WHITE PAPER

The Essential
Signal Generator Guide
Building a Solid Foundation in RF – Part 1
Eliminate uncertainties and doubts
from your test results with a reliable
signal source
Engineers designing consumer wireless, military communications, or radar devices face an ongoing
bandwidth crunch in spectrum filled with interference. An accurate signal generator offers precise
and stable test signals for characterizing your device under test (DUT). It also lets you apply
impairments to test your design within and beyond its limits.

Getting to market faster with test results you can trust starts with selecting the right test instrument
for the job. Our two-part series will help you better understand how signal generators work and
which key specifications are critical for your projects.

Part 1 introduces you to the inner workings of the signal generator. It provides a deeper look at basic
specifications such as power, accuracy, and speed. Part 2 covers more advanced features such as
modulation, spectral purity, and distortion.

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Contents
Section 1. What is a signal generator?

Understand the basic functions of a signal generator, different types of signal generators, and
key specifications.

Section 2. Power

Learn about the difference between average power, envelope power, and peak envelope power, as
well as measurement applications for high or low output power.

Section 3. Accuracy

Gain confidence in your measurements. Take a deeper look at why accuracy matters and
specifications of interest.

Section 4. Speed

We cover speed specifications and how to improve test throughput.

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Section 1 - What Is a Signal Generator?
A signal generator is a source that outputs a signal. This signal can be a basic sinusoidal wave, a
pulse, or a modulated signal. Sometimes also referred to as a signal source, this instrument allows
you to output signals at various frequencies, amplitudes, and times.

What is a signal generator used for and why is

it important?

Engineers use signal generators to test components, receivers, and systems for a variety of
applications throughout the product development cycle. The output signal can be as simple as a
continuous wave (CW) or complex, like a digitally modulated signal. The signal generator simulates
a variety of signals at different stages of communication systems. Figures 1-1 and 1-2 show common
signal generator use cases for component and receiver test.

Component RF transceiver (Rx) System component

(stimulus-response)
RF Signal
I+, I-
RF / IF RF / IF
RF Rx
Q+, Q- RF / IF I Q
DUT
Baseband
BBIQ

Intermodulation (2-tone) RF transceiver (Tx) Component substitution

CW
CW #2
I+, I-
CW #1
∑ RF Tx RF / IF
RF / IF

X
DUT
Upconverter / downconverter

Figure 1-1. Signal generator use cases for component characteristic tests or a system component

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 Sensitivity CO-channel rejection CO-channel selectivity
In-band CW / modulated Adjacent / alternate channel
interfering interfering
Desired
signal Desired Desired
BERT
Rx signal ∑ signal ∑
DUT BERT BERT
Data / clock
Data / clock Rx Data / clock Rx
DUT DUT

Intermodulation immunity Spurious immunity Fading measurement

Out-of-band CW / modulated Out-of-band CW / modulated
Desired
interfering interfering signal

Desired Desired Channel

signal ∑ signal ∑ Simulator
BERT BERT
Data / clock Rx Data / clock Rx
DUT DUT Rx
DUT

Figure 1-2. Signal generator use case for receiver sensitivity tests

Why is a signal generator important? Signal generators produce precise and stable test signals for
characterizing your device under test (DUT). They can simulate different kinds of signals, from digital
I/Q to high-frequency signals. To characterize your device’s behavior, a signal generator can also
apply impairments to test your design within and beyond its limits.

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Types of signal generators

Signal generators can be classified based on their form factor and capabilities.

Form factor: benchtop or modular?

The most common signal generator form factor is benchtop. We typically see these boxed
instruments on benches and in racks. Benchtop signal generators are well-suited for R&D, where
engineers use the front panel controls to analyze, and troubleshoot devices.

The PXIe modular form factor signal generators are compact instruments housed in a PXIe chassis
and controlled using a PC. Several PXIe signal generators can be placed in a single chassis, making
them ideal for applications that require multi-channel measurement capabilities, fast measurement
speed, and a small footprint. A PXIe signal generator often uses the same software applications as
a benchtop signal generator, providing measurement consistency and compatibility from product
development to manufacturing and support.

Figure 1-3. Benchtop and PXI modular signal generator

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Capabilities: analog, vector, and agile signal generators

Analog signal generators supply sinusoidal continuous wave (CW) signals with optional capability to
add AM, FM, ΦM and pulse modulation. The maximum frequency range for analog signal generators
spans from RF to microwave. Most generators feature step/list sweep modes for passive device
characterization or calibration.

