1

Traumatic Brain Injury Module

for DSHS

Giles Gifford, EMT

Monica S. Vavilala, MD

ALS & BLS provider

TBI Epidemiology:
Nationally

Yearly 1.7 million people sustain Traumatic Brain

Injury,(TBI)
~1.36 million are treated in ED and discharged.
275,000 are hospitalized
80,000 to 90,000 are disabled
52,000 die
Today, 5.3 million Americans (~ 2%) are living with
TBI-related disability and ~1% of people with
severe TBI survive in a persistent vegetative state
In 2000, the estimated lifetime direct medical costs
and indirect costs (such as loss of life long

TBI Epidemiology: WA
State
Population; 6,664,195 - Jul 2009
Source: U.S. Census Bureau

TBI ~ 10% of all injury related hospitalizations

TBI deaths are about 29% of all injury related
fatalities
Nearly 123,750 residents with TBI related disabilities
~ 26,000 residents had TBI (20052009)
~ 5,500 hospitalizations and 1,300 deaths/year
(20022006)

WA Epidemiology: TBI Causes

From 2003-2007, falls, being struck by an object, and motor vehicle related TBI
injuries made about 90% of all TBI related hospitalizations and falls, firearms
and motor vehicle related injuries made about 91% of TBI deaths.

WA Epidemiology: TBI Hospitalizations

by Cause

TBI Hospitalizations due to transport injuries of various types fell in the

early years, and then plateaued. Falls increased since the late 1990s,
explaining the overall rise in TBI Hospitalizations. TBI hospitalizations
by firearm injury remains low due to the low survival rate from the
initial injury.

WA Epidemiology: Elderly Fall Related

TBI
TBI related hospitalizations and deaths will
steadily increase over the next few decades as
the baby-boom generation (those born from 1946
to 1964) steadily ages
1 in 3 adults age 65+ falls each year
1 in 2 adults age 80+ falls each year
1 out of 5 falls causes a serious injury such as a
head trauma (TBI) or fracture
Only 1 in 5 people who are hospitalized for falls
ever return home

WA Epidemiology: TBI Hospitalizations

by Age

Who is at Risk ?
Elderly
Age 15-24 years
Male gender

Traumatic Brain Injury

(TBI)

Injuries to the brain caused by physical trauma to

the head.
Can be penetrating or blunt force injury
Two forms of injury
Primary
Direct trauma to brain and vascular structures
Examples: contusions, hemorrhages, and other
direct mechanical injury to brain contents
(brain, CSF, blood).
Secondary
Ongoing pathophysiologic processes continue to
injure brain for weeks after TBI
Primary focus in TBI management is to
identify and limit or stop secondary injury

Secondary
Injury

After initial TBI, priorities are:

Identification of secondary insults
Intracranial hypertension from expanding
intracranial hematoma / brain swelling results
in elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) and/or
herniation
Hypoxia from ventillatory/circulatory failure,
airway obstruction, apnea, lung injury,
aspiration
Hypotension associated spinal cord injury,
blood loss
Inadequate cerebral blood flow can cause
inadequate oxygen and glucose delivery
Hypercarbia from inadequate ventilation,
apnea

10

Signs and Symptoms

Signs
diminished
consciousness
convulsions or seizures
dilation of one or both
pupils
slurred speech
repeated vomiting or
nausea
increasing confusion,
restlessness, or agitation

Symptoms

headache
blurred vision
ringing in the ear
bad taste in the mouth
weakness or numbness
in extremities
loss of coordination
dizziness/lightheadedne
ss

11

Scene
Awareness
Include the following in the patient care report:
Kinematics leading up to the injury
MVC speed, restraints, intrusion, helmet
Assault head vs. object, repeat assault?
Sports related body position, speed at impact
Witness account of Patient Behavior after Injury
LOC, slurred speech, inappropriate behavior,
duration

12

Documentation

Complete documentation could have a positive

impact throughout a TBI patients life
Diagnosis and Treatment after the injury may
depend on thoroughness of PCR
Include events occurring pre and post injury
and before EMS arrival
Ensure a successful hand off of the run sheet to
the patient care providers in the ED.
After obtaining signature, if possible ensure a
copy of the PCR is included in the patient chart

13

Documentation
Specific items to document include:

Mechanism of Injury/ LOC?

