Indus Valley Civilization

Index
❖ IVC Geography and Archaeological Findings
➢ Introduction
➢ Geography of the Indus Valley Civilization
➢ Archaeological Findings
❖ Major cities
❖ Town Planning
❖ IVC Society and Culture
❖ Script and Language
❖ Crafts & Pottery
❖ Religions
❖ Seals and Images
❖ IVC Economy
❖ Harappan Trade
❖ Agriculture
❖ Domestication of animals
❖ Weights and Measures
❖ Decline of Harappan Culture

Indus Valley Civilization: Geography and Archaeological Findings

The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, stands as one of the
most remarkable ancient civilizations in human history. Flourishing in the vast floodplains of the
Indus River and its tributaries, this advanced urban society emerged in the northwestern
region of the Indian subcontinent around 2600 BCE and endured for nearly a millennium.
With its impressive urban planning, sophisticated architecture, and intricate trade
networks, the Indus Valley Civilization showcases a level of advancement and complexity that
continues to captivate historians, archaeologists, and enthusiasts alike.

Phase Dates Major Sites Characteristics Notable Features

Development of
Basic city planning,
Early Kot Diji, agricultural
3300-2600 standardized brick size,
Harappan Amri, communities;
BCE use of mud brick and
Phase Kalibangan Beginning of
stone for construction
urbanization

Flourishing urban Grid-like street layout,

Harappa,
Mature centers; sophisticated water
2600-1900 Mohenjo-daro
Harappan Well-developed management systems,
BCE , Dholavira,
Phase infrastructure and standardized weights
Lothal
sanitation systems and measures

Decline of urban Decreased urban

Late Kalibangan, centers; Shift to rural planning, abandonment
1900-1300
Harappan Banawali, settlements; Possible of some cities,
BCE
Phase Surkotada environmental and increased use of
socio-economic factors fortified settlements

Smaller settlements,
Disintegration of
distinctive regional
Post-urban 1300-600 Jhukar, Pirak, urban structures;
variations, introduction
Phase BCE Rangpur Regionalization and
of iron tools and
smaller-scale societies
weapons

Geography of the Indus Valley Civilization:

● Location:
 ○ The Indus Valley Civilization was located in present-day Pakistan and western
India.
○ It extended from the Himalayan foothills in the northeast to the Arabian Sea
in the southwest.
○ Major cities of the civilization include Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal,
Kalibangan, and Dholavira.
● Rivers:
○ The civilization developed along the banks of the Indus River and its
tributaries, including the Ravi, Chenab, Beas, and Jhelum.
○ These rivers provided a reliable water source for agriculture and facilitated trade
and transportation.
● Topography:
○ The region consists of fertile alluvial plains, which were ideal for agricultural
activities.
○ The presence of the Thar Desert to the east acted as a natural barrier and
influenced the settlement patterns.

Archaeological Findings:

Archaeological
Finding Description

Excavated by Sir John Marshall in the 1920s, Harappa is one of the

major urban centers of the Indus Valley Civilization. The site reveals a
sophisticated urban planning system with grid-like streets,
Harappa
well-constructed buildings, and a citadel. Archaeologists discovered a
granary, a large bath, and numerous artifacts, including seals and
pottery.

Discovered by R.D. Banerji in 1922, Mohenjo-daro is another prominent

city of the Indus Valley Civilization. It exhibits advanced urban planning,
Mohenjo-daro with a well-laid-out street grid, multi-story buildings, public baths,
and a large central structure speculated to be a Great Bath. Numerous
artifacts like statues, jewelry, and pottery have been found.
 Found in Mohenjo-daro, the Great Bath is a large, brick-lined pool
believed to have served ritualistic or communal purposes. It consists of an
Great Bath intricate system for water supply and drainage, suggesting an advanced
understanding of hydraulics. It is one of the earliest known public water
tanks in the ancient world.

Indus Valley Civilization is famous for its unique seals made of steatite, a
soft stone. These seals bear inscriptions in the Harappan script, which
remains undeciphered. The seals depict various animals, including
Harappan Seals
unicorns, bulls, and elephants. They were likely used for trade and
administrative purposes and provide valuable insights into Harappan
society.

The excavation sites of the Indus Valley Civilization have yielded a

significant number of terracotta figurines. These figurines depict a variety
Terracotta of human and animal forms, including mother goddesses, dancing
Figurines girls, and animals like cows and dogs. They provide insights into
religious beliefs, social customs, and artistic expressions of the Harappan
people.

The Indus Valley Civilization exhibited an advanced understanding of

urban planning and sanitation. Cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa
Drainage and had an extensive underground drainage system, with covered drains
Sanitation running beneath the streets. Each house had access to water and a
bathroom with a drainage system, showcasing their impressive sanitation
infrastructure.

The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization followed a systematic and

well-planned layout. Streets were laid out in a grid-like pattern,
intersecting at right angles, indicating advanced urban planning.
Urban Planning
Buildings were constructed with standardized bricks and featured
rooms, courtyards, and public spaces, reflecting a well-organized
society.

The Indus Valley Civilization flourished due to its advanced agricultural

practices. Archaeological findings suggest the presence of irrigation
Agricultural systems, including canals and reservoirs, which enabled efficient
Techniques cultivation. Crop remains, such as wheat, barley, and cotton, have
been discovered, indicating a reliance on agriculture for sustenance and
economic prosperity.
 The Indus Valley Civilization had a well-developed trade network, as
evidenced by the discovery of seals and artifacts from distant regions.
Trade and Archaeologists have found materials like lapis lazuli from Afghanistan,
Commerce copper from Oman, and shells from the Arabian Sea, suggesting
long-distance trade connections. Trade likely played a significant role in
their economy.

