Chapter 12: The Operational

Amplifier

12.1: Introduction to Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)

„ Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are very high gain dc coupled
amplifiers with differential inputs; they are used as a voltage controlled
voltage sources. One of the inputs is called the inverting input (-); the
other is called the noninverting input (+). Usually there is a single output.
„ Most op-amps operate with two dc supply voltages, one positive
and the other negative, although some have a single dc supply

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 12.1: Introduction to Operational Amplifier (op-amp)
The Ideal Op-Amp
„ The ideal op-amp has characteristics that simplify analysis of op-amp
circuits. Ideally, op-amps have infinite voltage gain, infinite bandwidth,
and infinite input impedance Æ it does not load the driving source. In
addition, the ideal op-amp has zero output impedance.

12.1: Introduction to Operational Amplifier (op-amp)

The Practical Op-Amp
„ Practical op-amps have characteristics that often can be treated
as ideal for certain situations, but can never actually attain ideal
characteristics.
„ Characteristics of a practical op-amp are very high voltage gain,
very high input impedance, and very low output impedance
„ In addition to finite gain, bandwidth, input impedance, and noise
generation, they have other limitations like voltage and current.

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 12.1: Introduction to Operational Amplifier (op-amp)
Internal Block Diagram of an Op-Amp
„ Internally, the typical op-amp has a differential input, a voltage
amplifier, and a push-pull output. Recall from the Section 6-7 of the text
that the differential amplifier amplifies the difference in the two inputs.
„ The differential amplifier is the input stage for the op-amp. It
provides amplification of the difference voltage between the two inputs.
The second stage is usually a class A amplifier (CE amplifier) that
provides additional gain. A push-pull class B amplifier (Ch. 7) is
typically used for the output stage.

12.2: Op-Amp Input Modes And Parameters

Input Signal Modes
The input signal can be applied to an Op-Amp in differential-mode or
in common-mode.
1- Differential Mode: In the single-ended differential mode
„ either one signal is applied to an input with the other input grounded

When input signal is applied to When input signal is applied to

inverting input terminal Æ inverting input terminal Æ Non-
Inverted output will appear on Vout inverted output will appear on Vout

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 12.2: Op-Amp Input Modes And Parameters

1- Differential Mode: In the double-ended differential mode

„ two opposite-polarity (out of phase) signals are applied to the inputs
(figure a); The amplified difference between the two inputs appears
on the output
„ or a single source connected between the two inputs (figure b)

12.2: Op-Amp Input Modes And Parameters

2- Common Mode:
„ two signal voltages of the same phase, frequency, and amplitude
are applied to the two inputs, as shown.
„ When equal input signals are applied to both inputs, they tend to
cancel, resulting in a zero output voltage.
Vin

– –
Vout Vout
+ +

Vin
Vin

This action is called common-mode rejection. Its importance lies in the

situation where an unwanted signal appears commonly on both op-amp
inputs like noise Æ unwanted signals will not appear at the output.
(usually several thousand)

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 12.2: Op-Amp Input Modes And Parameters
Op-Amp Parameters
„ Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR): The ability of an amplifier to
amplify differential signals and reject common-mode signals (noise
appears on both inputs).
„ Ideally, unwanted signals will not appear at the output. However,
practical op-amps do exhibit a very small common-mode gain Acm
(usually much less than 1), while providing a high open-loop differential
voltage gain, Aol (usually several thousand).
„ The ratio of the open-loop differential voltage gain, Aol, to the
common-mode gain, Acm

The higher the CMRR, the better

The CMRR is often expressed in decibels (dB) as

12.2: Op-Amp Input Modes And Parameters

Op-Amp Parameters
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR): Example

A certain op-amp has an open-loop differential voltage gain of

100,000 and a common-mode gain of 0.2. Determine the CMRR
and express it in decibels.

This means the desired input signal (differential) is amplified

500,000 times more than the unwanted noise (common-mode).

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 12.2: Op-Amp Input Modes And Parameters
Op-Amp Parameters
„ Maximum Output Voltage Swing (VO(p-p))
„ With no input signal, the output of an op-amp is ideally 0 V.
This is called the quiescent output voltage.
„ When an input signal is applied, the ideal limits of the peak-to-
peak output signal are ± VCC.
„ practically, VO(p-p) decreases as RL connected to the op-amp decreases.

„ Input offset voltage (VOS): is the differential dc voltage

required between the inputs to force the output to zero volts
„ The ideal op-amp produces zero volts out for zero volts in.
„ In a practical op-amp, a small dc voltage, VOUT(error), appears at the
output when no differential input voltage is applied Æ we apply VOS;
typical input offset voltage are in the range of 2 mV or less

12.2: Op-Amp Input Modes And Parameters

Op-Amp Parameters
„ Input bias current (IBIAS): is the average of the two dc currents required to
bias the bases of differential amplifier

„ input offset current (IOS): is the difference between the two dc bias currents

(usually neglected)

„ Ideally, the two input bias

currents are equal, and thus their
difference is zero. „ The Offset voltage produced
„ In a practical op-amp, the bias by offset current
currents are not exactly equal.
Æ

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 12.2: Op-Amp Input Modes And Parameters
Op-Amp Parameters
„ Differential input impedance (ZIN(d)): The is the total resistance
between the inputs
„ Common-mode input impedance (ZIN(cm)) : The is the resistance
between each input and ground

„ Output impedance (Zout): The is

the resistance viewed from the output
of the circuit.