Primary symptoms/associated symptoms
Serial vital signs HR, BP, RR
Component GCS and Pupils
Procedures preformed
Transportation decisions

Assessment:
Overview

14

Airway:
Priorities

Breathing:
Oxygenation
Hypoxemia

Circulation:
Hypotension
Shock
Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS):
Priorities
Patient Interaction
Components
Motor Component
Score
Pupils:
Value
Pathophysiology
Abnormalities
Cerebral Herniation:
Indicators

15

Airway:
Priorities

Determine that airway is open and maintain

patency
Assess need for artificial airway
Reassess every 5 minutes and as needed
Maintain cervical spine precautions
Use cervical collar during transport

16
Breathing: Oxygenation

Assess rate, rhythm, depth, quality, and

effectiveness of ventilation (movement of air in and
out of the lungs) every 5 minutes and as needed
If possible use continuous SpO2 monitoring
Avoid inadvertent hyperventilation
If no SpO2 monitoring look for apnea and
slow/irregular breathing to indicate adequate tissue
oxygenation and carbon dioxide removal levels

17
Breathing: Hypoxemia

Assess and monitor for hypoxemia (SpO2 <90%)

Occurs in 40% of TBI cases
If pulse oximetry not available, observe patient
for indirect signs of hypoxia
Potential Signs and Symptoms of Hypoxia:
Blue or dusky mucus membranes
Impaired judgment
Confusion, delirium, agitation
Decreased level of consciousness
Tachycardia-heart rate > 100 beats per minute
for adult
Cyanosis of fingernails and lips
Tachypnea - At or above 20 breaths per minute
for adult

Circulation:
Hypotension

18

Monitor for hypotension - inadequate cerebral blood

flow can cause inadequate oxygen and glucose
delivery
Adult hypotension, systolic blood pressure (SBP)
<90mm Hg

Monitor for hypertension - may indicate raised ICP

when associated with bradycardia and irregular
respiration
Use correct cuff size to measure systolic and
diastolic blood pressure
Cuff too small (false high or normal), too large
(false low)

19

Circulation: Shock

It is very important to recognize the signs and

symptoms of shock and it is something that every
EMS provider can do
Signs and Symptoms of Shock:
Skin cyanosis, pallor
Restlessness, anxiety, change in level of consciousness
Tachycardia rapid heart rate, greater than 100 beats per
minuet
Tachypnea rapid, shallow respiratory rate
Narrowed pulse pressure reduction in the range
between the systolic and diastolic blood pressure
Cool extremities
Hypotension SBP < 90 mm Hg

If spinal shock is associated patient may be

Circulation: Additional
Considerations
If TBI patient takes anticoagulant medication/s
this information must be communicated to the
receiving facility and rapid transport should be
initiated
Anticoagulant medications include

Warfarin - brand name Coumadin

Tinzaparin - brand name Innohep
Heparin
Enoxoparin
Dalteparin
Bivalirudin
Lepirudin
Argatroban
Desirudin
Fondaparinux

20

21

Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS):

Priorities

GCS preferred method to determine level of

consciousness
AVPU (Alert, Verbal, Pain, Unresponsive) is too
simple to determine LOC & not quantifiable
Follow ABCs before measuring GCS
If possible, assess GCS prior to intubation
Measure GCS before administering sedative or
paralytic agents, or after these drugs have been
metabolized
Reassess and record GCS every 5 minutes

22

GCS: Patient
Interaction

GCS obtained by direct patient interaction

Pre-hospital provider must ask direct questions
and perform specific actions for accurate GCS
score
Do not simply say squeeze my hands
(reflexive)
Instead say show me two fingers
The EMT needs to illicit a response that
demonstrates cognition, or the ability of the
patient to think
If eye opening does not occur to voice, use
axillary pinch or finger nail bed pressure

23

GCS: Components
GCS should be measured by pre-hospital
providers who are appropriately trained

GCS 14-15: Mild TBI

GCS 9-13: Moderate TBI GCS 3-8: Severe TBI

24

GCS: Motor Component

Important part of GCS

Motor Response

Motor response was designed to

look a the best upper extremity
response

6- Obeys

Spinal cord injury, chemical

paralysis or excessive pain
makes motor assessment
impossible

4-Withdraws from pain

Abnormal posturing
(decerebration & decortication)
look similar in the lower
extremities

