Kenya

Kenya
Demographic and
Health Survey 2022
Key Indicators Report
Kenya
Demographic and Health Survey
2022
Key Indicators Report
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics

Nairobi, Kenya
Ministry of Health
Nairobi, Kenya
The DHS Program

ICF
Rockville, Maryland, USA
January 2023
The 2022 Kenya Demographic and Health Survey (2022 KDHS) was implemented by the Kenya National Bureau
of Statistics (KNBS) in collaboration with the Ministry of Health (MoH) and other stakeholders. Funding for the
survey was provided by the Government of Kenya, the United States Agency for International Development
(USAID), the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the World Bank, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF),
the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), Nutrition International, the World Food Programme (WFP), the
United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women), the World Health
Organization (WHO), the Clinton Health Access Initiative, and the Joint United Nations Programme on
HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). The UN Resident Coordinator office assured the coordination of UN agencies supporting
the 2022 KDHS. ICF provided technical assistance through The DHS Program, a USAID-funded project
providing support and technical assistance in implementing population and health surveys in countries worldwide.
Additional information about the 2022 KDHS may be obtained from Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS),
P.O. Box 30266-00100, GPO Nairobi, Kenya; telephone: +254-20-3317583, +254-20-2911000/1,
+254-20-3317612/22/23/51; email: [email protected], [email protected]; website: www.knbs.or.ke.
Information about The DHS Program may be obtained from ICF, 530 Gaither Road, Suite 500, Rockville, MD
20850, USA; telephone: +1-301-407-6500; fax: +1-301-407-6501; email: [email protected]; internet:
www.DHSprogram.com.
The contents of this report are the sole responsibility of KNBS and ICF and do not necessarily reflect the views
of USAID, the United States Government, or other donor agencies.
Recommended citation:
KNBS and ICF. 2023. Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2022. Key Indicators Report. Nairobi, Kenya,
and Rockville, Maryland, USA: KNBS and ICF.
CONTENTS
TABLES, FIGURES, AND MAPS .............................................................................................................. v
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................vii
1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 1
Survey Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 1
2 SURVEY IMPLEMENTATION ................................................................................................... 3

2.1 Sample Design ..................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Survey Questionnaires ......................................................................................................... 3
2.3 Anthropometric Measurements ........................................................................................... 5
2.4 Training ............................................................................................................................... 6
2.4.1 Training of trainers ................................................................................................ 6
2.4.2 Pretest..................................................................................................................... 6
2.4.3 Training of field staff for the main survey ............................................................. 6
2.5 Fieldwork Logistics ............................................................................................................. 7
2.6 Data Processing ................................................................................................................... 7
3 KEY FINDINGS.............................................................................................................................. 9
3.1 Response Rates .................................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Characteristics of Respondents .......................................................................................... 10
3.3 Health Insurance Coverage ................................................................................................ 12
3.4 Disability among the Household Population ..................................................................... 12
3.5 Fertility .............................................................................................................................. 14
3.6 Teenage Fertility ................................................................................................................ 15
3.7 Fertility Preferences........................................................................................................... 17
3.8 Family Planning................................................................................................................. 18
3.8.1 Contraceptive use ................................................................................................. 18
3.8.2 Need and demand for family planning ................................................................. 21
3.9 Maternal Care .................................................................................................................... 24
3.9.1 Antenatal care ...................................................................................................... 25
3.9.2 Tetanus toxoid...................................................................................................... 25
3.9.3 Delivery care ........................................................................................................ 28
3.9.4 Postnatal care for the mother ............................................................................... 29
3.10 Vaccination Coverage........................................................................................................ 30
3.10.1 Basic antigen coverage ........................................................................................ 30
3.10.2 Vaccination coverage according to the national schedule ................................... 32
3.11 Care Seeking and Treatment of Child Illness .................................................................... 36
3.12 Early Childhood Development .......................................................................................... 39
3.13 Child Nutritional Status ..................................................................................................... 40
3.14 Infant and Young Child Feeding ....................................................................................... 44
3.14.1 Early initiation of breastfeeding and exclusive breastfeeding ............................. 44
3.14.2 Bottle feeding ....................................................................................................... 45
3.14.3 Minimum dietary diversity, minimum meal frequency, minimum milk
feeding frequency, and minimum acceptable diet................................................ 46
3.14.4 Sweet beverage consumption and unhealthy food consumption ......................... 47
3.15 Early Childhood Mortality................................................................................................. 48
3.16 Malaria............................................................................................................................... 49
3.16.1 Ownership and use of insecticide-treated nets ..................................................... 49
3.16.2 Malaria in pregnancy ........................................................................................... 55
3.16.3 Case management of malaria in children ............................................................. 57
3.17 TB and HIV ....................................................................................................................... 59
3.17.1 Knowledge and diagnosis of tuberculosis ............................................................ 59
3.17.2 HIV prevention knowledge among young people ............................................... 60
3.17.3 Sexual behavior.................................................................................................... 63
3.17.4 Prior HIV testing .................................................................................................. 69
iii
3.18 Women’s and Men’s Ownership of a House or Land and Documentation of Ownership ... 72
3.18.1 House and land ownership ................................................................................... 73
3.18.2 House ownership and documentation of ownership ............................................ 74
3.18.3 Agricultural land ownership and documentation of ownership ........................... 78
3.18.4 Nonagricultural land ownership and documentation of ownership ..................... 79
3.19 Gender-based Violence...................................................................................................... 81
3.19.1 Measurement of violence ..................................................................................... 82
3.19.2 Experience of physical violence .......................................................................... 83
3.19.3 Experience of sexual violence.............................................................................. 87
3.20 Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting .................................................................................... 90
3.20.1 Respondents’ knowledge of female genital mutilation ........................................ 91
3.20.2 Prevalence and type of female genital mutilation ................................................ 93
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 95
iv
TABLES, FIGURES, AND MAPS
Table 1 Results of the household and individual interviews ............................................................ 9
Table 2 Background characteristics of respondents ....................................................................... 10
Table 2C Background characteristics of respondents by county ....................................................... 11
Table 3 Health insurance coverage ................................................................................................. 12
Table 4.1 Disability among household members according to background characteristics:
Females .............................................................................................................................. 13
Table 4.2 Disability among household members according to background characteristics:
Males ................................................................................................................................. 14
Table 5 Current fertility .................................................................................................................. 15
Table 6 Teenage pregnancy ............................................................................................................ 16
Table 6C Teenage pregnancy by county ........................................................................................... 17
Table 7 Fertility preferences according to number of living children ............................................ 18
Table 8 Current use of contraception according to background characteristics ............................. 19
Table 8C Current use of contraception according to county ............................................................. 20
Table 9 Need and demand for family planning among currently married women and sexually
active unmarried women ................................................................................................... 23
Table 9C Need and demand for family planning among currently married women by county ........ 24
Table 10 Maternal care indicators .................................................................................................... 26
Table 10C Maternal care indicators by county.................................................................................... 27
Table 11 Vaccinations by background characteristics ...................................................................... 33
Table 11C Vaccinations by county ..................................................................................................... 34
Table 12 Treatment for acute respiratory infection symptoms, fever, and diarrhea ......................... 37
Table 12C Treatment for acute respiratory infection symptoms, fever, and diarrhea by county ........ 38
Table 13 Early Childhood Development Index 2030 ....................................................................... 39
Table 14 Nutritional status of children ............................................................................................. 43
Table 14C Nutritional status of children by county ............................................................................ 44
Table 15 Infant and young child feeding (IYCF) indicators............................................................. 47
Table 16 Early childhood mortality rates ......................................................................................... 48
Table 17 Five-year early childhood mortality rates according to background characteristics.......... 49
Table 18 Household possession of insecticide-treated nets .............................................................. 51
Table 18C Household possession of insecticide-treated nets by county ............................................. 52
Table 19 Use of insecticide-treated nets by children and pregnant women...................................... 53
Table 19C Use of insecticide-treated nets by children and pregnant women by county ..................... 54
Table 20 Use of intermittent preventive treatment (IPTp) by women during pregnancy ................. 55
Table 20C Use of intermittent preventive treatment (IPTp) by women during pregnancy
by county ........................................................................................................................... 56
Table 21 Children with fever and care seeking for, diagnosis of, and treatment of fever ................ 58
Table 21C Children with fever and care seeking for, diagnosis of, and treatment of fever
by county ........................................................................................................................... 59
Table 22 Knowledge of, beliefs about, and diagnosis of tuberculosis .............................................. 60
Table 23 Knowledge about HIV prevention methods among young people .................................... 62
Table 23C Knowledge about HIV prevention methods among young people by county ................... 63
Table 24.1 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the last 12 months:
Women .............................................................................................................................. 65
Table 24C.1 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the last 12 months
by county: Women ............................................................................................................ 66
Table 24.2 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the last 12 months:
Men .................................................................................................................................... 67
Table 24C.2 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the last 12 months
by county: Men .................................................................................................................. 68
v
Table 25.1 Coverage of prior HIV testing: Women ............................................................................ 69
Table 25C.1 Coverage of prior HIV testing by county: Women............................................................ 70
Table 25.2 Coverage of prior HIV testing: Men .................................................................................. 71
Table 25C.2 Coverage of prior HIV testing by county: Men ................................................................. 72
Table 26.1 House and land ownership: Women .................................................................................. 73
Table 26.2 House and land ownership: Men ....................................................................................... 74
Table 27.1 House ownership and documentation of ownership: Women ........................................... 75
Table 27C.1 House ownership and documentation of ownership by county: Women........................... 76
Table 27.2 House ownership and documentation of ownership: Men ................................................. 77
Table 28.1 Agricultural land ownership and documentation of ownership: Women .......................... 78
Table 28.2 Agricultural land ownership and documentation of ownership: Men ............................... 79
Table 28.3 Nonagricultural land ownership and documentation of ownership: Women .................... 80
Table 28.4 Nonagricultural land ownership and documentation of ownership: Men .......................... 81
Table 29 Experience of physical violence ........................................................................................ 84
Table 29C Experience of physical violence by county ....................................................................... 85
Table 30 Persons committing physical violence............................................................................... 86
Table 31 Experience of sexual violence ........................................................................................... 88
Table 31C Experience of sexual violence by county .......................................................................... 89
Table 32 Persons committing sexual violence .................................................................................. 90
Table 33 Knowledge of female circumcision ................................................................................... 91
Table 33C Knowledge of female circumcision by county .................................................................. 92
Table 34 Prevalence of female circumcision .................................................................................... 93
Figure 1 Trends in fertility by residence .......................................................................................... 15

Figure 2 Trends in use of, need for, and demand for family planning ............................................. 21
Figure 3 Trends in delivery assistance ............................................................................................. 28
Figure 4 Trends in childhood vaccinations ...................................................................................... 31
Figure 5 Symptoms of childhood illness and care seeking .............................................................. 36
Figure 6 Percentage of children under 5 who are malnourished ...................................................... 41
Figure 7 Trends in exclusive breastfeeding ..................................................................................... 45
Figure 8 Trends in early childhood mortality rates .......................................................................... 48
Figure 9 Trends in household ownership of ITNs ........................................................................... 50
Figure 10 Trends in female genital mutilation ................................................................................... 93
Map 1 Delivery by skilled provider by county ............................................................................. 29

Map 2 Vaccination coverage by county ........................................................................................ 32
Map 3 Stunting in children by county........................................................................................... 42
Map 4 ITN ownership by malaria endemicity zone ...................................................................... 50
vi
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ACT artemisinin-based combination therapy
AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
ANC antenatal care
ARI acute respiratory infection
ASFR age-specific fertility rate
BCG bacillus Calmette-Guérin
CAPI computer-assisted personal interviewing

CBR crude birth rate
COVID-19 coronavirus disease 2019
CSPro Census and Survey Processing
DHS Demographic and Health Survey

DPT diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus vaccine
EA enumeration area
ECDI Early Childhood Development Index
FBO faith-based organization

FGM/C female genital mutilation/cutting
GFR general fertility rate
HepB hepatitis B
Hib Haemophilus influenzae type B
HIV human immunodeficiency virus
IPTp intermittent preventive treatment during pregnancy

IPV inactivated poliomyelitis vaccine
ITN insecticide-treated net
IUD intrauterine contraceptive device
IYCF infant and young child feeding
KDHS Kenya Demographic and Health Survey

K-HMSF Kenya Household Master Sample Frame
KIR Key Indicators Report
KMIS Kenya Malaria Indicator Survey
KNBS Kenya National Bureau of Statistics
LAM lactational amenorrhea method

LLIN long-lasting insecticidal net
MoH Ministry of Health

MR measles-rubella
NGO nongovernmental organization
OPV oral polio vaccine

ORS oral rehydration salts
vii
PCV pneumococcal conjugate vaccine
PNC postnatal care
SD standard deviation
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
SDM standard days method
SP sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine
STIs sexually transmitted infections
TB tuberculosis
TFR total fertility rate
UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS

UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UN Women United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women
USAID United States Agency for International Development
WFP World Food Programme

WG Washington Group on Disability Statistics
WHO World Health Organization
viii
1 INTRODUCTION
The 2022 Kenya Demographic and Health Survey (2022 KDHS) is the seventh DHS survey implemented
in Kenya. The Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS) in collaboration with the Ministry of Health
(MoH) and other stakeholders implemented the survey. Survey planning began in late 2020 with data
collection taking place from February 17 to July 19, 2022. ICF provided technical assistance through The
DHS Program, which is funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and
offers financial support and technical assistance for population and health surveys in countries worldwide.
Other agencies and organizations that facilitated the successful implementation of the survey through
technical or financial support were the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the World Bank, the United
Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), Nutrition
International, the World Food Programme (WFP), the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the
Empowerment of Women (UN Women), the World Health Organization (WHO), the Clinton Health
Access Initiative, and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS).
The Key Indicators Report (KIR) presents highlights of selected indicators from the 2022 KDHS. A
detailed report of the survey findings will be presented within the year 2023.
SURVEY OBJECTIVES
The primary objective of the 2022 KDHS is to provide up-to-date estimates of demographic, health, and
nutrition indicators to guide the planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of population and
health-related programs at the national and county levels.
The specific objectives of the 2022 KDHS are to:
▪ Estimate fertility levels and contraceptive prevalence

▪ Estimate childhood mortality
▪ Provide basic indicators of maternal and child health
▪ Estimate the Early Childhood Development Index (ECDI)
▪ Collect anthropometric measures for children, women, and men
▪ Collect information on children’s nutrition
▪ Collect information on women’s dietary diversity
▪ Obtain information on knowledge and behavior related to transmission of HIV and other sexually
transmitted infections (STIs)
▪ Obtain information on noncommunicable diseases and other health issues
▪ Ascertain the extent and patterns of domestic violence and female genital mutilation/cutting
1
2 SURVEY IMPLEMENTATION
2.1 SAMPLE DESIGN
The sample for the 2022 KDHS was drawn from the Kenya Household Master Sample Frame (K-HMSF).
This is the frame that KNBS currently operates to conduct household-based sample surveys in Kenya. In
2019, Kenya conducted a Population and Housing Census, and a total of 129,067 enumeration areas (EAs)
were developed. Of these EAs, 10,000 were selected with probability proportional to size to create the K-
HMSF. The 10,000 EAs were randomized into four equal subsamples. The survey sample was drawn from
one of the four subsamples. The EAs were developed into clusters through a process of household listing
and geo-referencing. To design the frame, each of the 47 counties in Kenya was stratified into rural and
urban strata, resulting in 92 strata since Nairobi City and Mombasa counties are purely urban.
The 2022 KDHS was designed to provide estimates at the national level, for rural and urban areas, and, for
some indicators, at the county level. Given this, the sample was designed to have 42,300 households, with
25 households selected per cluster, resulting into 1,692 clusters spread across the country with 1,026
clusters in rural areas and 666 in urban areas.
The sample for the 2022 KDHS was a stratified sample selected in two stages from the K-HMSF. In the
first stage, 1,692 clusters were selected from the K-HMSF using equal probability with independent
selection in each sampling stratum. Household listing was carried out in all of the selected clusters, and the
resultant list of households served as a sampling frame for the second stage of selection, where 25
households were selected from each cluster. However, after the household listing procedure, it was found
that some clusters had less than 25 households; hence, all of the households from these clusters were
selected into the sample. This resulted in 42,022 households being sampled for the 2022 KDHS.
All women age 15–49 who were usual members of the selected households or who had slept in the
households the night before the survey were eligible for interviews. The men’s interview was conducted in
half of the sampled households, and all men age 15–54 who were usual members of the selected
households or who had slept in those households the night before the survey were eligible to be
interviewed. In a half of the men’s subsample, one man per household was randomly selected for the
domestic violence module. In the other half of the men’s subsample and in the sample of households not
selected for the men’s interview, one woman per household was randomly selected for the module. Thus,
in three quarters of the sample, the domestic violence module was administered to women, and in one
quarter of the sample the module was administered to men.
The Biomarker Questionnaire, which included height and weight measurements, was administered in all
households for children age 0–59 months and in the men’s subsample for men age 15–54 and women age
15–49. Modules on disability, COVID-19, health insurance, health expenditures, road traffic accidents,
household food expenditure, early childhood development index 2030, chronic diseases, and female genital
mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) were administered in half of the households sampled for the 2022 KDHS.
The 2022 KDHS was successfully implemented in 1,691 clusters; one cluster in Mandera could not be
visited due to insecurity. As a result of the nonproportional allocation to the sampling strata and due to
nonresponse, the survey was not self-weighting. The resulting data have, therefore, been weighted to be
representative of the various survey domains.
2.2 SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRES
Eight questionnaires were used for the 2022 KDHS: a full Household Questionnaire, a short Household
Questionnaire, a full Woman’s Questionnaire, a short Woman’s Questionnaire, a Man’s Questionnaire, a
full Biomarker Questionnaire, a short Biomarker Questionnaire, and a Fieldworker Questionnaire. To
reduce the length of fieldwork and limit interviewer and respondent fatigue, the Household, Woman’s, and
Biomarker questionnaires were divided into two sets: the full and short questionnaires. Short Household
3
and Woman’s questionnaires were designed on the basis of the full questionnaires, and each contained a
subset of questions from the respective full questionnaires. The 2022 KDHS sample was divided into
halves. In one half, households were administered the full Household Questionnaire, the full Woman’s
Questionnaire, and the Man’s Questionnaire. In the other half, households were administered the short
Household Questionnaire and the short Woman’s Questionnaire. Selection of these subsamples was done
centrally at the head office—within a cluster, one in every two households was selected for the full
questionnaires, and the remaining households were selected for the short questionnaires. It is important to
note that the information collected in the short questionnaires were collected from all households and from
all women since these questionnaires were subsets of the full questionnaires. The sections below describe
the purpose of and the information collected in the full questionnaires.
The main purpose of the Household Questionnaire was to identify women and men who were eligible for
individual interviews and women age 15–49, men age 15–54, and children age 0–59 months who were
eligible for anthropometry. The Household Questionnaire collected information on:
▪ Background characteristics of each person in the household (for example, name, sex, age, education,
relationship to the household head, survival of parents among children under age 18)
▪ Disability
▪ Assets, land ownership, and housing characteristics
▪ Sanitation, water, and other environmental health issues
▪ Health expenditures
▪ Accident and injury
▪ COVID-19 (prevalence, vaccination, and related deaths)
▪ Household food consumption
The Woman’s Questionnaire was used to collect information from women age 15–49 on the following
topics:
▪ Socioeconomic and demographic characteristics

▪ Reproduction
▪ Family planning
▪ Maternal health care and breastfeeding
▪ Vaccination and health of children
▪ Children’s nutrition
▪ Woman’s dietary diversity
▪ Early childhood development
▪ Marriage and sexual activity
▪ Fertility preferences
▪ Husbands’ background characteristics and women’s employment activity
▪ HIV/AIDS, other sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and tuberculosis (TB)
▪ Other health issues
▪ Early Childhood Development Index 2030
▪ Chronic diseases
▪ Female genital mutilation/cutting
▪ Domestic violence
The Man’s Questionnaire was administered to men age 15–54 living in the households selected for long
Household Questionnaires. The questionnaire collected information on:
▪ Socioeconomic and demographic characteristics

▪ Reproduction
▪ Family planning
▪ Marriage and sexual activity
4
▪ Fertility preferences
▪ Employment and gender roles
▪ HIV/AIDS, other STIs, and TB
▪ Other health issues
▪ Chronic diseases
▪ Female genital mutilation/cutting
▪ Domestic violence
The Biomarker Questionnaire collected information on anthropometry (weight and height). The long
Biomarker Questionnaire collected anthropometry measurements for children age 0–59 months, women
age 15–49, and men age 15–54, while the short questionnaire collected weight and height measurements
only for children age 0–59 months.
The Fieldworker Questionnaire was used to collect basic background information on the people who
collected data in the field. This included team supervisors, interviewers, and biomarker technicians.
All questionnaires except the Fieldworker Questionnaire were translated into the Swahili language to make
it easier for interviewers to ask questions in a language that respondents could understand. All
questionnaires were programmed into tablet computers to allow for computer-assisted personal
interviewing (CAPI) for data collection purposes, with the capability to choose Swahili or English.
The protocol for the 2022 KDHS was reviewed by the ICF Institutional Review Board.
2.3 ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS
Children under age 5, women age 15–49, and men age 15–54 had their weight and height measured in
order to provide information on their nutritional status.
Weight measurements were taken using Seca scales with a digital display (model SECA 874). Children
younger than age 24 months were measured lying down (recumbent length), while children older than 24
months and adults were measured standing (height). Height and length were measured with a Shorr
Board® measuring board.
To assess the precision of measurements, two children were randomly selected in each cluster for
remeasurement. The 2022 KDHS adopted the guidelines of The DHS Program, which define a difference
of less than one centimeter between the two height measurements as an acceptable level of precision. The
data collection application was programmed to calculate anthropometric z scores automatically. Children
found to have a z score of less than negative three (−3) or more than three for height-for-age, weight-for-
height, or weight-for-age were flagged as having unusual measurements and measured a second time.
Remeasurement of flagged cases was performed to ensure accurate reporting of height and weight
measurements. Children whose second measurement indicated severe wasting (weight-for-height z score
less than −3) were referred for treatment to the nearest health facility, and the field team supervisor or
another survey team member informed the caretaker of the affected child about the referral for treatment
before the team left the cluster.
5
2.4 TRAINING
To achieve the objectives of the survey and ensure collection of quality data, various cadres were trained
and the survey data collection tools and protocol were pretested.
2.4.1 Training of trainers
A total of 45 trainers drawn from KNBS, MoH, other government departments and agencies, universities,
and development partners participated in the training of trainers. The training was supported by ICF and
was held from November 29 to December 3, 2021. The objectives of the training were to:
▪ Equip trainers with adult learning principles and effective facilitation methods
▪ Review and finalize the 2022 KDHS questionnaires
▪ Familiarize trainers with the 2022 KDHS CAPI system
▪ Prepare and finalize materials for training of survey personnel (interviewers, supervisors and
biomarker technicians).
2.4.2 Pretest
The pretest consisted of classroom training and field practice for interviewers and biomarker technicians.
The training took place from December 11, 2021, to January 18, 2022. The objectives of the pretest were
to:
▪ Test the adequacy of training agenda for the main survey

▪ Test the data collection instruments (questionnaires, manuals, forms)
▪ Test the suitability of the CAPI data collection approach
▪ Evaluate the competence of personnel
▪ Assess the workload of field interviewers and biomarker technicians
▪ Test the adequacy of training procedures for the field personnel
▪ Test the adequacy of the planned duration of data collection
▪ Evaluate the overall administrative and financial structure and other general logistics issues
▪ Test the reliability of the central server data transmission mechanisms and the robustness of the system
put in place to monitor the quality of data from the field
▪ Test the effectiveness of the publicity and advocacy strategy and data processing strategies.
The training for the pretest covered all aspects of the questionnaire content and interviewing procedures
and anthropometry practice with children. Two days were set aside for field practice, and thereafter, field
teams were sent to eight counties to pilot the survey tools and procedures. The pretest clusters were
selected to cover different geographical areas, and hence the necessity of using different languages. These
clusters were not part of the 2022 KDHS sample. After the fieldwork, a debriefing was held to assess
issues emanating from the pretest. The resolutions from the debriefing were used to finalize the
questionnaires, the CAPI program, and field logistics before implementation of the main training and data
collection.
2.4.3 Training of field staff for the main survey
A total of 314 personnel (48 supervisors, 48 biomarker technicians, 144 female interviewers, 48 male
interviewers, and 26 reserves) were trained at a central venue from January 17 to February 13, 2022. The
training consisted of a detailed, question-by-question explanation of the questionnaires, accompanied by
explanations from the interviewer’s manual, role-play demonstrations, group discussions, in-class practice
interviewing in pairs and assessment tests.
Anthropometry training provided all trainees with instruction, demonstrations, and practice in
length/height and weight measurements for children and adults. Trainees completed a standardization
6
exercise involving measurements of children that was intended to gauge and improve accuracy and
precision. Restandardization exercises were conducted for those who did not pass the standardization
exercises.
2.5 FIELDWORK LOGISTICS
Data collection for the 2022 KDHS was carried out by 48 teams from February 17 to July 13, 2022. Each
team consisted of one supervisor, one biomarker technician, three female interviewers, one male
interviewer, and a driver. At the county level, the KDHS field teams were assisted by KNBS county
statistical officers who provided links to national government administration officers (NGAOs). Prior to
the data collection, a county mobilization team conducted targeted publicity within the clusters to prepare
for the fieldwork. KNBS field staff and village elders assisted in identifying the sampled clusters and
households. Monitoring of data collection was undertaken by Technical Working Committee and Steering
Committee members throughout the data collection period. The aim of monitoring was to ensure that the
survey was conducted according to the protocol and to provide real-time solutions to any challenges
encountered.
2.6 DATA PROCESSING
Computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI) was used during the 2022 KDHS data collection. The
devices used for CAPI were Android-based computer tablets programmed using a mobile version of
CSPro. The CSPro software was developed jointly by the U.S. Census Bureau, Serpro S.A., and The DHS
Program. Programming of questionnaires into the Android application was done by ICF, while
configuration of tablets was completed by KNBS in collaboration with ICF. All fieldwork personnel were
assigned usernames, and devices were password protected to ensure the integrity of the data collected.
Work was assigned by supervisors and shared via Bluetooth® to interviewers’ tablets. Once completed,
assigned work was shared with supervisors, who did initial data consistency checks and edits and then
submitted data to the central servers hosted at KNBS via SyncCloud. Data were downloaded from the
central servers and checked against the inventory of expected returns to account for all data collected in the
field. SyncCloud was also used to generate field check tables to monitor progress and flag any errors,
which were communicated back to the field teams for correction.
Secondary editing was done by members of the central office team, who resolved any errors that were not
corrected by field teams during data collection. A CSPro batch editing tool was used for cleaning and
tabulation during data analysis.
7
3 KEY FINDINGS
3.1 RESPONSE RATES
Table 1 presents the response rates for the 2022 KDHS. A total of 42,022 households were selected for the
sample, of which 38,731 (92%) were found to be occupied. Among the occupied households, 37,911 were
successfully interviewed, yielding a response rate of 98%. The response rates for urban and rural
households were 96% and 99%, respectively. In the interviewed households, 33,879 women age 15–49
were identified as eligible for individual interviews. Interviews were completed with 32,156 women,
yielding a response rate of 95%. The response rates among women selected for the full and short
questionnaires were the similar (95%). In the households selected for the male survey, 16,552 men age 15–
54 were identified as eligible for individual interviews and 14,453 were successfully interviewed, yielding
a response rate of 87%.
Table 1 Results of the household and individual interviews