Vector signal generators (VSG), a more capable class of signal generators, enable complex digital
modulation schemes. VSGs have a built-in quadrature (also called IQ) modulator to generate
complex modulation formats such as quadrature phase-shift Keying (QPSK) and 1024 quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM). When combined with an IQ baseband generator, virtually any signal
can be emulated and transmitted within the information bandwidth supported by the system.

Optimized for speed, agile signal generators can quickly change frequency, amplitude, and phase of
the signal. They also have the unique capability to be phase coherent at all frequencies, at all times.
This attribute, along with extensive pulse modulation and wideband chirp capabilities, make them
ideal for electronic warfare (EW) and radar applications.

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Overview of key specifications

To select the right signal generator for your project, you’ll need to understand its performance
specifications. Specifications tell you about the capability of your signal generator. Let’s explore
major specifications: frequency, amplitude, and spectral purity performance.

Frequency specifications

The frequency specification defines the range, resolution, accuracy, and switching speed of your
signal generator.

• Range — the maximum and minimum output frequencies your signal generator can output.

• Resolution — the smallest frequency change.

• Accuracy — how close the source’s output frequency is to the set frequency.

• Switching — how fast the output settles down to the desired frequency.

Figure 1-4. Spectrum analysis with frequency and amplitude readouts

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Amplitude specifications

Amplitude specifications include range, resolution and switching speed.

• Range — the difference between the maximum and minimum output power capability of the
signal generator. The signal generator’s output attenuator design determines its range. The
output attenuator allows the signal generator to produce extremely small signals used to test a
receiver’s sensitivity.

• Resolution — the smallest possible power increment.

• Switching speed — how fast the source can change from one power level to the next.

Pmax Accuracy
Power

Dynamic Output power

capability of the
range signal generator

Pmin

Frequency
Figure 1-5. Power output range and accuracy

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Spectral purity

Spectral purity is the inherent stability of a signal. A perfect signal generator will generate a
sinusoidal wave at a single frequency without the presence of noise. However, signal generators
consist of non-ideal components which introduce noise and distortion. The specifications associated
with spectral purity are often the most difficult to understand. These specifications include phase
noise, harmonics, and spurs as shown in Figure 1-6.

• Phase noise — a frequency-domain view of the noise spectrum around the oscillator signal.
It describes the frequency stability of an oscillator.

• Harmonics — integer multiples of the sinusoidal fundamental frequency output. These harmonics
are caused by non-linear characteristics of components used in the signal generator.

• Spurs — non-random or deterministic signals created from mixing and dividing signals to get the
carrier frequency. These signals may be harmonically or non-harmonically related to the carrier.

Download our Signal Generator Selection Guide to learn more about Keysight’s
comprehensive portfolio of Signal Generators.

CW
output

Harmonic spur
Phase
~30dBc from
noise Non-harmonic spur
non-linear
Sub-harmonics (dBc/Hz) from power supplies
components
from multipliers used to from LO’s and other contributors
extend the frequency
output

Broadband noise floor

Thermal noise of source
0.5 f0 f0 2 f0

Figure 1-6. Various non-ideal spectral components

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Section 2 - Power
Signal generators provide precise and stable test signals for a variety of components and system test
applications. An important specification of any signal generator is output power range. Often, signal
generators need output signals as low as -120 dBm in receiver sensitivity testing and as high as +20
dBm in RF power amplifier testing. They also need to achieve this wide dynamic range while meeting
key specifications such as accuracy, spectral purity and noise.

There are several types of power to consider: average power, envelope power, and peak envelop
power (PEP) to name a few. But before we look at each of these in detail, let’s first understand the
basics of power.

What is power?

The International System of Units defines the watt (W) as a unit of power – one watt is one joule per
second, used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. At direct current (DC) and low frequencies,
voltage and current measurements are simple and straightforward. Power (P) is the product of
voltage (V) and current (I).

For low-frequency signals, both voltage and current vary with time. The energy transfer rate
(instantaneous power) also varies with time. In Figure 2-1, the instantaneous power shifts around
cycles as represented by the blue curve. Average power is calculated by integrating the area under
the P curve.