1-No response

A: Abnormal flexion (decorticate rigidity)

5- Localizes-(purposeful movements
towards painful stimuli)
3 Abnormal flexion - Image A
2-Abnormal extension - Image B

B: Extension posturing (decerebrate rigidity)

25

GCS: Value
GCS provides basis for determining the method of
transport and the preferred receiving facility
Compare to previous scores to identify trend over
time
A single field measurement cannot predict
outcome
Repeated GCS scores can be valuable to ED
staff
Deterioration of > 2 points is a bad sign
GCS < 9 indicates a patient with a severe
TBI and require tracheal intubation

26

Pupils: Value
Pupillary size and their reaction to light should be
used in the field as it can be helpful in diagnosis,
treatment and prognosis

A fixed and dilated pupil is a warning

sign and can indicate and impending
cerebral herniation
Pupillary size should be measured after the
patient has been stabilized

27

Pupils:
Pathophysiology
Why do pupils dilate?

The presence of intracranial hematoma can cause downward

displacement of the brain, until it puts pressure on the cranial
nerve responsible for pupil dilation

Other causes of abnormal pupils:

Hypoxia
Hypotension
Drug use (opiates)
Hypothermia
Toxic Exposure
Artificial eye
Orbital trauma
Congenital abnormality
Pharmacological treatment,
Cataract Surgery
(e.g. Atropine)

28

Pupils: Abnormalities
Unequal or dilated and
unreactive -suspect brain
herniation
Unilateral or bilateral pupils (asymmetric pupils differ > 1
mm)

Dilated pupils (dilation more than or equal to

4mm)

Fixed pupils (fixed pupil less than 1 mm

change in response to bright
light)

Evidence of orbital trauma should be recorded

29

Cerebral Herniation:
Indicators
Unresponsive patient (no eye opening or verbal
response)
Unilaterally or bilaterally dilated or asymmetric
pupils
Abnormal extension (decerebrate posturing)
No motor response to painful stimuli
Deteriorating neurologic examination,
bradycardia (heart rate < 60 bpm), and
hypertension should be viewed as a part of
Cushings response and implies impending
herniation
Cushings Triad (Reflex) is a LATE sign of
herniation:

30

Additional Considerations
Patients with other illness/injury can have signs and
symptoms similar to those of TBI
ETOH / drug abuse
Sports related injury / concussion
Violence / domestic violence
Has your partner hit or grabbed you are two
questions EMT can ask to identify a possibly
abusive situation
Decreased mental status in the elderly

These patients can also have a TBI!

31

Treatment: Overview
Airway:
Priorities
When to intubate
Capnography

Ventilation:
Priorities
Hyperventilation
End-tidal CO2

Fluid Resuscitation:
Priorities
Vascular Access

Cerebral Herniation:
Signs and Symptoms
Hyperventilation
Additional Considerations
Pharmacological concerns

Bullet point key:

Normal Text For ALS & BLS providers
Text in Blue For ALS providers only

32

Airway:
Priorities

Protect C-spine alignment with manual in-line

stabilization, beware facial trauma
Maintain airway patency
Administer O2
If possible monitor with SpO2

Provide combitube or supraglottic airway if not

certified to provide advanced airway adjuncts
(according to county protocol)

Indication for Intubation GCS < 9

Rapid sequence intubation with manual inline
stabilization of cervical spine.

33

Airway: When to
Intubate

Secure airway (e.g. endotracheal tube,

cricothyroidotomy) if:

GCS < 9 in an unconscious and unresponsive patient

Unable to maintain adequate airway
Hypoxemia (SpO2 < 90%) not corrected by supplemental
oxygen
Respiratory failure or apnea

Intubate and normoventilate: (~12 breaths per

min)
If pupils are symmetric and reactive accompanied by
localization, withdraw, or flexion responses

Intubate and hyperventilate: (~20 breaths per min)

If pupils are asymmetrical (differ more than 1 mm)
If dilated (greater or equal to 4 mm) and fixed