12.2: Op-Amp Input Modes And Parameters

Op-Amp Parameters
„ Slew rate: is the maximum rate of change of the output voltage in
response to a step input voltage

Slew rate
measuring circuit

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 12.2: Op-Amp Input Modes And Parameters
Op-Amp Parameters

Slew rate: Example

The output voltage of a certain op-amp appears as shown in Figure
in response to a step input. Determine the slew rate.

12.3: Negative feedback

Negative feedback is one of the most useful concepts in op-amp applications
„ Negative feedback is the process of returning a portion of the output
signal to the input with a phase angle that opposes the input signal (to the
inverting output).
„ Æ The advantage of negative feedback is that precise values of amplifier
gain can be set. In addition, bandwidth and input and output impedances
can be controlled.

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 12.3: Negative feedback
„ Why? The open-loop voltage gain of
a typical op-amp is very high Æ an
extremely small input voltage drives the
op-amp into its saturated output states
(for Aol of 100000, 1mv input has
amlified value of 100V which is very
high from the operating voltage of op-
ampÆ amplifier is driven into
saturation Æ nonlinear operation.

12.4: Op-Amp with Negative feedback

„ An op-amp can be connected using negative feedback (closed-loop)
to stabilize the gain (much lower gain than opened-loop) and increase
frequency response.
Noninverting Amplifier
„ A noninverting amplifier is a configuration in which the input
signal is applied on the noninverting input and a portion of the output
is returned (feedback) to the inverting input Æ Vout will be reduced by
Ri, Rf, and hence by Vf

Æ There will be feedback attenuation,

B, for Vout precisely decided by Ri and
Rf according to

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 12.4: Op-Amp with Negative feedback
„ Hence, Vout will be the amplified differential input between Vin and Vf

AolB is typically >> 1

The closed-loop noninverted (NI) voltage

gain; noninverted voltage gain of an op-amp
with external feedback

12.4: Op-Amp with Negative feedback

Noninverting Amplifier: Example
Determine the closed-loop voltage gain of the amplifier in Figure

We have a noninverting op-

amp configuration

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 12.4: Op-Amp with Negative feedback
Voltage-Follower
„ Voltage follower is a special case of the inverting amplifier is when Rf
=0 and Ri = ∞.

Op-Amp
with
negative
feedback
With Rf = 0 and Ri = ∞

„This forms a voltage

follower or unity gain
buffer with a gain of 1. Voltage
follower

12.4: Op-Amp with negative feedback

Inverting Amplifier
„ An inverting amplifier shown is a
configuration in which The noninverting (+)
input is grounded and the input signal is
applied through a resistor Ri to the inverting
input (-). Also, the output is fed back
through Rf to the same input.

„ Since Zin = ∞ Æ I1 through Zin = 0 Æ

VZin = 0. Hence the (-) input has voltage
= the (+) input voltage = the ground
voltage = 0 V Æ the (-) input is called
virtual ground

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 12.4: Op-Amp with negative feedback
Inverting Amplifier
„ Since I1 through Zin = 0 Æ current
through Ri = current through Rf

Closed loop voltage gain of the inverting amplifier

Example: determine the value of Rf required

to produce a closed-loop voltage gain of 100.

12.5: Effect of Negative Feedback on Op-Amp Impedances

Impedances of the Noninverting Amplifier: Input Impedance

Rearrange Æ

Hence, overall input impedance of a

closed-loop noninverting amplifier

Hence, with negative feedback Æ Zin(NI) >> Zin (without feedback)

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 12.5: Effect of Negative Feedback on Op-Amp Impedances
Impedances of the Noninverting Amplifier: Output Impedance
The output circuit is
shown in the figure
Applying KVL from Vout to
the ground through Zout Æ

assume
With some algebra one can show that (SEE TEXT BOOK)

output impedance of a closed-loop

noninverting amplifier
( Zout(NI) << Zout)

12.5: Effect of Negative Feedback on Op-Amp Impedances

Impedances of the Noninverting Amplifier: Example

Almost
infinity

Almost zero

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 12.5: Effect of Negative Feedback on Op-Amp Impedances
Voltage-Follower Impedances
The special case of noninverting Op-
Amp with B=1 has impedances of

This is a voltage follower configuration

12.5: Effect of Negative Feedback on Op-Amp Impedances

Impedances of the Inverting Amplifier
„ The input impedance is the impedance
between input and the virtual ground

„ The output impedance is same

as for noninverting OP-Amp

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 12.6: Bias Current and Offset Voltage
„ With zero input voltage (Vin = 0), the ideal op-amp has no input current
at its terminals; but in fact, the practical op-amp has small input bias
currents, due to dc biasing voltages, typically in the nA range. Also, small
internal imbalances in the transistors effectively produce a small offset
voltage between the inputs (VIO) Æ error in the output voltage (Vout(error))
will be produced as a result

12.6: Bias Current and Offset Voltage

Bias Current Compensation
To compensate for the small output error voltage, a resistor Rc equal to
Ri||Rf is added to one of the inputs. Rc create current at the other inputÆ ∆I
at the inputs = 0, and hence no offset voltage VIO between inputs Æ no
Vout(error) during op amp operation.