DC

+ ZS
V +
– RL P = IV = V2/R
–

Low frequency
AC
component
of power
Amplitude

P
V RL DC
component
of power
I
V

I
Figure 2-1. DC and low frequency power measurements

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However, as frequency increases, voltage and current measurements become difficult and
impractical, so engineers measure power directly. Figure 2-2 represents three continuous waves
(CW) with the same voltage level but different frequencies. Pi (green curve) is instantaneous power
and it varies with time, while Pavg (red line) is average power. Notice that average power remains
constant and independent of frequency which is suitable for high-frequency signals. Let’s take a
closer look at different definitions of power for RF measurements.

Why use dB and dBm? dB and dBm make expressing very large or very small values
more convenient. Besides, using dB also allows you to easily calculate total system gain
or loss. You just need to add for gain and subtract for loss.

However, as frequency increases, voltage and current measurements become difficult and
impractical, so engineers measure power directly. Figure 2-2 represents three continuous waves
(CW) with the same voltage level but different frequencies. Pi (green curve) is instantaneous power
and it varies with time, while Pavg (red line) is average power. Notice that average power remains
constant and independent of frequency which is suitable for high-frequency signals. Let’s take a
closer look at different definitions of power for RF measurements.

Figure 2-2. Low and high-frequency power measurements

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Average power

As frequency increases, the impedance will vary. RF engineers commonly use the term average
power to specify all RF and microwave systems because instantaneous power variations are too fast
to be meaningful. Average power is the average energy transfer rate across many time periods of the
lowest frequency.

Envelope power and peak envelope power

For some applications, engineers examine the effects of modulation or transient conditions without
examining details of the RF carrier waveform. Figure 2-3 illustrates high frequency modulated signal
power measurements. The upper graph represents the voltage envelope of the modulated signal. The
lower left graph shows the instantaneous power of the signal in green and the average power in red.
The envelope power is measured by averaging the power over a time period that is long compared
to the period of the highest modulation frequency, but short compared to the period of the carrier.
The lower right graph shows the envelope power in red. The maximum envelope power is called
peak envelop power (PEP), an important parameter used to characterize the output power of a
modulated signal.

Amplitude modulated signal

5
4
3
2
1
Voltage (V)

0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
0 .0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005 0.0006

Amplitude modulated signal power Amplitude modulated signal power

0.45 0.45

0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
0.3 0.3
Power (W)

0.25 0.25
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15 Penv:
Pave: average power envelope
0.1 0.1
Pi: instantaneous power power
0.05 0.05
0 0
0 .0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005 0.0006 0 .0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005 0.0006
Time (s)
Time (s)

Figure 2-3. Voltage envelope and power envelope of a high-frequency modulated signal

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Understanding the power specifications

When it comes to power specifications, many signal generators’ datasheets will list the power output
range, resolution, and applicable frequency ranges. There are several points to be aware of:

• Output amplitude is affected by frequency ranges and operating temperatures.

• There are often options for higher output power needs.

• The step attenuator provides coarse power attenuation (in 5 dB steps) to achieve low power
levels. Fine power level adjustment is provided by the ALC (automatic level control) within the
attenuator hold range.

• Maximum output power generally applies to CW mode. Some datasheets list maximum
output power for I/Q modulation. For the Keysight CXG / EXG / MXG signal generators, power
specification, it refers to PEP.

Tip: Impedance match is important because mismatch between source and the load
impedance changes the effective signal input level to the DUT.

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Table 2.1: Amplitude specifications of Keysight CXG signal generator

Output parameters

Settable range +30 to –144 dBm

Resolution 0.01 dB

Step attenuator 0 to 130 dB in 5 dB steps electronic type

Connector Type N 50 Ω, nominal

Max output power 1 ( ) = typical

Frequency Standard

9 kHz to 10 MHz +13 dBm

> 10 MHz to 3 GHz +18 dBm

> 3 to 5 GHz +16 dBm

> 5 to 6.0 GHz +16 dBm

1
Quoted specifications between 20 °C and 30 °C. Maximum output power typically decreases by 0.01 dB/°C for
temperatures outside this range.

Characterize modulation signals

Many of the digitally modulated signals appear noise-like in the time and frequency domains, with
seemingly random peaks. How do you ensure you are not driving your signal generator to saturation
during these peaks? The Power Complementary Cumulative Distribution Function (CCDF) curves tells
us how high these peaks will go.

Figure 2-4 shows a CCDF curve with the highest peak to average ratio (PAR) at 5.95 dB. In this
example, the maximum output power of the signal generator is 18 dBm, so the maximum power
output your signal generator can be set to is 12.05 dBm (18 dBm - 5.95 dB). Remember that the signal
generator’s power output is average power output. Setting your signal generator’s output higher
than 12.05 dBm will lead to clipped peaks.