Number of households, number of interviews, and response rates, according
to residence (unweighted), Kenya DHS 2022
Residence
Result Urban Rural Total
ALL HOUSEHOLDS
Household interviews
Households selected 16,611 25,411 42,022
Households occupied 14,870 23,861 38,731
Households interviewed 14,330 23,581 37,911
Household response rate1 96.4 98.8 97.9
Interviews with women age 15–49
Number of eligible women 13,129 20,750 33,879
Number of eligible women interviewed 12,386 19,770 32,156
Eligible women response rate2 94.3 95.3 94.9
HOUSEHOLDS SELECTED FOR FULL QUESTIONNAIRES
Interviews with men age 15–54
Number of eligible men 6,134 10,418 16,552
Number of eligible men interviewed 5,232 9,221 14,453
Eligible men response rate2 85.3 88.5 87.3
HOUSEHOLDS SELECTED FOR SHORT QUESTIONNAIRES
1
Households interviewed/households occupied
2
Respondents interviewed/eligible respondents
9
3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS
Table 2 presents the weighted and unweighted numbers and percent distributions of women and men
interviewed in the 2022 KDHS according to background characteristics. The results presented in this report
are based on weighted data that are representative at the national, rural-urban, and county levels. The
distribution of respondents by county, both weighted and unweighted, is shown in Table 2C.
▪ The proportion of both women and men respondents in the sample declines with increasing age, from
19% of women and 23% of men in 15–19 age group to 8% of women and men in the 45–49 age group.
▪ Seventy-nine percent of women reported their health status as good or very good, as compared with
85% of men.
▪ About one-third of women (33%) and nearly half (48%) of men have never been married. Fifty-five
percent of women are either married or living together with a man as if married, while 46% of men are
married or living together with a woman as if married.
▪ Six percent of women and 3% of men have never been to school. About 2 in 10 women (19%) and
men (21%) have more than secondary education.
▪ Almost half of respondents (48% of women and 46% of men) are in the two highest wealth quintiles.
Table 2 Background characteristics of respondents

Percent distribution of women and men age 15–49 by selected background characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
Women Men
Background Weighted Weighted Unweighted Weighted Weighted Unweighted
characteristic percent number number percent number number
Age
15–19 18.7 6,025 6,404 23.3 3,175 3,349
20–24 18.7 6,001 5,762 17.6 2,404 2,332
25–29 17.7 5,687 5,443 16.6 2,268 2,109
30–34 14.1 4,530 4,561 13.1 1,787 1,748
35–39 13.4 4,311 4,354 11.6 1,577 1,628
40–44 9.6 3,084 3,100 9.8 1,332 1,386
45–49 7.8 2,518 2,532 8.1 1,109 1,117
Self-reported health status
Very good 23.8 7,638 7,867 35.8 4,883 5,098
Good 55.4 17,823 17,988 48.9 6,677 6,607
Moderate 18.4 5,933 5,541 14.1 1,926 1,799
Bad 2.2 696 710 1.0 141 145
Very bad 0.2 67 50 0.2 26 20
Religion
Catholic 18.6 5,978 5,665 21.6 2,946 2,709
Protestant/other Christian 72.9 23,442 21,154 66.0 9,006 8,137
Muslim 7.1 2,275 4,852 7.2 987 2,148
No religion 1.1 344 357 4.4 607 557
Other 0.4 117 128 0.8 107 118
Marital status
Never married 32.5 10,438 10,048 48.2 6,576 6,486
Married 48.1 15,483 16,454 43.3 5,907 5,994
Living together 7.3 2,339 1,858 2.6 351 393
Divorced/separated 9.3 2,989 2,776 5.6 771 748
Widowed 2.8 908 1,020 0.4 49 48
Residence
Urban 40.9 13,143 12,386 39.4 5,382 5,003
Rural 59.1 19,013 19,770 60.6 8,270 8,666
Education
No education 5.5 1,770 3,836 2.7 369 774
Primary 36.3 11,687 11,807 35.9 4,894 5,150
Secondary 38.0 12,204 11,311 39.5 5,386 5,195
Vocational 1.1 345 323 1.5 206 204
More than secondary 19.1 6,150 4,879 20.5 2,797 2,346
Continued…
10
Table 2—Continued
Women Men
Background Weighted Weighted Unweighted Weighted Weighted Unweighted
characteristic percent number number percent number number
Wealth quintile
Lowest 15.6 5,019 7,073 15.1 2,062 2,881
Second 17.7 5,698 5,742 18.9 2,584 2,660
Middle 18.9 6,069 6,345 20.2 2,754 2,873
Fourth 22.2 7,139 7,160 24.4 3,325 3,138
Highest 25.6 8,231 5,836 21.4 2,927 2,117
Total 15–49 100.0 32,156 32,156 100.0 13,652 13,669
50–54 na na na na 801 784
Total 15–54 na na na na 14,453 14,453
Note: Education categories refer to the highest level of education attended, whether or not that level was completed. No education includes
informal education (Madrassa/Duksi/adult education), and more than secondary includes middle-level colleges and universities, and
vocational includes training after completion of primary, secondary, or higher education.
na = not applicable
Table 2C Background characteristics of respondents by county

Percent distribution of women and men age 15–49 by county, Kenya DHS 2022
Women Men
Weighted Weighted Unweighted Weighted Weighted Unweighted
County percent number number percent number number
Mombasa 2.9 947 749 3.2 442 372
Kwale 1.5 498 711 1.5 209 320
Kilifi 2.9 928 742 3.0 405 319
Tana River 0.5 149 641 0.5 64 293
Lamu 0.3 101 675 0.3 41 253
Taita/Taveta 0.7 234 483 0.8 103 192
Garissa 0.9 290 641 0.9 117 282
Wajir 0.5 160 745 0.5 63 314
Mandera 0.6 206 723 0.6 81 293
Marsabit 0.4 129 535 0.3 45 192
Isiolo 0.4 137 623 0.4 55 253
Meru 3.0 979 602 3.6 489 305
Tharaka-Nithi 0.8 271 535 1.0 137 279
Embu 1.1 358 584 1.3 176 280
Kitui 2.3 735 671 2.3 312 296
Machakos 3.1 992 699 3.5 480 354
Makueni 2.1 683 720 2.0 279 308
Nyandarua 1.3 409 590 1.2 168 255
Nyeri 1.6 501 529 1.7 235 267
Kirinyaga 1.5 481 605 1.4 191 254
Murang’a 2.2 692 557 2.2 297 253
Kiambu 6.5 2,094 668 6.7 911 267
Turkana 1.0 331 644 0.8 111 225
West Pokot 1.2 384 756 1.1 150 288
Samburu 0.5 156 615 0.4 51 182
Trans Nzoia 2.1 675 713 2.0 272 308
Uasin Gishu 3.1 983 731 3.3 451 342
Elgeyo/Marakwet 0.7 228 591 0.8 110 296
Nandi 1.9 622 721 1.9 265 334
Baringo 1.2 378 687 1.2 165 300
Laikipia 1.0 332 576 1.1 145 243
Nakuru 5.2 1,658 782 4.9 670 327
Narok 2.2 718 744 2.3 313 320
Kajiado 2.8 887 660 2.5 339 228
Kericho 2.3 729 779 2.4 330 368
Bomet 2.0 650 778 2.0 268 353
Kakamega 4.0 1,283 810 3.9 532 341
Vihiga 1.2 371 721 1.1 156 290
Bungoma 3.5 1,138 841 3.3 448 328
Busia 1.9 622 768 1.9 262 296
Siaya 1.7 537 674 1.7 227 282
Kisumu 2.4 771 761 2.5 345 356
Homa Bay 2.1 662 712 1.9 258 263
Migori 2.1 674 777 1.8 246 296
Kisii 2.6 831 708 2.4 326 300
Nyamira 1.0 327 635 1.0 133 246
Nairobi City 13.2 4,235 944 13.0 1,777 356
Total 100.0 32,156 32,156 100.0 13,652 13,669
11
3.3 HEALTH INSURANCE COVERAGE
Health insurance is crucial in terms of access to quality health care. It aids in reducing the costs associated
with illness, treatment, and care substantially. The 2022 KDHS asked whether each household member
was covered by any health insurance and, if so, the type. Table 3 shows the percentage of de jure
household members with specific types of health insurance.
▪ One in four persons in Kenya (26% of females and 27% of males) have some form of health insurance.
▪ The National Hospital Insurance Fund is the most common type of health insurance (24% each of
females and males).
▪ The proportion of persons covered with any health insurance is higher in urban areas (39% among
females and 41% among males) than in rural areas (20% among females and 19% among males).
▪ Health insurance coverage increases with increasing wealth, from 5% among females and males in the
lowest wealth quintile to 56% among females and 60% among males in the highest wealth quintile.
Table 3 Health insurance coverage

Percentage of de jure household population with specific types of health insurance coverage, and percentage with any health insurance, according to background
characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
Females Males
National National
Hospital Any Hospital Any
Insur- Private/ Com- None/ health Number Insur- Private/ Com- None/ health Number
Background ance community don’t insur- of ance community don’t insur- of
characteristic Fund mercial based Other know ance persons Fund mercial based Other know ance persons
Age
0–14 18.9 3.0 0.6 0.1 79.1 20.9 14,467 18.8 3.3 0.5 0.0 79.2 20.8 14,514
15–49 26.0 4.4 0.5 0.1 71.3 28.7 18,142 26.2 4.6 0.4 0.0 71.2 28.8 16,878
50+ 27.8 4.0 1.2 0.0 69.1 30.9 5,087 33.8 5.6 1.0 0.1 62.9 37.1 4,323
Residence
Urban 35.3 6.8 0.2 0.0 61.1 38.9 12,695 37.5 7.9 0.2 0.0 58.8 41.2 11,778
Rural 17.5 2.3 0.9 0.1 80.5 19.5 25,025 17.5 2.4 0.7 0.0 80.6 19.4 23,967
Wealth quintile
Lowest 3.6 0.4 1.0 0.0 95.0 5.0 7,446 3.6 0.3 0.9 0.0 95.3 4.7 7,172
Second 10.7 0.7 0.7 0.1 88.0 12.0 7,616 11.2 0.6 0.5 0.0 87.9 12.1 7,134
Middle 20.0 1.4 0.9 0.1 78.3 21.7 7,334 19.9 1.8 0.6 0.1 78.4 21.6 7,190
Fourth 31.4 4.2 0.5 0.0 66.2 33.8 7,463 33.2 4.3 0.4 0.0 64.0 36.0 7,521
Highest 50.4 11.9 0.1 0.0 43.8 56.2 7,861 54.0 14.5 0.2 0.0 40.1 59.9 6,728
Total 23.5 3.8 0.6 0.1 74.0 26.0 37,720 24.1 4.2 0.5 0.0 73.5 26.5 35,745
Note: The data for this table were collected in the full household questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire. Total includes 27 women and 35 men for whom
information on age is missing.
3.4 DISABILITY AMONG THE HOUSEHOLD POPULATION
The 2022 KDHS included The DHS Program’s disability module, a series of questions based on the
Washington Group on Disability Statistics (WG) questions, which in turn are based on the framework of
the World Health Organization’s International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health. The
questions address six core functional domains (seeing, hearing, communication, cognition, walking, and
self-care) which provide basic necessary information on disability. This information is comparable to that
collected worldwide via the WG disability tools.
Functional domains
Seeing, hearing, communicating, remembering or concentrating, walking or
climbing steps, and washing all over or dressing.
Sample: De facto household population age 5 or above
12
The respondent to the Household Questionnaire provided information for all household members and
visitors on whether they had no difficulty, some difficulty, a lot of difficulty, or did not have ability at all
in the specified domain. The results, based on 32,074 females and 29,428 males, are presented in Tables
4.1 and 4.2. Individuals who had a lot of difficulty or could not function at all in any of the six domains
were considered to have a disability.
▪ Overall, 6% of females and 5% males age 5 and above have a lot of difficulty or cannot function at all
in at least one of the six domains.
▪ The most common disabilities reported were difficulty seeing (12% of females and 10% of males) and
difficulty walking or climbing steps (9% of females and 6% of males).
▪ The percentage of persons with a disability is highest among women and men age 50 or above (22%
and 14%, respectively).
▪ Thirteen percent of females who have no education have a disability, as compared with 2% of females
who have more than secondary education.
▪ The percentage of persons with disabilities declines with increasing household wealth, from 8%
among females and 7% among males in the lowest wealth quintile to 3% among females and 2%
among males in the highest wealth quintile.
Table 4.1 Disability among household members according to background characteristics: Females
Percentage of the de facto household population age 5 and over who have difficulty in functioning according to domain, and by highest degree of difficulty
in at least one domain, and percentage who have a lot of difficulty or cannot function at all in more than one domain, according to background characteristics,
Kenya DHS 2022
A lot of
Some difficulty, a lot of difficulty, or cannot do at all Difficulty in at least one domain1 difficulty or
A lot of cannot do
No Remem- Walking Wash- difficulty at all in
difficulty Com- bering or or ing all or more than
Background in any muni- concen- climbing over or Some A lot of Cannot cannot one Number of
characteristic domain Seeing Hearing cating trating steps dressing difficulty difficulty do at all do at all domain women
Age
5–14 90.5 3.4 2.5 1.1 2.0 1.1 1.5 7.3 1.7 0.4 2.1 0.4 9,598
15–49 83.3 9.7 2.5 1.0 3.5 4.5 1.1 13.6 2.7 0.2 2.9 0.6 17,439
50+ 37.0 38.8 15.5 3.5 23.0 41.2 13.7 40.7 20.5 1.6 22.2 8.7 5,016
Marital status
Never married 84.6 9.2 2.8 1.8 2.8 3.7 1.5 11.7 2.9 0.6 3.5 1.0 6,226
Married/living
together 75.8 14.3 3.9 0.8 6.3 10.6 2.5 19.2 4.8 0.1 4.9 1.3 12,082
Widowed 32.1 42.8 19.8 4.9 27.6 45.9 17.9 39.4 25.3 3.0 28.3 12.1 2,398
Divorced/
separated 68.0 17.6 5.0 1.2 9.8 14.4 3.3 24.2 7.6 0.1 7.7 1.6 1,748
Not asked/
missing 90.4 3.5 2.5 1.1 2.1 1.2 1.5 7.3 1.7 0.4 2.2 0.4 9,619
Residence
Urban 83.9 10.2 2.6 1.0 2.9 5.6 1.7 12.5 3.2 0.3 3.5 0.9 10,734
Rural 75.3 13.5 5.5 1.6 7.8 11.1 4.0 17.7 6.2 0.6 6.8 2.2 21,340
Education2
No education 67.3 17.3 10.6 4.0 12.7 19.0 10.3 19.4 11.3 2.0 13.3 6.3 4,903
Primary 77.9 11.8 4.4 1.1 6.5 9.2 2.6 16.5 5.2 0.3 5.5 1.3 15,691
Secondary 82.6 11.2 2.2 0.7 3.1 5.7 1.0 14.1 2.9 0.2 3.1 0.4 7,635
More than
secondary 84.8 11.1 1.7 0.6 2.1 3.9 0.8 13.5 1.7 0.0 1.7 0.3 3,595
Wealth quintile
Lowest 75.4 12.8 7.2 2.2 8.5 10.9 4.8 16.4 7.2 0.9 8.1 3.0 6,188
Second 74.6 13.8 5.9 1.5 8.5 11.1 3.4 18.2 6.4 0.6 7.0 2.0 6,532
Middle 75.8 13.4 4.3 1.4 7.1 11.7 3.9 17.6 6.0 0.4 6.4 2.0 6,317
Fourth 79.8 11.8 3.1 1.2 4.3 8.5 2.8 15.8 3.8 0.5 4.3 1.4 6,318
Highest 85.1 10.3 2.1 0.9 2.4 4.4 1.2 12.0 2.7 0.2 2.9 0.6 6,718
Total 78.2 12.4 4.5 1.4 6.2 9.3 3.2 16.0 5.2 0.5 5.7 1.8 32,074
Note: The data for this table were collected in the full household questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire. Total includes 26 women for whom
information on age is missing and 36 women with missing information on education.
1
If a person was reported to have difficulty in more than one domain, only the highest level of difficulty is shown.
2
No education includes informal education (Madrassa/Duksi/adult education), and more than secondary includes middle-level colleges and universities.
Excludes people who reported vocational training as the highest education level attended.
13
Table 4.2 Disability among household members according to background characteristics: Males
Percentage of the de facto household population age 5 and over who have difficulty in functioning according to domain, and by highest degree of difficulty in
at least one domain, and percentage who have a lot of difficulty or cannot function at all in more than one domain, according to background characteristics,
Kenya DHS 2022
Some difficulty, a lot of difficulty, or cannot do at all Difficulty in at least one domain1 A lot of
difficulty or
A lot of cannot do
No Remem- Walking Washing difficulty at all in
difficulty Com- bering or or all over or more than
Background in any muni- concen- climbing or Some A lot of Cannot cannot one Number of
characteristic domain Seeing Hearing cating trating steps dressing difficulty difficulty do at all do at all domain men
Age
5–14 89.1 3.4 2.5 1.7 2.5 1.5 2.6 7.8 2.1 0.8 3.0 0.6 9,491
15–49 86.1 6.9 2.1 1.4 3.3 3.4 1.2 10.8 2.6 0.4 3.0 0.7 15,806
50+ 48.8 34.0 11.5 3.3 14.6 23.6 8.8 36.8 12.6 1.6 14.2 4.6 4,111
Marital status
Never married 88.0 5.2 2.3 1.9 3.5 2.8 1.6 8.5 2.7 0.8 3.4 1.1 7,765
Married/living
together 73.6 16.7 4.8 1.5 6.2 9.7 3.0 20.3 5.5 0.4 5.9 1.5 10,830
Widowed 39.2 39.0 16.0 4.3 20.4 35.7 18.8 39.7 16.1 5.0 21.1 9.7 354
Divorced/
separated 68.4 15.0 6.2 2.5 10.3 12.1 4.3 23.0 7.4 0.8 8.1 1.3 969
Not asked/
missing 89.1 3.4 2.5 1.7 2.5 1.5 2.6 7.8 2.2 0.8 3.0 0.6 9,510
Residence
Urban 86.1 8.2 1.9 1.0 2.5 3.4 1.4 11.6 1.8 0.4 2.2 0.4 9,670
Rural 79.8 10.3 4.4 2.1 5.6 6.7 3.4 14.4 4.9 0.9 5.7 1.6 19,758
Education2
No education 77.2 10.0 5.6 4.1 6.3 8.9 8.0 13.7 6.1 2.9 9.0 3.7 3,563
Primary 81.4 9.1 4.0 1.9 5.4 5.9 2.6 13.6 4.3 0.6 4.9 1.2 14,450
Secondary 83.7 9.8 2.4 1.0 3.3 4.4 1.3 13.1 2.8 0.2 3.0 0.5 7,405
More than
secondary 84.6 10.6 2.0 0.4 2.3 3.8 0.8 13.3 1.9 0.2 2.1 0.2 3,645
Wealth quintile
Lowest 79.9 9.9 5.4 2.7 6.0 7.4 4.3 13.3 5.5 1.1 6.7 2.0 5,685
Second 78.3 10.2 4.7 2.2 6.6 6.8 3.4 15.2 5.5 0.8 6.4 1.6 5,988
Middle 81.0 10.4 3.4 1.8 4.8 6.2 2.8 14.0 4.3 0.6 4.9 1.4 6,034
Fourth 83.5 9.1 2.5 1.3 3.5 4.8 2.0 13.1 2.4 0.7 3.1 0.7 6,280
Highest 86.8 8.2 1.7 0.7 2.1 2.7 1.0 11.4 1.4 0.3 1.7 0.3 5,440
Total 81.8 9.6 3.6 1.8 4.6 5.6 2.7 13.5 3.9 0.7 4.6 1.2 29,428
Note: The data for this table were collected in the full household questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire. Total includes 26 men for whom information
on age is missing and 84 men with missing information on education.
1
If a person was reported to have difficulty in more than one domain, only the highest level of difficulty is shown.
2
No education includes informal education (Madrassa/Duksi/adult education), and more than secondary includes middle-level colleges and universities.
Excludes people who reported vocational training as the highest education level attended.
3.5 FERTILITY
Table 5 shows the total fertility rate (TFR) and age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs) among women by
5-year age groups for the 3-year period preceding the survey.
Total fertility rate

The average number of children a woman would have by the end of her
childbearing years if she bore children at the current age-speciﬁc fertility rates.
Age-specific fertility rates are calculated for the 3 years before the survey,
based on detailed pregnancy histories provided by women.
Sample: Women age 15–49
▪ If fertility were to remain constant at current levels, a woman in Kenya would bear an average of 3.4
children in her lifetime.
▪ Fertility is low among adolescents (73 births per 1,000 women age 15–19), peaks at 179 births per
1,000 among women age 20–24, and then decreases thereafter.
▪ The TFR is higher among women in rural areas than among those in urban areas (3.9 versus 2.8).
14
Trends: The TFR has declined Figure 1 Trends in fertility by residence
markedly in Kenya over time.
TFR for the 3 years before each survey
Between 1989 and 2022, the TFR
declined by 3.3 children (from 6.7 7.1
Rural
to 3.4). Over the same period, the
5.8
TFR among women in rural areas 6.7 5.2 5.4 5.2
Total 4.5
declined from 7.1 children to 3.9 5.4 3.9
children. Among urban women, the 4.7 4.9 4.6
4.5
TFR declined from 4.5 children to 3.9 3.4
Urban
3.4 3.1 3.3 3.1
2.8 children (Figure 1). 2.9 2.8
1989 1993 1998 2003 2008–09 2014 2022

KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS
Note: Data from 2003 and later are nationally representative, while data collected before
2003 exclude the North Eastern region and several northern districts in the Eastern and
Rift Valley regions.
Table 5 Current fertility

Age-specific and total fertility rates, the general fertility
rate, and the crude birth rate for the 3 years preceding
the survey, according to residence, Kenya DHS 2022
Residence
Age group Urban Rural Total
10–14 [0] [3] [2]
15–19 56 83 73
20–24 138 219 179
25–29 143 200 172
30–34 121 150 137
35–39 76 94 87
40–44 32 36 35
45–49 [2] [7] [5]
TFR (15–49) 2.8 3.9 3.4
GFR 105 134 122
CBR 30.1 26.6 27.7
Note: Age-specific fertility rates are per 1,000 women.