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 12.6: Bias Current and Offset Voltage
Input offset voltage Compensation
Most integrated circuit op-amps provide an internally means of
compensating for offset voltage. This is usually done by connecting
an external potentiometer to designated pins (Offset null) on the IC
package, the potentiometer is adjusted until the output is zero

12.7: Open-Loop Frequency and Phase Response

„ Open-loop responses relate to an op-amp with no external feedback.
The frequency response indicates how the voltage gain changes with
frequency, and the phase response indicates how the phase shift between
the input and output signal changes with frequency
Review of Op-Amp Voltage Gains
„ The open-loop voltage gain, Aol, of an op-amp is the internal voltage
gain of the device and represents the ratio of output voltage to input
voltage with no external components (Figure (a))
„ The closed-loop voltage gain, Acl, is the voltage gain of an op-amp
with external feedback. It is controlled by the external components
value (Figure (b))

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 12.7: Open-Loop Frequency and Phase Response
Bandwidth Limitations
„ Op-amps has no lower critical frequency, fcl (no capacitive coupling
between stages inside the op-amp) Æ the midrange gain extends down to
zero frequency (dc), and dc voltages are amplified the same as midrange
signal frequencies Æthey are called dc amplifiers.
„ The voltage gain described before (open-loop and closed-loop) are voltage
gains at midrange frequency.
„ Roll-off (-20dB/decade or -6dB/octave) of voltage gain (due to the internal
transistor capacitors) begins at upper critical frequency fc, where the voltage
gain is -3dB from the midrange voltage gain Æ The bandwidth is

Sine For op-amp with fcl = 0 Æthe band width will be equal to upper
critical frequency

„ Roll-off of voltage gain continue until reaching the point where the voltage
gain is equal to unity (1 or 0dB) at unity-gain frequency (or unity gain
bandwidth ), fT .

12.7: Open-Loop Frequency and Phase Response

Bandwidth Limitations
„ As an example, An open-loop response curve (Bode plot) for a certain
op-amp is shown in Figure below usually specified by op-amp datasheets.
The curve rolls off (decreases) at -20dB/decade ( -6dB/per octave). The
midrange gain is 200,000 (106 dB), and the critical (cutoff ) frequency is
approximately 10 Hz.

BW

Unity gain BW

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 12.7: Open-Loop Frequency and Phase Response
Gain-Versus-Frequency Analysis
„ The RC lag (low-pass) circuits (represented by the circuit shown) within
an op-amp are responsible for the roll-off in gain as the frequency increases
The attenuation of the RC lag circuit is

The critical frequency of an

RC circuit is at C = R Æ RC lag (‫ )ﺗﺄﺧﻴﺮ‬circuit

Dividing both sides by f Æ Æ

Hence the attenuation due to RC lag circuit is

12.7: Open-Loop Frequency and Phase Response

Gain-Versus-Frequency Analysis
„ If an op-amp is represented by a voltage
gain element with a gain of Aol(mid ) plus a
single RC lag circuit, as shown in Figure, then
The total open-loop gain of the op-amp is

Phase Shift: An RC lag circuit such as found in an op-

amp stage causes the output signal voltage to lag the
input (we can add –ve sign) with phase shift θ

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 12.7: Open-Loop Frequency and Phase Response
Gain-Versus-Frequency Analysis : Example

12.7: Open-Loop Frequency and Phase Response

Phase shift : Example

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 12.7: Open-Loop Frequency and Phase Response
Overall Frequency Response
„ The more complex IC
operational amplifier may consist
of two or more cascaded amplifier
stages Æ total voltage gain at mid
range is the algebraic addition of
dB gain for each stage. Also the
phase between output and input is
is the addition of phase angles for
each stage

Note the roll-off

for the three
stages shown

12.7: Open-Loop Frequency and Phase Response

Overall Frequency Response: Example

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 12.7: Closed-Loop Frequency and Phase Response
„ The midrange gain of an op-amp is reduced by negative feedback, as
indicated by the following closed-loop gain expressions for the three amplifier

„ Since feedback affect the gain and

impedances Æ critical frequency will
also be affected Æ The closed-loop
critical frequency of an op-amp with –ve
feedback will increase according to

Since fc(ol) equals the bandwidth Æ the bandwidth for the closed-loop
amplifier will also increased by the same factor

„ Hence, with feedback we have lower voltage gain and higher BW as shown

12.7: Closed-Loop Frequency and Phase Response

Example

Gain-Bandwidth Product
„ As long as the roll-off rate is fixed, a decrease in closed-loop gain
causes an increase in the bandwidth and vice versa, such that the product of
gain and bandwidth is a constant

Since the product of midrange gain and bandwidth always equal to

frequency of unity gain as shown in chapter 10 ( )

Æ For closed loop, the unity gain frequency fT will be

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