34

Airway:
Capnography

EMS systems implementing endotracheal

intubation protocols including RSI should monitor
blood pressure, oxygenation, and when feasible
end tidal CO2 (ETCO2) monitoring (monitoring
modality for ventilation)
After intubation confirm placement of tube with
lung auscultation and ETCO2 determination
Maintain ETCO2 35-40 mm Hg

Obtain multiple ETCO2 readings

35

Ventilation:
Priorities

Assess and record rate, rhythm, depth, and

quality to determine the effectiveness of
respirations post intubation
Assist ventilations as necessary with Bag Valve
Mask and supplemental O2
Adult normal ventilation rates: 10-12 breaths
per minute
Ventilate to maintain SpO2 > 90%
Patients with TBI normoventilate
Patients with TBI who are unconscious and unresponsive:
intubate and normoventilate

36

Ventilation:
Hyperventilation

Produces a rapid decrease in arterial partial pressure of

carbon dioxide by increasing the pH or basicity of the
blood. Causes:
cerebral vasoconstriction
Decreased cerebral blood flow
decreased intracranial pressure (ICP)
In normoventilated, normotensive, and well oxygenated
patients still showing signs of cerebral herniation,
hyperventilation should be used as a temporizing measure
and should be discontinued when clinical signs of herniation
resolve

Prophylactic hyperventilation (PaCO2 < 35 mm

Hg) should be avoided unless signs of cerebral
herniation

37

Ventilation: End-tidal
CO2

Use ETCO2 to:

Confirm endotracheal tube placement
Measure the adequacy of ventilation.
Target range: 35 40 mm Hg
Guide hyperventilation therapy
Hyperventilation: 30 34 mm Hg
RR 20 BPM > 9 years (every 3 seconds)

Severe hyperventilation: < 30 mm Hg

ETCO2 < 25 mm Hg is not recommended
Avoid inadvertent Hypocarbia

38

Fluid Resuscitation:
Priorities
Avoid hypotension and inadequate volume
resuscitation to maintain normotension and
adequate tissue perfusion
Hypotension (SBP < 90 mm Hg) doubles
mortality
Administer isotonic crystalloid solutions to
maintain SBP in normal range
Use dextrose free isotonic fluid
(0.9% NaCl or Lactated Ringers)
Administer isotonic fluids to maintain >SBP 90
mm Hg

39

Fluid Resuscitation: Vascular

Access
Preferred percutaneous access site is forearm
Intraosseous can be alternative route for vascular
access
For failed peripheral IV access
For delayed or prolonged transport
Transport should never be delayed to
initiate IV lines
Focus should remain on rapid transport

40

Cerebral Herniation: Additional

Considerations

Agitation and combativeness can increase

intracranial pressure. Optimize patient transport
by using short acting sedation, analgesia, and
neuromuscular blocks, that are concurrent with
local protocol and medical direction
Some of these treatments cause hypotension,
consider patients hemodynamic state and avoid
hypotension
Rule out decreased level of consciousness due to
hypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia - blood sugar below 70 mg/dL
Perform rapid blood glucose determination

41

Cerebral Herniation: Signs &

Symptoms
Signs Symptoms
Dilated or unreactive pupils
Asymmetric pupils
A motor exam that identifies
either extensor posturing or no
response
Progressive neurologic
deterioration, decrease in GCS
score more than 2 points from
patients prior best score - in
patients with initial GCS < 9

Other factors increasing

ICP

Fear and anxiety

Pain
Vomiting
Straining
Environmental stimuli
Endotracheal intubation
Airway suctioning

Frequently re-evaluate patient neurologic status

42

Cerebral Herniation: Pharmacological

concerns
Controversial brain targeted therapy
Mannitol
The pre-hospital use of Mannitol currently
cannot be recommended

Hypertonic Saline
This investigational therapy, while showing
promise in hospital, is not yet recommended for
prehospital use
Lidocaine
No literature to support use of lidocaine as a
single agent prior to intubation

43

Tr
a
n
s
p
or
t:
O
Transport
decisions:
Priorities
Priorities
Receiving
facilities

