History of Psychological testing

1. 2200 B.C.E. Proficiency testing begins in China. The Emperor evaluates public
officials every third year.
2. 1800 B.C.E. Babylonians develop astrology in order to interact with the gods and predict
the future. Greeks later redefine astrology to predict and describe personality.
3. 500 B.C.E. Pythagoras begins practicing physiognomy to evaluate personality.
4. 400 B.C.E. Hippocrates introduces Humorology to the field of medicine for the
treatment of physical and mental illness.
5. Plato suggests people should find employment that is consistent with their abilities.
6. 175 B.C.E. Claudius Galenus designs experiments to show that it is the brain and the
not the heart that is the seat of intellect.
7. 500 A.D. With the start of the Middle Ages, science takes a backseat to faith and
superstition and the history of psychological testing is temporarily halted.
8. 1200 A.D. Interest in individual differences emerges as people begin to question
whether those in “league with satan” did so voluntarily or involuntarily. Trials for
witchery and sorcery were common.
9. 1265 A.D. Thomas Aquinas asserts that the notion of the human immortal soul should
be replaced by the notion of a human capacity to think and reason.
10. 1550 A.D. The Renaissance witnesses a rebirth in philosophy and an appreciation for
science.
11. 1698 A.D. Juan Huarte publishes The Tyral of Wits, the first book to propose a discipline
of assessment.
12. 1770 A.D. The cause of philosophy and sciences advances with the writings of French,
German, and English philosophers. One of these philosophers, Rene Descartes, proposes
the mind-body question.
13. 1823 A.D. The Journal of Phrenology is founded to further the study of human abilities
and talents. Although proven unfounded experimentation, phrenology proposed that
human qualities are localized in concentrations of brain fiber that press outward on the
skull.
14. 1869 A.D. Sir Francis Galton publishes a study of heredity and genius which pioneered a
statistical technique that Karl Pearson would later call correlation.
15. 1879 A.D. In Leipzig, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt founds the first experimental
psychology laboratory. Wundt’s structuralism relies heavily on a tool of assessment
called introspection whereby subjects try to describe their conscious experience of a
stimulus.
16. 1895 A.D. American psychologist James McKeen helped launched the beginning of
psychological testing. Cattell eventually found Psychological Corporation, a company
with a goal of “useful application of psychology”
17. 1900 A.D. Sigmund Freud publishes the Interpretation of Dreams which goes on to
influence approaches to understanding personality for the next 50 years.
18. 1905 A.D. Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon publish a 30-item scale of intelligence
designed to help classify schoolchildren in Paris schools. The development of the Binet-
Simon Intelligence Scale is largely recognized as launching a new era in measurement.
 19. 1908 A.D. Frank Parsons opens the Vocational Bureau of Boston begins offering career
guidance to young adults.
20. 1914 A.D. World War I brings about a boom in psychological testing as thousands of
American recruits are screened for intellectual and emotional functioning. Army Alpha
and Army Beta.
21. 1919 A.D. Robert Woodworth publishes the Personal Data Sheet to help identify Army
recruits susceptible to ‘shell shock.’
22. 1921 A.D. Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorscharch publishes his famous
monograph, Psychodiagnostics, which would lead to the development of the Rorschach
Inkblot Test.
23. 1926 A.D. The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) is developed and administered for the
first time.
24. 1927 A.D. Charles Spearman publishes a two- factor theory of intelligence in which he
postulates the existence of a general intellectual ability factor and specific
components of that general ability.
25. 1938 A.D. Mental tests have reached the status of big business. According to 1938 Metal
Measurements at least 4, 000 psychological test are in print.
26. 1939 A.D. David Wechsler introduces the Wechsler- Bellevue Intelligence Scale which
was designed to measure adult intelligence. Today, multiple versions of these tests are
in publication and are the most popular instruments used to measure the intelligence of
children and adults.
27. 1943 A.D. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory was published.
28. 1949 A.D. The first version to the Wechsler Intelligence Tests for children was
published.
29. 1949 A.D. The 16PF Questionnaire, 1st Edition is released for public use.
30. 1955 A.D. The first version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Tests was published.
31. 1962 A.D. Katherine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Meyers publish the Meyers Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI)
a. Warren T. Norman publishes his first article over the Big Five Personality Test
32. 1970 A.D. John L. Holland publishes the first version of the Self Directed Search (SDS)
for consumer use. The inventory was intended to help individuals identify careers that
are congruent with their personalities.
a. It is considered as the dark age of psychological testing as most people feared its
intrusive nature and the tendency to be misused.
1980s and 1990s several fields of applied psychology utilized psychological testing and
assessment.