Estimates in brackets are truncated. Rates are for the
period 1–36 months preceding the interview. Rates for
the 10–14 age group are based on retrospective data
from women age 15–17.
TFR: Total fertility rate, expressed per woman
GFR: General fertility rate, expressed per 1,000 women
age 15–44
CBR: Crude birth rate, expressed per 1,000 population
3.6 TEENAGE FERTILITY
Teenage pregnancy
Percentage of women age 15–19 who have ever been pregnant.
Table 6 presents the percentage of women age 15–19 who have ever had a live birth or a pregnancy loss,
the percentage who are pregnant with their first child, and the percentage who have ever been pregnant by
background characteristics.
▪ Fifteen percent of women age 15–19 have ever been pregnant; 12% have had a live birth, 1% have had
a pregnancy loss, and 3% are currently pregnant.
15
▪ The percentage of women age 15–19 who have ever been pregnant increases with age, from 3%
among those age 15 to 31% among those age 19.
▪ About 4 in 10 women age 15–19 who have no education have ever been pregnant, as compared with
only 5% of women who have more than secondary education.
▪ Teenage women in the lowest wealth quintile are more likely to have ever been pregnant than women
in the highest wealth quintile. The percentage of women who have ever been pregnant decreases from
21% among those in the lowest wealth quintile to 8% among those in the highest wealth quintile.
▪ The percentage of women age 15–19 who have ever been pregnant are highest in Samburu (50%),
West Pokot (36%), Marsabit (29%), Narok (28%), Meru (24%), Homa Bay (23%), Migori (23%),
Kajiado (22%), Siaya (21%), and Baringo (20%) and lowest in Nyeri and Nyandarua (5% each)
(Table 6C).
Table 6 Teenage pregnancy

Percentage of women age 15–19 who have ever had a live birth, percentage who have ever had a pregnancy
loss, percentage who are currently pregnant, and percentage who have ever been pregnant, according to
background characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
Percentage of women age 15–19 who:
Have ever had
Background Have ever had a pregnancy Are currently Have ever Number of
characteristic a live birth loss1 pregnant been pregnant women
Age
15 2.1 0.0 0.8 2.8 1,163
16 4.2 0.3 1.2 5.9 1,197
17 10.0 1.2 2.4 12.8 1,203
18 16.4 1.1 5.3 20.9 1,195
19 27.4 1.6 5.0 31.1 1,266
Residence
Urban 9.7 0.7 2.9 12.3 1,783
Rural 13.3 0.9 3.0 16.0 4,242
Education2
No education 30.8 3.9 9.6 37.9 134
Primary 16.3 1.4 4.4 19.9 1,907
Secondary 9.9 0.5 2.0 12.0 3,760
More than secondary 4.0 0.0 0.8 4.8 194
Wealth quintile
Lowest 17.8 1.6 4.0 21.1 1,235
Second 14.9 0.6 3.4 17.5 1,443
Middle 10.6 1.1 2.6 13.6 1,279
Fourth 10.0 0.4 3.0 12.9 1,064
Highest 6.0 0.4 1.6 7.5 1,004
Total 12.2 0.9 3.0 14.9 6,025
1
Stillbirth, miscarriage, or abortion
2
No education includes informal education (Madrassa/Duksi/adult education), and more than secondary
includes middle-level colleges and universities. Excludes people who reported vocational training as the highest
education level attended.
16
Table 6C Teenage pregnancy by county
Percentage of women age 15–19 who have ever had a live birth, percentage who have ever had a pregnancy
loss, percentage who are currently pregnant, and percentage who have ever been pregnant, according to
county, Kenya DHS 2022
Percentage of women age 15–19 who:
Have ever had
Have ever had a pregnancy Are currently Have ever Number of
County a live birth loss1 pregnant been pregnant women
Mombasa 5.4 1.0 2.9 10.8 143
Kwale 11.5 2.9 3.7 14.8 118
Kilifi 10.3 1.3 3.8 12.5 224
Tana River 12.4 1.4 5.2 17.6 27
Lamu 11.5 0.8 1.9 13.7 24
Taita/Taveta 18.4 1.8 1.8 18.4 30
Garissa 11.6 0.2 4.2 14.8 85
Wajir 7.5 0.5 5.9 10.8 45
Mandera 11.4 0.4 3.0 14.6 49
Marsabit 20.6 5.2 9.0 29.4 20
Isiolo 13.6 0.4 3.1 16.7 27
Meru 16.9 1.0 7.6 23.6 206
Tharaka-Nithi 9.1 0.0 0.8 9.9 39
Embu 9.1 0.4 4.9 14.4 49
Kitui 9.2 0.0 0.0 9.2 142
Machakos 9.5 0.0 1.7 11.3 178
Makueni 8.2 0.0 2.9 11.1 151
Nyandarua 4.3 0.2 1.5 5.2 93
Nyeri 4.5 0.0 0.0 4.5 74
Kirinyaga 7.3 0.0 0.0 7.3 64
Murang’a 3.8 0.0 3.6 7.4 139
Kiambu 8.3 0.0 3.6 11.9 267
Turkana 15.0 0.0 4.4 18.5 56
West Pokot 32.2 2.7 6.1 36.3 82
Samburu 41.5 5.2 8.7 50.1 28
Trans Nzoia 14.8 1.9 2.6 17.8 146
Uasin Gishu 7.9 1.9 5.3 10.7 158
Elgeyo/Marakwet 9.6 1.4 2.5 12.1 32
Nandi 9.7 0.8 0.0 10.5 118
Baringo 14.0 1.5 6.3 20.3 86
Laikipia 8.6 0.6 1.3 9.1 69
Nakuru 13.6 0.8 3.7 17.3 283
Narok 25.9 2.5 3.0 28.1 176
Kajiado 20.3 0.0 3.0 21.8 97
Kericho 14.5 0.0 0.0 14.5 135
Bomet 7.2 1.2 1.2 9.0 152
Kakamega 12.3 0.5 2.8 15.1 328
Vihiga 3.9 0.0 4.6 7.7 113
Bungoma 14.8 1.8 4.2 18.6 294
Busia 13.1 2.9 3.0 18.3 149
Siaya 18.4 0.5 3.3 20.9 130
Kisumu 9.2 0.0 3.8 11.1 157
Homa Bay 18.7 2.6 2.9 23.2 159
Migori 20.4 0.6 4.0 23.0 159
Kisii 13.7 0.4 1.5 14.2 192
Nyamira 14.7 0.0 1.5 15.5 81
Nairobi City 8.0 0.0 0.4 8.4 452
Total 12.2 0.9 3.0 14.9 6,025
1
Stillbirth, miscarriage, or abortion
3.7 FERTILITY PREFERENCES
Desire for another child

Women were asked whether they wanted more children and, if so, how long
they would prefer to wait before the birth of the next child. Women who are
sterilized are assumed not to want any more children.
Sample: Currently married women age 15–49
Table 7 shows the fertility preferences according to number of living children of current married women
age 15–49. The results show that:
▪ About half (47%) of currently married women age 15–49 want to have another child soon or later;
17% want to have another child soon, and 30% want to wait at least 2 years (Table 7).
17
▪ More than 4 in 10 currently married women want to limit childbearing; 43% want no more children
and 3% are sterilized.
▪ The desire to have another child decreases sharply with the number of children a woman has; 88% of
currently married women with no children want to have a child (66% soon and 22% within the next 2
years). The percentage decreases to 33% among women with three children and to 16% among those
with six or more children.
Table 7 Fertility preferences according to number of living children

Percent distribution of currently married women age 15–49 by desire for children, according to number of living children, Kenya DHS 2022
Number of living children1
Desire for children 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+ Total
Have another soon2 66.0 30.2 18.1 10.4 7.7 6.4 7.8 16.7
Have another later3 22.1 58.2 43.3 22.7 14.3 11.9 8.5 30.1
Have another, undecided when 0.9 1.1 0.7 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.6
Undecided 3.4 3.7 6.4 6.4 4.6 4.7 6.0 5.4
Want no more 2.5 5.6 29.5 56.2 66.2 69.6 68.6 43.0
Sterilized4 0.7 0.1 0.6 2.4 4.7 5.5 6.0 2.5
Declared infecund 4.3 1.1 1.4 1.3 2.1 1.9 2.6 1.7
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of women 349 1,555 2,320 1,947 1,377 764 1,007 9,319
Note: The data for this table were collected in the full woman’s questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire.
1
The number of living children includes a woman’s current pregnancy.
2
Wants next birth within 2 years
3
Wants to delay next birth for 2 or more years
4
Includes both female and male sterilization
3.8 FAMILY PLANNING
3.8.1 Contraceptive use
Contraceptive prevalence
Percentage of women who use any contraceptive method.
Sample: Currently married women age 15–49 and sexually active unmarried
women age 15–49
Modern methods
Include male and female sterilization, injectables, intrauterine devices (IUDs),
contraceptive pills, implants, female and male condoms, emergency
contraception, the standard days method, and the lactational amenorrhea
method.
▪ Sixty-three percent of currently married women are using a contraceptive method, with 57% using a
modern method (Table 8).
▪ Among sexually active unmarried women age 15–49, 70% use a contraceptive method, and 59% of
these women use a modern method.
▪ The use of traditional methods is more common among sexually active unmarried women than among
currently married women (11% and 6%, respectively).
▪ Among currently married women, the most commonly used methods are injectables (20%), implants
(19%), and contraceptive pills (8%). Among sexually active unmarried women, male condoms are the
most commonly used contraceptive method (20%), followed by injectables (16%) and implants (11%).
▪ The percentage of currently married women using a modern method is lowest in Mandera (2%),
followed by Wajir (3%), Marsabit (6%), and Garissa (11%) with Embu (82%) recording the highest
(Table 8C).
18
Table 8 Current use of contraception according to background characteristics
Percent distribution of currently married women and sexually active unmarried women age 15–49 by contraceptive method currently used, according to background characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
Modern method Traditional method
Emer- Any
Any Female Male Male Female gency tradi- Not Number
Background Any modern sterili- sterili- Injec- Im- con- con- contra- tional With- currently of
characteristic method method zation zation IUD tables plants Pill dom dom ception SDM LAM Other method Rhythm drawal Other using Total women
CURRENTLY MARRIED WOMEN
Number of living children

0 26.4 15.9 0.2 0.0 0.1 2.4 1.6 4.6 4.5 0.0 2.1 0.3 0.0 0.0 10.5 6.8 3.6 0.1 73.6 100.0 1,020
1–2 64.5 59.0 0.4 0.0 4.9 20.5 20.4 9.6 1.6 0.0 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.0 5.5 3.7 1.3 0.5 35.5 100.0 7,386
3–4 70.2 65.0 3.3 0.0 5.7 23.4 19.6 9.3 1.8 0.0 0.2 0.6 1.0 0.1 5.1 3.9 0.8 0.4 29.8 100.0 6,094
5+ 55.3 50.1 5.4 0.0 2.5 17.5 17.6 3.9 1.3 0.1 0.1 0.5 1.2 0.1 5.2 4.0 1.1 0.2 44.7 100.0 3,321
Age
15–19 40.7 36.9 0.0 0.0 1.3 12.8 17.1 1.3 3.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 3.8 2.9 0.9 0.0 59.3 100.0 456
20–24 59.2 53.4 0.1 0.0 1.3 20.1 20.6 6.9 2.0 0.0 0.9 0.6 0.9 0.0 5.8 3.4 2.3 0.1 40.8 100.0 2,635
25–29 64.8 60.6 0.2 0.0 3.2 23.1 22.2 8.4 1.4 0.0 0.4 0.2 1.6 0.0 4.2 2.7 1.0 0.5 35.2 100.0 4,055
30–34 66.2 60.6 1.3 0.0 5.3 20.4 21.2 9.3 1.7 0.0 0.4 0.3 0.8 0.1 5.6 4.0 1.3 0.2 33.8 100.0 3,460
35–39 66.0 60.1 2.4 0.0 6.4 21.2 17.5 9.5 1.4 0.0 0.1 0.5 0.8 0.2 5.9 4.7 0.9 0.3 34.0 100.0 3,234
40–44 64.6 57.1 6.0 0.1 5.8 18.4 14.6 7.8 2.3 0.1 0.4 1.0 0.5 0.1 7.5 5.5 1.2 0.9 35.4 100.0 2,246
45–49 51.7 45.6 8.5 0.1 5.9 12.3 8.9 7.0 2.0 0.0 0.1 0.8 0.1 0.0 6.2 5.1 0.7 0.3 48.3 100.0 1,735
Residence
Urban 63.1 56.2 1.4 0.0 6.8 16.2 16.3 11.6 2.3 0.0 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.0 6.9 4.8 1.5 0.6 36.9 100.0 6,953
Rural 62.2 57.4 2.9 0.0 2.9 22.2 20.0 6.0 1.4 0.0 0.3 0.5 1.0 0.1 4.8 3.5 1.0 0.3 37.8 100.0 10,869
Education1
No education 25.0 20.5 1.3 0.0 0.5 8.5 6.1 1.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 0.0 4.5 3.2 1.2 0.1 75.0 100.0 1,373
Primary 64.4 60.2 3.1 0.0 2.7 23.8 21.7 6.0 1.4 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.1 4.2 3.1 0.8 0.3 35.6 100.0 7,376
Secondary 65.5 60.3 1.7 0.0 3.9 20.8 19.5 11.0 1.9 0.0 0.3 0.5 0.8 0.1 5.2 3.8 1.0 0.4 34.5 100.0 5,523
More than secondary 68.0 58.0 2.0 0.0 10.9 13.2 15.1 11.1 2.9 0.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.0 10.0 6.9 2.5 0.6 32.0 100.0 3,339
Wealth quintile
Lowest 46.7 43.0 1.5 0.0 0.9 18.6 16.9 2.2 1.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 1.6 0.0 3.6 2.7 0.7 0.2 53.3 100.0 2,994
Second 65.7 61.3 3.1 0.0 1.5 25.5 23.3 4.7 1.6 0.0 0.1 0.6 0.9 0.1 4.4 3.4 0.7 0.3 34.3 100.0 3,125
Middle 65.1 60.4 3.2 0.1 2.8 23.6 20.5 7.4 1.5 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.1 4.8 3.4 1.1 0.3 34.9 100.0 3,330
Fourth 66.3 60.1 1.9 0.0 4.5 21.8 18.5 9.3 1.7 0.1 0.6 0.7 0.9 0.1 6.2 4.9 1.2 0.2 33.7 100.0 3,945
Highest 65.7 57.8 2.0 0.0 10.1 12.2 14.8 14.2 2.5 0.0 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.0 8.0 5.1 2.0 0.8 34.3 100.0 4,427
Total 62.5 56.9 2.3 0.0 4.4 19.9 18.5 8.1 1.8 0.0 0.4 0.5 0.9 0.1 5.6 4.0 1.2 0.4 37.5 100.0 17,822
SEXUALLY ACTIVE UNMARRIED WOMEN2
Age
15–19 58.4 43.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.0 3.0 3.2 27.3 1.1 3.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 14.6 9.9 4.7 0.0 41.6 100.0 120
20–24 73.1 60.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 14.1 8.5 3.4 30.6 0.0 4.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 12.2 5.9 6.4 0.0 26.9 100.0 283
25–29 73.2 62.8 0.0 0.0 4.2 18.6 18.2 3.2 13.3 0.0 2.7 2.4 0.0 0.2 10.4 5.1 5.3 0.0 26.8 100.0 146
30–34 68.5 66.1 0.0 0.0 5.8 21.5 16.1 13.6 7.8 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.4 2.4 0.0 0.0 31.5 100.0 120
35–39 82.1 65.7 3.2 0.0 6.0 23.6 13.3 10.4 8.2 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.5 5.5 4.2 6.8 17.9 100.0 97
40–44 73.0 64.1 2.0 0.0 6.8 21.9 12.0 5.4 14.9 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.8 8.0 0.8 0.0 27.0 100.0 66
45–49 (46.3) (40.0) (0.4) (0.0) (3.1) (7.5) (10.0) (0.0) (19.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (6.3) (6.3) (0.0) (0.0) (53.7) 100.0 48
Residence
Urban 73.1 58.3 0.1 0.0 4.6 11.4 6.9 6.5 24.1 0.0 4.2 0.4 0.0 0.1 14.9 6.8 6.7 1.3 26.9 100.0 434
Rural 67.0 60.2 0.9 0.0 1.1 20.6 15.5 4.5 15.8 0.3 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 6.9 5.1 1.5 0.2 33.0 100.0 446
Total 70.0 59.2 0.5 0.0 2.8 16.1 11.3 5.5 19.9 0.1 2.6 0.4 0.0 0.0 10.8 6.0 4.1 0.8 30.0 100.0 880
Note: If more than one method is used, only the most effective method is considered in this tabulation. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.
SDM = Standard days method
LAM = Lactational amenorrhea method
1
No education includes informal education (Madrassa/Duksi/adult education), and more than secondary includes middle-level colleges and universities. Excludes people who reported vocational training as the highest education level
attended.
2
Women who have had sexual intercourse within 30 days preceding the survey
19
Table 8C Current use of contraception according to county
Percent distribution of currently married women age 15–49 by contraceptive method currently used, according to county, Kenya DHS 2022
Modern method Traditional method
Emer- Any
Any Female Male gency tradi- Not
Any modern sterili- sterili- Inject- Im- Male Female contra- tional With- currently Number
County method method zation zation IUD ables plants Pill condom condom ception SDM LAM Other method Rhythm drawal Other using Total of women
Mombasa 46.7 42.1 0.8 0.0 3.7 16.6 14.3 3.8 1.7 0.0 0.2 0.6 0.3 0.0 4.6 2.5 1.8 0.2 53.3 100.0 546
Kwale 34.6 34.6 0.8 0.0 2.8 18.2 9.6 2.3 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 65.4 100.0 302
Kilifi 48.6 44.7 1.6 0.0 2.1 17.4 17.8 3.7 0.1 0.0 0.0 1.6 0.4 0.0 3.9 2.6 1.3 0.0 51.4 100.0 483
Tana River 24.8 23.2 0.5 0.0 1.0 13.1 5.1 1.1 0.5 0.0 0.8 0.0 1.2 0.0 1.6 0.7 0.9 0.0 75.2 100.0 107
Lamu 42.4 39.2 0.5 0.4 1.1 13.7 10.5 5.6 1.1 0.0 0.0 2.8 3.4 0.0 3.2 1.5 1.3 0.5 57.6 100.0 59
Taita/Taveta 67.5 64.5 2.8 0.0 4.2 29.3 15.4 7.3 1.8 0.0 0.2 2.5 0.8 0.0 3.0 2.6 0.5 0.0 32.5 100.0 130
Garissa 12.7 11.1 1.4 0.0 0.2 4.3 3.5 1.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 1.6 1.4 0.2 0.0 87.3 100.0 170
Wajir 3.0 2.8 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 97.0 100.0 92
Mandera 2.1 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.0 97.9 100.0 138
Marsabit 5.9 5.6 0.4 0.0 0.0 2.5 2.6 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.0 94.1 100.0 94
Isiolo 30.7 28.7 0.8 0.0 1.4 15.8 4.4 5.1 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 1.9 0.2 1.2 0.5 69.3 100.0 76
Meru 76.0 69.7 0.7 0.0 3.3 31.3 22.9 9.7 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 1.3 6.3 4.1 1.6 0.6 24.0 100.0 569
Tharaka-Nithi 74.7 67.9 3.0 0.0 4.5 31.3 19.5 7.3 1.7 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.0 6.7 4.9 1.8 0.0 25.3 100.0 171
Embu 81.7 75.2 1.8 0.0 7.5 21.1 19.6 22.9 0.5 0.0 0.0 1.7 0.1 0.0 6.6 5.6 0.6 0.4 18.3 100.0 214
Kitui 68.3 62.4 1.2 0.0 1.0 35.2 16.3 4.8 0.7 0.0 2.4 0.7 0.0 0.0 6.0 2.7 3.2 0.1 31.7 100.0 449
Machakos 76.3 66.4 3.4 0.0 4.9 26.5 13.4 16.0 1.9 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 9.8 7.5 0.6 1.8 23.7 100.0 553
Makueni 73.3 64.4 4.4 0.0 2.9 24.8 19.6 10.2 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.7 0.0 8.9 7.6 0.8 0.5 26.7 100.0 366
Nyandarua 71.4 66.7 2.3 0.0 12.2 22.9 13.1 12.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.1 0.5 4.7 4.4 0.4 0.0 28.6 100.0 225
Nyeri 81.0 70.5 3.7 0.0 18.8 16.9 12.6 15.7 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.3 10.5 8.2 2.3 0.0 19.0 100.0 254
Kirinyaga 76.6 70.8 0.8 0.0 15.4 17.5 16.2 19.0 1.4 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.0 5.8 4.6 0.6 0.7 23.4 100.0 253
Murang’a 72.7 67.3 1.4 0.0 7.0 17.4 14.9 20.4 1.9 0.0 1.3 0.7 2.2 0.0 5.4 5.4 0.0 0.0 27.3 100.0 344
Kiambu 77.4 68.2 2.5 0.0 9.7 14.7 22.5 16.8 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.7 0.0 9.2 7.0 1.0 1.2 22.6 100.0 1,116
Turkana 43.8 30.7 1.3 0.0 0.0 9.3 5.7 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.5 13.2 0.0 13.1 11.9 0.8 0.4 56.2 100.0 204
West Pokot 23.5 23.2 0.9 0.0 0.2 8.3 11.7 1.6 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.0 76.5 100.0 264
Samburu 33.7 25.4 0.3 0.0 2.8 8.3 10.6 2.3 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.0 8.3 6.1 2.2 0.0 66.3 100.0 106
Trans Nzoia 69.8 65.4 3.0 0.0 2.2 24.4 27.0 4.9 1.5 0.0 0.1 1.0 1.2 0.0 4.4 2.6 0.6 1.2 30.2 100.0 361
Uasin Gishu 71.1 62.7 1.5 0.0 5.8 22.9 23.2 5.7 1.8 0.0 0.5 0.0 1.2 0.0 8.4 6.6 1.8 0.0 28.9 100.0 525
Elgeyo/Marakwet 74.3 59.0 3.4 0.0 2.8 24.4 20.4 3.0 2.2 0.2 0.8 0.1 1.7 0.0 15.3 10.9 4.1 0.3 25.7 100.0 143
Nandi 65.6 60.0 1.6 0.0 0.2 29.8 21.0 3.4 3.0 0.0 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.0 5.6 4.6 1.0 0.0 34.4 100.0 327
Baringo 57.8 47.7 0.5 0.0 3.3 16.6 17.8 3.8 1.4 0.0 0.3 0.6 3.5 0.0 10.1 9.1 1.0 0.0 42.2 100.0 200
Laikipia 72.3 64.5 4.5 0.0 6.9 24.0 15.0 12.1 1.2 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.4 0.0 7.8 7.3 0.5 0.0 27.7 100.0 161
Nakuru 72.5 66.6 3.2 0.0 7.4 23.5 18.5 8.6 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.2 1.7 0.0 5.9 3.8 1.6 0.5 27.5 100.0 906
Narok 65.2 52.2 1.6 0.0 1.0 16.5 24.5 1.8 0.8 0.0 0.0 1.5 4.5 0.0 13.0 6.4 6.2 0.5 34.8 100.0 444
Kajiado 63.9 57.3 1.1 0.0 7.6 21.9 12.9 10.5 2.1 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.5 0.0 6.6 3.7 2.9 0.0 36.1 100.0 520
Kericho 60.2 60.0 2.8 0.0 1.6 20.8 29.6 3.5 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.0 39.8 100.0 395
Bomet 63.9 57.8 8.3 0.0 1.2 22.6 21.3 2.2 0.7 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.8 0.0 6.1 5.9 0.3 0.0 36.1 100.0 351
Kakamega 66.7 63.4 4.1 0.0 2.9 25.0 26.4 2.8 1.6 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.2 3.4 2.9 0.5 0.0 33.3 100.0 715
Vihiga 62.4 60.1 3.3 0.0 2.1 15.1 34.6 4.1 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.3 2.0 0.3 0.0 37.6 100.0 171
Bungoma 66.0 63.7 3.4 0.3 1.7 23.4 26.8 4.3 1.4 0.3 0.3 1.6 0.3 0.0 2.3 1.2 1.1 0.0 34.0 100.0 614
Busia 56.4 55.4 5.1 0.3 3.2 14.1 27.6 1.4 2.4 0.0 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.0 1.0 0.8 0.0 0.3 43.6 100.0 360
Siaya 43.5 42.9 2.2 0.0 0.5 15.6 17.0 3.7 3.6 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.4 0.1 0.0 56.5 100.0 299
Kisumu 60.0 56.6 0.7 0.0 1.7 19.1 25.0 4.3 4.0 0.0 0.3 0.8 0.6 0.0 3.4 3.1 0.3 0.0 40.0 100.0 413
Homa Bay 56.8 54.3 3.6 0.0 0.7 20.7 20.9 1.8 6.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 1.9 0.7 0.0 43.2 100.0 391
Migori 60.2 54.7 2.5 0.0 2.1 15.9 28.0 1.2 4.1 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 5.5 4.8 0.2 0.4 39.8 100.0 397
Kisii 68.1 63.5 3.2 0.0 3.5 26.4 19.9 5.8 1.4 0.0 0.2 2.1 1.1 0.0 4.5 2.7 0.5 1.3 31.9 100.0 470
Nyamira 67.9 64.8 5.3 0.0 1.8 33.7 18.3 2.7 1.3 0.0 0.3 0.6 0.7 0.0 3.1 2.6 0.5 0.0 32.1 100.0 178
Nairobi City 62.5 56.2 1.3 0.0 6.3 14.4 12.9 16.4 3.1 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.8 0.0 6.3 4.0 1.7 0.6 37.5 100.0 2,195
Total 62.5 56.9 2.3 0.0 4.4 19.9 18.5 8.1 1.8 0.0 0.4 0.5 0.9 0.1 5.6 4.0 1.2 0.4 37.5 100.0 17,822
Note: If more than one method is used, only the most effective method is considered in this tabulation.
SDM = Standard days method
LAM = Lactational amenorrhea method
20
Trends: There was little difference Figure 2 Trends in use of, need for, and demand
in the percentage of currently for family planning
married women using modern
Percentage of currently married women age 15–49
contraceptive methods between
1993 and 2003. However, the
percentage has since increased 76 76 Total demand
68 71
steadily over time, from 32% in 67 67 14 Unmet need
18
6 Currently using
2003 to 39% in 2008–09, 53% in 26 5 traditional
35 28 27
2014, and 57% in 2022 (Figure 2). methods (met
6 need)
8 8
6 53 57 Currently using
39 modern methods
27 32 32 (met need)
1993 1998 2003 2008–09 2014 2022

KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS
3.8.2 Need and demand for family planning
Table 9 presents data on unmet need, met need, and total demand for family planning among currently
married and sexually active unmarried women. These indicators help evaluate the extent to which family
planning programs in Kenya are meeting the demand for services.
Unmet need for family planning