44

Transport Decisions: Priorities

Minimize prehospital time by selecting
appropriate mode of transportation
Patient may require emergent surgery for
hematoma evacuation, early transport must be
the priority while resuscitation is ongoing
If necessary, rendezvous with air medical service
to decrease en route times

Transport Decisions:
Priorities

45

All regions should have an organized trauma care

system
Protocols are recommended to direct EMS
regarding destination decisions for patients with
severe TBI
Improved success attributed to integration of
prehospital and hospital care and access to
expedious surgery

46

Transport Decisions: Receiving

facilities
Transport to appropriate receiving facility based
on GCS
GCS 14 15: Hospital Emergency Room
GCS 9 13: Trauma Center
GCS < 9: Trauma Center with severe TBI
capabilities
Patients with severe TBI should be transported to
a facility with immediately available:
CT scanning
Prompt neurosurgical care
The ability to monitor ICP
The ability to treat intracranial hypertension

47

References
[author last name, first name], 2007. Guidelines for Prehospital
Management of Severe Traumatic Brain Injury, second edition,
Brain Trauma Foundation,.
National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians (NAEMT),
2011. PHTLS: Prehospital Trauma Life Support, 7th ed., Elsevier
Health Sciences, Chap 9.
Shorter, Zeynep, 2009. Traumatic Brain Injury: Prevalence,
External Causes, and Associated Risk Factors, Washington State
Department of Health,
http://www.doh.wa.gov/hsqa/ocrh/har/TBIfact.pdf (April 1, 2011)
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011. Injury
Prevention & Control: Traumatic Brain Injury,
http://www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/ (May 1, 2011)

48

Acknowledgements
Mike Lopez, EMS/Trauma Supervisor; Washington State
Dept. of Health
Mike Routley, EMS Specialist/Liaison, Washington State
Dept. of Health
Deborah Crawley, Executive Director and staff,
Brain Injury Association of Washington
Washington State EMTs participating in focus groups and
phone interviews.
Peer review: Andreas Grabinsky, MD, Armagan Dagal, MD,
Deepak Sharma, MD, Eric Smith EMT-P, Dave Skolnick EMTB, Richard Visser EMT-B

Additional Slide:
Hyperventilation

49

Hyperventilation causes hypocapnia;

important in reducing TBI morbidity/mortality
As your RR the expulsion of CO2 from the body also

This in dissolved CO2 levels in the blood also the

pH level of the blood
2H2O + CO2 H2CO3 + H2O HCO3- + H3O+
An increase in the reactants (CO2) will lead to an
increase in the products (H+) increasing the acidity of
the blood
Chemo receptors will detect decrease in blood pH
The bodies automatic response is to dialate the blood
vessels in order to discharge CO2 faster and regain pH
equilibrium

50

Audit Tool Indicators

Thorough Documentation
Of:
MOI

Events leading up to injury

Kinematics
Witness accounts

Initial Impression of
Pt.
TBI signs and
symptoms
Loss of Consciousness
Serial VS - Q5
Serial GCS scores
Q5
Pupillary exam Q5

C-Spine precautions
Hypoxia Prevention
o Intubation indicators
o Serial Capnography
values
o Post intubation RR
o Supported ventilation
rate
o IV fluid initiation
Glucose value
Transport decisions

51

BLS to ALS Handoff

First priority is to identify secondary
insult
Request medic eval. if TBI Pt is Showing S &
S of:
Intracranial Hypertension
Hypoxia
Hypotension
Check all of the following prior to ALS
intervention:
TBI associated S & S
Blood Pressure
Heart rate
Respiratory rate
& effectiveness
O2 saturation

Level Of Consciousness

GCS - component parts

Pupils component parts
Glucose

52

BLS to ALS Handoff

Intracranial HTN
Causes:

Ruptured blood vessel

Expanding Brain Bleed
Brain Herniation
Mass Effect

Signs and
Symptoms:
HTN, N/V, HA Px, fixed &
dilated pupil,
GCS score, Agitiation
or Combativness

Cushings Triad
ALS
Interventions:
Intubation & SpO2
monitoring
ETCO2 monitoring

SBP, HR, Irreg. Resps.

