International Journal of Applied Power Engineering (IJAPE)

Vol. 11, No. 1, March 2022, pp. 91~97

ISSN: 2252-8792, DOI: 10.11591/ijape.v11i1.pp91-97  91

Effect of the bus voltage level on the power system design for
microsatellites

Mohammed Bekhti, Mohammed Beldjehem, Faiza Arezki

Research Department in Space Instrumentation, Centre for Satellites Development, Algerian Space Agency, Bouzaréah, Algeria

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: Each time there is a need for a satellite mission analysis, engineers need to
coordinate together the choice of one technology with regard to the other
Received Sep 21, 2021 (i.e. solar cells technology, transistors, microcontrollers, and batteries). The
Revised Dec 27, 2021 process of selecting one technology to another or a component to another is
Accepted Jan 5, 2022 called ‘trade off’. This concept is a hard and situational decision that
involves diminishing one quality, of a system or a design in return for gains
in other aspects such as weight, performance, speed and so on. The present
Keywords: paper will focus essentially on the use of the 28 V unregulated bus voltage
because early satellites, all used, a 14 V unregulated bus voltage. The paper
Battery capacity will also show trade-offs made when using the 28 V unregulated bus voltage
Battery charge regulator with different topologies.
DC/DC converter
Power conditioning module
Power distribution module This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.
Power system
Unregulated bus voltage

Corresponding Author:
Mohammed Bekhti
Research Department in Space Instrumentation, Centre for Satellites Development
Algerian Space Agency
Bouzaréah, Algeria
Email: [email protected]

1. INTRODUCTION
The design of the power system reflects the need for autonomous operation independent of all other
systems. It therefore should require no intervention from the ground station in the event of an anomaly on the
spacecraft. Autonomy is obtained by having redundant systems that automatically switch between each other
either when a fault is detected or multiple systems to provide graceful degradation in the event of a failure.
Basically, there are four identical battery charge regulators (BCRs), each of them must be capable of
transferring power from the solar panels to the battery and the rest of the spacecraft [1]–[6]. A small satellite
power system is composed of the following components as shown in Figure 1: i) solar arrays, ii) battery
charge regulator (BCR), iii) battery pack, iv) power conditioning module (PCM), and v) power distribution
module (PDM). Today, more sophisticated and more capable spacecrafts have eight identical BCRs. Each ½
of a solar panel is connected to a BCR capable of transferring power to the battery and the rest of the
spacecraft [1]–[6].
There are also two identical PCMs to ensure that regulated power from the main unregulated bus is
available to the subsystems. The PCMs are each equipped with a logic control circuitry capable of detecting
faults and dictating the switching over to the redundant PCM [5]. In addition, the hardware isdesigned to
adapt to the environmental changes. The most obvious example of this situation is the ability of the BCR to
monitor temperature changes of the battery and the solar panels. The BCR predicts the maximum power
point MPP of the solar arrays using the array temperature. Another main function of the BCR is its ability to
predict the end of charge (EoC) voltage of the battery pack.

Journal homepage: http://ijaas.iaescore.com

92  ISSN: 2252-8792

The paper presents different topologies related to the design of the power system on board
microsatellites. In addition, the article gives an overview on the choice of the 28 V bus as well as the
advantages linked to this choice. It is clear that the choice of the 28 V unregulated bus makes it possible to
use lower load currents and therefore reduce losses in wiring and power switches [1]–[5].
It is important to add that the following article clearly shows different topologies that exist in the
field of power systems design but the choice of a topology with regard to another remains the work of the
engineers designing the power system in accordance with the requirements of the satellite mission as well as
the constraints of the mission.

½ Solar Array BCR 1

½ Solar Array BCR 2
Solar Array 1 BCR 1

Rest of spacecraft
½ Solar Array BCR 3

Rest of spacecraft
Solar Array 2 BCR 2 ½ Solar Array
BCR 4 PCM 1 PDM
PCM PDM
3 BCR 3
½ Solar Array BCR 5 PCM 2
Solar Array Battery
Battery ½ Solar Array BCR 6
PCM
Solar Array 4 BCR 4
Logic
½ Solar Array BCR 7
PCM Select
½ Solar Array BCR 8

Figure 1. Standard microsatellite power system bloc Figure 2. New configuration for a microsatellite
diagram power system