Proportion of women who (1) are not pregnant and not postpartum
amenorrheic and are considered fecund and want to postpone their next birth
for 2 or more years or stop childbearing altogether but are not using a
contraceptive method, (2) have a mistimed or unwanted current pregnancy, or
(3) are postpartum amenorrheic and their last birth in the last 2 years was
mistimed or unwanted.
Met need for family planning
Current contraceptive use (any method).
Sample: Currently married women age 15–49 and sexually active unmarried
women age 15–49
Demand for Unmet need for family planning

family planning: + met need (current contraceptive use [any method])
Proportion of Current contraceptive use (any method)

demand Unmet need + current contraceptive use (any method)
satisfied:
Proportion of Current contraceptive use (any modern method)

demand Unmet need + current contraceptive use (any method)
satisfied
by modern
methods:
▪ Seventy-six percent of currently married women and 89% of sexually active unmarried women have a
demand for family planning.
21
▪ Fourteen percent of currently married women and 19% of sexually active unmarried women have an
unmet need for family planning.
▪ If all women who said they want to space or limit their children were to use family planning methods,
the contraceptive prevalence rate would increase from 62% to 76% among currently married women
and from 70% to 89% among sexually active unmarried women.
Trends: The total demand for family planning has generally increased from 1993 to 2022. Over the same
period, unmet need has declined from 35% to 14% (Figure 2).
▪ The higher the education level, the lower the unmet need for family planning; the percentage of
currently married women with an unmet need for family planning declines from 23% among those
with no education to 10% among those with more than a secondary education.
▪ Unmet need for family planning also declines with increasing wealth, from 22% among currently
married women in the lowest wealth quintile to 10% among those in the highest wealth quintile.
▪ The counties with the highest unmet need for family planning are Marsabit (38%), Tana River (34%),
West Pokot (30%), Samburu (29%), Siaya (27%), and Isiolo (27%) (Table 9C).
22
Table 9 Need and demand for family planning among currently married women and sexually active unmarried women
Percentage of currently married women and sexually active unmarried women age 15–49 with unmet need for family planning,
percentage with met need for family planning, percentage with met need for family planning who are using modern methods, percentage
with demand for family planning, percentage of the demand for family planning that is satisfied, and percentage of the demand for
family planning that is satisfied with modern methods, according to background characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
Met need for family planning Percentage of demand
Unmet need (currently using) Total demand satisfied1
Background for family Modern for family Number of Modern
characteristic planning All methods methods2 planning3 women All methods methods2
CURRENTLY MARRIED WOMEN
Age
15–19 21.6 43.9 38.9 65.5 244 67.0 59.4
20–24 16.9 57.7 51.8 74.6 1,358 77.4 69.5
25–29 11.8 65.0 61.1 76.9 2,085 84.6 79.5
30–34 13.0 65.6 59.8 78.6 1,824 83.4 76.1
35–39 14.2 67.0 61.6 81.2 1,707 82.5 75.8
40–44 14.0 63.6 57.1 77.6 1,147 82.0 73.5
45–49 13.4 49.8 44.7 63.2 954 78.8 70.7
Residence
Urban 11.7 62.4 55.7 74.1 3,616 84.2 75.2
Rural 15.4 62.0 57.6 77.3 5,703 80.1 74.4
Education4
No education 22.8 22.5 19.0 45.3 724 49.7 42.0
Primary 15.2 64.3 60.5 79.5 3,842 80.9 76.1
Secondary 12.7 65.7 60.6 78.4 2,908 83.8 77.3
More than secondary 9.7 67.4 57.6 77.1 1,751 87.4 74.7
Wealth quintile
Lowest 21.6 45.9 43.1 67.5 1,559 68.0 63.8
Second 14.7 66.6 62.8 81.3 1,631 82.0 77.3
Middle 13.7 64.8 60.5 78.6 1,711 82.5 77.0
Fourth 12.0 65.1 59.0 77.1 2,096 84.5 76.6
Highest 10.1 65.2 57.2 75.3 2,322 86.5 76.0
Total 13.9 62.1 56.8 76.1 9,319 81.7 74.7
SEXUALLY ACTIVE UNMARRIED WOMEN5
Age
15–19 34.5 58.4 43.8 92.8 120 62.9 47.2
20–24 21.1 73.1 60.9 94.2 283 77.6 64.6
25–29 16.5 73.2 62.8 89.8 146 81.6 70.0
30–34 15.7 68.5 66.1 84.2 120 81.4 78.5
35–39 2.7 82.1 65.7 84.9 97 96.8 77.4
40–44 18.6 73.0 64.1 91.6 66 79.7 70.0
45–49 (21.8) (46.3) (40.0) (68.1) 48 (68.0) (58.8)
Residence
Urban 16.6 73.1 58.3 89.7 434 81.5 64.9
Rural 21.8 67.0 60.2 88.8 446 75.5 67.7
Total 19.2 70.0 59.2 89.3 880 78.5 66.4
Note: Data for this table were collected in the full woman’s questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire. Numbers in the table
correspond to the revised definition of unmet need described in Bradley et al. 2012. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49
unweighted cases.
1
Percentage of demand satisfied is met need divided by total demand.
2
Modern methods include female sterilization, male sterilization, IUD, injectables, implants, pill, male condom, female condom,
emergency contraception, standard days method (SDM), lactational amenorrhea method (LAM), and other modern methods.
3
Total demand is the sum of unmet need and met need.
4
No education includes informal education (Madrassa/Duksi/adult education), and more than secondary includes middle-level colleges
and universities. Excludes people who reported vocational training as the highest education level attended.
5
Women who have had sexual intercourse within 30 days preceding the survey
23
Table 9C Need and demand for family planning among currently married women by county
Percentage of currently married women age 15–49 with unmet need for family planning, percentage with met need for family planning,
percentage with met need for family planning who are using modern methods, percentage with demand for family planning, percentage
of the demand for family planning that is satisfied, and percentage of the demand for family planning that is satisfied with modern
methods, according to county, Kenya DHS 2022
Met need for family planning Percentage of demand
Unmet need (currently using) Total demand satisfied1
for family Modern for family Number of Modern
2
County planning All methods methods planning3 women All methods methods2
Mombasa 19.1 46.8 40.9 65.9 281 71.0 62.0
Kwale 24.4 32.5 32.5 56.9 159 57.1 57.1
Kilifi 17.9 51.0 46.9 68.9 255 74.0 68.1
Tana River 33.6 24.5 22.9 58.1 56 42.2 39.4
Lamu 16.8 46.5 41.0 63.3 33 73.4 64.8
Taita/Taveta 12.8 67.1 63.9 80.0 67 84.0 80.0
Garissa 10.8 15.2 12.6 26.1 94 58.5 48.4
Wajir 12.7 4.2 4.2 16.9 52 24.9 24.9
Mandera 17.3 0.7 0.7 18.0 75 4.1 4.1
Marsabit 37.6 4.8 4.8 42.4 50 11.4 11.4
Isiolo 27.3 33.0 31.0 60.2 43 54.8 51.5
Meru 7.8 77.7 71.0 85.5 291 90.9 83.1
Tharaka-Nithi 9.7 72.9 67.4 82.6 86 88.2 81.6
Embu 2.2 81.7 74.9 83.9 109 97.4 89.3
Kitui 17.7 67.4 62.5 85.1 218 79.2 73.4
Machakos 6.7 77.2 66.0 84.0 297 92.0 78.6
Makueni 10.8 69.3 60.6 80.1 199 86.5 75.7
Nyandarua 8.6 75.9 72.6 84.4 119 89.9 85.9
Nyeri 4.9 79.7 72.9 84.6 132 94.2 86.2
Kirinyaga 6.7 73.7 68.0 80.4 135 91.7 84.5
Murang’a 5.3 73.0 69.0 78.4 164 93.2 88.1
Kiambu 8.0 74.5 66.1 82.4 574 90.3 80.2
Turkana 15.6 39.4 30.2 55.1 105 71.6 54.9
West Pokot 30.3 23.2 22.6 53.5 138 43.3 42.3
Samburu 29.4 33.1 26.5 62.5 52 52.9 42.5
Trans Nzoia 13.6 69.2 65.8 82.8 180 83.6 79.4
Uasin Gishu 13.3 67.4 60.3 80.6 284 83.6 74.7
Elgeyo/Marakwet 13.5 71.1 57.3 84.6 72 84.0 67.7
Nandi 17.7 63.8 58.6 81.6 173 78.3 71.9
Baringo 16.6 55.4 44.8 72.0 103 77.0 62.2
Laikipia 4.7 75.7 66.8 80.4 84 94.1 83.0
Nakuru 8.3 72.1 64.6 80.4 501 89.7 80.3
Narok 14.8 65.9 55.2 80.7 242 81.7 68.4
Kajiado 12.5 59.9 54.8 72.4 262 82.7 75.7
Kericho 17.1 60.0 60.0 77.1 197 77.8 77.8
Bomet 16.7 63.3 56.9 80.0 187 79.1 71.1
Kakamega 13.4 68.7 64.9 82.2 381 83.6 79.0
Vihiga 18.3 60.0 57.6 78.3 98 76.6 73.6
Bungoma 14.6 65.0 62.9 79.7 311 81.6 79.0
Busia 18.6 57.7 56.0 76.3 195 75.6 73.4
Siaya 27.3 42.2 41.6 69.5 155 60.8 59.9
Kisumu 16.4 60.5 57.1 76.9 207 78.7 74.2
Homa Bay 17.0 64.9 63.3 81.9 200 79.2 77.3
Migori 20.1 60.3 54.9 80.4 205 74.9 68.3
Kisii 14.9 68.7 63.2 83.6 277 82.1 75.6
Nyamira 15.9 62.1 58.9 78.0 92 79.6 75.5
Nairobi City 12.5 62.5 57.5 75.1 1,129 83.3 76.6
Total 13.9 62.1 56.8 76.1 9,319 81.7 74.7
Note: Data for this table were collected in the full woman’s questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire. Numbers in the table
correspond to the revised definition of unmet need described in Bradley et al. 2012.
1
Percentage of demand satisfied is met need divided by total demand.
2
Modern methods include female sterilization, male sterilization, IUD, injectables, implants, pill, male condom, female condom,
emergency contraception, standard days method (SDM), lactational amenorrhea method (LAM), and other modern methods.
3
Total demand is the sum of unmet need and met need.
3.9 MATERNAL CARE
Proper care during pregnancy and delivery is important for the health of both the mother and the baby.
Table 10 and Table 10C present key indicators related to maternal care for the most recent live birth or
stillbirth in the .
24
3.9.1 Antenatal care
Antenatal care from a skilled provider

Pregnancy care received from skilled providers, such as doctors, nurses,
midwives, or clinical officers.
Sample: Women age 15–49 who had a live birth or stillbirth in the 2 years
before the survey
Antenatal care (ANC) from a skilled provider is important to monitor pregnancy and reduce morbidity and
mortality risks for the mother and child during pregnancy, delivery, and the postnatal period.
▪ Nearly all women (98%) reported receiving antenatal care from a skilled provider for their most recent
live birth or stillbirth in the 2-year period before the survey.
▪ Overall, 66% of women had four or more ANC visits for their most recent live birth or stillbirth.
▪ Nine in 10 women took iron-containing supplements during their most recent pregnancy.
▪ The percentage of women who had four or more ANC visits for their last live birth increases with
mother’s education from 49% among those with no education to 83% among those with more than a
secondary education.
▪ The percentage of women with four or more ANC visits for their last live birth is higher in urban areas
(74%) than in rural areas (62%).
▪ At the county level, the proportion of women who had four or more ANC visits for their last live birth
is lowest in Garissa (31%) and highest in Nyeri (82%).
3.9.2 Tetanus toxoid
Protection against neonatal tetanus

The number of tetanus toxoid injections needed to protect a baby from
neonatal tetanus depends on the mother’s vaccinations. A birth is protected
against neonatal tetanus if the mother has received any of the following:
▪ Two tetanus toxoid injections during the pregnancy
▪ Two or more injections, the last one within 3 years of the birth
▪ Three or more injections, the last one within 5 years of the birth
▪ Four or more injections, the last one within 10 years of the birth
▪ Five or more injections at any time prior to the birth
Sample: Women age 15–49 with a live birth in the 2 years before the survey
Tetanus toxoid injections are given during pregnancy to prevent neonatal tetanus, a major cause of early
infant death in many countries. Neonatal tetanus is often caused by failure to observe hygienic procedures
during delivery.
▪ Overall, 75% of women with a live birth in the 2 years preceding the survey received sufficient tetanus
toxoid injections to protect their baby against neonatal tetanus.
▪ The percentage of women whose most recent live birth was protected from tetanus increases with
mother’s education and wealth, from 66% among women with no education to 81% among those with
more than a secondary education and from 68% among women in the lowest wealth quintile to 81%
among those in the highest quintile.
25
▪ By county, the percentage of women whose most recent live birth was protected from tetanus ranges
from 54% in Mandera to 92% in Busia.
Table 10 Maternal care indicators
Among women age 15–49 who had a live birth and/or a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage who received antenatal care (ANC) from a skilled
provider for the most recent live birth or stillbirth, percentage with four or more ANC visits for the most recent live birth or stillbirth, percentage who took any iron-
containing supplements during the pregnancy for the most recent live birth or stillbirth, and percentage whose most recent live birth was protected against neonatal
tetanus; among all live births and stillbirths in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage delivered by a skilled provider and percentage delivered in a health
facility; and among women age 15–49 with a live birth or stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage who received a postnatal check during the first
2 days after giving birth, according to background characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
Women who had a live
birth and/or a stillbirth in
Women who had a live birth and/or a stillbirth in the Live births and stillbirths in the the 2 years preceding
2 years preceding the survey 2 years preceding the survey the survey
Percentage Percentage
who took whose most Percentage
Percentage any iron- recent live with a
receiving containing birth was postnatal
antenatal supple- protected Percentage Percentage check
care from a Percentage ments against delivered by delivered in during the
Background skilled with 4+ during neonatal Number of a skilled a health Number of first 2 days Number of
characteristic provider1 ANC visits pregnancy2 tetanus3 women provider1 facility births after birth4 women
LIVE BIRTHS
Mother’s age at birth

<20 97.0 57.1 86.3 67.9 891 88.1 83.8 920 71.9 891
20–34 98.4 68.7 91.4 77.2 5,074 90.2 83.1 5,274 73.5 5,074
35–49 95.8 59.9 86.8 69.7 882 85.2 76.0 907 67.4 882
Residence
Urban 98.9 74.1 91.1 77.0 2,470 97.3 91.7 2,562 79.0 2,470
Rural 97.3 61.5 89.7 73.9 4,377 84.8 77.0 4,539 68.8 4,377
Mother’s education5
No education 90.2 49.1 79.0 66.1 639 54.6 47.9 666 50.2 639
Primary 97.7 59.6 88.7 71.8 2,417 87.2 81.0 2,501 70.7 2,417
Secondary 99.1 67.8 92.5 77.0 2,473 95.2 89.5 2,570 77.0 2,473
More than secondary 99.6 83.2 93.6 81.4 1,239 99.1 88.1 1,281 78.5 1,239
Wealth quintile
Lowest 95.1 53.9 86.2 68.4 1,538 69.3 62.6 1,593 58.9 1,538
Second 97.8 59.5 89.1 73.3 1,244 89.0 81.9 1,296 72.2 1,244
Middle 98.3 65.3 89.8 74.8 1,234 94.0 87.0 1,284 73.8 1,234
Fourth 98.8 69.6 92.0 77.8 1,414 97.8 91.0 1,466 76.0 1,414
Highest 99.7 82.0 93.8 81.2 1,417 98.8 91.3 1,462 82.8 1,417
Total 97.9 66.0 90.2 75.0 6,847 89.3 82.3 7,101 72.5 6,847
STILLBIRTHS
Total 89.9 47.0 79.3 na 110 89.7 81.5 118 58.6 110
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS6
Total 97.7 65.7 90.0 na 6,957 89.3 82.3 7,219 72.3 6,957
Note: If more than one source of assistance was mentioned, only the provider with the highest qualifications is considered in this tabulation.
na = not applicable
1
Skilled provider includes a doctor, a nurse, a midwife, or a clinical officer.
2
Iron tablets, iron syrup, or iron and folic acid supplements
3
Includes mothers with two injections during the pregnancy of their most recent live birth, or two or more injections (the last within 3 years of the most recent live
birth), or three or more injections (the last within 5 years of the most recent live birth), or four or more injections (the last within 10 years of the most recent live
birth), or five or more injections at any time prior to the last live birth
4
Includes women who received a check from a doctor, a nurse, a midwife, a clinical officer, a community health worker, a fieldworker, or a traditional birth
attendant
5
No education includes informal education (Madrassa/Duksi/adult education), and more than secondary includes middle-level colleges and universities. Excludes
people who reported vocational training as the highest education level attended.
6
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data on antenatal care and postnatal checks are tabulated for the most
recent birth only.
26
Table 10C Maternal care indicators by county
Among women age 15–49 who had a live birth in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage who received antenatal care (ANC) from a skilled provider for the
most recent live birth, percentage with four or more ANC visits for the most recent live birth, percentage who took any iron-containing supplements during
pregnancy, and percentage whose most recent live birth was protected against neonatal tetanus; among all live births in the 2 years before the survey, percentage
delivered by a skilled provider and percentage delivered in a health facility; and among women age 15–49 with a live birth in the 2 years preceding the survey,
percentage who received a postnatal check during the first 2 days after giving birth, according to county, Kenya DHS 2022
Women who had a live
Women who had a live birth in the Live births in the 2 years birth in the 2 years
2 years preceding the survey preceding the survey preceding the survey
Percentage Percentage
who took whose most Percentage
Percentage any iron- recent live with a
receiving containing birth was postnatal
antenatal supple- protected Percentage Percentage check during
care from a Percentage ments against delivered by delivered in the first 2
skilled with 4+ during neonatal Number of a skilled a health Number of days after Number of
County provider1 ANC visits pregnancy2 tetanus3 women provider1 facility births birth4 women
Mombasa 99.4 65.3 94.1 62.3 170 95.5 94.1 187 75.0 170
Kwale 99.3 71.9 96.2 75.2 113 89.3 84.1 119 89.7 113
Kilifi 99.3 77.3 95.1 71.0 188 84.5 83.8 191 82.5 188
Tana River 95.3 61.2 86.6 62.2 55 59.2 51.1 56 59.4 55
Lamu 97.9 70.5 87.1 81.8 27 92.5 90.3 29 87.5 27
Taita/Taveta 100.0 64.9 92.8 91.3 52 95.7 93.3 54 86.7 52
Garissa 77.5 31.2 48.0 57.2 85 68.1 61.4 94 45.4 85
Wajir 84.0 44.9 72.0 60.7 52 56.6 53.6 56 37.0 52
Mandera 76.4 40.4 61.4 53.6 89 54.7 50.4 95 45.7 89
Marsabit 93.8 67.1 87.0 67.0 53 68.7 59.3 54 40.6 53
Isiolo 99.3 52.9 84.7 77.8 36 85.0 83.7 37 75.1 36
Meru 99.2 45.0 83.7 69.4 206 90.9 71.6 207 41.3 206
Tharaka-Nithi 98.0 63.2 93.3 79.9 49 95.1 74.9 50 66.0 49
Embu 100.0 62.0 88.2 89.6 64 96.3 86.3 69 85.9 64
Kitui 94.1 68.2 88.6 65.7 142 86.0 76.2 145 75.4 142
Machakos 98.0 76.9 92.5 64.2 154 95.3 93.1 166 90.1 154
Makueni 99.1 75.7 93.1 83.5 121 92.1 88.1 126 83.8 121
Nyandarua 98.3 60.6 92.2 75.8 82 98.0 95.3 84 80.1 82
Nyeri 97.3 82.2 90.6 73.7 85 99.1 99.1 88 80.4 85
Kirinyaga 100.0 67.6 92.7 64.6 81 97.3 91.6 84 88.3 81
Murang’a 100.0 58.3 90.9 86.0 134 96.2 83.9 142 77.6 134
Kiambu 98.4 66.8 93.2 86.1 412 98.2 89.2 420 83.1 412
Turkana 99.5 57.7 96.9 86.4 126 52.6 43.2 130 52.1 126
West Pokot 97.9 35.0 87.2 70.6 174 65.3 55.5 177 65.9 174
Samburu 92.9 56.3 84.5 62.1 59 56.6 49.1 62 54.1 59
Trans Nzoia 98.8 68.1 92.9 62.3 135 93.3 85.2 137 74.4 135
Uasin Gishu 98.9 71.9 93.5 67.4 210 95.3 91.0 219 71.2 210
Elgeyo/Marakwet 99.3 51.5 86.0 69.3 67 97.5 85.4 69 78.2 67
Nandi 97.6 62.1 80.7 75.7 116 87.1 80.9 118 63.0 116
Baringo 99.3 49.4 84.2 76.0 99 83.0 58.1 103 61.7 99
Laikipia 99.0 65.5 91.7 84.2 64 92.6 87.1 65 66.8 64
Nakuru 97.7 73.4 93.5 90.7 334 93.4 93.5 342 82.0 334
Narok 96.5 55.3 83.8 75.1 235 70.1 64.2 242 65.6 235
Kajiado 100.0 81.2 94.8 78.3 204 85.3 82.7 205 80.8 204
Kericho 95.7 58.6 90.4 87.7 141 92.3 89.7 147 65.3 141
Bomet 96.6 53.3 90.8 82.8 128 88.2 56.5 137 52.3 128
Kakamega 100.0 73.3 92.7 79.4 287 95.7 90.0 298 60.5 287
Vihiga 99.1 79.4 98.2 84.8 63 97.2 90.9 67 86.8 63
Bungoma 98.6 72.5 90.3 74.2 228 87.2 79.3 243 51.6 228
Busia 99.4 70.7 94.5 91.5 139 87.6 83.7 145 90.5 139
Siaya 99.1 65.1 89.3 64.9 119 94.9 84.4 125 80.1 119
Kisumu 98.0 63.3 94.8 73.5 172 97.9 94.4 177 87.9 172
Homa Bay 95.1 68.8 89.1 57.3 152 91.2 86.4 156 72.2 152
Migori 100.0 58.5 92.2 59.2 182 92.6 89.2 190 70.5 182
Kisii 98.5 62.7 94.7 84.4 164 93.5 76.0 168 71.5 164
Nyamira 100.0 65.8 93.6 76.9 55 92.6 91.5 57 85.2 55
Nairobi City 100.0 80.5 91.2 74.5 746 99.4 93.4 773 80.1 746
Total 97.9 66.0 90.2 75.0 6,847 89.3 82.3 7,101 72.5 6,847
Note: If more than one source of assistance was mentioned, only the provider with the highest qualifications is considered in this tabulation.
1
Skilled provider includes a doctor, a nurse, a midwife, or a clinical officer.
2
Iron tablets, iron syrup, or iron and folic acid supplements.
3
Includes mothers with two injections during the pregnancy of their most recent live birth, or two or more injections (the last within 3 years of the most recent live
birth), or three or more injections (the last within 5 years of the most recent live birth), or four or more injections (the last within 10 years of the most recent live
birth), or five or more injections at any time prior to the last live birth
4
Includes women who received a check from a doctor, a nurse, a midwife, a clinical officer, a community health worker, a fieldworker, or a traditional birth attendant
27
3.9.3 Delivery care
Institutional deliveries
Deliveries that occur in a health facility.
Sample: All live births and/or stillbirths in the 2 years before the survey
Skilled assistance during delivery

Births delivered with the assistance of doctors, nurses, midwives, or clinical
officers.
Sample: All live births and/or stillbirths in the 2 years before the survey
Access to proper medical attention Figure 3 Trends in delivery assistance

and hygienic conditions during Percentage of live births in the 2 years preceding the
delivery can reduce the risk of survey delivered by a skilled provider
complications and infections that 89
could lead to death or serious illness
for the mother and the baby (Van 66
Lerberghe and De Brouwere 2001;
52
WHO 2006a). Overall, 89% of live 48
43 43 41
births and stillbirths were assisted
by a skilled provider, and 82% of
live births and stillbirths occurred at
a health facility.
1989 1993 1998 2003 2008–09 2014 2022
Trends: The percentage of live KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS
births that are assisted by a skilled
provider has increased markedly 2003 exclude the North Eastern region and several northern districts in the Eastern and
over the past two decades, from Rift Valley regions.
41% in 2003 to 89% in 2022

(Figure 3).
▪ Almost all live births to mothers with more than a secondary education were delivered by a skilled
attendant (99%), as compared with 55% of births to mothers with no education.
▪ The percentage of live births delivered by a skilled provider increases with increasing household
wealth, from 69% among births in the lowest wealth quintile to 99% in the highest quintile.
▪ Live births to women in urban areas (97%) are more likely to be delivered by a skilled provider than
births to women in rural areas (85%).
▪ At the county level, the proportion of live births delivered by a skilled provider is lowest in Turkana
(53%), Mandera (55%), Wajir (57%), Samburu (57%), and Tana River (59%) (Map 1).
28
Map 1 Delivery by skilled provider by county
Percentage of live births in the 2 years before the survey that were delivered by a skilled provider
The boundaries used in this map are not an authority on administrative units
3.9.4 Postnatal care for the mother
A large proportion of maternal and neonatal deaths occur during the first 48 hours after delivery. Thus,
prompt postnatal care (PNC) for both the mother and the child is important to treat any complications
arising from the delivery, as well as to provide the mother with important information on how to care for
herself and her child. Safe motherhood programs recommend that all women receive a check of their
health during the first 2 days after birth.
▪ Overall, 73% of women with a live birth in the 2 years preceding the survey received a postnatal check
within 2 days after delivery; only 59% of women with a stillbirth received a postnatal check.
▪ The proportion of women with a live birth who received a postnatal check during the first 2 days after
birth increases with increasing wealth, from 59% among those in the lowest quintile to 83% among
those in the highest quintile.
▪ Seventy-nine percent of women in urban areas received a postnatal check in the first 2 days after
delivery, as compared with 69% of their counterparts in rural areas.
29
▪ The proportions of women who received a postnatal check during the first 2 days after a live birth are
lowest in Wajir (37%), Marsabit (41%), Meru (41%), Garissa (45%), and Mandera (46%).
3.10 VACCINATION COVERAGE
Vaccination is one of the most cost-effective interventions implemented to prevent diseases, especially
among children. Universal immunization of children against common vaccine-preventable diseases is
crucial to reducing infant and child morbidity and mortality. In Kenya, routine childhood vaccines are
guided by the Expanded Immunization Program, which outlines the childhood vaccination schedule as
follows:
▪ BCG (bacillus Calmette-Guérin) for tuberculosis at birth

