SE
Low Precision Low Precision High Precision High Precision

Hits not grouped Hits not grouped Hits grouped Hits grouped
Low Accuracy High Accuracy Low Accuracy High Accuracy
Average well Average right Average well Average right
below bulls eye at bulls eye below bulls eye at bulls eye
PRACTICE:
SOLUTION:
· This is like the rounded-end ruler. It will produce a
systematic error.
· Thus its error will be in accuracy, not precision.
Absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainties
Absolute error is the raw uncertainty or precision of
your measurement.
EXAMPLE:
A student measures the length of a line with a wooden
meter stick to be 11 mm  1 mm. What is the absolute
error or uncertainty in her measurement?
SOLUTION:
· The  number is the absolute error. Thus 1 mm is the
absolute error.
· 1 mm is also the precision.
1 mm is also the raw uncertainty.
Fractional error is given by
fractional error
Absolute Error
Fractional Error =
Measured Value
EXAMPLE:
meter stick to be 11 mm  1 mm. What is the fractional
error or uncertainty in her measurement?
SOLUTION:
· Fractional error = 1 / 11 = 0.09.
FYI ”Fractional” errors are usually expressed as
decimal numbers rather than fractions.
Percentage error is given by
percentage error
Absolute Error
Percentage Error = Measured Value · 100%
EXAMPLE:
meter stick to be 11 mm  1 mm. What is the
percentage error or uncertainty in her measurement?
SOLUTION:
· Percentage error = (1 / 11) ·100% = 9%
FYI Don’t forget to include the percent sign.
PRACTICE:
A student measures the voltage shown. What
are the absolute, fractional and percentage
uncertainties of his measurement? Find the
precision and the raw uncertainty.
SOLUTION:
· Absolute uncertainty = 0.001 V.
· Fractional uncertainty = 0.001/0.385 = 0.0026.
· Percentage uncertainty = 0.0026(100%) = 0.26%.
· Precision is 0.001 V.
· Raw uncertainty is 0.001 V.
PRACTICE:
SOLUTION:
· Find the average of the two measurements:
(49.8 + 50.2) / 2 = 50.0.
· Find the range / 2 of the two measurements:
(50.2 – 49.8) / 2 = 0.2.
· The measurement is 50.0  0.2 cm.
Propagating uncertainties through calculations
To find the uncertainty in a sum or difference you
just add the uncertainties of all the ingredients.
In formula form we have
uncertainty in sums and differences
If y = a  b then ∆y = ∆a + ∆b
FYI
Note that whether or not the calculation has a + or a -,
the uncertainties are ADDED.
Uncertainties NEVER REDUCE ONE ANOTHER.
To find the uncertainty in a sum or difference you
just add the uncertainties of all the ingredients.
EXAMPLE:
A 9.51  0.15 meter rope ladder is hung from a
roof that is 12.56  0.07 meters above the
ground. How far is the bottom of the ladder
from the ground?
SOLUTION:
· y = a – b = 12.56 - 9.51 = 3.05 m
· ∆y = ∆a + ∆b = 0.15 + 0.07 = 0.22 m
Thus the bottom is 3.05  0.22 m from the ground.
To find the uncertainty in a product or quotient you
just add the percentage or fractional uncertainties of all
the ingredients.
In formula form we have
uncertainty in products and quotients
If y = a · b / c then ∆y / y = ∆a / a + ∆b / b + ∆c / c
FYI
Whether or not the calculation has a  or a ,
the uncertainties are ADDED.
You can’t add numbers having different units, so we
use fractional uncertainties for products and quotients.
To find the uncertainty in a product or quotient you
just add the percentage or fractional uncertainties of all
the ingredients.
EXAMPLE: A car travels 64.7  0.5 meters in 8.65 
0.05 seconds. What is its speed?
SOLUTION: Use rate = distance divided by time.
· r = d / t = 64.7 / 8.65 = 7.48 m s-1
· ∆r / r = ∆d / d + ∆t / t = .5 / 64.7 + .05 / 8.65 = 0.0135
∆r / 7.48 = 0.0135 so that
∆r = 7.48( 0.0135 ) = 0.10 m s-1.
Thus, the car is traveling at 7.48  0.10 m s-1.
PRACTICE:
SOLUTION:
· ∆P / P = ∆I / I + ∆I / I + ∆R / R
∆P / P = 2% + 2% + 10% = 14%.
PRACTICE:
SOLUTION:
· ∆F / F = 0.2 / 10 = 0.02 = 2%.
· ∆m / m = 0.1 / 2 = 0.05 = 5%.
· ∆a / a = ∆F / F + ∆m / m = 2% + 5% = 7%.
PRACTICE:
SOLUTION:
· ∆r / r = 0.5 / 10 = 0.05 = 5%.
· A = r2.
· Then ∆A / A = ∆r / r + ∆r / r = 5% + 5% = 10%.
Uncertainty of gradient and intercepts
IB has a requirement that when you conduct an
experiment of your own design, you must have a
minimum of five variations in your independent
variable.
And for each variation of your independent variable
you must conduct three trials to gather the values of
the dependent variable.
The three values for each dependent variable will then
be averaged.
The
“good”
Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties header
This is a well designed table containing all of
the information and data points required by IB:
3 Trials
( manipulated )
( responding )
Independent
Dependent
Graphical Techniques
• Graphs are very useful for analysing the data that is
collected during investigations
• Graphing is one of the most valuable tools used because
– it gives a visual display of the relationship between
two or more variables
– shows which data points do not obey the relationship
– gives an indication at which point a relationship
ceases to be true
– used to determine the constants in an equation
relating two variables
• You need to be able to give a qualitative physical
interpretation of a particular graph
• e.g. as the potential difference increases, the ionization
current also increases until it reaches a maximum at…..
• Independent variables are plotted on the x-axis
• Dependent variables are plotted on the y-axis
• Most graphs occur in the 1st quadrant however some
may appear in all 4
• Size of graph should be large, to fill as much space as
possible
• choose a convenient scale that is easily subdivided
• Each axis is labeled with the name and symbol, as well
as the relevant unit used
• The graph should also be given a descriptive title
• When choosing the line or curve it is best to use a
transparent ruler
• Position the ruler until it lies along an ideal line
• The line or curve does not have to pass through every
point
• Do not assume that all lines should pass through the
origin
• Do not do dot to dot!
x
Analysing the Graph
• Often a relationship between variables will first produce
a parabola, hyperbola or an exponential growth or decay.
These can be transformed to a straight line relationship
• General equation for a straight line is
y = mx + c
• y is the dependent variable, x is the independent
variable, m is the gradient and c is the y-intercept
• The parameters of a function can also be obtained from
the slope (m) and the intercept (c) of a straight line
graph
Analysing the Graph
• Gradient = vertical run / horizontal run
• or gradient = y / x
• uphill slope is positive and downhill slope is negative
• Don´t forget to give the units of the gradient
• The area under a graph is a useful tool
• e.g. on a force displacement graph the area is work (N x
m = J)
• e.g. on a speed time graph the area is distance (ms-1 x s
= m)
• Again, don´t forget the units of the area
Analysing the Graph
• A straight line passing through the origin shows
proportionality
y yx
k = rise/run y=kx
Where k is the constant