Major Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization

City Location Features

Harappa Punjab, Pakistan Citadel, Great Bath, Grid-based town planning

Mohenjo-daro Sindh, Pakistan Great Bath, Great Granary, Great Hall

Complex water management system, Large

Dholavira Gujarat, India
reservoirs

Dockyard, Warehouse, Evidence of maritime

Lothal Gujarat, India
trade

Kalibangan Rajasthan, India Fire altars, Terracotta figurines

Largest known Indus Valley site, Citadel,

Rakhigarhi Haryana, India
Cemetery

Ganeriwala Punjab, Pakistan Fortification walls, Drains, Granaries

Evidence of early Harappan and late Harappan

Amri Sindh, Pakistan
cultures

Banawali Haryana, India Stupa-like structure, Underground channels

Surkotada Gujarat, India Evidence of horse domestication

 Complex town planning, Public and private
Chanhudaro Sindh, Pakistan
wells

Well-planned grid system, Ritual baths,

Rupnagar Punjab, Pakistan
Granaries

Cemetery with multiple burials, Bronze

Rangpur Gujarat, India
figurines

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
Balakot Citadel, Craftsmanship evidence
Pakistan

Oldest known Harappan site, Trade with

Sutkagan Dor Balochistan, Pakistan
Mesopotamia

The major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization were remarkable examples of early urban
planning and engineering prowess. Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Lothal, and Kalibangan
serve as testaments to the advanced social, economic, and technological achievements of this
ancient civilization. The Indus Valley Civilization continues to intrigue archaeologists and
historians, providing valuable insights into the development of urbanism and civilization in the
Indian subcontinent.

Town Planning of Indus Valley Civilization

The urban centers of this ancient civilization displayed an advanced level of town planning,
showcasing their organizational skills and technological expertise. The town planning of the
Indus Valley Civilization is a remarkable aspect that demonstrates their social, economic, and
administrative sophistication.

Aspect Citadel Lower Town

Location Located on higher ground Located on lower ground

Purpose Administrative center Residential and trade hub

Layout Planned and organized Irregular and haphazard

Size Larger and fortified Smaller and less fortified

Architecture Constructed with mud bricks and stones Constructed with mud bricks

Central Citadel, Granaries, Public Baths,

Residential houses, workshops,
Structures Assembly Halls, and Administrative
markets, and small temples
buildings

Defense Thick walls and fortified gates Fewer defensive structures

Water
Sophisticated drainage system Limited drainage system
Management

Trade Likely involved in long-distance trade Local and regional trade

Social Possibly the residence of rulers or elite Inhabited by commoners and

Hierarchy classes artisans

Luxurious items, seals, pottery, and Household items, pottery, and

Artifacts
jewelry found tools found

Examples include Mohenjo-daro and Examples include Kalibangan

Discoveries
Harappa and Lothal

● Grid Layout: The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization were designed on a grid-based
layout, with a well-defined street system. The streets were straight and intersected at
right angles, creating a well-structured urban plan. The grid system was evidence of
meticulous planning and the application of precise measurements.
● Well-Planned Streets: The streets in the Indus Valley cities were broad, ranging from 9
to 34 feet in width. They were paved with baked bricks and had well-constructed
drains running alongside them. The presence of well-maintained streets and drainage
systems indicates a focus on cleanliness and efficient management of waste and sewage.
● Residential Areas: The cities were divided into distinct residential areas, with houses
built around courtyards. The houses were often multi-storied, made of baked bricks, and
featured private wells and bathrooms. The uniformity in house construction suggests a
standardized building code or a central authority overseeing the construction process.
● Advanced Sanitation Systems: The Indus Valley Civilization had an advanced
sanitation system. Each house had a well and a bathroom, and some houses even had a
complex drainage network connected to the main street drains. The presence of these
 well-planned sanitation systems indicates an understanding of public health and
hygiene.
● Public Buildings: The cities had well-defined public areas that included large buildings,
possibly used for administrative or ceremonial purposes. The Great Bath of
Mohenjo-daro is an iconic example, consisting of a large brick-lined pool surrounded by
rooms and galleries. The presence of such public structures highlights the importance
given to communal activities and social gatherings.
● Planned Water Management: The Indus Valley Civilization had an elaborate water
management system. Many cities had a well-organized network of canals and reservoirs
to store and distribute water. The existence of these systems suggests an understanding of
irrigation techniques and an ability to manage water resources efficiently.
● Defensive Structures: Some cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, such as
Mohenjo-daro, exhibited defensive fortifications. These fortifications were in the form
of thick walls made of mud bricks, which served as protection against potential external
threats. The inclusion of defensive structures implies an awareness of security concerns
and the need for safeguarding the city's inhabitants.
The town planning of the Indus Valley Civilization was highly sophisticated and well-organized.
The grid layout, well-planned streets, residential areas, advanced sanitation systems, public
buildings, water management, and defensive structures all point towards a society with a
strong centralized authority capable of implementing and maintaining such urban planning. The
town planning of the Indus Valley Civilization stands as a testament to their advanced
knowledge, urban development, and social cohesion, making it a significant aspect of ancient
human civilization.