▪ Rotarix (rotavirus vaccine) at weeks 6 and 10
▪ DPT (diphtheria, pertussis [whooping cough], and tetanus), hepatitis B, and Haemophilus influenzae
type B (Hib), all given together as the pentavalent vaccine;
▪ Pneumococcal vaccine (PCV 10) and oral polio vaccine at weeks 6, 10, and 14
▪ Inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), which was introduced as part of routine childhood vaccines in 2015
and is co-administered with OPV 3 at 14 weeks
▪ Measles and rubella vaccine (MR 1 and 2) at 9 and 18 months
In the 2022 KDHS, information on vaccination coverage was obtained in two ways: from written
vaccination records, including the mother and child health handbook or other home-based record, and from
mothers’ verbal reports. In this survey, a vaccination record was seen for 76% of children age 12–23
months and 61% of children age 24–35 months (data not shown in the table).
3.10.1 Basic antigen coverage
Fully vaccinated: basic antigens

Percentage of children who received specific vaccines at any time before the
survey (according to a vaccination card or the mother’s report). To have
received all basic antigens, a child must receive at least:
▪ One dose of BCG vaccine, which protects against tuberculosis
▪ Three doses of polio vaccine given as oral polio vaccine (OPV),
inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), or a combination of OPV and IPV
▪ Three doses of DPT-containing vaccine, which protects against diphtheria,
pertussis (whooping cough), and tetanus
▪ One dose of measles-containing vaccine given as measles-rubella (MR)
Sample: Children age 12–23 months
Historically, an important measure of vaccination coverage has been the proportion of children receiving
all “basic” antigens. Children are considered fully vaccinated against all basic antigens if they have
received the BCG vaccine, three doses each of polio vaccine (excluding OPV given at birth) and DPT-
containing vaccine, and a single dose of measles-containing vaccine. In Kenya, the BCG vaccine is usually
given at birth or at first clinic contact, while the polio and DPT-containing vaccines are given at
approximately age 6, 10, and 14 weeks. A first measles-containing vaccination should be given at or soon
after age 9 months. Table 11 and Table 11C present vaccination information that includes children fully
vaccinated for basic antigens as per the national schedule.
▪ Eight in 10 children age 12–23 months are fully vaccinated with the basic antigens. With respect to
individual vaccine antigens, 97% of the children have received BCG, the first dose of pentavalent, and
the first dose of OPV, and 89% have received the first dose of MR vaccine.
▪ The coverage rate for the OPV birth dose, co-administered with BCG as per the national schedule, is
86%. This is 11 percentage points lower than BCG. BCG coverage is slightly lower among children
30
whose mothers have no education (89%) than among those whose mothers have more than a
secondary education (99%).
▪ The dropout rate between the second dose (94%) and third dose (78%) of OPV is 16 percentage points.
This dropout rate is observable across demographic and social disaggregation subgroups.
▪ Eighty-seven percent of children have received IPV; this is 9 percentage points higher than the
percentage of children who have received the third dose of OPV.
▪ Two percent of children age 12–23 months have received no vaccinations.
Trends: The vaccination coverage Figure 4 Trends in childhood vaccinations

rate for basic antigens increased Percentage of children age 12–23 months
dramatically between 1989 and
1993 and dipped to a low of 57%
79 77 79 80
in 2003. There has been a sustained
65
upward trend since 2008–09, with 57 Fully vaccinated
coverage in 2022 at 80% (Figure (basic antigens)
44
4). The percentage of children
receiving no vaccinations dropped 39
No vaccinations
dramatically between 1989 and 3 7 3
3 2 2
1993 and has since stabilized.
1989 1993 1998 2003 2008–09 2014 2022
▪ At the county level, Vihiga has KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS
the highest percentage of Note: Data from 2003 and later are nationally representative, while data collected before
children age 12-23 months who Rift Valley regions.
are fully vaccinated for basic
antigens (96%), while Garissa
has the lowest (23%) (Map 2 and
Table 11C).
31
Map 2 Vaccination coverage by county
Percentage of children age 12–23 months who were fully vaccinated (basic antigens) at any time before the survey
3.10.2 Vaccination coverage according to the national schedule
A second measure of vaccination coverage is the percentage of children age 12–23 months and
24–35 months who are fully vaccinated according to the national schedule. In this report, a child age 12–23
months is considered to be fully vaccinated according to the national schedule if the child has received all
basic antigens as well as a birth dose of OPV, a dose of IPV, three doses of the pneumococcal vaccine, and
two doses of the rotavirus vaccine. Children age 24–35 months are considered fully vaccinated according
to the national schedule if they receive a second dose of the MR vaccine in addition to all of the
vaccinations relevant for a child age 12–23 months.
The results displayed in Table 11 indicate that 55% of children age 12–23 months and 38% of children age
24–35 months are fully vaccinated according to the national schedule.
32
Table 11 Vaccinations by background characteristics
Percentage of children age 12–23 months and children age 24–35 months who received specific vaccines at any time before the survey (according to a vaccination card or the mother’s report), percentage fully vaccinated (basic
antigens), percentage fully vaccinated according to the national schedule, and percentage who received no vaccinations, according to background characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
Children age 12–23 months Children age 24–35 months
Fully Fully
DPT-HepB-Hib OPV1 Pneumococcal Rotavirus Fully vaccinated vaccinated
vaccinated (according to (according
Background (basic national No Number of to national Number of
characteristic BCG 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 IPV 1 2 3 1 2 MR 1 antigens)2 schedule)3 vaccinations children MR 2 schedule)4 children
Sex
Male 96.4 96.9 93.8 88.8 86.0 95.9 93.6 77.5 88.2 96.2 95.2 91.2 95.8 92.1 89.5 80.2 56.0 2.5 1,672 69.7 38.1 1,677
Female 97.4 97.3 94.1 89.5 86.2 97.0 94.8 78.9 86.5 96.8 95.6 91.1 96.2 92.5 88.6 80.0 54.4 1.8 1,652 63.8 36.9 1,553
Birth order
1 97.1 98.0 95.8 92.0 89.9 96.5 94.7 79.8 89.5 97.2 96.2 93.4 96.6 94.7 94.1 85.1 61.2 1.6 1,000 72.2 39.9 1,028
2–3 97.6 97.4 94.3 89.0 88.9 97.2 94.6 79.1 88.2 96.7 95.8 91.2 96.7 92.3 91.2 81.9 56.8 1.9 1,320 70.4 39.5 1,320
4–5 97.0 96.9 92.8 88.9 82.9 96.9 95.1 77.9 86.4 96.4 95.3 91.2 95.1 90.2 83.9 75.8 51.0 2.0 642 60.8 36.2 553
6+ 93.5 93.9 89.4 82.5 71.1 93.0 89.5 70.8 80.3 93.9 92.2 84.8 93.1 89.1 76.2 67.0 40.3 4.9 361 46.0 24.4 329
Vaccination card5
Seen 99.2 99.4 98.6 96.0 88.3 99.5 98.8 95.6 86.9 98.7 97.9 95.0 98.8 95.5 90.9 87.4 69.1 0.0 2,512 68.8 51.5 1,984
Not seen or no
longer has card 94.6 94.3 83.6 72.0 84.2 90.8 83.8 25.9 93.7 94.2 92.3 83.7 91.5 86.6 88.1 60.9 13.4 4.3 749 66.3 16.2 1,177
Never had card 33.9 37.6 29.5 23.3 19.0 40.4 33.4 5.5 31.0 36.4 32.4 28.7 35.8 30.8 26.3 17.4 0.2 59.6 63 18.4 0.0 69
Residence
Urban 97.1 97.3 93.2 87.9 92.0 95.9 93.5 74.5 89.0 96.4 95.9 92.0 96.2 93.7 90.9 79.6 55.7 2.2 1,223 71.1 37.6 1,254
Rural 96.8 97.0 94.4 89.9 82.7 96.8 94.6 80.4 86.4 96.5 95.2 90.7 95.9 91.5 87.9 80.3 55.0 2.1 2,101 64.1 37.5 1,976
No education 88.5 88.3 80.7 73.0 54.4 87.4 81.8 57.8 75.3 88.5 84.7 77.9 87.1 78.9 64.0 53.6 22.7 9.6 331 33.4 14.7 340
Primary 98.3 98.2 95.1 90.6 87.5 98.2 96.0 80.6 88.9 97.2 96.5 92.2 97.1 94.0 89.4 80.8 55.9 0.8 1,235 63.0 34.1 1,188
Secondary 97.0 97.8 95.2 90.6 89.9 96.4 94.7 79.6 88.8 97.5 96.5 91.6 96.8 93.2 94.1 83.8 60.6 1.8 1,148 72.6 42.6 1,014
More than
secondary 98.6 98.5 96.4 92.6 93.6 98.1 96.4 81.0 88.4 97.6 97.4 95.8 97.0 94.7 93.0 86.8 61.7 1.4 565 81.7 47.1 652
Wealth quintile
Lowest 94.9 95.4 90.9 85.1 69.3 94.8 91.1 76.5 82.6 95.0 92.2 86.8 93.7 87.7 79.6 71.1 42.3 3.5 767 50.1 25.3 713
Second 97.3 97.6 96.2 92.3 90.1 97.5 96.2 81.3 86.8 97.2 96.7 93.1 96.9 94.0 90.5 82.6 59.6 1.2 620 66.5 40.1 556
Middle 96.8 96.9 94.2 88.8 87.9 96.3 93.4 79.9 89.6 95.7 95.1 90.1 95.3 91.3 91.5 82.5 58.4 2.6 572 68.4 40.5 547
Fourth 97.7 97.6 93.9 90.0 92.4 96.9 94.9 77.0 88.2 97.1 96.1 92.1 97.5 93.8 92.4 82.7 59.3 1.8 646 71.1 40.5 653
Highest 98.0 98.2 95.0 90.4 93.4 97.0 95.8 77.1 90.4 97.5 97.4 94.3 96.7 95.0 92.7 83.1 59.1 1.4 719 78.0 42.5 760
Total 96.9 97.1 93.9 89.2 86.1 96.5 94.2 78.2 87.4 96.5 95.4 91.2 96.0 92.3 89.0 80.1 55.2 2.1 3,324 66.8 37.5 3,230
Note: Children are considered to have received the vaccine if it was either written on the child’s vaccination card or reported by the mother. For children whose vaccination information is based on the mother’s report, date of
vaccination is not collected. The proportions of vaccinations given during the first and second years of life are assumed to be the same as for children with a written record of vaccination.
BCG = bacillus Calmette-Guérin
DPT = Diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus
HepB = Hepatitis B
Hib = Haemophilus influenzae type b
OPV = Oral polio vaccine
IPV = Inactivated polio vaccine
MR = Measles-rubella
1
OPV 0 is the polio vaccination given at birth.
2
BCG, three doses of DPT-HepB-Hib, three doses of polio vaccine (excluding polio vaccine given at birth), and one dose of MR
3
BCG, three doses of DPT-HepB-Hib, four doses of OPV, one dose of IPV, three doses of pneumococcal vaccine, two doses of rotavirus vaccine, and one dose of MR
4
BCG, three doses of DPT-HepB-Hib, four doses of OPV, one dose of IPV, three doses of pneumococcal vaccine, two doses of rotavirus vaccine, and two doses of MR
5
Mother and child health handbook or other home-based record
6
No education includes informal education (Madrassa/Duksi/adult education), and more than secondary includes middle-level colleges and universities. Excludes people who reported vocational training as the highest education
level attended.
33
Table 11C Vaccinations by county
Percentage of children age 12–23 months and children age 24–35 months who received specific vaccines at any time before the survey (according to a vaccination card or the mother’s report), percentage fully vaccinated (basic
antigens), percentage fully vaccinated according to the national schedule, and percentage who received no vaccinations, according to county, Kenya DHS 2022
Children age 24–35
Children age 12–23 months months
Fully vac- Fully vac-
Fully vaccinated cinated
DPT-HepB-Hib OPV1 Pneumococcal Rotavirus cinated (according (according Number
(basic to national No vac- Number of to national of
County BCG 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 IPV 1 2 3 1 2 MR 1 antigens)2 schedule)3 cinations children MR 2 schedule)4 children
Mombasa 98.6 100.0 99.1 97.4 94.5 100.0 99.1 85.9 93.9 99.1 97.4 95.6 97.3 97.3 96.6 93.4 70.4 0.0 75 66.1 24.8 90
Kwale 96.1 96.7 94.0 82.5 85.9 96.7 96.7 77.4 92.8 95.0 95.0 92.1 92.4 87.1 83.7 70.6 50.1 2.0 62 73.3 39.3 63
Kilifi 100.0 100.0 98.2 93.7 92.9 99.3 97.5 78.6 92.2 97.9 92.7 90.6 96.4 94.6 95.1 89.8 62.5 0.0 89 66.8 47.6 92
Tana River 94.6 93.5 88.7 80.8 80.1 93.4 85.8 68.5 82.2 94.6 90.6 80.6 92.8 81.5 83.1 73.5 39.2 4.4 26 53.7 28.1 25
Lamu 98.6 100.0 97.2 85.1 93.7 99.0 98.2 76.5 87.7 97.3 97.3 84.3 100.0 92.9 86.4 72.3 54.2 0.0 13 49.6 36.6 11
Taita/Taveta 98.4 98.4 95.5 85.8 94.9 97.4 95.4 81.3 89.0 98.4 94.1 85.9 98.4 94.7 96.5 84.7 65.4 1.6 28 (59.2) (44.3) 21
Garissa 63.2 63.3 40.8 36.4 51.5 63.0 56.0 35.2 53.8 64.0 61.7 53.4 59.9 54.7 42.7 22.9 16.9 35.1 37 9.7 3.6 44
Wajir 94.7 94.6 83.3 66.5 47.9 93.7 81.1 58.0 81.4 94.6 89.6 77.3 92.5 82.4 74.8 48.6 19.2 2.3 28 21.6 5.5 27
Mandera 63.2 63.8 52.2 43.8 35.1 62.0 59.2 38.9 47.9 63.3 62.7 52.9 61.6 56.2 42.4 29.1 5.6 33.8 47 23.2 3.5 49
Marsabit 94.8 93.2 89.7 84.7 75.9 92.1 86.3 52.9 75.8 92.7 90.9 86.9 89.1 88.6 79.2 68.8 19.3 4.4 24 46.7 8.4 26
Isiolo 97.1 96.8 94.2 88.7 84.3 86.7 81.4 59.4 85.0 96.8 93.2 85.2 96.8 93.1 78.6 69.7 37.1 1.5 19 42.2 25.3 19
Meru 100.0 98.3 96.3 92.3 90.8 96.9 89.5 79.1 94.0 92.9 89.2 86.1 95.4 85.3 97.4 81.9 57.9 0.0 92 78.5 49.1 79
Tharaka-Nithi 100.0 100.0 98.0 96.3 95.6 100.0 98.0 91.9 98.7 100.0 98.7 94.7 100.0 93.3 96.3 94.9 82.1 0.0 24 73.5 48.5 26
Embu (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (97.2) (100.0) (100.0) (98.1) (88.9) (96.4) (100.0) (100.0) (97.2) (96.8) (93.7) (93.5) (90.7) (75.6) (0.0) 30 82.0 52.6 31
Kitui 86.6 91.0 86.7 83.9 73.5 90.8 90.8 78.7 80.1 91.0 91.0 82.3 90.4 88.5 83.1 72.5 49.4 7.0 80 60.0 24.7 57
Machakos (95.2) (97.6) (93.8) (92.3) (90.9) (97.6) (97.6) (91.3) (91.3) (95.7) (95.7) (95.7) (97.6) (97.6) (98.0) (87.8) (70.8) (0.0) 68 85.8 60.9 75
Makueni 97.8 97.8 89.6 85.5 95.5 97.8 96.2 84.9 87.0 97.8 97.8 93.5 97.8 95.2 93.3 82.0 65.5 2.2 63 93.9 48.4 59
Nyandarua 100.0 100.0 100.0 98.0 98.4 99.2 95.7 83.1 88.3 100.0 100.0 96.5 100.0 98.0 99.2 94.9 70.6 0.0 43 (80.8) (63.5) 27
Nyeri (91.5) (94.7) (92.9) (85.9) (88.4) (92.9) (92.9) (82.0) (81.0) (94.7) (94.7) (84.5) (91.5) (91.5) (85.6) (78.2) (56.6) (5.3) 37 75.3 45.1 51
Kirinyaga 98.1 100.0 98.2 92.1 95.1 100.0 98.0 81.8 97.9 100.0 100.0 93.1 97.9 90.2 97.1 87.3 70.9 0.0 44 (89.0) (43.8) 30
Murang’a (96.7) (96.7) (96.7) (96.7) (96.7) (96.7) (96.7) (74.7) (88.2) (96.7) (96.7) (96.7) (96.7) (96.7) (95.3) (95.3) (66.2) (3.3) 51 (90.8) (62.5) 58
Kiambu 100.0 100.0 100.0 91.8 95.4 98.2 95.3 80.4 93.7 100.0 100.0 95.9 96.7 91.3 94.0 87.8 65.5 0.0 196 68.9 39.6 208
Turkana 96.7 96.6 91.7 84.1 56.7 95.7 90.3 73.3 77.0 96.6 90.9 84.3 95.2 84.3 68.8 60.1 29.3 1.7 66 48.5 25.3 49
West Pokot 97.3 98.1 85.5 73.9 45.2 96.7 89.7 51.6 79.2 96.3 88.4 83.3 95.7 85.1 62.2 48.6 10.7 1.2 82 23.3 5.2 81
Samburu 93.1 90.8 89.0 87.2 59.3 91.2 85.0 69.5 77.3 90.3 88.5 87.1 90.8 86.6 73.1 65.8 27.8 6.4 27 39.5 14.9 28
Trans Nzoia 98.0 100.0 98.0 87.4 87.5 98.2 96.5 91.1 92.8 100.0 100.0 89.4 97.4 91.3 93.9 77.6 70.6 0.0 60 81.2 64.8 76
Uasin Gishu 98.6 98.6 95.4 94.6 90.2 98.6 94.6 78.0 89.9 95.3 95.3 94.3 98.6 89.4 97.6 89.5 49.3 1.4 101 68.8 37.5 99
Elgeyo/Marakwet 97.6 94.9 88.8 83.4 79.0 98.2 91.9 74.3 86.0 97.3 94.8 85.6 95.6 84.4 88.3 69.8 43.2 0.0 37 56.5 30.2 27
Nandi 100.0 100.0 96.4 95.8 100.0 100.0 99.5 87.9 85.5 96.1 96.1 94.2 100.0 100.0 93.9 89.8 65.0 0.0 52 78.7 51.6 56
Baringo 98.3 98.0 98.0 96.2 76.6 98.0 98.0 82.8 80.4 100.0 100.0 95.1 98.5 97.0 88.5 84.8 43.3 0.0 45 62.4 32.4 44
Laikipia 93.9 97.1 97.1 91.9 88.2 97.1 95.3 76.9 86.7 97.1 96.1 94.3 97.1 97.1 90.5 83.7 55.5 2.9 36 77.5 33.2 29
Nakuru 99.1 99.1 99.1 99.1 92.9 99.1 99.1 91.1 86.5 99.1 99.1 95.6 99.1 96.7 92.4 91.5 69.2 0.9 176 80.2 57.6 168
Narok 98.7 97.5 97.5 90.8 53.9 97.0 94.2 75.9 89.6 97.5 97.5 94.1 94.6 92.2 82.9 74.9 30.8 1.3 95 45.5 16.2 115
Kajiado 96.9 91.9 85.6 73.6 81.4 96.9 88.9 71.0 84.1 91.9 89.2 77.3 94.5 90.2 81.6 61.3 43.5 0.9 87 49.9 27.9 102
Kericho 94.1 95.4 95.4 93.0 82.4 95.4 94.3 71.6 83.4 95.4 95.4 93.8 93.9 92.7 89.5 84.7 47.6 4.6 75 74.7 45.6 69
Bomet 98.5 98.5 95.7 89.8 87.7 98.5 98.5 91.2 85.0 98.2 98.2 95.4 98.5 98.5 92.7 83.9 63.9 1.5 66 79.8 45.1 60
Kakamega 100.0 100.0 100.0 97.1 93.2 99.6 98.2 91.8 90.6 99.4 99.4 96.5 98.7 94.5 96.0 90.7 72.8 0.0 147 81.6 53.2 119
Vihiga 100.0 100.0 100.0 95.9 93.6 100.0 100.0 88.6 87.5 100.0 100.0 92.1 100.0 100.0 100.0 95.9 70.1 0.0 30 74.8 58.1 29
Bungoma 100.0 98.7 97.3 97.3 82.9 97.7 97.7 89.3 94.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 91.3 88.2 65.9 0.0 118 66.9 29.0 106
Busia 98.2 100.0 100.0 96.5 89.5 100.0 97.3 73.4 95.0 100.0 98.0 92.5 100.0 92.6 90.5 81.9 55.8 0.0 52 84.3 60.2 56
Siaya 99.3 99.3 97.5 93.9 95.1 99.3 95.6 84.4 93.6 99.3 98.5 91.4 99.3 96.0 94.1 88.1 69.9 0.7 58 54.1 26.6 66
Kisumu 97.7 100.0 87.6 87.6 91.4 98.7 98.7 85.2 95.9 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 96.1 93.5 78.9 62.6 0.0 85 64.7 30.1 81
Homa Bay 98.3 97.5 94.7 86.2 94.1 97.6 91.4 74.8 81.0 97.5 95.6 82.1 96.4 88.3 89.0 75.8 52.6 0.0 63 46.6 28.5 66
Migori 99.6 99.6 98.3 91.3 91.8 98.0 95.7 84.9 97.7 99.6 98.4 94.1 99.1 93.2 93.1 85.6 71.4 0.4 89 62.3 37.9 78
Continued…
34
Table 11C—Continued
Children age 24–35
Children age 12–23 months months
Fully vac- Fully vac-
Fully vaccinated cinated
DPT-HepB-Hib OPV1 Pneumococcal Rotavirus cinated (according (according Number
(basic to national No vac- Number of to national of
County BCG 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 IPV 1 2 3 1 2 MR 1 antigens)2 schedule)3 cinations children MR 2 schedule)4 children
Kisii 99.1 99.1 95.7 95.7 98.5 99.1 95.6 88.5 93.6 97.6 95.5 95.5 97.6 95.5 94.6 89.7 81.6 0.9 71 79.9 50.9 62
Nyamira (100.0) (100.0) (96.0) (95.5) (94.8) (97.4) (94.8) (88.8) (79.0) (97.0) (97.0) (93.9) (96.6) (96.6) (92.5) (82.7) (55.8) (0.0) 24 (75.3) (48.5) 21
Nairobi City 96.8 97.4 93.4 87.7 93.4 95.3 95.3 67.8 84.4 96.4 96.4 93.2 96.4 95.8 89.4 77.2 45.8 2.6 409 73.6 30.5 372
Total 96.9 97.1 93.9 89.2 86.1 96.5 94.2 78.2 87.4 96.5 95.4 91.2 96.0 92.3 89.0 80.1 55.2 2.1 3,324 66.8 37.5 3,230
Note: Children are considered to have received the vaccine if it was either written on the child’s vaccination card or reported by the mother. For children whose vaccination information is based on the mother’s report, date of
vaccination is not collected. The proportions of vaccinations given during the first and second years of life are assumed to be the same as for children with a written record of vaccination. Figures in parentheses are based on
25–49 unweighted cases.
BCG = bacillus Calmette-Guérin
DPT = Diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus
HepB = Hepatitis B
Hib = Haemophilus influenzae type b
OPV = Oral polio vaccine
IPV = Inactivated polio vaccine
MR = Measles-rubella
1
OPV 0 is the polio vaccination given at birth.
2
BCG, three doses of DPT-HepB-Hib, three doses of polio vaccine (excluding polio vaccine given at birth), and one dose of MR
3
BCG, three doses of DPT-HepB-Hib, four doses of OPV, one dose of IPV, three doses of pneumococcal vaccine, two doses of rotavirus vaccine, and one dose of MR
4
BCG, three doses of DPT-HepB-Hib, four doses of OPV, one dose of IPV, three doses of pneumococcal vaccine, two doses of rotavirus vaccine, and two doses of MR
5
Mother and child health handbook or other home-based record
35
3.11 CARE SEEKING AND TREATMENT OF CHILD ILLNESS
Acute respiratory infection (ARI), fever, and Figure 5 Symptoms of childhood illness
dehydration from diarrhea are contributing causes of and care seeking
childhood morbidity and mortality in developing
Percentage of Among those with
countries (WHO 2003). Prompt medical attention children under age 5 symptoms of illness,
when a child has the symptoms of these illnesses is, with symptoms in the percentage for whom
therefore, crucial in reducing child deaths. 2 weeks before the advice or treatment
survey was sought
During the 2 weeks before the survey, 2% of children 82
under age 5 showed symptoms of an ARI, 17% 70
exhibited fever, and 14% experienced diarrhea. 57
Children with ARI symptoms were most often taken
to a health facility or provider for advice or treatment
(82%). Advice or treatment was sought less often for 17 14
children with fever (70%) or diarrhea (57%) 2
(Figure 5).
ARI Fever Diar- ARI Fever Diar-
rhea rhea
▪ Forty-eight percent of children with diarrhea
received oral rehydration salts (ORS), 40% received zinc supplements, 32% received ORS and zinc
supplements, and 26% were given ORS, zinc supplements, and continued feeding (Table 12 and
Table 12C).
▪ The percentage of children with ARI symptoms for whom advice or treatment was sought is higher in
urban (90%) than rural (78%) areas. In contrast, differences by residence in care seeking for children
with fever or diarrhea are minor (1–2 percentage points).
36
Table 12 Treatment for acute respiratory infection symptoms, fever, and diarrhea
Among children under age 5 who had symptoms of acute respiratory infection (ARI) or had a fever during the 2 weeks preceding the survey,
percentage for whom advice or treatment was sought, and among children under age 5 who had diarrhea during the 2 weeks preceding the survey,
percentage for whom advice or treatment was sought, percentage given a fluid made from oral rehydration salt (ORS) packets or given
prepackaged ORS fluid, percentage given zinc, percentage given ORS and zinc, and percentage given ORS, zinc, and continued feeding,
according to background characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
Children with
symptoms of ARI1 Children with fever Children with diarrhea
Percent-
Percent- Percent- Percent- age given
age for age for age for fluid from Percent-
whom whom whom ORS age given
advice or advice or advice or packet or Percent- ORS, zinc,
treatment treatment treatment pre- Percent- age given and
Background was Number of was Number of was packaged age given ORS and continued Number of
2 2
characteristic sought children sought children sought2 ORS fluid zinc zinc feeding3 children
Age in months
<6 (75.1) 24 53.4 228 36.8 25.2 21.1 12.9 8.7 245
6–11 (84.0) 39 73.5 434 53.9 46.8 38.0 31.0 22.6 422
12–23 87.0 65 69.9 705 61.4 56.0 48.4 39.8 32.1 776
24–35 88.2 56 67.5 513 59.7 52.9 38.4 30.8 26.9 429
36–47 81.8 61 71.6 582 60.0 46.4 37.6 30.7 25.2 341
48–59 72.5 49 72.6 427 57.6 43.1 36.6 27.4 24.3 204
Sex
Male 84.7 161 70.2 1,478 56.2 48.8 38.7 31.1 24.6 1,272
Female 79.4 132 68.7 1,412 57.5 47.7 40.4 32.2 26.5 1,145
Residence
Urban 89.5 109 68.9 1,071 57.9 46.6 42.5 31.0 26.3 934
Rural 78.1 184 69.8 1,818 56.1 49.4 37.7 32.0 25.0 1,482
No education 69.3 34 56.8 255 59.2 52.5 44.0 37.8 29.4 233
Primary 80.7 135 67.5 1,147 54.8 49.6 35.2 31.1 23.8 969
Secondary 83.1 80 73.2 990 54.3 44.8 39.8 30.1 25.1 848
More than secondary (95.2) 40 71.9 464 67.2 51.2 48.4 33.3 29.4 339
Wealth quintile
Lowest 78.5 96 64.2 643 59.7 54.1 45.2 40.5 25.1 577
Second 73.0 63 69.5 535 53.1 44.7 30.6 24.5 12.6 427
Middle 82.6 40 74.2 509 53.6 47.7 34.9 29.5 18.3 425
Fourth 88.6 48 70.2 636 55.1 49.1 41.6 32.5 19.9 510
Highest (96.3) 46 70.4 566 61.1 44.1 42.6 28.2 22.4 478
Total 82.3 293 69.5 2,890 56.8 48.3 39.5 31.6 25.5 2,416
Note: Data for this table were collected in the full woman’s questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire. Figures in parentheses are based on
25–49 unweighted cases.
1
Symptoms of ARI include short, rapid breathing that is chest-related and/or difficult breathing that is chest-related.
2
Includes advice or treatment from the following sources: public sector, private medical sector, nongovernmental organization (NGO) medical
sector, faith-based sector/organization (FBO) medical sector, shop, market, and itinerant drug seller. Excludes advice or treatment from a traditional
practitioner.
3
Continued feeding includes children who were given more, the same as usual, or somewhat less food during the diarrhea episode.
4
No education includes informal education (Madrassa/Duksi/adult education), and more than secondary includes middle-level colleges and
universities. Excludes people who reported vocational training as the highest education level attended.
37
Table 12C Treatment for acute respiratory infection symptoms, fever, and diarrhea by county
Among children under age 5 who had symptoms of acute respiratory infection (ARI) or had a fever during the 2 weeks preceding the survey,
percentage for whom advice or treatment was sought, and among children under age 5 who had diarrhea during the 2 weeks preceding the survey,
percentage for whom advice or treatment was sought, percentage given a fluid made from oral rehydration salt (ORS) packets or given
prepackaged ORS fluid, percentage given zinc, percentage given ORS and zinc, and percentage given ORS, zinc, and continued feeding,
according to county, Kenya DHS 2022
Children with
symptoms of ARI1 Children with fever Children with diarrhea
Percent-
Percent- Percent- Percent- age given
age for age for age for fluid from Percent-
whom whom whom ORS age given
advice or advice or advice or packet or Percent- ORS, zinc,
treatment treatment treatment pre- Percent- age given and
was Number of was Number of was packaged age given ORS and continued Number of
2 2
County sought children sought children sought2 ORS fluid zinc zinc feeding3 children
Mombasa * 4 41.7 88 53.5 47.1 40.2 31.2 23.7 76
Kwale * 0 * 17 * * * * * 10
Kilifi * 28 61.0 81 60.4 59.9 51.2 49.8 29.5 100
Tana River * 5 54.0 24 60.2 54.1 53.8 48.4 24.2 22
Lamu (65.0) 3 78.6 18 75.7 61.2 51.9 43.0 24.3 16
Taita/Taveta * 2 (57.6) 13 * * * * * 11
Garissa * 3 (55.0) 15 (72.5) (63.3) (69.9) (61.3) (21.3) 15
Wajir * 4 56.9 34 57.7 46.1 30.7 26.6 10.6 39
Mandera * 5 37.5 32 (66.2) (58.5) (42.2) (38.4) (26.9) 13
Marsabit * 1 (46.1) 9 (71.2) (63.5) (60.2) (57.6) (32.7) 9
Isiolo * 2 59.9 16 81.2 76.7 69.9 68.7 35.7 18
Meru * 20 66.5 98 (47.5) (36.7) (32.3) (23.8) (6.3) 74
Tharaka-Nithi * 5 74.4 39 (52.1) (39.4) (36.4) (28.4) (10.3) 21
Embu * 1 (79.5) 19 (90.6) (85.2) (74.2) (74.2) (61.8) 14
Kitui * 8 (54.4) 33 (62.1) (63.1) (47.1) (42.8) (20.5) 29
Machakos * 2 (78.0) 63 (40.8) (45.3) (30.7) (25.5) (18.3) 58
Makueni * 0 * 12 * * * * * 11
Nyandarua * 3 (73.3) 18 * * * * * 12
Nyeri * 2 (97.6) 34 (88.6) (73.1) (58.2) (52.8) (25.3) 27
Kirinyaga * 1 * 11 (52.5) (53.3) (38.9) (33.1) (18.2) 24
Murang’a * 5 (71.3) 51 (53.2) (39.3) (24.0) (20.8) (16.3) 34
Kiambu * 27 68.0 181 30.5 34.6 25.9 18.0 15.0 182
Turkana * 9 76.2 69 68.2 64.6 70.6 61.3 50.6 53
West Pokot * 5 72.0 34 77.7 47.1 45.3 30.9 4.5 32
Samburu * 1 51.0 20 45.8 32.3 34.6 26.9 12.1 23
Trans Nzoia * 4 74.0 62 63.1 43.7 49.6 38.3 27.4 59
Uasin Gishu * 7 77.9 121 69.7 61.0 49.3 45.6 31.1 85
Elgeyo/Marakwet * 0 (64.6) 14 (69.5) (71.5) (58.3) (51.4) (2.4) 16
Nandi * 6 72.5 38 (61.6) (53.0) (30.0) (23.4) (15.9) 28
Baringo * 3 85.3 42 77.2 61.3 52.3 44.1 26.5 31
Laikipia * 1 (77.9) 14 (50.3) (45.2) (44.0) (31.1) (19.4) 19
Nakuru * 13 66.2 167 51.6 42.5 39.4 32.1 17.1 122
Narok * 9 58.0 60 59.1 56.3 28.0 25.0 16.1 89
Kajiado * 9 60.1 108 44.0 41.9 31.5 23.8 16.6 76
Kericho * 3 * 17 54.5 58.5 22.9 21.2 5.4 52
Bomet * 1 67.0 68 58.5 47.0 42.6 40.5 30.4 46
Kakamega * 5 72.2 144 55.0 54.6 37.5 33.6 24.9 111
Vihiga * 3 64.2 26 24.9 32.4 16.4 13.6 9.5 24
Bungoma * 11 71.4 110 54.3 45.2 34.9 29.6 24.7 102
Busia * 9 85.0 93 66.6 65.1 39.4 35.7 21.9 51
Siaya * 2 84.1 41 * * * * * 16
Kisumu * 2 66.3 80 (56.6) (49.3) (24.1) (15.6) (0.0) 44
Homa Bay * 22 78.2 131 54.5 40.7 36.9 30.7 23.8 77
Migori * 10 73.7 166 62.7 46.2 39.9 32.9 17.3 96
Kisii * 3 (69.2) 42 (58.9) (29.0) (31.5) (12.1) (3.2) 36
Nyamira * 2 (67.2) 20 (50.0) (53.2) (34.9) (29.2) (0.0) 13
Nairobi City * 24 72.3 296 64.9 43.6 45.1 25.5 22.4 298
Total 82.3 293 69.5 2,890 56.8 48.3 39.5 31.6 25.5 2,416
Note: Data for this table were collected in the full woman’s questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire. Figures in parentheses are based on
25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Symptoms of ARI include short, rapid breathing that is chest-related and/or difficult breathing that is chest-related.
2
Includes advice or treatment from the following sources: public sector, private medical sector, nongovernmental organization (NGO) medical
sector, faith-based sector/organization (FBO) medical sector, shop, market, and itinerant drug seller. Excludes advice or treatment from a traditional
practitioner.
3
Continued feeding includes children who were given more, the same as usual, or somewhat less food during the diarrhea episode.
38
3.12 EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT
Early Childhood Development Index