Principle

PRINCIPLE I Respect for the Dignity of Persons and Peoples

Respect for the dignity of persons is the most fundamental and universally found ethical
principle across geographical and cultural boundaries, and across professional disciplines. It
provides the philosophical foundation for many of the other ethical principles put forward by
professions. Respect for dignity recognizes the inherent worth of all human beings, regardless of
perceived or real differences in social status, ethnic origin, gender, capacities, or other such
characteristics. This inherent worth means that all human beings are worthy of equal moral
consideration.
All human beings, as well as being individuals, are interdependent social beings that are born
into, live in, and are a part of the history and ongoing evolution of their peoples. The different
cultures, ethnicities, religions, histories, social structures and other such characteristics of
peoples are integral to the identity of their members and give meaning to their lives. The
continuity of peoples and cultures over time connects the peoples of today with the peoples of
past generations and the need to nurture future generations. As such, respect for the dignity of
persons includes moral consideration of and respect for the dignity of peoples.
Respect for the dignity of persons and peoples is expressed in different ways in different
communities and cultures. It is important to acknowledge and respect such differences. On the
other hand, it also is important that all communities and cultures adhere to moral values that
respect and protect their members both as individual persons and as collective peoples.

THEREFORE, psychologists accept as fundamental the Principle of Respect for the Dignity of
Persons and Peoples. In so doing, they accept the following related values:

1. a) respect for the unique worth and inherent dignity of all human beings;
2. b) respect for the diversity among persons and peoples;
3. c) respect for the customs and beliefs of cultures, to be limited only when a custom or
a belief seriously contravenes the principle of respect for the dignity of persons or
peoples or causes serious harm to their well-being;
4. d) free and informed consent, as culturally defined and relevant for individuals,
families, groups, and communities;
5. e) privacy for individuals, families, groups, and communities;
6. f) protection of confidentiality of personal information, as culturally defined and
relevant for individuals, families, groups, and communities;
7. g) fairness and justice in the treatment of persons and peoples.

PRINCIPLE II Competent Caring for the Well-Being of Persons and Peoples

Competent caring for the well-being of persons and peoples involves working for their benefit
and, above all, doing no harm. It includes maximizing benefits, minimizing potential harm, and
offsetting or correcting harm. Competent caring requires the application of knowledge and skills
that are appropriate for the nature of a situation as well as the social and cultural context. It also
requires the ability to establish interpersonal relationships that enhance potential benefits and
reduce potential harm. Another requirement is adequate self-knowledge of how one's values,
experiences, culture, and social context might influence one's actions and interpretations.
THEREFORE, psychologists accept as fundamental the Principle of Competent Caring for the
Well-Being of Persons and Peoples. In so doing, they accept the following related values:
 1. a) active concern for the well-being of individuals, families, groups, and
communities;
2. b) taking care to do no harm to individuals, families, groups, and communities;
3. c) maximizing benefits and minimizing potential harm to individuals, families,
groups, and communities;
4. d) correcting or offsetting harmful effects that have occurred as a result of their
activities
5. e) developing and maintaining competence;
6. f) self-knowledge regarding how their own values, attitudes, experiences, and social
contexts influence their actions, interpretations, choices, and recommendations;
7. g) respect for the ability of individuals, families, groups, and communities to make
decisions for themselves and to care for themselves and each other.

PRINCIPLE III Integrity

Integrity is vital to the advancement of scientific knowledge and to the maintenance of public
confidence in the discipline of psychology. Integrity is based on honesty, and on truthful, open
and accurate communications. It includes recognizing, monitoring, and managing potential
biases, multiple relationships, and other conflicts of interest that could result in harm and
exploitation of persons or peoples.
Complete openness and disclosure of information must be balanced with other ethical
considerations, including the need to protect the safety or confidentiality of persons and peoples,
and the need to respect cultural expectations.
Cultural differences exist regarding appropriate professional boundaries, multiple relationships,
and conflicts of interest. However, regardless of such differences, monitoring and management
are needed to ensure that self-interest does not interfere with acting in the best interests of
persons and peoples.
THEREFORE, psychologists accept as fundamental the Principle of Integrity. In so doing, they
accept the following related values:

1. a) honesty, and truthful, open and accurate communications;

2. b) avoiding incomplete disclosure of information unless complete disclosure is
culturally inappropriate, or violates confidentiality, or carries the potential to do
serious harm to individuals, families, groups, or communities;
3. c) maximizing impartiality and minimizing biases;
4. d) not exploiting persons or peoples for personal, professional, or financial gain;
5. e) avoiding conflicts of interest and declaring them when they cannot be avoided or
are inappropriate to avoid.