Society and Culture of Indus Valley Civilization

● Urban Planning and Architecture:
○ The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization were well-planned and exhibited a
sophisticated understanding of urban design.
○ The most famous cities include Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, characterized by a
grid-like street system, organized residential areas, and impressive public
structures.
○ The cities featured advanced drainage systems, brick-lined streets, and
multi-story buildings, indicating a high level of engineering and architectural
skill.
● Social Structure:
○ The society was organized into a hierarchical structure, with a clear distinction
between social classes.
○ Archaeological evidence suggests the existence of a ruling elite, possibly
comprising priests and administrators, who governed the cities.
 ○ The majority of the population likely engaged in agriculture, while artisans,
craftsmen, and merchants played important roles in urban centers.
● Trade and Economy:
○ The Indus Valley Civilization was involved in extensive trade networks, both
within the region and with neighboring cultures.
○ They possessed advanced maritime technology, enabling long-distance trade
via the Arabian Sea.
○ Trade commodities included precious stones, metals, pottery, textiles, and
possibly agricultural produce.
○ The use of standardized weights and measures suggests a well-regulated
economic system.
● Agricultural Practices:
○ Agriculture formed the backbone of the civilization, with the cultivation of
various crops such as wheat, barley, peas, and cotton.
○ Sophisticated irrigation systems, including canals and reservoirs, were developed
to support agricultural activities.
○ The fertile alluvial soil of the Indus River basin facilitated prosperous farming.
● Writing and Language:
○ The Indus script, which remains undeciphered, has been found on various
artifacts, indicating a system of writing.
○ The presence of seals with short inscriptions suggests the existence of
administrative and trade-related documentation.
○ The lack of extensive written records makes it difficult to gain a comprehensive
understanding of their language and literature.
● Religion and Beliefs:
○ The religious beliefs of the Indus Valley Civilization are not fully understood due
to the limited available evidence.
○ Archaeological findings suggest the presence of a mother goddess and a male
deity depicted in various forms.
○ The presence of fire altars and ritual bathing areas indicates the performance of
religious ceremonies.
● Art and Craftsmanship:
○ The civilization produced a wide range of exquisite art objects, including
pottery, jewelry, figurines, and seals.
○ Highly skilled artisans employed techniques such as pottery wheel throwing,
bead-making, and metalworking.
○ The artwork often depicted human and animal forms, indicating an appreciation
for natural beauty.
The Indus Valley Civilization represents a remarkable example of an advanced ancient society
with well-planned cities, advanced technologies, and a complex socio-economic structure. Its
significance lies in its contribution to the development of urban living, trade networks, and
cultural practices, laying the foundation for future civilizations in the Indian subcontinent.

Script and Language of Indus Valley Civilization

● Indus Script: The Indus script refers to the writing system used by the people of the
Indus Valley Civilization. It was discovered in the early 20th century on various
artifacts, such as seals, tablets, and pottery. The script is characterized by a series of
symbols, usually arranged in a linear pattern from right to left.
● Complexity and Structure: The Indus script consists of over 400 distinct symbols or
signs, making it one of the most complex ancient writing systems. These signs are
typically small and made up of basic geometric shapes, such as dots, lines, triangles,
and squares. Some signs resemble familiar objects, including animals and plants.
● Undeciphered Script: Despite extensive efforts by linguists, archaeologists, and
epigraphists, the Indus script remains undeciphered. Unlike other ancient scripts, such
as the Egyptian hieroglyphs or Mesopotamian cuneiform, no bilingual texts or Rosetta
Stone equivalent has been found to aid in decipherment.
● Hypotheses and Challenges: Various hypotheses have been proposed to decipher the
Indus script, but none have gained widespread acceptance. Some scholars argue that
the script represents a spoken language, while others suggest it might be a
logo-syllabic or logo-graphic system. The lack of a bilingual text or a connection to a
known language poses significant challenges in deciphering the script.
● Multiple Languages: The Indus Valley Civilization was a multilingual society, as
suggested by the diverse range of pottery and seals found across different sites. It is
possible that the script was used to represent multiple languages or dialects within the
civilization.
● Purpose and Usage: The exact purpose and usage of the Indus script are still
uncertain. It might have been used for administrative and economic records, religious
texts, or personal correspondence. The presence of standardized seals suggests a
system of ownership or authority.

The script and language of the Indus Valley Civilization remain an enigma, and its decipherment
continues to challenge researchers. Although efforts to unravel its meaning are ongoing, the
mysteries surrounding the Indus script contribute to the intrigue and fascination associated with
this ancient civilization.
Crafts & Pottery of Indus Valley Civilization

Craft City Explanation

Pottery was one of the most significant crafts in the Indus

Valley civilization. It was made using a wheel and featured
Pottery Harappa
intricate designs and shapes. The pottery was used for
storage, cooking, and other domestic purposes.

The Indus Valley civilization had a sophisticated system of

writing, and seals were used for various administrative and
Seal Making Mohenjo-Daro commercial purposes. These seals were made from stone
and featured intricate carvings, often depicting animals and
symbols.

Bead making was a popular craft in the Indus Valley

civilization. Beads were made from a variety of materials
Bead Making Lothal like shell, stone, and metal. They were used as decorative
ornaments and also had significance in trade and cultural
practices.

Metalworking involved the extraction and shaping of

various metals like copper, bronze, and gold. The Indus
Metalworking Valley civilization had advanced metalworking techniques,
producing tools, ornaments, and weapons of high
craftsmanship.

Sculpture was a notable craft in the Indus Valley

civilization. Sculptors created statues and figurines
Sculpture Dholavira depicting humans, animals, and deities. These sculptures
showcased the artistic skills and cultural expressions of the
civilization.