Children are considered to be developmentally on track if they have achieved
the minimum number of milestones expected for their age group. Each of the
three general domains is composed of a set of core subdomains:
Health subdomains: gross motor development, fine motor development, and
self-care.
Learning subdomains: expressive language, literacy, numeracy, pre-writing,
and executive functioning.
Psychosocial well-being subdomains: emotional skills, social skills,
internalizing behavior, and externalizing behavior.
Early childhood development is a multidimensional Table 13 Early Childhood Development Index 2030
process that involves an ordered progression of motor, Percentage of children age 24–59 months who are
cognitive, language, socioemotional, and regulatory developmentally on track in health, learning, and psychosocial
well-being, Kenya DHS 2022
skills and capacities across the first few years of life
Percentage
(UNICEF 2016). While these are distinct domains of of children
age 24–59
early childhood development, they are interconnected. months
Nurturing and supporting all of these dimensions in a who are
develop-
holistic manner is key to ensuring that children have the mentally on
best chance to reach their full potential. Physical growth, track in
health, Number of
literacy and numeracy skills, socioemotional learning, and children age
Background psychosocial 24–59
development, and learning readiness set the trajectory for characteristic well-being1 months
lifelong health, learning, and well-being (Shonkoff and Age in months
Phillips 2000). 24–35 82.8 1,537
36–47 77.4 1,693
48–59 73.8 1,566
The Early Childhood Development Index 2030 Sex
(ECDI2030) module, which captures the achievement of Male 76.3 2,484
Female 79.7 2,313
key developmental milestones by children between age Residence
24 months and age 59 months, was included in the 2022 Urban 87.4 1,717
Rural 72.7 3,080
KDHS. Mothers were asked 20 questions about their
Early childhood education
children age 24–59 months. These questions focused on attendance
Attending 85.1 1,259
the way children behave in certain everyday situations Not attending 71.0 2,061
and the skills and knowledge they have acquired, Information not available 81.6 1,477
reflecting the increasing difficulty of the skills children Mother’s education2

No education 51.4 568
acquire as they grow. The 20 items are organized Primary 75.7 1,899
Secondary 84.7 1,468
according to the three general domains of health, More than secondary 91.0 813
learning, and psychosocial well-being. Wealth quintile
Lowest 61.0 1,136
Second 74.2 898
The ECDI2030 module is not designed to report on Middle 79.8 801
individual domains separately. Rather, it is meant to Fourth 84.0 917
Highest 92.8 1,045
produce a single summary score that captures the
Total 77.9 4,797
interlinked developmental concepts embedded in the
Note: Data for this table were collected in the full woman’s
three domains mentioned in SDG 4.2.1. questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire.
1
SDG Indicator 4.2.1
2
In 2022, Kenya launched the Early Childhood No education includes informal education
(Madrassa/Duksi/adult education), and more than secondary
Development Policy, which addresses the development, includes middle-level colleges and universities. Excludes
people who reported vocational training as the highest
planning, implementation, and monitoring of integrated education level attended.
programs targeting children age 0–8. The policy
addresses sectors critical to the survival and thriving of
young children such as health, nutrition, child protection,
and early learning. Within the domain of health, the
39
policy stipulates that every child should be monitored for developmental milestones and that, where delays
are detected, immediate appropriate interventions are implemented.
▪ Table 13 presents information on developmental growth among children age 24–59 months. Seventy-
eight percent of children are developmentally on track in health, learning, and psychosocial well-
being.
▪ The percentage of children who are developmentally on track decreases with age; 83% of children age
24–35 months are developmentally on track, as compared with 74% of children age 48–59 months.
▪ A higher percentage of children in urban (87%) than rural (73%) areas are developmentally on track.
▪ The percentage of children developmentally on track increases with increasing mother’s education,
from 51% among children whose mothers have no education to 91% among those whose mothers have
more than a secondary education.
▪ The percentage of children developmentally on track also increases with increasing household wealth,
from 61% among those in the lowest wealth quintile to 93% among those in the highest quintile.
3.13 CHILD NUTRITIONAL STATUS
Anthropometry is commonly used to measure child nutritional status. Anthropometric measurements are
used to report on child growth indicators. The distribution of height and weight among children under age
5 was compared with the WHO Child Growth Standards reference population (WHO 2006b). The
distribution of a well-nourished population will be similar to the reference population, while the
distribution of a poorly nourished population will not. Three indices—height-for-age, weight-for-height,
and weight-for-age—can be expressed in standard deviation units (z scores) from the median of the
reference population. Values that are greater than two standard deviations below the median of the WHO
Child Growth Standards are used to define malnutrition.
Stunting (assessed via height-for-age)

Height-for-age is a measure of growth faltering. Children whose height-for-age
z score is below minus two standard deviations (−2 SD) from the median of
the reference population are considered short for their age (stunted). Children
whose z score is below minus three standard deviations (−3 SD) from the
median are considered severely stunted.
Sample: Children under age 5
Wasting (assessed via weight-for-height)

The weight-for-height index measures body mass in relation to body height or
length and describes acute undernutrition. Children whose z score is below
minus two standard deviations (−2 SD) from the median of the reference
population are considered thin (wasted). Children whose z score is below
minus three standard deviations (−3 SD) from the median are considered
severely wasted.
40
Underweight (assessed via weight-for-age)
Weight-for-age is a composite index of height-for-age and weight-for-height
that takes into account both wasting and stunting. Children whose weight-for-
age z score is below minus two standard deviations (−2 SD) from the median
of the reference population are classified as underweight. Children whose z
score is below minus three standard deviations (−3 SD) from the median are
considered severely underweight.
Overweight (assessed via weight-for-height)

Children whose weight-for-height z score is more than two standard deviations
(+2 SD) above the median of the reference population are considered
overweight.
Height and weight measurements were obtained for 20,319 children under age 5 (unweighted). The
percentages of children with valid data for height-for-age, weight-for-height, and weight-for-age were
96%, 97%, and 97% respectively (data not shown in the table).
The results displayed in Table 14 show that 18% of children under age 5 are stunted, or too short for their
age. This is a sign of chronic undernutrition. Five percent of children under age 5 are wasted (too thin for
their height), which is a sign of acute undernutrition, while 3% of children under age 5 are overweight,
which is a sign of overnutrition. Ten percent of children are underweight, or too thin for their age.
Trends: The prevalence of stunting Figure 6 Percentage of children under 5 who are
has decreased markedly since 1993, malnourished
with the greatest decrease between
2008–09 (35%) and 2022 (18%).
Over this same time period, changes
in the prevalence of wasting and
overweight have been small, 40 38 36 35
although the prevalence of each is at
26
its lowest point since 1993 Stunted
18
(Figure 6).
7 7 6 7 4 5 Wasted
▪ Stunting is higher among 6 6 6 3 Overweight
5 4
children in rural areas (20%) 1993 1998 2003 2008–09 2014 2022
than children in urban areas KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS
(12%). Note: Data from 2003 and later are nationally representative, while data collected before
▪ Stunting decreases with
increasing wealth, from 28% in
the lowest quintile to 9% in the
highest quintile.
▪ Twenty-two percent of children born to mothers with no education are stunted, as compared with 9%
of children born to mothers with more than a secondary education.
▪ There are wide variations in stunting across counties. The highest percentages are in Kilifi, West
Pokot, and Samburu (37%, 34%, and 31%, respectively) and the lowest in Kisumu and Garissa (9%
each) (Map 3 and Table 14C).
41
Map 3 Stunting in children by county
Percentage of children under age 5 who are stunted
42
Table 14 Nutritional status of children
Percentage of children under age 5 classified as malnourished according to three anthropometric indices of child growth: height-for-age, weight-for-height, and
weight-for-age, according to background characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
Height-for-age1 Weight-for-height Weight-for-age
Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent-
age age Mean Number age age age Mean Number age age Mean Number
Background below below z score of below below above z score of below below z score of
characteristic −3 SD −2 SD2 (SD) children −3 SD −2 SD 2
+2 SD (SD) children −3 SD −2 SD2 (SD) children
Age in months
<6 3.3 12.0 −0.5 1,649 0.8 3.6 11.9 0.5 1,652 1.5 5.5 −0.1 1,662
6–11 3.2 12.7 −0.6 1,842 0.6 4.7 5.1 0.1 1,841 1.6 9.0 −0.3 1,842
12–23 5.4 22.5 −1.1 3,396 0.7 4.4 3.0 −0.1 3,399 2.0 9.9 −0.6 3,402
24–35 5.3 22.8 −1.1 3,288 0.4 4.2 1.9 −0.2 3,315 1.6 11.0 −0.7 3,307
36–47 4.4 18.7 −0.9 3,581 0.6 5.2 1.4 −0.3 3,622 1.9 11.9 −0.8 3,584
48–59 2.8 11.9 −0.7 3,376 0.7 6.4 1.3 −0.5 3,409 1.8 10.7 −0.8 3,382
0–23 4.3 17.4 −0.8 6,887 0.7 4.3 5.7 0.1 6,892 1.8 8.6 −0.4 6,907
24–59 4.2 17.8 −0.9 10,245 0.6 5.2 1.6 −0.3 10,346 1.8 11.2 −0.7 10,273
Sex
Male 5.1 19.6 −1.0 8,679 0.6 5.4 2.9 −0.2 8,742 2.0 11.1 −0.7 8,692
Female 3.3 15.6 −0.8 8,453 0.6 4.3 3.6 −0.1 8,496 1.6 9.2 −0.5 8,488
Mother’s interview status
Interviewed 4.0 17.4 −0.9 15,028 0.6 4.9 3.4 −0.1 15,028 1.7 10.1 −0.6 15,060
Not interviewed but in
household 7.1 19.4 −0.8 521 1.0 4.7 2.3 −0.3 541 2.3 11.4 −0.6 522
Not interviewed, not in
household3 5.5 18.9 −0.9 1,583 0.7 4.3 1.5 −0.2 1,669 1.9 10.2 −0.6 1,598
Residence
Urban 2.7 12.1 −0.6 5,679 0.7 4.0 4.0 −0.0 5,714 1.2 6.7 −0.3 5,701
Rural 4.9 20.3 −1.0 11,453 0.6 5.3 2.8 −0.2 11,524 2.1 11.9 −0.7 11,478
No education 6.9 22.2 −1.0 1,695 2.0 15.4 0.7 −0.9 1,710 5.3 22.1 −1.2 1,703
Primary 5.2 22.1 −1.1 5,898 0.6 4.3 3.5 −0.2 5,909 2.0 11.9 −0.7 5,912
Secondary 3.1 14.8 −0.8 5,037 0.3 3.1 4.0 −0.0 5,037 0.9 6.8 −0.4 5,048
More than secondary 1.6 8.6 −0.4 2,716 0.4 3.2 3.7 0.0 2,712 0.8 5.0 −0.2 2,716
Wealth quintile
Lowest 7.6 27.6 −1.3 4,039 1.3 9.5 1.9 −0.5 4,064 4.4 19.3 −1.1 4,052
Second 5.2 21.5 −1.1 3,343 0.2 3.0 2.6 −0.1 3,377 1.1 10.0 −0.7 3,353
Middle 3.7 16.2 −0.9 3,143 0.5 4.2 3.9 −0.1 3,159 1.2 8.9 −0.6 3,149
Fourth 2.0 11.6 −0.7 3,315 0.4 3.8 3.3 −0.1 3,326 0.8 6.3 −0.4 3,325
Highest 1.7 8.7 −0.4 3,292 0.6 2.7 4.7 0.1 3,311 0.6 4.2 −0.2 3,301
Total 4.2 17.6 −0.9 17,132 0.6 4.9 3.2 −0.2 17,238 1.8 10.1 −0.6 17,180
Note: Each of the indices is expressed in standard deviation units (SD) from the median of the WHO Child Growth Standards. The total includes seven children for
whom information on mother’s education is missing.
1
Recumbent length is measured for children under age 2; standing height is measured for all other children.
2
Includes children who are below –3 SD from the WHO Child Growth Standards population median
3
Includes children whose mothers are deceased
4
No education includes informal education (Madrassa/Duksi/adult education), and more than secondary includes middle-level colleges and universities. Excludes
people who reported vocational training as the highest education level attended. For women who are not interviewed, information is taken from the Household
Questionnaire. Excludes children whose mothers are not listed in the Household Questionnaire.
43
Table 14C Nutritional status of children by county
Percentage of children under age 5 classified as malnourished according to three anthropometric indices of child growth: height-for-age, weight-for-height,
and weight-for-age, according to county, Kenya DHS 2022
Height-for-age1 Weight-for-height Weight-for-age
Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent-
age age Mean Number age age age Mean Number age age Mean
below below z score of below below above z score of below below z score Number
County −3 SD −2 SD2 (SD) children −3 SD −2 SD 2
+2 SD (SD) children −3 SD −2 SD 2
(SD) of children
Mombasa 3.5 13.5 −0.7 419 0.2 4.6 3.1 −0.3 418 1.5 9.8 −0.6 423
Kwale 6.9 22.7 −1.2 315 1.1 6.2 2.3 −0.4 321 2.8 13.7 −0.9 316
Kilifi 13.4 37.0 −1.5 521 0.9 7.2 4.8 −0.3 519 3.1 19.5 −1.1 526
Tana River 5.6 21.1 −1.0 144 1.3 11.3 2.6 −0.6 144 2.6 16.8 −1.0 144
Lamu 2.5 16.1 −1.0 62 0.4 3.5 1.2 −0.3 63 1.0 12.5 −0.8 62
Taita/Taveta 4.9 19.2 −0.9 124 0.0 4.1 3.2 −0.2 123 2.1 12.6 −0.7 124
Garissa 0.6 9.0 −0.4 222 2.6 15.3 0.4 −0.9 224 1.2 14.1 −0.8 222
Wajir 3.2 12.4 −0.3 135 3.6 22.8 0.0 −1.2 136 4.3 16.2 −1.0 135
Mandera 6.3 20.5 −0.9 240 2.9 17.3 0.4 −1.1 238 5.4 23.2 −1.2 241
Marsabit 4.9 18.9 −0.8 133 3.8 20.4 0.3 −1.1 134 6.2 25.9 −1.2 134
Isiolo 4.3 14.1 −0.6 95 1.1 7.2 1.0 −0.7 95 2.4 11.5 −0.8 96
Meru 4.6 25.2 −1.1 499 0.0 6.0 4.2 −0.1 505 1.0 10.8 −0.7 499
Tharaka-Nithi 3.4 20.5 −1.0 136 0.0 3.1 3.2 −0.1 136 2.2 7.7 −0.6 136
Embu 5.3 19.9 −0.9 170 1.6 5.3 3.4 −0.2 169 2.6 11.3 −0.6 171
Kitui 8.8 25.1 −1.2 382 1.1 4.9 4.0 −0.4 383 2.6 13.9 −0.9 383
Machakos 3.8 16.2 −0.9 404 0.0 3.5 2.6 −0.1 409 1.0 8.1 −0.6 407
Makueni 4.2 19.8 −1.1 306 0.0 4.0 3.2 −0.2 312 1.2 8.7 −0.7 306
Nyandarua 3.2 17.8 −0.9 198 0.6 1.9 3.1 0.2 198 1.4 4.0 −0.4 199
Nyeri 2.2 12.5 −0.7 231 0.0 2.7 5.5 0.2 231 0.5 4.0 −0.2 232
Kirinyaga 1.9 11.2 −0.8 200 0.0 2.2 2.8 −0.0 200 0.0 5.7 −0.4 200
Murang’a 1.1 10.1 −0.7 326 0.0 1.7 2.5 −0.1 326 0.4 5.9 −0.5 326
Kiambu 3.8 15.3 −0.8 916 1.0 3.2 3.9 0.1 929 2.1 6.0 −0.3 920
Turkana 7.3 23.0 −1.1 305 3.5 22.6 1.0 −1.2 306 8.8 31.7 −1.5 306
West Pokot 10.4 33.5 −1.5 420 0.9 11.0 0.8 −0.8 423 6.0 27.1 −1.4 420
Samburu 8.9 31.4 −1.4 144 1.4 15.4 0.4 −0.9 147 7.4 30.2 −1.4 146
Trans Nzoia 4.8 21.3 −1.0 366 0.0 3.2 1.5 −0.2 368 0.5 11.1 −0.6 366
Uasin Gishu 2.7 14.2 −0.8 486 0.9 4.0 2.1 −0.1 486 1.0 6.4 −0.5 486
Elgeyo/Marakwet 3.1 21.8 −1.2 165 1.0 4.8 3.5 −0.4 168 2.5 13.9 −0.9 165
Nandi 2.6 15.1 −0.8 313 0.3 4.0 2.6 −0.2 314 0.9 9.0 −0.6 313
Baringo 4.7 21.2 −1.1 257 2.3 13.6 0.7 −0.8 260 5.8 19.9 −1.1 258
Laikipia 2.5 12.6 −0.8 158 0.0 2.6 3.3 −0.1 160 0.5 6.6 −0.5 158
Nakuru 5.3 18.5 −0.9 913 0.9 3.0 3.9 −0.1 915 2.1 9.2 −0.6 913
Narok 3.5 21.5 −1.2 553 0.2 2.1 3.1 −0.1 556 1.0 10.7 −0.7 554
Kajiado 4.5 14.0 −0.5 506 1.3 7.6 2.7 −0.2 514 1.3 9.6 −0.4 509
Kericho 3.7 19.3 −1.0 338 0.3 2.5 1.6 −0.1 338 1.4 9.2 −0.7 339
Bomet 4.5 22.1 −1.1 341 0.2 3.3 4.5 −0.0 343 1.3 9.8 −0.6 341
Kakamega 2.1 11.5 −0.7 698 0.0 1.5 4.5 0.1 707 0.8 6.4 −0.3 702
Vihiga 4.2 16.6 −1.0 176 0.0 2.4 3.5 0.1 178 0.8 9.2 −0.4 176
Bungoma 4.0 19.0 −1.0 665 0.0 2.3 1.6 −0.0 663 1.2 9.6 −0.5 665
Busia 3.1 15.0 −0.7 385 0.0 2.8 3.1 −0.0 386 0.7 6.3 −0.4 387
Siaya 5.3 19.2 −1.0 325 1.1 1.7 2.6 0.1 327 2.1 7.0 −0.5 326
Kisumu 1.3 9.1 −0.5 419 0.5 3.0 2.1 −0.0 418 0.8 3.5 −0.3 419
Homa Bay 2.3 12.5 −0.7 408 0.0 1.8 5.2 0.1 407 1.0 6.1 −0.3 408
Migori 2.5 14.8 −0.9 450 0.0 2.4 2.2 0.0 449 0.3 5.0 −0.4 450
Kisii 4.3 16.3 −0.8 411 0.3 2.9 5.7 0.1 412 1.5 7.8 −0.4 411
Nyamira 3.0 13.5 −0.9 153 0.1 1.2 6.0 0.2 156 0.2 3.4 −0.4 153
Nairobi City 2.0 11.1 −0.6 1,600 0.0 2.5 5.6 0.1 1,623 0.4 5.3 −0.2 1,606
Total 4.2 17.6 −0.9 17,132 0.6 4.9 3.2 −0.2 17,238 1.8 10.1 −0.6 17,180
Note: Each of the indices is expressed in standard deviation units (SD) from the median of the WHO Child Growth Standards.
1
Recumbent length is measured for children under age 2; standing height is measured for all other children.
2
Includes children who are below –3 SD from the WHO Child Growth Standards population median
3.14 INFANT AND YOUNG CHILD FEEDING
Optimal infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices are critical to the health and survival of young
children. Recommended IYCF practices include early initiation of breastfeeding (within the first hour of
life), exclusively breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life, and feeding children a diet that meets a
minimum diversity standard (WHO and UNICEF 2021).
3.14.1 Early initiation of breastfeeding and exclusive breastfeeding
Breastfeeding supports children’s growth and development and also benefits the mother’s health. Initiation
of breastfeeding within the first hour of birth is important for both the mother and the child. The first breast
milk contains colostrum, which is highly nutritious and has antibodies that protect the newborn from
44
infections. Early initiation of breastfeeding also encourages bonding between the mother and her newborn,
especially through skin-to-skin contact, which facilitates the production of breast milk.
In the first 6 months, children should be exclusively breastfed, meaning that they should be given nothing
but breast milk. Exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months lowers the risk of infections that can lead to diarrhea
and respiratory illnesses and provides all of the nutrients and liquid an infant requires for optimal growth
and development (WHO and UNICEF 2021).
Early initiation of breastfeeding