2. IMPACTS OF CHANGE FROM 14 V TO 28 V UNREGULATED BUS

Most spacecrafts subsystems in their current design have evolved to be compatible with the
unregulated 28 V power bus.By doubling the bus voltage, the loads currents for systems using the bus
voltage are halved. Due to path losses being equal to R.I2, a reduction in the load current can significantly
reduce losses in the harness and the power switches. In addition, the forward voltage drop of a diode reduces
with current. Hence, less power will be dissipated in the blocking diodes.
Also, the range of high reliability DC-DC converters available off the shelf operate within the range
of 16 V to 40 V. However, there are very few of these modules available for voltages below 16 V. The use of
isolated DC-DC converters for radio frequency (RF) subsystems remove the problem of ground loops being
created in the structure [7]–[10].
Due to a reduction in the difference between the solar array voltage and the battery voltage, the
efficiency of the BCR system (through which all the power required by the spacecraft passes through) is
noticeably increased. Finally, if the power system were to use a 14 V bus voltage, two battery packs must be
used to achieve the required capacity. This, in turn, would result in a significant decrease in the power system
efficiency due to losses in the diode [1]–[5].

3. REVIEW OF ALTERNATIVE POWER SYSTEM TOPOLOGIES OPTIONS

3.1. The baseline 14 V unregulated bus
Primary power to the satellite is supplied via four body mounted solar panels. The power generated
from the solar panels feed into dual BCRs. The BCRs are selected by means of a relay on the input. Logic
monitors the BCR operation and switches to the other BCR should a failure occur. The BCR selection can be
overridden by a command from the TTC.
The BCRs estimate the maximum power point (MPP) of the solar arrays using a temperature
compensation method, and tracks the end of charge (EoC) of the single battery also by using a temperature
compensation method that reduces the charge current when the EoC is reached. This temperature
compensation, both for the battery and solar arrays, is based on thermistors potted with adhesive in the
battery pack and the solar panel substrates. Both the EoC and the MPP tracking can be overridden using the
on-board computer (OBC) control [1]–[6].
The circuit in Figure 3 shows a power system configuration based on a 14 V unregulated bus.
Figure 3 depicts that a failure of a BCR results in the automatic switch over to the redundant system. Each
BCR design can sustain a continuous power of 80 W with sufficient de-rating. In general, for a 60×60 cm

Int J Appl Power Eng, Vol. 11, No. 1, March 2022: 91-97
Int J Appl Power Eng ISSN: 2252-8792  93

solar panel using single junction gallium arsenide (GaAs) solar cells, assuming a fill factor of 80% and an
effective area of 80%, the power from a single panel can reach 60 W. This would result in an instantaneous
array power of over 80 W when 2 panels are illuminated at an angle of 45° to the sun direction. Therefore,
the BCR would need to be redesigned to support this increase of power [11]–[13].
Nowadays for the new enhanced microsatellites, the standard 14 V battery is no longer sufficient
because an increase of the depth of discharge (DoD) would certainly result in the decrease of the life cycle of
the battery. A solution would be the use of a single high capacity battery (15–20 Ah). However, this would
mean either the qualification of new battery cells or the use of space qualified battery packs from aerospace
battery companies resulting in an increase in the cost [14]–[20].

Spacecraft Subsystems
13 – 16 Volts

+10 V
-10 V PDM
PCM 1
+5 V
BCR 1 3A Fus.

BCR 2

PCM 2
Batterie

BCR PCM
Logic Logic

BCR select PCM select

Figure 3. 14 V unregulated power system bus

3.2. The four BCR and a two batteriespower system topology

Primary power to the satellite is supplied via four body mounted solar panels. The solar cell strings
on each panel are equally split between the BCR pairs and the batteries. Note that the BCR outputs are
isolated from each other using blocking diodes (as shown in Figure 4) [11]–[13]. The BCRs have the role of
estimating the MPP of the solar arrays, using thermilinear components YSI 44203. These thermilinear
networks consist of resistors and precise thermistors which produce an output voltage linear with the
temperature being sensed.

BCR 1
Spacecraft Subsystems

13 – 16 Volts

BCR 2
+10V
Batterie -10V PDM
PCM 1
+5V
10 cells battery
3A Fus.

PCM 2
BCR 3

PCM
BCR 4 Logic
Batterie
PCM select
10 cells battery

Figure 4. Block diagram of the four BCR and two batteries power system

Effect of the bus voltage level on the power system … (Mohammed Bekhti)
94  ISSN: 2252-8792

This temperature compensation, both for the battery and solar arrays, is based on thermistors potted
with adhesive in the battery pack and the solar panel substrates. The MPP tracking can be overridden using
the on-board computer (OBC) control. The redundancy in the BCR design in this power system topology
takes the form of a ‘graceful degradation’. Failure of one of the BCRs will result in the loss of up to half of
the orbital average power, depending on the attitude of the spacecraft (i.e., worst case having a single panel in
sunlight, half of which is connected to the failed BCR, best case no loss of power as a panel with no
connection to the failed BCR is used) [11]–[13]. As an advantage, the multiple BCR configuration provides a
simple interface to a two batteries power system. Due to splitting the panel strings between each battery, the
charge to each battery is continuous during the sunlight periods, irrespective of whether the spacecraft is
spinning or 3-axis stabilised.