Jewelry making was a specialized craft in the Indus Valley

civilization. Skilled artisans created intricate jewelry pieces
Jewelry
Chanhu-Daro using gold, silver, and semi-precious stones. The jewelry
Making
included necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and headdresses,
often showcasing symbolic and religious motifs.
The crafts and pottery of the Indus Valley Civilization reflect the artistic skills, technological
advancements, and cultural sophistication of the people. These artifacts provide important clues
about their social, economic, and religious practices. The mastery displayed in pottery,
metalwork, stone carving, bead making, and textiles showcases the creativity and ingenuity of
the artisans of the time. Studying these crafts and pottery helps us understand and appreciate the
rich heritage of the Indus Valley Civilization, making it a significant area of research for
historians and archaeologists.

Religions of Indus Valley Civilization

● Absence of Temples: Unlike later civilizations, such as ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley Civilization does not appear to have elaborate temple
structures dedicated to specific deities. This absence of large religious structures has led
some scholars to propose that the religious practices of the Indus Valley people might
have been more decentralized and focused on domestic rituals.
● Symbolism and Sacred Icons: The artifacts discovered at various Indus Valley sites
reveal a range of symbols and sacred icons that could indicate religious significance. The
most prominent among these symbols is the "unicorn" or "bull" motif, which is often
found on seals and terracotta figurines. These motifs might have represented important
deities or served as objects of worship.
● Mother Goddess: One recurring image in the Indus Valley Civilization is that of a
female figure, often depicted with elaborate headdresses and surrounded by animals.
Scholars speculate that this figure might represent a mother goddess or a fertility deity
associated with abundance and the nurturing of life. However, the exact nature of this
goddess and her significance in the religious beliefs of the Indus Valley people remains a
subject of debate.
● Ritual Baths and Water Worship: The presence of large public bathing areas, known as
"Great Baths," in the cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa suggests the importance of
water in the religious rituals of the Indus Valley Civilization. Water might have been seen
as a purifying and sacred element, and bathing in these communal structures could have
held ritualistic significance.
● Animal Worship and Sacred Animals: The discovery of numerous terracotta figurines
depicting animals, particularly bulls and humped cattle, suggests the veneration of
animals in the religious practices of the Indus Valley people. Bulls might have been
associated with strength and fertility, and their images might have represented powerful
deities or served as totems.
While the religious beliefs and practices of the Indus Valley Civilization are not fully understood,
the available archaeological evidence points to a belief system that incorporated symbolism,
sacred icons, water worship, and possibly animal veneration. The absence of elaborate
temples and the emphasis on domestic rituals and communal bathing areas indicate a
decentralized and possibly egalitarian religious system. Further research and discoveries are
necessary to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the religious aspects of this ancient
civilization.

Seals and Images of the Indus Valley Civilization

Seals of the Indus Valley Civilization:
● Importance of seals:
○ Seals were significant objects in the Indus Valley Civilization, used for a variety
of purposes.
○ They were primarily made of clay, with some examples also crafted from faience,
stone, and copper.
○ Seals were used for administrative and commercial purposes, marking ownership,
ensuring the authenticity of goods, and securing containers.
● Features of Indus Valley seals:
○ The seals were usually small, ranging from 2 to 5 centimeters in size.
○ They were engraved with intricate designs, including human and animal figures,
symbols, and script.
○ Common motifs on seals include animals like bulls, rhinoceroses, elephants,
tigers, and unicorns, as well as human figures in various poses.
● Script on Indus Valley seals:
○ The script found on the seals, known as the Indus script, remains undeciphered.
○ The script consists of a series of pictographic signs or symbols, estimated to be
around 400 in number.
○ The script is written from right to left and top to bottom, resembling other ancient
scripts like Mesopotamian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs.
● Seal distribution:
○ Seals have been found in various Indus Valley sites, with some cities yielding
larger quantities compared to others.
○ Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are notable sites where a significant number of
seals have been discovered.

Images of the Indus Valley Civilization:

● Terracotta figurines:
○ The Indus Valley Civilization produced a vast number of terracotta figurines,
depicting humans and animals.
○ These figurines provide insights into the dress, jewelry, hairstyles, and
occupations of the people during that period.
 ○ Female figurines, known as "dancing girls" or "priestesses," are among the
most famous examples.
● Steatite sculptures:
○ The Indus Valley Civilization also produced small steatite sculptures.
○ These sculptures often depict animals like humped bulls, birds, and possibly
deities.
○ The "Priest-King" and the "Bearded Man" are notable examples of steatite
sculptures.
● Symbolic motifs:
○ Images of trees, pipal leaves, and the "unicorn" figure are recurring motifs
found in Indus Valley art.
○ These motifs might have held religious or symbolic significance, although their
precise meanings remain speculative.

The seals and images of the Indus Valley Civilization offer valuable glimpses into the ancient
society's administration, trade, and artistic expressions. The intricate designs, enigmatic script,
and depiction of various motifs on seals provide clues about the civilization's cultural, religious,
and economic aspects. The terracotta figurines and steatite sculptures further contribute to our
understanding of the people's appearance, daily life, and artistic sensibilities. Exploring and
studying these artifacts help unravel the mysteries of one of the world's oldest civilizations and
its unique contributions to human history.

Economy of the Indus Valley Civilization

● Agricultural Practices: Agriculture formed the backbone of the Indus Valley
Civilization's economy. The inhabitants of the region practiced both crop cultivation and
animal husbandry. They cultivated a variety of crops, including wheat, barley, peas,
sesame, and cotton. Advanced agricultural techniques, such as irrigation systems, were
employed to support farming activities. The Indus people also domesticated animals like
cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs.
Trade and Commerce: The Indus Valley Civilization was well connected through an
extensive trade network, both within the civilization and with other contemporary
cultures. The presence of standardized weights and measures suggests a well-organized
trade system. Archaeological findings of seals and sealings indicate long-distance
trade. Valuable resources such as copper, tin, gold, and semi-precious stones were
sourced from different regions, including Afghanistan, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
Trade routes extended as far as Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf, facilitating
commerce with ancient civilizations like Sumer and Elam.