Percentage of children age 0–23 months who were put to the breast within 1
hour of birth.
Exclusive breastfeeding under 6 months

Percentage of children age 0–5 months who were fed exclusively with breast
milk during the previous day.
Sample: Youngest children age 0–5 months living with their mother
▪ Sixty percent of children born in the last 2 years were put to the breast within 1 hour of birth.
▪ Sixty percent of children under age 6 months are exclusively breastfed.
Trends: Figure 7 shows that there Figure 7 Trends in exclusive breastfeeding

has been a substantial increase in Percentage of children age 0–5 months
exclusive breastfeeding since 2003
(from 13% to 60%) following a
decline between 1989 and 2003. 61 60
Exclusive breastfeeding is
essentially unchanged between
32
2014 and 2022. 23
17 13
13
1989 1993 1998 2003 2008–09 2014 2022

KDHS KDHS kDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS
3.14.2 Bottle feeding
Bottle feeding is not recommended for children under age 2. The nipple on a feeding bottle is susceptible
to contamination and increases the risk of disease among children (WHO and UNICEF 2021).
Bottle feeding
Percentage of children age 0–23 months who were fed from a bottle with a
nipple during the previous day.
▪ Thirty-four percent of children below age 24 months were fed from a bottle with a nipple.
45
3.14.3 Minimum dietary diversity, minimum meal frequency, minimum milk feeding
frequency, and minimum acceptable diet
Infants and young children should be fed a minimum acceptable diet, which means that they should be fed
meals with appropriate frequency and a variety of foods to meet their energy and nutrient needs. The
minimum acceptable diet indicator is a combination of minimum dietary diversity and minimum meal
frequency for breastfeeding children and the same combination in addition to minimum milk feeding
frequency for nonbreastfed children.
Minimum dietary diversity is a proxy for adequate micronutrient density of foods. Consumption of food
from at least five food groups out of eight food groups, means that the child has a higher likelihood of
consuming at least one animal source of food and at least one fruit or vegetable in addition to a staple food
such as grains, roots, or tubers. The five groups come from a list of eight food groups: breast milk; grains,
roots, and tubers; legumes and nuts; dairy products (milk, yogurt, and cheese); flesh foods (meat, fish,
poultry, and organ meat); eggs; vitamin A–rich fruits and vegetables; and other fruits and vegetables.
Minimum meal frequency is a proxy for meeting energy requirements. Breastfed children age 6–8 months
are considered to be consuming the minimum meal frequency if they receive solid, semisolid, or soft foods
at least twice a day. Breastfed children age 9–23 months are considered to be consuming the minimum
meal frequency if they receive solid, semisolid, or soft foods at least three times a day. Nonbreastfed
children age 6–23 months are considered to be fed with a minimum meal frequency if they receive solid,
semisolid, or soft foods or milk feeds at least four times a day and if at least one of the feeds is a solid,
semisolid, or soft food.
Minimum milk feeding frequency is a proxy for meeting the nutrient needs of nonbreastfed children. Milk
and milk products are important sources of nutrients. Nonbreastfed children age 6–23 months are
considered to be fed with a minimum milk feeding frequency if they receive at least two feeds of milk
and/or milk products.
Minimum dietary diversity

Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were fed a minimum of five
out of eight defined food groups during the previous day. The eight food
groups are as follows: breast milk; grains, roots, and tubers; legumes and
nuts; dairy products (milk, yogurt, and cheese); flesh foods (meat, fish,
poultry, and organ meat); eggs; vitamin A–rich fruits and vegetables; and
other fruits and vegetables.
Minimum meal frequency
Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were fed solid, semisolid,
or soft foods (including milk feeds for nonbreastfed children) the minimum
number of times or more during the previous day.
Minimum milk feeding frequency
Percentage of nonbreastfed children age 6–23 months who were given at
least two milk feeds during the previous day.
Minimum acceptable diet
Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were fed a minimum
acceptable diet during the previous day. This indicator is a composite of
children fed with a minimum dietary diversity and a minimum meal
frequency, with the additional requirement that nonbreastfed children be
fed with a minimum milk feeding frequency.
▪ Thirty-seven percent of children age 6–23 months had an adequately diverse diet and had been given
foods from the appropriate number of food groups, while 71% had been fed the minimum number of
46
times appropriate for their age. Additionally, 52% of nonbreastfed children age 6–23 months were
given at least two milk feeds.
▪ Only 31% of children age 6–23 months were fed a minimum acceptable diet.
3.14.4 Sweet beverage consumption and unhealthy food consumption
Unhealthy infant and young child feeding practices should be avoided because they can promote unhealthy
weight gain and replace nutritious foods that provide important nutrients for children. For infants and
young children, the consumption of sweet foods and beverages increases the risk of dental caries and
childhood obesity. The indicator definition below for unhealthy food consumption describes sentinel
unhealthy foods—foods that are high in sugar, salt, or unhealthy fats—that are commonly consumed by
infants and young children (WHO and UNICEF 2021).
Sweet beverage consumption

Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were given a sweet beverage
during the previous day.
Unhealthy food consumption
Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were fed sentinel unhealthy
foods during the previous day.
▪ Forty-nine percent of children age 6–23 months were fed a sweet beverage the day preceding the
survey (Table 15).
▪ Twenty-six percent of children were given unhealthy foods during the previous day.
Table 15 Infant and young child feeding (IYCF) indicators

Percentage of children fed according to various IYCF practices, Kenya DHS 2022
Indicator Indicator numerator and denominator Value
Early initiation of breastfeeding1 Percentage of children born in the last 2 years who were put to the breast within 1 hour of birth 60.1
Number of children born in the last 2 years 3,658
Exclusive breastfeeding under Percentage of children age 0–5 months who were fed exclusively with breast milk during the 59.7
6 months previous day
Number of youngest children age 0–5 months living with their mother 888
Minimum dietary diversity Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were given foods and beverages from at least 36.9
five out of eight defined food groups during the previous day
Number of youngest children age 6–23 months living with their mother 2,501
Minimum meal frequency Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were given solid, semisolid, or soft foods (also 71.2
including milk feeds for non-breastfed children) the minimum number of times or more during
the previous day
Minimum milk feeding frequency Percentage of non-breastfed children age 6–23 months who were given at least two milk feeds 52.0
for non-breastfed children during the previous day
Number of youngest children age 6–23 months living with their mother who were not breastfed 517
Minimum acceptable diet Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were fed a minimum acceptable diet during the 30.8
previous day
Sweet beverage consumption Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were given a sweet beverage during the previous 49.1
day
Unhealthy food consumption Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were given unhealthy foods during the previous 26.4
day
Bottle feeding Percentage of children age 0–23 months who were fed from a bottle with a nipple during the 33.6
previous day
Number of children age 0–23 months 3,545
Note: Data for this table were collected in the full woman’s questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire.
1
Includes children born in the 2 years preceding the survey regardless of whether they were living or dead at the time of the interview
47
3.15 EARLY CHILDHOOD MORTALITY
Neonatal mortality: The probability of dying within the first month of life.
Postneonatal mortality: The probability of dying between the first month of
life and the first birthday (computed as the difference between infant and
neonatal mortality).
Infant mortality: The probability of dying between birth and the first birthday.
Child mortality: The probability of dying between the first and the fifth
birthday.
Under-5 mortality: The probability of dying between birth and the fifth
birthday.
Table 16 presents childhood mortality estimates for three successive 5-year periods prior to the 2022
KDHS. Rates were estimated directly from information collected as part of a retrospective pregnancy
history in which female respondents listed all of the children to whom they have given birth along with
each child’s date of birth, survivorship status, and current age or age at death.
In the 5-year period prior to the survey, the under-5 mortality rate was 41 deaths per 1,000 live births, the
infant mortality rate was 32 deaths per 1,000 live births, and the neonatal mortality rate was 21 deaths per
1,000 live births. Neonatal deaths account for 66% of infant deaths and 51% of under-5 deaths.
Table 16 Early childhood mortality rates

Neonatal, postneonatal, infant, child, and under-5 mortality rates for 5-year periods preceding the survey, Kenya DHS 2022
Neonatal Postneonatal Infant Child Under-5
Years preceding the Approximate mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality
survey calendar years (NN) (PNN)1 (1q0) (4q1) (5q0)
0–4 2018–2022 21 11 32 9 41
5–9 2013–2017 25 13 38 8 46
10–14 2008–2012 21 14 34 13 47
1
Computed as the difference between the infant and neonatal mortality rates
Trends: Childhood mortality Figure 8 Trends in early childhood mortality rates

peaked in 2003 and has since
Deaths per 1,000 live births in the 5-year
declined steadily (Figure 8). For period preceding the survey
example, under-5 mortality declined
from 115 deaths per 1,000 live 115
111
births in 2003 to 41 deaths per Under-5 mortality
1,000 live births in the 5 years 96
90
preceding the 2022 survey. During
74
this same period, neonatal mortality Infant mortality
74 77
declined from 33 deaths per 1,000 52
live births to 21 deaths per 1,000 61 62 41
52
births. Neonatal mortality
39 32
33 31
▪ Under-5 mortality does not 28 26 28
22 21
differ by urban-rural residence
(Table 17). 1989 1993 1998 2003 2008–09 2014 2022
KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS
▪ Under-5 mortality rates are Note: Data from 2003 and later are nationally representative, while data collected before
higher for males than females 2003 exclude the North Eastern region and several northern districts in the Eastern and
(45 deaths versus 38 deaths per
1,000 live births).
48
Table 17 Five-year early childhood mortality rates according to background characteristics
Neonatal, postneonatal, infant, child, and under-5 mortality rates for the 5-year period preceding the survey,
Neonatal Postneonatal Infant Child Under-5
Background mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality
characteristic (NN) (PNN)1 (1q0) (4q1) (5q0)
Child’s sex
Male 24 12 35 9 45
Female 19 11 29 9 38
Residence
Urban 21 12 33 8 41
Rural 22 11 32 9 41
Total 21 11 32 9 41
1
Computed as the difference between the infant and neonatal mortality rates
3.16 MALARIA
Malaria risk in Kenya is heterogeneous, and its epidemiology is influenced by altitude, rainfall patterns,
and temperature. Therefore, malaria prevalence varies considerably by season and across geographic
regions.
3.16.1 Ownership and use of insecticide-treated nets
Ownership of Insecticide-treated Nets
Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) repel and kill mosquitoes, thus providing protection against mosquito bites
and reducing the transmission of malaria parasites. High coverage of ITNs helps to decrease malaria risk at
the individual level as well as the community level by reducing the vector population. The distribution and
use of ITNs is one of the core interventions for preventing malaria infection in Kenya.
Ownership of insecticide-treated nets

Households that have at least one insecticide-treated net (ITN). An ITN is a
factory-treated net that does not require any further treatment.
Sample: Households
Full household ITN coverage

Percentage of households with at least one ITN for every two people.
Sample: Households (with at least one person who stayed in the household
the night before the survey)
Table 18 and Table 18C present information on household ownership of ITNs.
▪ Fifty-four percent of households own at least one ITN.
▪ Thirty-seven percent of households had at least one ITN for every two people who stayed in the
household the night preceding the survey.
49
Trends: ITN ownership has been fairly steady since Figure 9 Trends in household ownership
2008–09, with at least half of households owning one of ITNs
net (with the exception of 2020, when 49% of Percentage of households owning at least one
households owned an ITN). The pattern of full ITN insecticide-treated net (ITN) and percentage of
households with at least one net for every two
coverage has followed that of ITN ownership, persons
peaking at 40% in 2015 (Figure 9).
1+ITN
▪ Household ownership of ITNs is higher in rural 56 59 63
54
areas than urban areas (64% versus 41%). 49
1+ITN/2 people
▪ The percentage of households with at least one 40 37

35
ITN generally decreases with increasing wealth, 27 29
from 68% in the second wealth quintile to 40%
in the highest wealth quintile. 2008–09 2014 2015 2020 2022
KDHS KDHS KMIS KMIS KDHS
▪ By endemicity, the percentage of households Note: Data from 2003 and later are nationally representative, while
data collected before 2003 exclude the North Eastern region and
with full ITN coverage is highest in the lake several northern districts in the Eastern and Rift Valley regions.
endemic and highland epidemic prone zones
(63%) and lowest in the seasonal (18%) and low risk (19%) zones (Map 4).
Map 4 ITN ownership by malaria endemicity zone

Percentage of households with at least one ITN for every two persons
who stayed in the household last night
50
Table 18 Household possession of insecticide-treated nets
Percentage of households with at least one insecticide-treated net (ITN), average number of ITNs per household, and
percentage of households with at least one ITN per two persons who stayed in the household last night, according to
Percentage of
households with Number of
at least one ITN1 households with
for every two at least one
persons who person who
Percentage of Average number stayed in the stayed in the
Background households with of ITNs1 per Number of household last household last
characteristic at least one ITN1 household households night2 night
Residence
Urban 40.5 0.8 15,277 27.7 15,062
Rural 63.5 1.6 22,634 43.4 22,509
Endemicity zone
Highland epidemic prone 80.7 2.2 7,116 63.3 7,038
Lake endemic 87.7 2.2 6,358 62.5 6,328
Coastal endemic 71.5 1.6 3,012 49.8 2,980
Seasonal 39.4 0.7 5,046 18.4 5,012
Low risk 31.1 0.5 16,379 19.2 16,213
Wealth quintile
Lowest 58.4 1.2 6,235 31.6 6,209
Second 67.5 1.7 6,628 45.9 6,603
Middle 61.6 1.5 7,328 44.9 7,266
Fourth 49.2 1.0 9,043 36.4 8,910
Highest 40.0 0.8 8,678 28.3 8,582
Total 54.2 1.2 37,911 37.1 37,571
1
An insecticide-treated net (ITN) is a factory-treated net that does not require any further treatment. In KDHS and KMIS
surveys conducted prior to 2020, this was known as a long-lasting insecticidal net (LLIN).
2
De facto household members
51
Table 18C Household possession of insecticide-treated nets by county
Percentage of households with at least one insecticide-treated net (ITN), average number of ITNs per household,
and percentage of households with at least one ITN per two persons who stayed in the household last night,
Percentage of
households with Number of
at least one ITN1 households with
for every two at least one
persons who person who
Percentage of Average number stayed in the stayed in the
households with of ITNs1 per Number of household last household last
County at least one ITN1 household households night2 night
Mombasa 63.3 1.2 1,071 45.5 1,051
Kwale 74.0 1.8 504 47.5 502
Kilifi 74.4 1.8 996 48.2 989
Tana River 71.3 1.4 182 34.3 180
Lamu 65.9 1.5 109 43.3 107
Taita/Taveta 87.3 2.0 332 74.3 331
Garissa 19.7 0.3 269 6.8 269
Wajir 43.6 1.0 137 15.5 137
Mandera 15.7 0.3 204 4.8 203
Marsabit 27.1 0.4 171 7.4 170
Isiolo 51.7 0.9 150 23.4 149
Meru 36.2 0.5 1,373 16.8 1,359
Tharaka-Nithi 52.8 1.0 378 34.7 373
Embu 40.1 0.7 523 24.1 522
Kitui 33.0 0.5 898 15.1 895
Machakos 55.9 1.1 1,230 38.8 1,227
Makueni 48.1 0.8 775 25.8 769
Nyandarua 9.9 0.2 578 5.8 573
Nyeri 18.1 0.3 802 12.1 790
Kirinyaga 57.3 1.3 642 47.4 635
Murang’a 35.9 0.6 1,004 22.0 1,000
Kiambu 27.8 0.4 2,699 16.0 2,662
Turkana 49.4 0.8 391 18.8 383
West Pokot 78.8 1.9 416 41.5 416
Samburu 19.9 0.3 175 7.4 174
Trans Nzoia 86.0 2.5 753 69.3 747
Uasin Gishu 69.3 1.9 1,145 56.8 1,112
Elgeyo/Marakwet 25.3 0.4 290 10.1 290
Nandi 84.0 2.1 732 69.0 728
Baringo 63.8 1.4 432 37.6 429
Laikipia 24.9 0.4 452 15.9 445
Nakuru 27.5 0.5 2,018 15.3 2,006
Narok 76.0 2.1 790 54.0 776
Kajiado 38.8 0.6 1,083 20.9 1,072
Kericho 84.1 2.3 748 65.9 745
Bomet 92.3 2.8 665 77.3 659
Kakamega 89.1 2.4 1,382 66.9 1,381
Vihiga 92.5 2.6 412 75.8 412
Bungoma 89.4 2.7 1,169 70.6 1,157
Busia 93.5 2.6 653 67.4 653
Siaya 86.7 1.9 703 58.6 703
Kisumu 76.0 1.5 897 47.0 888
Homa Bay 89.2 2.1 770 60.2 766
Migori 87.7 2.1 710 54.2 706
Kisii 85.0 2.3 925 67.4 917
Nyamira 93.6 2.6 424 80.0 422
Nairobi City 23.4 0.4 4,749 14.3 4,691
Total 54.2 1.2 37,911 37.1 37,571
1
An insecticide-treated net (ITN) is a factory-treated net that does not require any further treatment. In KDHS and
KMIS surveys conducted prior to 2020, this was known as a long-lasting insecticidal net (LLIN).
2
De facto household members
Use of Insecticide-treated Nets
ITNs act as both a physical and a chemical barrier against mosquitoes. By reducing the vector population,
ITNs can help reduce malaria risk at the community level as well as reduce risk to the individuals who use
them. Table 19 and Table 19C present information on use of ITNs by children under age 5 and pregnant
women.
▪ Fifty-one percent of children under age 5 and 45% of pregnant women slept under an ITN the night
before the survey.
52
▪ As expected, ITN use is higher in households with at least one ITN. For example, 77% of children
under age 5 and 75% of pregnant women in households with at least one ITN slept under an ITN the
night before the survey.
▪ Utilization of ITN is higher in rural areas than in urban areas. More than half (57%) of children in rural
areas slept under an ITN, as compared with 40% of children in urban areas. Similarly, 57% of
pregnant women in rural areas slept under an ITN, compared with 29% of pregnant women in urban
areas.
▪ Use of ITNs among children under age 5 is highest (75%) in the lake endemic region, which has the
highest burden of malaria nationally. An identical percentage of pregnant women (75%) in the lake
endemic region slept under an ITN the night before the survey.
Table 19 Use of insecticide-treated nets by children and pregnant women

Percentage of children under age 5 who slept under an insecticide-treated net (ITN) the night before the survey; among children under age 5
in households with at least one ITN, percentage who slept under an ITN the night before the survey; percentage of pregnant women age
15–49 who slept under an ITN the night before the survey; and among pregnant women age 15–49 in households with at least one ITN,
percentage who slept under an ITN the night before the survey, according to background characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
Children under age 5 in Pregnant women age
Children under age 5 in households with at least Pregnant women age 15–49 in households with
all households one ITN1 15–49 in all households at least one ITN1
Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage
who slept who slept who slept who slept
under an under an under an Number of under an Number of
Background ITN1 last Number of ITN1 last Number of ITN1 last pregnant ITN1 last pregnant
characteristic night children night children night women night women
Residence
Urban 39.7 5,989 75.5 3,148 29.0 733 70.3 302
Rural 56.9 11,824 77.2 8,720 56.7 995 77.0 733
Endemicity zone
Highland epidemic prone 67.2 3,699 76.4 3,254 64.3 329 78.2 270
Lake endemic 74.6 3,399 80.1 3,165 75.3 317 82.2 290
Coastal endemic 66.4 1,500 81.8 1,218 61.1 158 82.3 118
Seasonal 35.3 3,200 71.4 1,583 35.2 288 69.8 145
Low risk 32.6 6,016 74.1 2,649 20.2 637 60.7 212
Wealth quintile
Lowest 48.4 4,189 72.8 2,786 50.9 355 74.8 241
Second 60.9 3,459 78.6 2,680 59.3 279 73.3 226
Middle 62.2 3,235 81.0 2,486 56.5 303 82.0 209
Fourth 48.7 3,457 78.8 2,136 41.0 374 75.7 203
Highest 36.9 3,474 71.9 1,781 25.4 417 67.8 156
Total 51.1 17,814 76.8 11,869 44.9 1,728 75.0 1,035
Note: Table is based on children and pregnant women who stayed in the household the night before the interview.
1
An insecticide-treated net (ITN) is a factory-treated net that does not require any further treatment. In KDHS and KMIS surveys conducted
prior to 2020, this was known as a long-lasting insecticidal net (LLIN).
53
Table 19C Use of insecticide-treated nets by children and pregnant women by county
Percentage of children under age 5 who slept under an insecticide-treated net (ITN) the night before the survey; among children under
age 5 in households with at least one ITN, percentage who slept under an ITN the night before the survey; percentage of pregnant
women age 15–49 who slept under an ITN the night before the survey; and among pregnant women age 15–49 in households with at
least one ITN, percentage who slept under an ITN the night before the survey, according to county, Kenya DHS 2022
Children under age 5 Pregnant women age
Children under age 5 in households with at Pregnant women age 15–49 in households with
in all households least one ITN1 15–49 in all households at least one ITN1
Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage
who slept who slept who slept who slept
under an under an under an Number of under an Number of
ITN1 last Number of ITN1 last Number of ITN1 last pregnant ITN1 last pregnant
County night children night children night women night women
Mombasa 54.7 434 76.4 311 (48.3) 45 * 26
Kwale 66.4 329 82.7 265 60.1 35 (82.8) 25
Kilifi 72.4 541 82.5 475 (70.0) 61 (81.2) 53
Tana River 65.5 146 84.3 114 68.5 13 (88.9) 10
Lamu 60.9 65 83.0 48 46.9 9 (79.5) 5
Taita/Taveta 83.3 130 90.2 120 * 8 * 8
Garissa 12.8 241 58.5 53 21.4 19 * 5
Wajir 20.9 146 49.6 62 16.6 17 (47.9) 6
Mandera 9.0 257 53.3 43 15.2 21 * 5
Marsabit 8.9 138 31.2 40 (12.1) 11 * 4
Isiolo 48.9 99 78.8 62 (43.9) 7 (72.2) 5
Meru 45.7 520 75.0 317 * 46 * 20
Tharaka-Nithi 56.6 139 81.7 96 * 11 * 7
Embu 58.2 173 85.4 118 * 14 * 9
Kitui 42.3 387 77.3 212 * 18 * 8
Machakos 64.7 423 85.5 320 (54.8) 40 * 32
Makueni 46.9 316 74.9 198 (55.3) 33 (72.2) 26
Nyandarua 8.6 207 (69.3) 26 * 15 * 3
Nyeri 19.0 240 66.6 68 * 17 * 6
Kirinyaga 66.4 207 85.1 161 * 19 * 16
Murang’a 45.1 333 68.7 218 * 24 * 18
Kiambu 28.9 998 70.2 410 (8.1) 92 * 33
Turkana 33.3 320 65.1 164 (25.7) 25 * 13
West Pokot 57.6 431 70.9 350 59.2 50 76.2 39
Samburu 9.9 153 51.5 29 (1.7) 10 * 1
Trans Nzoia 75.7 379 84.0 341 (71.0) 29 (76.4) 27
Uasin Gishu 65.8 503 74.5 444 (54.2) 65 (75.5) 47
Elgeyo/Marakwet 16.6 170 41.3 69 * 10 * 4
Nandi 71.4 323 78.2 295 (77.8) 24 (94.0) 20
Baringo 53.5 265 76.3 186 (63.1) 29 (90.0) 20
Laikipia 23.7 162 71.6 54 (6.5) 20 * 3
Nakuru 22.9 930 67.7 315 (7.6) 87 * 15
Narok 56.6 579 67.1 489 50.6 52 (57.9) 45
Kajiado 39.9 538 73.5 292 34.5 64 (59.8) 37
Kericho 72.2 353 79.7 319 (69.5) 33 (93.8) 24
Bomet 75.8 349 79.5 333 (94.3) 26 (98.9) 24
Kakamega 71.8 717 77.5 665 (77.5) 70 (80.5) 68
Vihiga 79.0 179 81.8 173 (91.7) 16 (93.3) 15
Bungoma 74.2 671 77.8 641 73.3 69 (76.9) 66
Busia 83.8 393 85.6 385 81.3 39 (85.0) 37
Siaya 77.0 333 82.3 312 (72.4) 26 (79.5) 23
Kisumu 68.9 426 81.1 362 (72.4) 43 (92.3) 34
Homa Bay 69.6 415 74.8 386 (64.2) 36 (67.3) 34
Migori 75.5 457 81.4 424 (78.0) 34 (96.6) 27
Kisii 75.4 424 82.7 386 (69.8) 33 (74.5) 31
Nyamira 81.1 162 83.3 157 * 9 * 8
Nairobi City 23.9 1,712 72.9 562 10.3 252 * 40
Total 51.1 17,814 76.8 11,869 44.9 1,728 75.0 1,035
Note: Table is based on children and pregnant women who stayed in the household the night before the interview. Figures in parentheses
are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
1
An insecticide-treated net (ITN) is a factory-treated net that does not require any further treatment. In KDHS and KMIS surveys
conducted prior to 2020, this was known as a long-lasting insecticidal net (LLIN).
54
3.16.2 Malaria in pregnancy
Intermittent preventive treatment (IPTp) during pregnancy