3.3. One BCR for half panel and a two batteries power system topology
As shown on Figure 5, in total there are eight BCRs, four per battery. The BCR outputs are isolated
from each other using blocking diodes [14]–[17]. The power-conditioning module (PCM) being unchanged
from the standard microsatellite design. The PDM may use field effect transistor (FET) power switches
throughout because they are more power efficient.
There is no need for blocking diodes on the solar array output as there is a dedicated BCR per half
solar array. Due to having a dedicated BCR per half solar array, the BCR MPP set point will be more
accurate over the panel temperature range, resulting in a higher orbital average power. The loss of a BCR
results in a loss of only one half of a panel. Eight BCRs are required for this configuration. This will result in
significantly more mass and more assembly and test time for the module.

Spacecraft Subsystems
13– 16 Volts

BCR1
+10V
BCR2 -10V PDM
PCM 1
Battery +5V
BCR3 Battery
3A fus.
10 Cells battery
BCR4

BCR5

BCR6 PCM 2

BCR7 Battery
10 Cells battery
BCR8

PCM
Logic

PCM select

Figure 5. Block diagram of the one BCR for half a panel and two batteries power system

3.4. Dual redundant four BCR with a two batteries power system topology
Primary power to the satellite is supplied through four body mounted solar panels. The solar cell
strings, on each panel, are equally split between two BCRs and two batteries (as shown in Figure 6). There
are four BCRs in total in a dual redundant configuration to give two per battery. Each redundant pair of
BCRs are fed by half of each of the solar arrays. The BCRs estimate MPP of the solar arrays using a
temperature compensation circuitry. The EoC of its associated battery is tracked also using a temperature
compensation method reducing the charge current when the EoC voltage is reached.
The multiple BCR configuration provides a simple interface to a two-battery power system. Due to
splitting the panel strings between each battery pack, the charge to each battery is continuous during the
sunlight periods irrespective of whether the spacecraft is spinning or 3-axis stabilised. In addition, a loss of
one BCR results in no loss of power due to the redundant BCR configuration [17]–[20].
However, there is a need for blocking diodes on the solar array output. This is due to connecting
strings together from different panels in parallel and the connection between the two batteries [17]–[20]. A
potential failure mechanism to lose half of the array power is through the failure of a relay in series with the
BCR. Although, this failure has never been reported in the literature on previous microsatellites but it still
remains as a single failure point.

Int J Appl Power Eng, Vol. 11, No. 1, March 2022: 91-97
Int J Appl Power Eng ISSN: 2252-8792  95

Spacecraft Subsystems
13 – 16 Volts

BCR 1
+10V
-10V PDM
PCM1
+5V
BCR 2 3 A Fus.

Battery

10 cell battery
PCM2

BCR 3
PCM
Logic

BCR 4 PCM select

BCR Battery
Logic
10 cell battery

BCR Select

Figure 6. Block diagram of the dual redundant four BCRs with two batteries power system

Figure 7 represents a single battery, multiple BCRs configuration. It also provides a very efficient
power transfer from the solar arrays to the battery and the rest of the spacecraft. There is no need for blocking
diodes on the solar array output, as there is a dedicated BCR per solar array. Due to having a dedicated BCR
per solar array, the BCR MPP set point will be more accurate over the panel temperature range resulting in a
higher orbital average power.
The redundancy in the BCR design design in this power system topology takes the form of ‘graceful
degradation’. Failure of one BCR results in a loss of one panel. There is a need for blocking diodes on BCR.
This can result in an instantaneous loss of approximately 1.5W per diode between BCR and PDM maily due
to the forward voltage drop in the diodes [14]–[21].

BCR1

BCR2
Solar Arrays

Rest of Spacecraft

26.4 – 33V PCM1 5V

PDM
BCR3
Battery
PCM2
22 cells battery

BCR4
PCM
Logic

PCM select

Figure 7. Proposed 28 V unregulated bus power system

Table 1 gives an overview of the 28 V unregulated bus. The table shows clearly the characteristics
of the topology used these days on all small satellites. The topology seems more efficient, no blocking diodes
are required on solar arrays and most importantly, we cannot rack the MPP more accurately [14]–[21].