● Urban Economy: The Indus Valley cities were highly organized, featuring
well-planned layouts, sophisticated drainage systems, and multi-story buildings.
 These urban centers served as economic hubs, accommodating various economic
activities. Specialized crafts and industries flourished, including pottery, metalwork,
bead making, shell working, and textile production. The production of high-quality
pottery and the presence of terracotta figurines indicate a thriving cottage industry.
● Craftsmanship and Artistic Achievements: The craftsmanship of the Indus Valley
Civilization was exceptional. Artisans produced a wide range of goods, including
jewelry, tools, toys, and household items. Skilled artisans used materials such as copper,
bronze, gold, silver, and precious stones. The mastery of bead making and shell
working suggests the existence of a vibrant trade in jewelry and personal adornments.
● Urban Planning and Infrastructure: The urban centers of the Indus Valley Civilization
were meticulously planned, with a grid-like pattern of streets and well-constructed
houses. The presence of granaries and large public buildings indicates centralized
planning and administration. The advanced drainage and sanitation systems highlight
the civilization's focus on public health and hygiene.
● Lack of Evidence for a Centralized Authority: Despite extensive excavations and
research, no conclusive evidence has been found regarding a centralized political
authority in the Indus Valley Civilization. This absence of evidence suggests a possible
decentralized or egalitarian economic system where economic activities were likely
carried out by individual households or guilds.

The economy of the Indus Valley Civilization was characterized by advanced agricultural
practices, robust trade networks, thriving urban centers, and skilled craftsmanship. The
civilization's economic prosperity played a crucial role in its overall development and
sustainability. The Indus Valley Civilization serves as a testament to the remarkable economic
achievements of ancient societies and provides valuable insights into the origins of urban
economies.

Trade of Indus Valley Civilization

● Trade Routes: The Indus Valley Civilization had well-established trade routes that
connected it with other regions, both within the Indian subcontinent and beyond. These
trade routes facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural influences. The major
trade routes of the civilization included land and maritime routes.
○ Land Routes: The land routes connected the Indus Valley with regions like
Sindh, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia. These routes facilitated the
trade of goods such as textiles, pottery, precious metals, and agricultural products.
○ Maritime Routes: The Indus Valley Civilization had access to the Arabian Sea,
which allowed maritime trade with regions in the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia
(modern-day Iraq), and the Gulf of Oman. Ships from the civilization carried
 goods like copper, semi-precious stones, and agricultural products to these
regions, while bringing back commodities like silver, gold, and luxury items.
● Trade Goods: The Indus Valley Civilization engaged in the trade of a wide range of
goods, showcasing its economic prosperity and specialized industries. Some of the
notable trade goods included:
○ Textiles: The civilization was renowned for its high-quality cotton textiles,
which were in high demand. The textiles were dyed using vibrant colors and had
intricate designs.
○ Pottery: The Indus Valley pottery was distinctive and varied in form and style.
The civilization produced a wide range of pottery items, including storage jars,
bowls, and figurines, which were traded extensively.
○ Metals: Copper was a valuable resource in the region, and the civilization had
well-developed metalworking techniques. Copper tools and ornaments were
widely traded. There is evidence of trade in other metals like tin, gold, and silver
as well.
○ Agricultural Products: The fertile land of the Indus Valley supported
agriculture, and surplus agricultural products were traded. Wheat, barley, rice,
and various fruits and vegetables were likely part of the trade.
● Trade Contacts: The Indus Valley Civilization had significant trade contacts with
neighboring regions and distant civilizations. The most notable trade partners were:
○ Mesopotamia: The cities of Sumer in Mesopotamia had extensive trade relations
with the Indus Valley Civilization. Archaeological excavations have revealed the
presence of Indus Valley goods in Mesopotamian cities like Ur and Kish.
○ Persian Gulf: The civilization had maritime trade links with regions along the
Persian Gulf, including modern-day Bahrain and Oman. These trade routes
facilitated the exchange of goods between the Indus Valley and the Arabian
Peninsula.
○ Central Asia: The trade routes of the Indus Valley Civilization extended into
Central Asia, allowing for trade with regions like Afghanistan and
Turkmenistan. The civilization likely traded with Central Asian nomadic tribes
for goods like precious metals and semi-precious stones.
● Significance: The trade of the Indus Valley Civilization played a vital role in its
economic growth and cultural exchange. The extensive trade network helped in the
diffusion of ideas, technologies, and cultural practices, contributing to the
civilization's progress and prosperity. The trade relations also provided access to
valuable resources and luxury items, further enhancing the civilization's status and
influence.
In conclusion, the trade of the Indus Valley Civilization was a crucial aspect of its development
and interaction with neighboring regions. The civilization's well-established trade routes, trade
goods, and trade contacts showcased its economic prowess and cultural exchange, making it one
of the most advanced ancient civilizations of its time.