PRINCIPLE IV Professional and Scientific Responsibilities to Society

Psychology functions as a discipline within the context of human society. As a science and a
profession, it has responsibilities to society. These responsibilities include contributing to the
knowledge about human behavior and to persons’ understanding of themselves and others, and
using such knowledge to improve the condition of individuals, families, groups, communities,
and society. They also include conducting its affairs within society in accordance with the
highest ethical standards, and encouraging the development of social structures and policies that
benefit all persons and peoples.
Differences exist in the way these responsibilities are interpreted by psychologists in different
cultures. However, they need to be considered in a way that is culturally appropriate and
consistent with the ethical principles and related values of this Declaration.
THEREFORE, psychologists accept as fundamental the Principle of Professional and Scientific
Responsibilities to Society. In so doing, they accept the following related values:

1. the discipline’s responsibility to increase scientific and professional knowledge in

ways that allow the promotion of the well-being of society and all its members;
2. the discipline’s responsibility to use psychological knowledge for beneficial purposes
and to protect such knowledge from being misused, used incompetently, or made
useless;
3. the discipline’s responsibility to conduct its affairs in ways that are ethical and
consistent with the promotion of the well-being of society and all its members;
4. the discipline’s responsibility to promote the highest ethical ideals in the scientific,
professional and educational activities of its members;
5. the discipline’s responsibility to adequately train its members in their ethical
responsibilities and required competencies;
6. the discipline’s responsibility to develop its ethical awareness and sensitivity, and to
be as self-correcting as possible.

In Psychology some of the most contested issues are ethical issues. Many of the greatest
psychological studies have been hugely unethical. For example, Milgram (1963), Zimbardo
(1973). One of the problems one encounters when conducting psychological research is
considering the extent to which the research depends upon being unethical. Milgram’s infamous
study conducted to the highest ethical peaks would not have provided such an insight of human
obedience because it would have become completely ecologically invalid — in real life we
cannot simply withdraw from the research. Furthermore, demand characteristics would have
undoubtably had a confounding effect upon the results.
The British Psychological Society (BPS) and the American Psychological Association (APA)
have provided an ethical framework for psychologists to attempt to adhere to when conducting
psychological research.
If you are taking an a-level psychology exam, or conducting psychological research, it is
important to know these ethical principles.
Protection From Harm
Perhaps the most important ethical principle is that participants should be protected from harm,
psychological or otherwise.
Psychological harm can be difficult to operationalise because it can depend upon the person and
it can be difficult to detect, both the participants and the researchers may not know that
participants have been harmed psychologically. However, that being said, researchers can do
their upmost to prevent any undue stress for their participants.
Right to Withdraw
Giving participants the right to withdraw does not just informing them that they can leave the
study at any time, but also informing them that they have the right to withdraw their results from
the study at any time.
This is important because some participants may feel pressured into continuing with the study. It
is also important because it prevents the participants from feeling embarrassed about their
results. Take for example a study in which a person has to take an IQ test, that returns the result
that they have below average intelligence. This could be embarrassing for the participants and
may lead them to want to withdraw.
Confidentiality
Following on from the previous point. Ensuring that your results are anonymous and also
confidential follows the ethical code put forth by the British Psychological Society.
No one outside of the experiment—and ideally in the experiment too—should be able to identify
the participants from the results.
Informed Consent
For any research to be ethical, the researcher must have gained informed consent from the
participants. The ‘informed’ part of this ethical principle is the most important part. It is no use
to gain consent from participants when they are not informed about the true nature of the study.
Take for example Milgram’s 1963 study. The participants were told that they would be
participating in research on memory and learning, and they consented to take part based on that
knowledge. Milgram therefore did not gain informed consent because the participants were not
fully informed about the true nature of the study, that is, it was a study into obedience. However,
arguably informed consent was gained after the participants were debriefed, which brings us on
to the next point.
Debriefing
Debriefing is conducted with the participants after the study has taken place. It has a number of
aims. Firstly, it aims to ensure that none of the participants have been harmed in any way by the
study. Secondly, it aims to make sure that the researchers have informed consent. Thirdly, it
allows the participants an opportunity to remove their results from the study. Finally, it allows
the participants to ask any questions about the study to make sure they fully understand the
content of it.
There are a number of times when debriefing the participants of a study is not possible. To give
an example, Piliavin et al., which was a field experiment. The participants of that study could not
be debriefed because they did not know that they were taking part and it would have been nearly
impossible to complete.
Deception
Some studies require that the participants are deceived in some way. The majority of the time
this is to prevent demand characteristics, which can confound upon the results and conclusions of
the study.
Deception however, is against the ethical standards set by the British Psychological Association.
Deception includes: misleading the participants in any way and the use of stooges or
confederates.