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 Looking for some tips on high power applications? Get them here.

Figure 2-4. CCDF plot from waveform utility of Keysight’s N5182B signal generator

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Measurement applications

If you need to go beyond the specified output power range, you can use an amplifier to increase
the output power or an attenuator to decrease it. However, you will need to take the amplifier’s
gain uncertainty, and the attenuator’s flatness and accuracy into consideration. Here are some test
applications for high and low output power.

High-output power test applications:

• Overcome switching losses within automated test equipment (ATE) systems

• Address the attenuation of signals within long cable runs

• Over-the-air (OTA) tests

• High-power amplifiers

• Receiver blocking tests

Low-output power test applications:

• Receiver sensitivity measurement

• As interference signals

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Section 3 – Accuracy
People often confuse accuracy with precision. The accuracy of a signal generator measures
how close its output value is to the set value. Precision measures the degree to which the signal
generator’s output fluctuates. A high precision generator will have a stable output with little
variations. However, a high precision generator may not necessarily have an accurate output. Figure
3-1 shows the distinction between accuracy and precision.

Set
Value
Accuracy
Probability

value
Precision

Figure 3-1. Accuracy vs precision

Why accuracy matters

In research and development, you characterize your designs with high-accuracy measurement
instruments to ensure errors are from your device under test instead of the instruments. In
manufacturing, you test the RF receiver to ensure that it meets specifications. However, you also
want to be sure that you’re not rejecting perfectly good units. Did you know that you can easily
improve yield and product quality by improving the accuracy of test?

Key accuracy specifications

We will cover two key accuracy specifications, amplitude accuracy and frequency accuracy. How
much accuracy you need depends on your application. If you are testing a wireless receiver’s
sensitivity with ±4 dB accuracy, you will need to use a source with ±1 dB amplitude accuracy to
achieve a test accuracy ratio of 4.

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Amplitude accuracy

Amplitude accuracy tells you how close your signal generator’s output amplitude is to the set
amplitude. It is important to check the amplitude accuracy for the frequency and temperature range
of interest because a signal generator’s output accuracy degrades with temperature and at higher
frequencies. For example, the N5182B’s absolute level accuracy degrades by 0.01 dB/°C when the
ambient temperature is outside of the 20 °C to 30 °C range. Table 3-1 shows the amplitude accuracy
specification of the N5166B CXG signal generator.

Download the white paper and find how to improve the amplitude accuracy with next-
generation signal generators.

Table 3.1: Accuracy specification of N5166B CXG signal generator

Absolute level accuracy in CW mode 1 (ALC on) ( ) = typical

Standard

Range Max power to -60 dBm < -60 to -110 dBm

9 to 100 kHz (± 0.6 dB) (± 0.9 dB)

100 kHz to 5 MHz ± 0.8 dB (± 0.3) ± 0.9 dB (± 0.3)

> 5 MHz to 3 GHz ± 0.6 dB (± 0.3) ± 0.8 dB (± 0.3)

> 3 to 6 GHz ± 0.6 dB (± 0.3) ± 1.1 dB (± 0.3)

Absolute level accuracy in CW mode (ALC off, power search run, relative to ALC on)

9 kHz to 6GHz (± 0.15 dB)

Absolute level accuracy in digital I/Q mode (N5182B only)

(ALC on, relative to CW, W-CDMA 1 DPCH configuration < +10 dBm)

5 MHz to 6 GHz ± 0.25 dB (± 0.05)

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Amplitude flatness

Frequency sweeps are often used to test filters and power amplifiers. Amplitude accuracy affects
the frequency sweeping capability of a signal generator. The less the amplitude changes from
one frequency to another, the flatter the output. The change in amplitude when moving from one
frequency to another is called flatness. While closely related to amplitude accuracy, the flatness
specification is tighter than the amplitude accuracy and usually referenced to the amplitude of the
starting frequency. Figure 3-2 illustrates this difference.

Frequency sweep - amplitude

Amplitude
accuracy spec
Output amplitude

Flatness spec

f1 Frequency f2

Figure 3-2. Comparison between amplitude accuracy and flatness

Improve accuracy to improve yield

Receiver sensitivity testing requires sources with accurate output power. Receiver sensitivity testing
determines if a receiver can detect weak signals above a specified power level. For example, a 4G
mobile phone receiver has a specified sensitivity level of -110 dBm. The device under test will be
rejected if it fails to detect signals with a power level of -110 dBm or more.