Agriculture of the Indus Valley Civilization

Agriculture played a crucial role in sustaining the civilization, and the Indus Valley people
developed advanced agricultural practices for their time. Here are some key points about the
agriculture of the Indus Valley Civilization:
● Agricultural Techniques: The people of the Indus Valley Civilization were adept at
agriculture and employed several techniques to enhance their productivity. They
practiced both rain-fed and irrigated agriculture. The use of canals and well-planned
irrigation systems helped them cultivate crops efficiently.
● Irrigation Systems: The Indus Valley people were among the first to construct
sophisticated irrigation systems. They built elaborate networks of canals and channels to
divert water from rivers like the Indus and its tributaries. The well-planned irrigation
systems ensured a regular water supply to their agricultural fields.
● Crop Cultivation: The major crops cultivated by the Indus Valley people included
wheat, barley, peas, lentils, and cotton. The fertile alluvial soil of the Indus River valley
provided an ideal environment for agriculture. The farmers also practiced crop rotation,
which helped maintain soil fertility and prevent crop diseases.
● Domestication of Animals: Alongside crop cultivation, the people of the Indus Valley
Civilization also domesticated animals for agricultural purposes. They reared cattle,
sheep, goats, and water buffalo. These animals provided milk, meat, and raw materials
like wool and leather.
● Granaries: The Indus Valley people built large granaries to store their agricultural
surplus. These granaries were constructed on elevated platforms to protect the stored
grains from floods and pests. The presence of granaries indicates that the civilization had
well-organized agricultural systems and a surplus production of food.
● Trade in Agricultural Products: Agriculture formed the backbone of the Indus Valley
economy, and surplus agricultural produce was traded with other regions. The
civilization had established trade networks with neighboring regions and possibly distant
lands, as evidenced by the discovery of Indus Valley artifacts in Mesopotamia and other
areas.
● Harappan Script: The Indus Valley Civilization had a script that remains undeciphered
to this day. It is believed that this script may contain valuable information about various
aspects of their society, including agriculture. However, due to the lack of
decipherment, we currently have limited knowledge about the specific agricultural
practices mentioned in the Harappan script.
The agriculture of the Indus Valley Civilization played a vital role in sustaining its urban centers
and supporting the overall economy. The advanced irrigation systems, diverse crop cultivation,
and trade in agricultural products highlight the civilization's ingenuity and prosperity. Studying
the agricultural practices of the Indus Valley Civilization provides valuable insights into the
development of early urban civilizations and their relationship with the environment.

Domestication of Animals in the Indus Valley Civilization

● The people of the Indus Valley Civilization were highly skilled in agriculture and animal
husbandry, with evidence of domestication of various animals found at their
archaeological sites.
● Cattle were the most commonly domesticated animals in the Indus Valley Civilization.
They were used for multiple purposes, including agricultural activities like plowing,
transportation of goods, and as a source of dairy products. The presence of cattle
bones and depictions of ox-drawn carts in their artwork suggests their significance in
their society.
● Sheep and goats were also domesticated by the Harappans. These animals were valuable
for their milk, meat, and wool. The discovery of sheep and goat bones in large
numbers indicates their importance in the economy and daily life of the civilization.
● Pigs were domesticated in smaller numbers. Archaeological findings suggest that they
were primarily kept for their meat and as a source of fat.
● Dogs were another domesticated animal in the Indus Valley Civilization. They were
likely used for various purposes, including hunting, guarding, and companionship.
Dog remains have been found buried in a manner suggesting that they held a significant
role in the society's rituals and beliefs.
● Cats were also present in the Indus Valley Civilization, although their level of
domestication is not well-established. Artifacts depicting cats and their association with
religious or symbolic practices have been discovered.
● The domestication of animals in the Indus Valley Civilization played a crucial role in
their agricultural and economic systems. It contributed to the availability of food,
transportation, and raw materials like wool for textile production.
● The presence of various domesticated animals also indicates a level of human-animal
interaction and the development of social structures within the civilization.
● The decline and eventual collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BCE is
believed to be associated with environmental factors such as changes in the river system,
climate patterns, and ecological degradation. These changes likely impacted
agriculture and animal husbandry practices, leading to the decline of the civilization.
● The domestication of animals in the Indus Valley Civilization demonstrates the advanced
agricultural practices and societal organization of this ancient civilization. It highlights
their ability to harness and utilize the resources available to them, contributing to their
overall prosperity and development.

Weights and Measures of the Indus Valley Civilization

● Units of Length:
 ○ The Indus Valley Civilization utilized a standardized system of measurement for
length. The cubit, which is believed to have been the primary unit, was
approximately 20.8 inches (52.5 cm) in length.
○ The cubit was subdivided into smaller units, such as the handbreadth and the
fingerbreadth, allowing for precise measurements in various contexts.

● Units of Weight:
○ Weight measurement was an important aspect of trade and commerce in the Indus
Valley Civilization.
○ The primary unit of weight was the "shatamana," which is believed to have been
equivalent to approximately 28 grams.
○ The shatamana was further divided into smaller units, including the masa, which
was roughly equivalent to 4.5 grams, and the rattika, which was
approximately 0.7 grams.
○ Archaeological discoveries, such as the Indus Valley seals, provide evidence of
a sophisticated system of weighing goods, as these seals often depict images of
balances.

● Units of Capacity:
○ The Indus Valley Civilization had a well-developed system of measuring capacity,
particularly for storing and trading agricultural produce.
○ The primary unit of capacity was the "kumbha," which was roughly equivalent
to 3.3 liters.
○ Smaller units, such as the "drum" and the "drona," were used for measuring
specific quantities of grain or liquids
.
● Standardization:
○ The weights and measures used in the Indus Valley Civilization exhibit a high
degree of standardization, suggesting the presence of a centralized authority
responsible for enforcing uniformity.
○ The consistent use of standardized units indicates the civilization's focus on
efficient trade, commerce, and administrative practices.
○ The presence of standardized weights and measures also suggests a
well-organized and structured society.
The Indus Valley Civilization was characterized by its advanced urban planning and remarkable
achievements in various fields. The standardized system of weights and measures used by this
ancient civilization played a crucial role in facilitating trade, commerce, and administrative
activities. The precise units of length, weight, and capacity demonstrate the level of
sophistication and organization within the Indus Valley Civilization. Understanding the
weights and measures of this ancient civilization provides valuable insights into their economic
and social systems, and it highlights their contribution to the development of early civilizations.