Effect of the bus voltage level on the power system … (Mohammed Bekhti)
96  ISSN: 2252-8792

Table 1. Comparison between 14 V and 28 V power system buses

14 V unregulated bus 28 V unregulated bus
Description Used on early microsatellites Used on all small satellites (micros and minis)
Harness High RI2 Lower RI2 losses
Blocking diodes High loss Lower loss due to reduced current
DC/DC converters availability None or a few Yes
Compatibility with COTS None or a few Yes
spacecraft systems
Battery capacity 6Ah batteries are used. Battery size should be 4Ah batteries are used with a reasonable DoD
modified to improve DoD
BCR Low efficiency due to the high voltage Higher efficiency due to the reduction of voltage
difference between solar array and battery difference between solar array and battery
PCM and PDM Higher losses on power switches Lower losses on power switches

4. SUMMARY OF TOPOLOGIES
Table 2 is a look up table for the designer to give a deep insight about the existing different
topologies used for satellites power systems [17]–[21]. Table 2 shows a comparison between different
topologies. Moreover, the engineers themselves will make the choice of a topology regarding mission
requirements and constraints [14]–[21].

Table 2. Summary of different topologies

Dual redundant 4
Baseline 14 V 28 V power 4 BCR with two 8 BCRs with two
BCRs with two
power system system battery packs battery packs
battery packs
Battery cells 11 22 22 (2*11) 22 (2*11) 22 (2*11)
Bus voltage (V) 13 – 16 26.4 – 33 13 – 16 13 – 16 13 – 16
Battery capacity (Ah) 6 4 4 4 4
Battery capacity (Wh) 86 112 112 112 112
Battery redundancy No No Yes Yes Yes
Depth of discharge (%) 25 19.2 19.2 19.2 19.2
BCR relay Yes No No No Yes
Number of BCRs 2 4 4 8 4
One (01) BCR loss Fully Loss of Loss of up Loss of up Fully operational
operational one BCR to ½ OAP to ½ OAP
One (01) array loss - Loss of Loss of up to ½ orbit Loss of up to ½ orbit Loss of up to ½ orbit
one panel average power average power average power
Max. panel power (W) 60 80 160 160 96
Forward diode loss ~3 ~ 1.5 ~6 <6 <6
(W)
MPP temperature Average of 4 Exact Average of 4 panels Exact Average of 4 panels
compensation panels

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This paper focuses on the effect of the bus voltage level on the power system design for
microsatellites. In addition, the paper compares the uses of a 14 V unregulated bus with the use of a 28 V
unregulated bus. Different topologies were investigated and the final choice belongs to the power system
engineer taking into consideration the spacecraft’s mission requirements and mission constraints.
Table 2 gives a summary of the different topologies being used in the field of satellite power system
design. One has to be careful when deciding to choose a configuration rather than the other. Cost and weight
of the whole system are important parameters to be looked at when making trade-offs.

6. CONCLUSION
The 14 V unregulated voltage bus has proved to be less efficient than the 28 V voltage bus. The
higher the voltage you use the lower the current requirements and therefore the losses. The 28 V power
system is becoming more and more an ‘industry standard’ for small satellites bus voltages. The 28 V system
has also no battery redundancy.
With the increased number of battery cells from 10 to 22, problems associated with cells capacity
mismatch can be more pronounced resulting in some cells eventually reaching zero capacity. This problem is
mitigated by closely matching the capacity and voltage characteristics of the cells in the battery, preventing
cell voltage reversal as the cell reaches full discharge.

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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS

Mohammed Bekhti received his degree of engineering from the University of

Science and Technology of Oran in 1980. He completed his MSc degree in 1983, from the
University of Nottingham, United Kingdom and received a Master degree (specialization) in
Space and Aeronautics, in 1994, from the National High School of Space and Aeronautics
(Supaéro), France. Mohammed Bekhti was the project manager of the first microsatellite of
EO for Algeria. Since then he has been with the Algerian Space Agency. He currently works
for the Centre for Satellites Development in Oran as a Head of the Research Department of
Space Instrumentation. Mohammed’s research interests are focused on power systems design
for small satellites. He can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Mohammed Beldjehem is a Satellite Electrical Systems Engineer in the

Department of Space Instrumentation Research, Power System Service (Algerian Space
Agency). He Received his Master’s Degree from Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
Department of Automatic Control, Oran University of Sciences and Technology in 2012.
His research interests are in power electronics, satellite power system, batteries and hybrid
Energy storage technologies. He can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Arezki Faiza received my B.E (Industrial Computing) in 2008 from the

university of sciences and technology of Oran, Algeria and a Master degree (Electrical
engineering) in 2018 from Beihang University, China. She currently working as a design
engineer in the satellite’s development center (Algerian Space Agency), in Algeria since 2015.
Her field of interest concerns research on satellites electrical power systems. She can be
contacted at email: [email protected].

Effect of the bus voltage level on the power system … (Mohammed Bekhti)