To illustrate the effects of poor accuracy on test yield, let’s use the 4G receiver example. Consider a
signal generator with an amplitude accuracy of ±5 dB. To avoid over-acceptances (or false positives),
the signal generator is setup to output -115 dBm. At -115 dBm, the signal generator’s output power
will vary between -110 dBm to -120 dBm. As you can see in Figure 3-3, using this signal generator will
cause you to inadvertently reject four perfectly good receivers with borderline performance.

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  = Failed unit  = Failed unit
 = Passed unit  = Passed unit
Power out

Power out
 -110 dB specification  -110 dB specification
 Set source to -110 dBm 
      Actual output power= -114 dBm
 
Set source to -115 dBm
Frequency Frequency
Ideal signal generator Signal generator with ±5 dB
amplitude accuracy

Figure 3-3. Effects of poor amplitude accuracy to test yield

You can improve test yield by using a more accurate signal generator. Figure 3-4 shows the same
test using a signal generator with an amplitude accuracy specification of ±1 dBm. Four of the same
six receivers tested earlier now pass the sensitivity test. We reduced false rejects by 75% just by
using a more accurate signal generator.

A more accurate signal generator may cost more. However, in the long run, the improved yield will
return the cost of investment many times over.

 = Failed unit  = Failed unit

 = Passed unit  = Passed unit

 -110 dB specification  -110 dB specification

Power out

Power out

 Set source to -111 dBm


Actual output power = -112 dBm
 Actual output power = -114 dBm   
 Set source to -115 dBm 

Frequency Frequency
Signal generator with ±5 dB Signal generator with ±1 dB
amplitude accuracy amplitude accuracy

Figure 3-4. Effects of improved amplitude accuracy to test yield

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Frequency accuracy

The frequency accuracy of a signal generator is affected by two main factors: the stability of
the reference oscillator and the amount of time that has passed since the signal generator was
calibrated. Although temperature and line voltage also affect frequency stability, its effects are
several orders of magnitude less than the aging effect. Therefore, the key specification to look out for
is the reference oscillator aging rate.

A typical reference oscillator used in a signal generator has an aging rate of 0.152 ppm per year.
A 10 GHz signal generator with this reference oscillator that has not been calibrated for one year will
have a frequency accuracy of ±1.52 kHz. The calculation is shown below.

Frequency Accuracy (Hz) = Output Frequency (Hz) x Aging Rate (ppm/year) x Time
since last calibration = 10 GHz x 0.152 ppm / year x 1 (year) = 1.52 kHz

Table 3.2: Switching speed specification of the N5182B MXG signal generator

Frequency reference

Accuracy ± (time since last adjustment x aging rate)

± temperature effects

± line voltage effects

± calibration accuracy

Internal time base reference oscillator aging rate 1 ≤ ±5 ppm/10yrs, < ±1 ppm/yr

Initial achievable calibration accuracy ±4 x 10-8 or ±40 ppb

Adjustment resolution < 1 x 10-10

Temperature effects ±1 ppm (0 to 55 °C), nominal

Line voltage effects ±0.1 ppm, nominal; 5% to 10%, nominal

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Section 4 – Speed
Reducing test time can reduce test costs. So, the speed of your signal generator influences the cost
of test. A fast signal generator allows you to quickly switch from one frequency to another, from one
amplitude to another, or from one waveform to another. Speed is specified in milliseconds. Table 4-1
shows the frequency switching speed specification for the N5182B MXG signal generator.

Tip: Improve waveform switching speed by using the list / step sweep mode to pre-load
the waveforms into the non-volatile memory.

Table 4.1: Switching speed specification of the N5182B MXG signal generator

Frequency switching speed 1, 2

Standard Option UNZ 3 Option UNZ, typical

CW mode ≤ 5 ms, typical ≤ 1.15 ms ≤ 950 µs

SCPI mode ≤ 5 ms, typical ≤ 900 µs ≤ 800 µs

Digital modulation on (N5182B only)

Standard Option UNZ 3 Option UNZ, typical

CW mode ≤ 5 ms, typical ≤ 1.15 ms ≤ 950 µs

List/step sweep mode ≤ 5 ms, typical ≤ 900 µs ≤ 800 µs

1
Time from receipt of SCPI command or trigger signal to within 0.1 ppm of final frequency or within 100 Hz, whichever is
greater.
2
With internal channel corrections on, the frequency swithcing speed is < 1.3 ms, measured for list mode and SCPI mode
cached frequnecy points. For the initial frequnecy point in SCPI mode the time is < 3.3 ms, measured. The instrument will
automatically cache the most recently used 1024 frequencies. There is no speed degradation for amplitude-only changes.
3
Specifications apply when status register updates are off. For export control purposes CW switching speed to within 0.05%
of final frequency is 190 µs (measured).