Decline of Harappan Culture of Indus Valley Civilization:

● Environmental Changes:
○ Climate Change: One of the significant factors attributed to the decline is a
shift in the climate patterns. The region experienced a drying trend, with a
decrease in monsoon rainfall, leading to a decline in agriculture and a scarcity
of resources.
○ River Diversion: It is believed that the course of the Indus River, on which the
civilization heavily relied for irrigation and transportation, shifted due to
tectonic activity or sedimentation. This change disrupted the agricultural
practices and trade networks.
● Economic Factors:
○ Trade Disruptions: The Harappan civilization was an extensive trading
society, with links to Mesopotamia and other regions. The decline in trade
networks, possibly due to environmental changes and the drying up of river
channels, could have severely impacted the economy and led to the decline of
the civilization.
○ Resource Depletion: The overexploitation of resources, such as deforestation
and depletion of fertile soil, could have contributed to declining agricultural
productivity and food scarcity.
● Social and Political Factors:
○ Internal Conflicts: Some scholars suggest that internal conflicts, such as social
unrest, political instability, or the rise of regional powers, might have weakened
the centralized authority and disrupted the functioning of the civilization.
○ Epidemics and Disease: Epidemics and the spread of diseases among the
population could have weakened the society, leading to a decline in productivity
and overall societal collapse.
● Cultural Changes:
○ Cultural Shifts: It is possible that the Harappan culture underwent significant
changes, including the influence of new groups migrating into the region or a
shift in religious beliefs and practices. These cultural shifts might have
disrupted the social fabric of the civilization.

Overall, the decline of the Harappan culture was likely a result of a combination of various
factors, including environmental changes, economic disruptions, social and political
conflicts, and cultural shifts. The lack of a conclusive explanation highlights the complexity of
understanding the decline of this ancient civilization. Nonetheless, the Harappan Civilization's
legacy continues to influence and inspire our understanding of early urban societies and their
interactions.

City Name Harappa Mohenjo-Daro Dholavira Lothal

Punjab,
Location Sindh, Pakistan Gujarat, India Gujarat, India
Pakistan

2600 BCE - 2600 BCE - 2650 BCE - 2100 2400 BCE - 1900
Period
1900 BCE 1900 BCE BCE BCE

Approx. 250 Approx. 250 Approx. 100

Size Approx. 125 acres
acres acres acres

Grid system
Grid system with Grid system with Grid system with
with streets
Urban Planning streets running streets running streets running
running
north-south north-south north-south
north-south

Brick houses, Dockyard,

Brick houses, Citadel,
granaries, warehouses,
Structures granaries, public residential areas,
public residential
buildings water reservoirs
buildings complexes

Elevated Complex Raised platform

Elevated
platform with structure with with
Citadel platform with
public multiple administrative
public buildings
buildings functions buildings

Elaborate Sophisticated
Elaborate Advanced water
Drainage underground water
underground management
System drainage management
drainage system system
system system
 Elaborate water
Large, Large, Large, well-built
tank for
Great Bath brick-lined brick-lined public bathing
ceremonial
bathing area bathing area area
purposes

Skilled
Skilled artisans Skilled artisans in Skilled artisans in
artisans in
Craftsmanship in pottery, bead making, bead making,
pottery,
jewelry, etc. pottery, etc. pottery, etc.
jewelry, etc.

Trade links with Maritime trade

Extensive Extensive trade
Trade Persian Gulf, with Persian Gulf,
trade networks networks
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia

Writing System Indus script Indus script Indus script Indus script

● Stone Statues:
○ The stone statuaries found at Harappa and Mohenjodaro are
excellent examples of handling three-dimensional volumes. In
stone are two male figures—one is a torso in red sandstone and
the other is a bust of a bearded man in steatite.
● Bronze Casting:
○ The art of bronze-casting was practiced on a wide scale by the
Harappans. Their bronze statues were made using the ‘lost wax’
technique. In bronze, we find human as well as animal figures, the best example
of the former being the statue of a girl popularly titled ‘Dancing Girl’. Amongst
animal figures in bronze the buffalo with its uplifted head, back and sweeping
horns and the goat are of artistic merit.
● Terracotta:
○ The Indus Valley people made terracotta images also but compared to the stone
and bronze statues the terracotta representations of human form are crude in the
Indus Valley. They are more realistic in Gujarat sites and Kalibangan. The most
 important among the Indus figures are those representing the mother goddess.