53

BLS to ALS Handoff - Hypoxia

Causes:
Vent or Circulatory
failure
Airway Obstruction
Aspiration
Apnea with lung Injury

ALS
Interventions:
Intubation & SpO2
monitoring

Signs & Symptoms

GCS score/ LOC
Confusion, delirium, agitation
Cyanosis
Tachycardia > 100 BPM
Tachypnea - rapid, shallow RR
Blue/ dusky mucus
membranes
Abnormal pupils

54

BLS to ALS Handoff Hypotension

Causes:
Spinal cord injury
Blood loss

ALS
Interventions:

Fluid Resuscitation
SpO & ETCO

Signs & Symptoms

Tachycardia > 100 BPM
If spinal cord inj. Pt. may have
HR
Tachypnea rapid shallow
breathing
Hypotension < 90mm Hg
Narrowed pulse pressure
Abnormal Pupils
Change in mentation
Restlessness/ anxiety
Cyanosis

55

Questions:
Topics:
1. Signs & Symptoms
2. Hypoxia & Hypotension
3. Hypoxia & Hypotension
4. Glasgow Coma Scale
5. Glasgow Coma Scale
6. Glasgow Coma Scale
7. Hyperventilation
8. Hyperventilation
9. Cerebral Herniation
10. Transport

56

Questions: Signs & Symptoms

1. The following are signs and symptoms of
ETOH and not Traumatic Brain Injury
A) Slurred speech, vomiting, loss of
coordination
B) Dialated pupils, convulsions, diminished
conciouness
C) Lower extremity weakness, blurred vision,
agitation
D) All of the above
E) None of the above

57

Questions: Hypoxia &

Hypotension
2. (True/False) Hypoxia and hypotension are
recognizable and preventable causes of
secondary brain injury?

3. (T/F) Tachypnea, tachycardia, change in level

of conciousness, and cyanosis are all signs of
shock, but not hypoxia?

58

Questions: GCS
4. (True/False) The motor component of the GCS
focuses only on the upper extremities?

5. What is the GCS score for a patient whose

eyes open to pain, withdraws from painful stimuli,
and makes inappropriate sounds?
A) 3 + 4 + 3 = GCS of 10 (moderate TBI)
B) 3 + 3 + 3 = GCS of 9 (moderate TBI)
C) 2 + 4 + 2 = GCS of 8 (severe TBI)

59

Questions: GCS
6. To induce eye opening, prehospital providers
may

A) Give patient a sternal rub

B) Give patient an axillary pinch
C) Use nail bed pressure
D) All of the above
E) B and C only

60

Questions: Hyperventilation
7. (True/False) Prophylactic hyperventilation (PaCO2 < 35 mm Hg) should be initiated for every
severe TBI patient?

8. Patient presents with extensor posturing, fixed

dilated pupils, and SpO2 at 90%, EMT should A) Intubate and hyperventilate
B) Intubate and normoventilate
C) Administer 25 Liters/min non-rebreather
mask

61

Questions: Cerebral Herniation

9. All of the following are signs/symptoms of
cerebral herniation except:
A) Dilated pupils
B) Extensor posturing
C) Cyanosis of fingernails and lips
D) Cushings Triad

62

Questions: Transport
10. Patients with severe TBI should be
transported to a facility with immediately
available:
A) CT scanning
B) Prompt neurosurgical care
C) The ability to monitor ICP
D) Two of the above
E) All of the above

63

Answers:
1. E) None of the above. Patients with other illness/injury
can have signs and symptoms similar to those of TBI
2. True - After initial TBI, priorities are Identification of
secondary insults including hypoxia and hypotension
Perhaps the most important way a prehospital provider
can impact TBI outcome is the aggressive identification
and treatment of hypoxia and hypotension

3. False Shock and hypoxia can have similar signs and

symptoms including all those listed
4. True motor response was designed to look at the best
upper extremity response
5. (C) 2 + 4 + 2 = GCS of 8 (severe TBI)

64

Answers:
6. E) B and C only. If eye opening does not occur to voice,
use axillary pinch or nail bed pressure
7. False - Hyperventilation is a temporary treatment used
only in patients showing signs of herniation until definitive
diagnostic or therapeutic interventions can be initiated
8. A) Intubate and hyperventilate
9. C) Cyanosis of fingernails and lips is a sign of hypoxia
10. E) All of the above