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Factors affecting speed

Type of change and the source of commands affect switching speed. The time documented in the
specification refers to the amount of time needed for the output of the signal generator to stabilize
once a command is sent. Typical switching times can be up to 40% faster than speed specifications
which are worst case scenarios.

When you set the signal generator to a new frequency, the frequency synthesizer will change
its output to the desired frequency. The output amplifier will then adjust the power level so that
the output power stays the same at the new frequency. Essentially, frequency switching requires
changes to both the frequency synthesizer and output amplifier, which is why frequency switching
is often slower than amplitude switching. During switching, command processing takes up the most
time. Figure 4-1 shows the amount of time each step takes to process a SCPI command request.

Figure 4-1. SCPI command processing time in a signal generator

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Faster switching speed

A signal generator’s output in automatic test systems can be improved by using STEP or LIST
commands. Typically, an operator sends commands to a signal generator for setting frequency,
amplitude, and waveform when these states are not initially known. When using Standard
Commands for Programmable Instruments (SCPI), command sending, parsing, and processing
consumes overhead time before switching can begin.

If the frequency, amplitude, and waveform combination is known in advance, using a STEP or LIST
sweep significantly improves speed. The signal generator can then sequence through the states in
rapid succession. Typical switching time in sweep mode is 600 µs to 800 µs compared to 2 ms in
SCPI mode.

Some signal generators offer high speed switching options. The N5182B MXG signal generator, for
example, has the UNZ option which offers sub-millisecond switching speeds, perfect for high volume
production. Besides, Keysight’s exclusive baseband tuning technology innovation enables frequency
and amplitude switching speeds as fast as 10 µs in list mode and 250 µs from its programming
interface.

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Where switching speed matters

Wireless manufacturing

Test throughput is everything in manufacturing. Reducing test time leads to lower test cost. With
higher bandwidth and advanced features in the latest chipsets, reducing test time in no longer an
option. Using a fast signal generator can help.

Device characterization

More functions are integrated into a wireless system which directly impact test demands and cost
of test. In addition, the device’s complexities increase with the introduction of new standards,
frequency bands, and multi-antenna techniques. This requires switching a lot of frequencies for
multiple bands, waveforms for multiple formats, and amplitude levels to characterize devices
performance.

Electronic warfare (EW) simulation

To simulate EW complex scenarios, you need a signal generator with capabilities such as fast
switching (< 500 ns), phase repeatability, and pulse modulation. It requires direct digital synthesis
(DDS) technology to control frequency and phase, and an agile attenuator to adjust amplitude levels.

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Summary
More and more functionalities are integrated
into wireless devices, requiring more tests with
more setups under more conditions. A wireless
device includes multiple wireless standards,
multiple frequency bands, and multiple antennas.
This increases significant test challenges in
verification and production test. Test engineers
are continuously looking for ways to improve test
throughput and cost. When equipped with the
fast switching capability, these signal generators
can switch frequency, amplitude, or waveform in
less than 1 millisecond in most cases.

End of Part 1
We have reached the end of Part 1 of our two-part white paper. We hoped you’ve gained
valuable understanding on the fundamental specifications of signal generators. In Part 2, we will
talk about more advance topics such as modulation, spectral purity, distortions and software.
Learn about the various types of modulation schemes and gain a more in-depth understanding
on harmonics and spurs. We’ll share why distortions are not always evil and how you can
improve your productivity with the latest software. To stay up to date with the most recent
tutorials, techniques, and best practices check out the Keysight RF and microwave blog and
follow the Keysight RF Test and Measurement Facebook page and Keysight RF & Microwave
Instruments & Measurements LinkedIn page.

Keysight enables innovators to push the boundaries of engineering by quickly

solving design, emulation, and test challenges to create the best product
experiences. Start your innovation journey at www.keysight.com.

This information is subject to change without notice. © Keysight Technologies, 2019 - 2023,
Published in USA, August 9, 2023, 5992-3253EN