● Seals:
○ Archaeologists have
discovered thousands of
seals, usually made of
steatite, and
occasionally of agate,
chert, copper, faience
and terracotta, with
beautiful figures of
animals, such as unicorn
bull, rhinoceros, tiger,
elephant, bison, goat,
buffalo, etc. The purpose
of producing seals was mainly commercial
● Pottery:
○ The Indus Valley pottery consists chiefly of very fine
wheel-made wares, very few being hand-made. Plain pottery
is more common than painted ware. Plain pottery is generally
of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip. It includes
knobbed ware, ornamented with rows of knobs. The black
painted ware has a fine coating of red slip on which
geometric and animal designs are executed in glossy black
paint.
 ● Dancing Girl:
○ The best example of human figures in bronze is the statue of a girl popularly titled
‘Dancing Girl’.
● Bull:
○ Amongst animal figures in bronze the buffalo with its uplifted head, back and
sweeping horns and the goat are of artistic merit. The bronze figure of a bull from
Kalibangan is in no way inferior to the human figures of copper and bronze
from Harappa and Mohenjo Daro.
● Male Torso:
○ In this red sandstone figure, there are socket holes in the neck and shoulders for
the attachment of head and arms. The frontal posture of the torso has been
consciously adopted. The shoulders are well baked and the abdomen slightly
prominent.
● Painted Earthen Jar:
○ Found in Mohenjo Daro, this jar is made on a potter’s wheel with clay. The shape
was manipulated by the pressure of the crafty fingers of the potter. After baking
the clay model, it was painted with black color. High polishing was done as a
finishing touch. The motifs are of vegetables and geometric forms. Designs are
simple but with a tendency towards abstraction .
● Mother Goddess:
○ The mother goddess figures are usually crude standing female figures adorned
with necklaces hanging over prominent breasts and wearing a loin cloth and a
girdle. The fan-shaped head-dress with a cup-like projection on each side is a
distinct decorative feature of the mother goddess figures of the Indus Valley.
● Beads and Ornaments:
○ The Harappan men and women decorated themselves with a large variety of
ornaments produced from every conceivable material ranging from precious
metals and gemstones to bone and baked clay. The bead industry seems to have
been well developed as evident from the factories discovered at Chanhudaro and
Lothal. Beads were made of cornelian, amethyst, jasper, crystal, quartz,
steatite, turquoise, lapis lazuli, etc. Metals like copper, bronze and gold, and
shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay were also used for manufacturing
beads.

The Indus Valley civilization stands as a testament to the marvels of human ingenuity and
organization. Its well-planned urban centers, advanced drainage systems, and sophisticated
craftsmanship exemplify the civilization's remarkable achievements. The evidence of their trade
networks, intricate seals, and standardized weights and measures highlight their economic
prowess and cultural exchange. Despite the mysteries surrounding their language and ultimate
decline, the Indus Valley civilization remains a captivating subject for study, reminding us of the
complex and enigmatic nature of ancient civilizations and their enduring impact on human
history.

Summary
● Geography of the Indus Valley Civilization: The Indus Valley Civilization flourished in
the floodplains of the Indus River and its tributaries. It spanned present-day Pakistan,
northwest India, and parts of Afghanistan. The region's geography influenced the
civilization's agricultural practices and trade routes.
● Archaeological Findings: Excavations have revealed extensive remains of the Indus
Valley Civilization, including well-planned cities, intricate drainage systems, and
advanced brick construction. Discoveries like the Great Bath in Mohenjo-daro and the
citadel in Harappa provide insights into their urban life.
● Major cities: The Indus Valley Civilization featured numerous well-organized urban
centers, such as Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, and Dholavira. These cities displayed
impressive town planning, with grid layouts, public buildings, and complex systems of
water management.
● Town Planning: The Indus Valley cities demonstrated remarkable town planning. They
had well-defined street grids, fortified citadels, and residential areas with sophisticated
brick houses. The cities also had an advanced sewage and drainage system, indicating a
well-organized society.
● IVC Society and Culture: The society of the Indus Valley Civilization was believed to
be predominantly urban, with a hierarchical structure. They had skilled artisans, a
prosperous trading system, and evidence of a leisure class. Their culture is evident from
sculptures, figurines, and jewelry found at archaeological sites.
● Script and Language: The Indus script, found on seals and pottery, remains
undeciphered, limiting our understanding of their written language. It is a pictographic
script with no linguistic continuity to modern languages, posing a challenge for
researchers.
● Crafts & Pottery: The Indus Valley people were skilled craftsmen, producing intricate
pottery, bronze figurines, jewelry, and tools. The pottery featured distinctive red and
black designs, often displaying geometric patterns and animal motifs.
● Religions: The religious beliefs of the Indus Valley Civilization are not well understood.
However, archaeologists have discovered numerous terracotta figurines, seals depicting
divine figures, and fire altars, suggesting a complex religious system.
● Seals and Images: Indus Valley seals, made of steatite, feature carved engravings of
animals, humans, and various motifs. These seals may have been used for administrative
purposes, trade, or religious rituals, providing insights into the civilization's iconography.
● IVC Economy: The economy of the Indus Valley Civilization was based on agriculture,
trade, and craftsmanship. They had an extensive trading network, with evidence of
long-distance trade in goods like copper, precious stones, and shells.
● Harappan Trade: The Indus Valley Civilization had a flourishing trade network, both
within its region and with other contemporary civilizations. Archaeological evidence
suggests trade links with Mesopotamia, Oman, and Central Asia, highlighting their
economic importance.
● Agriculture: Agriculture formed the backbone of the Indus Valley Civilization. They
cultivated various crops, including wheat, barley, peas, and cotton. Sophisticated
irrigation systems and use of plows indicate an advanced understanding of agriculture.
● Domestication of animals: The people of the Indus Valley Civilization domesticated
animals for various purposes. Evidence suggests the presence of cattle, buffalo, sheep,
goats, and pigs. Animals were used for labor, transportation, and food production.
● Weights and Measures: The Indus Valley Civilization had a standardized system of
weights and measures, as evidenced by the discovery of uniform weights made of stone,
terracotta, and bronze. This uniformity facilitated trade and indicates a well-regulated
economy.
● Decline of Harappan Culture: The reasons for the decline of the Indus Valley
Civilization remain speculative. Proposed theories include ecological changes, natural
disasters, climate shifts, and invasions. The decline led to the abandonment of urban
centers and a shift to rural agrarian communities.