of proportionality
x
Analysing the Graph
• A parabola shows that y is directly proportional to x2
y y
x x2
i.e. y  x2 or y = kx2
where k is the constant of proportionality
Analysing the Graph
• A hyperbola shows that y is inversely proportional to x
y y text
Click to add
x 1/x
i.e. y  1/x or y = k/x
Analysing the Graph
• An inverse square law graph is also a hyperbola
y y
x 1/x2
i.e. y  1/x2 or y = k/x2
Analysing the Graph
• You need to make a connection between graphs and
Non-Standard Graphs
equations
y
If this is a graph of r against t2
plotted from data having an expected
relationship r = at2/2 +r0 where a is a
x constant
Then the gradient is a/2 and the y-intercept

is r0 - it is not the case that r  t2, it is a linear relationship
The intercept is therefore important too
The size of the error bar in the graph is then up two
and down two at each point in the graph:
Error bars
go up 2 and
down 2 at
each point.
To determine the uncertainty in the gradient and
intercepts of a best fit line we look only at the first and
last error bars, as illustrated here: m max
pt
m b e st
rce
pe
bmin mmin
inte
slo
bbest Recall: y = mx + b
bmax
mmax - mmin slope &
mbest  m = mbest 
2 uncertainty
bmax - bmin intercept &

bbest  b = bbest 
2 uncertainty
The slope uncertainty calculation is shown here:
mmax - mmin
m =
2
m =
-
1.375 - -
1.875
2
m =  0.25
The intercept uncertainty calculation is shown here:
bmax - bmin
b =
2
b = 53 - 57
2
b =  2
Finally, the finished graph:
m = -1.6  0.3 cm sheet -1

b = 56  2 cm
EXAMPLE:
SOLUTION:
· Look for the line to lie within all horizontal and vertical
error bars.
· Only graph B satisfies this requirement.
SIMPLE PENDULUM
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/pendulum-lab/lates
t/pendulum-lab_en.html
T = 2𝝿√(l/g)

Topic 1.2 - Uncertainties and Errors

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Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

1.2 – Uncertainties and errors

Furthermore, every measurement Bob makes will be off

Low Precision Low Precision High Precision High Precision

Where k is the constant

• A parabola shows that y is directly proportional to x2

Then the gradient is a/2 and the y-intercept

bmax - bmin intercept &

m = -1.6  0.3 cm sheet -1

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