Percentage of women who took at least three doses of SP/Fansidar during
their last pregnancy.
Sample: Women age 15–49 with a live birth or a stillbirth in the 2 years before
the survey
Malaria infection during pregnancy poses substantial risk for the mother and her unborn child. Notable
complications include spontaneous abortions, maternal and fetal anemia, and low birth weight babies.
According to the Kenya Malaria Strategy 2019–2023, pregnant women living in malaria-endemic counties
should receive intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in pregnancy (IPTp). This is a full therapeutic
course of antimalarial medicine (sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine) given to pregnant women at routine antenatal
care visits to prevent malaria. Pregnant women should receive at least three doses of IPTp for maximum
protection. Notably, IPTp is provided only in the lake and coastal endemic regions in Kenya.
▪ Twenty-eight percent of women with a live birth and/or a stillbirth in the 2 years before the survey
reported receiving one or more doses of SP/Fansidar during the pregnancy that resulted in the last live
birth or stillbirth, while 20% received two or more doses. Nationally, 13% of women received three or
more doses of SP/Fansidar (Table 20 and Table 20C).
▪ The percentages of women with a live birth in the 2 years preceding the survey who received three or
more doses of SP/Fansidar are highest in the lake endemic zone (38%) and the coastal endemic zone
(29%).
Table 20 Use of intermittent preventive treatment (IPTp) by women during pregnancy

Percentage of women age 15–49 with a live birth and/or a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey who received one
or more doses of SP/Fansidar, received two or more doses of SP/Fansidar, and received three or more doses of
SP/Fansidar during the pregnancy that resulted in the last live birth or stillbirth, according to background characteristics,
Kenya DHS 2022
Number of women
Percentage who with a live birth and/or
Percentage who Percentage who received three or a stillbirth in the
Background received one or more received two or more more doses of 2 years preceding
characteristic doses of SP/Fansidar doses of SP/Fansidar SP/Fansidar the survey
LIVE BIRTHS
Residence
Urban 24.2 16.1 9.7 1,273
Rural 30.4 21.9 14.1 2,251
Endemicity zone
Highland epidemic prone 14.2 9.3 6.3 752
Lake endemic 70.6 56.7 38.1 636
Coastal endemic 75.8 50.1 29.2 286
Seasonal 12.7 8.5 5.3 608
Low risk 11.5 5.8 2.9 1,242
Total 28.2 19.8 12.5 3,523
STILLBIRTHS
Total 25.6 21.8 10.5 58
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS1
Total 28.2 19.8 12.5 3,575
1
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated for the most
recent birth only.
55
Table 20C Use of intermittent preventive treatment (IPTp) by women during pregnancy by county
Percentage of women age 15–49 with a live birth in the 2 years preceding the survey who received one or
more doses of SP/Fansidar, received two or more doses of SP/Fansidar, and received three or more doses of
SP/Fansidar during the pregnancy that resulted in the last live birth, according to county, Kenya DHS 2022
Number of
Percentage who Percentage who Percentage who women with a
received one or received two or received three or live birth in the 2
more doses of more doses of more doses of years preceding
County SP/Fansidar SP/Fansidar SP/Fansidar the survey
Areas where IPTp is implemented 70.4 52.7 33.8 983
Mombasa 80.1 51.2 31.2 94
Kwale 75.3 48.1 27.7 60
Kilifi 74.7 49.2 27.6 93
Tana River 40.3 24.3 5.8 29
Lamu 81.0 67.2 42.2 16
Taita/Taveta 61.7 43.1 22.7 24
Kakamega 74.4 62.2 45.7 152
Vihiga 88.3 77.0 59.1 36
Bungoma 75.3 58.2 40.6 106
Busia 73.5 54.2 34.7 74
Siaya 68.7 56.8 33.8 53
Kisumu 48.4 38.4 25.5 79
Homa Bay 61.7 49.6 34.2 72
Migori 68.2 49.7 25.4 97
Areas where IPTp is not
implemented 11.8 7.0 4.3 2,540
Garissa 0.6 0.6 0.6 47
Wajir 4.2 2.6 2.2 27
Mandera 0.0 0.0 0.0 47
Marsabit 3.1 3.1 3.1 28
Isiolo 28.0 22.1 21.4 21
Meru 7.3 7.3 6.5 98
Tharaka-Nithi 12.9 3.8 2.9 26
Embu 25.6 13.8 4.3 31
Kitui 8.6 6.9 4.9 72
Machakos 8.8 2.6 2.6 76
Makueni 15.6 5.7 0.0 60
Nyandarua 7.4 2.8 2.3 47
Nyeri 5.1 0.0 0.0 49
Kirinyaga 25.7 10.4 2.1 45
Murang’a 5.6 1.8 0.0 69
Kiambu 2.0 1.0 1.0 199
Turkana 30.2 18.2 9.9 64
West Pokot 0.0 0.0 0.0 87
Samburu 4.1 2.3 0.8 29
Trans Nzoia 32.3 20.7 11.9 77
Uasin Gishu 15.1 8.9 3.8 106
Elgeyo/Marakwet 9.4 1.8 0.3 33
Nandi 21.9 20.5 20.5 58
Baringo 12.5 5.0 3.5 52
Laikipia 6.5 1.6 1.6 32
Nakuru 12.0 8.4 2.2 166
Narok 4.4 1.9 0.0 119
Kajiado 11.7 9.6 7.2 102
Kericho 11.1 9.8 5.2 79
Bomet 5.1 1.5 1.5 63
Kisii 16.6 12.5 11.2 94
Nyamira 6.8 2.1 2.1 32
Nairobi City 18.1 9.8 5.9 403
Total 28.2 19.8 12.5 3,523
Note: Data in this table were collected in the full woman’s questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire.
56
3.16.3 Case management of malaria in children
Care seeking for children under age 5 with fever

Percentage of children under age 5 with a fever in the 2 weeks before the
survey for whom advice or treatment was sought from a health provider, a
health facility, or a pharmacy.
Sample: Children under age 5 with a fever in the 2 weeks before the survey
Diagnosis of malaria in children under age 5 with fever

survey who had blood taken from a finger or heel for testing. This is a proxy
measure of diagnostic testing for malaria.
Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) for children under age 5

with fever
survey who received ACT.
who took any antimalarial drug
Another recommendation of the Kenya Malaria Strategy 2019–2023 is that all individuals with suspected
malaria cases be tested and that those confirmed as having malaria receive the recommended antimalarial
treatment. According to the National Malaria Treatment Guidelines, caregivers of children under age 5
with fever should seek advice or treatment within 24 hours.
▪ Overall, 17% of children under age 5 had a fever in the 2 weeks before the survey; in the lake endemic
zone, the zone with the highest burden of malaria, 26% of children had a fever in the past 2 weeks
(Table 21 and Table 21C).
▪ Advice or treatment was sought for 70% of children with a fever, and 33% had blood taken from a
finger or heel for testing. The percentage of children with fever for whom advice or treatment was
sought and the percentage who had blood taken from a finger or heel for testing were highest in the
lake endemic zone (74% and 49%, respectively).
▪ The majority (84%) of children with a fever who took any antimalarial drug received ACT. In the lake
endemic zone, 91% of children who took an antimalarial received ACT.
57
Table 21 Children with fever and care seeking for, diagnosis of, and treatment of fever
Percentage of children under age 5 with a fever in the 2 weeks preceding the survey; among children under age 5 with fever, percentage
for whom advice or treatment was sought and percentage who had blood taken from a finger or heel for testing; and among children under
age 5 with fever who took any antimalarial drug, percentage who received artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT), according to
Children under age 5 with
fever who took any
Children under age 5 Children under age 5 with fever antimalarial drug
Percentage Percentage Percentage
with a fever in for whom who had blood
the 2 weeks advice or taken from a Percentage
Background preceding the Number of treatment was finger or heel Number of who received Number of
1
characteristic survey children sought for testing children any ACT children
Residence
Urban 17.0 6,316 68.9 33.5 1,071 75.5 109
Rural 17.2 10,567 69.8 33.3 1,818 85.9 475
Endemicity zone
Highland epidemic prone 14.3 3,427 71.1 30.4 491 85.7 68
Lake endemic 25.6 2,986 74.1 49.4 764 91.4 370
Coastal endemic 15.5 1,403 54.2 34.5 218 * 10
Seasonal 15.9 2,973 62.9 29.3 474 76.8 76
Low risk 15.5 6,095 71.7 23.8 942 (46.6) 59
Wealth quintile
Lowest 17.0 3,784 64.2 33.5 643 83.6 165
Second 17.6 3,038 69.5 36.1 535 91.2 158
Middle 17.2 2,955 74.2 33.9 509 84.1 126
Fourth 18.7 3,410 70.2 29.9 636 78.9 84
Highest 15.3 3,697 70.4 34.2 566 70.6 50
Total 17.1 16,883 69.5 33.4 2,890 84.0 583
Note: Data in this table were collected in the full woman’s questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire. Figures in parentheses are
based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
1
Includes advice or treatment from the following sources: public sector, private medical sector, nongovernmental organization (NGO)
medical sector, faith-based sector/organization (FBO) medical sector, shop, market, and itinerant drug seller. Excludes advice or treatment
from a traditional practitioner.
58
Table 21C Children with fever and care seeking for, diagnosis of, and treatment of fever by county
Percentage of children under age 5 with a fever in the 2 weeks preceding the survey; among children under age 5 with fever,
percentage for whom advice or treatment was sought and percentage who had blood taken from a finger or heel for testing; and
among children under age 5 with fever who took any antimalarial drug, percentage who received artemisinin-based combination
therapy (ACT), according to county, Kenya DHS 2022
Children under age 5 with
fever who took any
Children under age 5 Children under age 5 with fever antimalarial drug
Percentage Percentage Percentage
with a fever in for whom who had blood
the 2 weeks advice or taken from a Percentage
preceding the Number of treatment was finger or heel Number of who received Number of
1
County survey children sought for testing children any ACT children
Mombasa 20.6 429 41.7 43.6 88 * 0
Kwale 5.9 296 * * 17 * 4
Kilifi 16.4 494 61.0 30.7 81 * 6
Tana River 17.7 137 54.0 27.8 24 * 2
Lamu 28.8 62 78.6 19.5 18 * 1
Taita/Taveta 10.8 123 (57.6) (25.0) 13 * 0
Garissa 6.5 233 (55.0) (54.1) 15 * 1
Wajir 24.0 143 56.9 14.7 34 * 0
Mandera 13.1 246 37.5 24.7 32 * 3
Marsabit 6.9 130 (46.1) (32.3) 9 * 0
Isiolo 17.3 94 59.9 34.3 16 * 3
Meru 21.3 461 66.5 17.8 98 * 12
Tharaka-Nithi 31.4 125 74.4 34.2 39 * 2
Embu 11.4 163 (79.5) (6.4) 19 * 1
Kitui 10.0 334 (54.4) (12.4) 33 * 6
Machakos 16.5 379 (78.0) (24.3) 63 * 8
Makueni 4.0 291 * * 12 * 2
Nyandarua 9.4 193 (73.3) (23.2) 18 * 1
Nyeri 15.2 222 (97.6) (23.0) 34 * 0
Kirinyaga 5.6 198 * * 11 * 1
Murang’a 16.1 317 (71.3) (11.3) 51 * 3
Kiambu 17.1 1,058 68.0 28.8 181 * 0
Turkana 23.1 299 76.2 56.0 69 78.3 24
West Pokot 8.3 403 72.0 52.6 34 * 13
Samburu 13.6 144 51.0 23.7 20 * 2
Trans Nzoia 17.8 348 74.0 41.9 62 * 22
Uasin Gishu 24.7 490 77.9 29.6 121 * 10
Elgeyo/Marakwet 8.7 160 (64.6) (15.1) 14 * 0
Nandi 13.2 289 72.5 34.6 38 * 8
Baringo 17.4 243 85.3 35.4 42 * 11
Laikipia 9.0 155 (77.9) (13.8) 14 * 0
Nakuru 19.6 853 66.2 18.6 167 * 16
Narok 10.8 554 58.0 29.5 60 * 5
Kajiado 21.1 511 60.1 21.5 108 * 9
Kericho 4.7 360 * * 17 * 2
Bomet 20.9 325 67.0 9.6 68 * 3
Kakamega 23.6 609 72.2 38.4 144 (80.2) 50
Vihiga 16.2 159 64.2 23.8 26 * 4
Bungoma 19.6 561 71.4 50.5 110 (99.0) 59
Busia 29.3 317 85.0 79.7 93 95.2 56
Siaya 13.6 302 84.1 65.6 41 (95.9) 31
Kisumu 19.4 413 66.3 49.6 80 (66.9) 32
Homa Bay 36.4 360 78.2 43.6 131 97.7 70
Migori 39.4 422 73.7 44.5 166 93.1 74
Kisii 11.3 368 (69.2) (30.4) 42 * 4
Nyamira 15.7 129 (67.2) (26.8) 20 * 1
Nairobi City 15.0 1,982 72.3 27.5 296 * 21
Total 17.1 16,883 69.5 33.4 2,890 84.0 583
Note: Data in this table were collected in the full woman’s questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire. Figures in parentheses
are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has
been suppressed.
1
Includes advice or treatment from the following sources: public sector, private medical sector, nongovernmental organization
(NGO) medical sector, faith-based sector/organization (FBO) medical sector, shop, market, and itinerant drug seller. Excludes
advice or treatment from a traditional practitioner.
3.17 TB AND HIV
3.17.1 Knowledge and diagnosis of tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major health concern in Kenya and is associated with high levels of morbidity
and mortality. Table 22 presents the percentage of women and men age 15–49 by knowledge of TB
according to background characteristics.
59
▪ Awareness of TB is almost universal in Kenya; 97% of women and 98% of men age 15–49 have heard
of TB.
▪ Five percent of women and 4% of men think that all people with TB also have HIV.
▪ Less than 1% of women and men were diagnosed with TB in the 12 months prior to the survey.
Table 22 Knowledge of, beliefs about, and diagnosis of tuberculosis
Percentage of women and men age 15–49 who have heard of TB, and among those who have heard of TB, percentage who think that all people
with TB have HIV and percentage who were diagnosed with TB in the past 12 months, according to background characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
Among women who have Among men who have
heard of TB heard of TB
Percent- Percent-
age age
Think all diagnosed Think all diagnosed
Have people with TB in Have people with TB in
Background heard Number with TB past 12 Number of heard Number with TB past 12 Number of
characteristic of TB of women have HIV months women of TB of men have HIV months men
Age
15–24 96.2 6,188 3.6 0.3 5,955 97.3 5,579 4.5 0.3 5,426
15–19 95.6 3,125 3.4 0.3 2,987 97.2 3,175 4.9 0.4 3,086
20–24 96.9 3,063 3.8 0.3 2,967 97.3 2,404 4.0 0.2 2,340
25–29 97.4 2,916 4.4 0.2 2,840 99.1 2,268 2.4 0.3 2,247
30–39 97.2 4,652 6.1 0.6 4,523 98.8 3,364 4.8 0.4 3,325
40–49 96.6 2,960 5.4 0.7 2,859 98.9 2,441 5.3 1.6 2,413
Marital status
Never married 96.7 5,348 3.0 0.3 5,173 97.4 6,576 4.3 0.3 6,407
Ever had sex 97.6 2,775 2.9 0.2 2,709 97.8 4,303 4.0 0.4 4,207
Never had sex 95.7 2,573 3.1 0.3 2,464 96.8 2,273 5.0 0.1 2,200
Married or living together 96.9 9,319 5.5 0.4 9,031 99.0 6,257 4.2 0.6 6,193
Divorced/separated/
widowed 96.3 2,049 6.1 1.1 1,973 99.0 819 6.0 2.0 811
Residence
Urban 98.3 6,850 3.8 0.4 6,733 98.2 5,382 2.9 0.7 5,285
Rural 95.7 9,866 5.4 0.4 9,444 98.3 8,270 5.4 0.5 8,127
Education1
No education 88.7 920 6.9 0.3 817 92.8 369 7.2 0.6 342
Primary 95.5 6,107 6.5 0.7 5,835 97.7 4,894 6.7 0.7 4,780
Secondary 98.0 6,320 3.9 0.4 6,191 98.9 5,386 3.3 0.6 5,326
More than secondary 99.0 3,208 2.7 0.2 3,177 98.7 2,797 2.1 0.3 2,762
Wealth quintile
Lowest 93.3 2,599 6.9 0.5 2,425 96.8 2,062 7.1 0.8 1,996
Second 96.0 2,974 5.0 0.7 2,854 98.4 2,584 5.8 0.4 2,542
Middle 96.5 3,086 5.5 0.3 2,979 98.2 2,754 3.9 0.5 2,704
Fourth 97.8 3,729 4.2 0.5 3,646 99.0 3,325 3.2 0.7 3,291
Highest 98.7 4,328 3.3 0.2 4,272 98.4 2,927 3.1 0.5 2,880
Total 15–49 96.8 16,716 4.7 0.4 16,177 98.2 13,652 4.4 0.6 13,412
50–54 na na na na na 98.6 801 5.6 1.2 789
Total 15–54 na na na na na 98.3 14,453 4.5 0.6 14,201
Note: Data in this table were collected in the full woman’s and man’s questionnaires but not in the short questionnaires.
na = not applicable
1
3.17.2 HIV prevention knowledge among young people
Knowledge about HIV prevention

Knowing that consistent use of condoms during sexual intercourse and having
just one uninfected faithful partner can reduce the chances of getting HIV,
knowing that a healthy-looking person can have HIV, and rejecting two major
misconceptions about HIV transmission: HIV can be transmitted by mosquito
bites and a person can become infected by sharing food with a person who
has HIV.
Sample: Women and men age 15–24
60
Knowledge of how HIV is transmitted is crucial to enabling people to avoid HIV infection, and this is
especially true for young people, who are often at greater risk of infection because they may have shorter
sexual relationships with multiple partners or engage in other risky behavior. Table 23 and Table 23C
present information on knowledge of HIV prevention among young people age 15–24.
▪ Slightly more than half of young people in Kenya know about HIV prevention (54% of women and
55% of men).
▪ Knowledge of prevention is lowest among respondents age 15–17 (44% each of women and men) and
among those who have never had sex (47% of women and 48% of men).
▪ Young women and men in urban areas are more likely than their counterparts in rural areas to have
knowledge about HIV prevention; 57% of young women and 63% of young men in urban areas have
knowledge about prevention, as compared with 52% of young women and 51% of young men in rural
areas.
▪ Knowledge about HIV prevention increases with increasing education, from 13% among young
women with no education to 69% among those with more than a secondary education and from 14%
among young men with no education to 80% among those with more than a secondary education.
61
Table 23 Knowledge about HIV prevention methods among young people
Percentage of young women and young men age 15–24 who, in response to prompted questions, say that people can reduce the risk of
getting HIV by using condoms every time they have sexual intercourse and by having one sex partner who is not infected and has no other
partners, and percentage who correctly identify both ways of preventing sexual transmission of HIV and reject major misconceptions about
HIV transmission, according to background characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
Women age 15–24 Men age 15–24
Percentage who say HIV Percentage who say HIV
can be prevented by: can be prevented by:
Limiting Limiting
sexual Percentage sexual Percentage
intercourse with intercourse with
to one knowledge to one knowledge
Background Using uninfected about HIV Number of Using uninfected about HIV Number of
characteristic condoms1 partner2 prevention3 women condoms1 partner2 prevention3 men
Age
15–19 72.8 84.1 47.3 3,125 79.7 85.7 48.7 3,175
15–17 69.7 82.2 43.9 1,822 76.5 83.0 43.8 1,954
18–19 77.2 86.9 52.1 1,303 84.7 90.1 56.5 1,221
20–24 86.0 91.9 61.1 3,063 87.8 92.3 63.8 2,404
20–22 83.9 91.2 59.5 1,850 87.7 91.8 64.1 1,484
23–24 89.2 93.1 63.7 1,212 87.8 93.0 63.3 920
Marital status
Never married 77.5 87.3 52.9 4,381 82.9 88.1 54.7 5,140
Ever had sex 86.4 92.6 60.9 1,883 87.1 91.5 59.8 2,934
Never had sex 70.8 83.4 46.9 2,498 77.3 83.6 48.0 2,207
Ever married 83.8 89.6 57.1 1,807 86.1 93.9 60.6 439
Residence
Urban 82.4 88.9 57.2 2,430 86.1 92.7 63.3 1,830
Rural 77.4 87.4 52.2 3,758 81.7 86.5 51.2 3,750
Education4
No education 37.1 55.0 13.3 160 58.7 63.6 13.8 63
Primary 73.1 84.3 42.9 1,591 75.5 82.5 38.3 1,713
Secondary 81.0 89.4 56.7 3,384 85.4 90.8 59.7 3,007
More than secondary 90.6 93.8 69.4 995 94.3 95.5 79.8 725
Wealth quintile
Lowest 69.6 80.3 40.8 1,062 75.0 84.1 44.9 935
Second 78.2 89.2 51.4 1,203 84.1 86.3 50.4 1,211
Middle 82.3 89.8 58.3 1,146 81.6 86.5 52.5 1,288
Fourth 81.2 91.0 60.5 1,371 86.1 92.6 61.7 1,273
Highest 83.5 88.4 57.0 1,406 88.8 93.5 67.4 872
Total 15–24 79.4 88.0 54.2 6,188 83.2 88.6 55.2 5,579
1
Using condoms every time they have sexual intercourse
2
Partner who has no other partners
3
Knowledge about HIV prevention means knowing that consistent use of condoms during sexual intercourse and having just one uninfected
faithful partner can reduce the chance of getting HIV, knowing that a healthy-looking person can have HIV, and rejecting two common
misconceptions about transmission or prevention of HIV: HIV can be transmitted by mosquito bites and a person can become infected by
sharing food with a person who has HIV.
4
62
Table 23C Knowledge about HIV prevention methods among young people by county
Percentage of young women and young men age 15–24 who, in response to prompted questions, say that people can reduce the risk of
getting HIV by using condoms every time they have sexual intercourse and by having one sex partner who is not infected and has no other
partners, and percentage who correctly identify both ways of preventing sexual transmission of HIV and reject major misconceptions about
HIV transmission, according to county, Kenya DHS 2022
Women age 15–24 Men age 15–24
Percentage who say HIV Percentage who say HIV
can be prevented by: can be prevented by:
Limiting Limiting
sexual Percentage sexual Percentage
intercourse with intercourse with
to one knowledge to one knowledge
Using uninfected about HIV Number of Using uninfected about HIV Number of
County condoms1 partner2 prevention3 women condoms1 partner2 prevention3 men
Mombasa 75.6 83.5 45.3 173 70.0 97.2 60.9 159
Kwale 86.2 87.4 63.4 111 63.5 95.1 42.8 104
Kilifi 75.7 90.8 57.1 208 74.1 84.5 51.0 197
Tana River 49.9 71.8 35.2 31 57.3 53.7 32.3 29
Lamu 49.7 81.6 34.7 21 97.9 95.5 84.7 14
Taita/Taveta 82.3 85.3 61.0 37 82.4 89.5 49.0 37
Garissa 27.7 55.3 15.0 78 95.4 99.8 88.7 56
Wajir 45.9 76.3 26.9 39 73.9 87.1 43.1 38
Mandera 15.0 26.2 4.5 46 57.3 61.5 16.8 41
Marsabit 58.2 58.6 26.0 24 58.4 89.5 34.7 17
Isiolo 68.0 75.7 35.7 31 83.7 95.9 58.6 19
Meru 66.2 84.8 41.1 162 81.6 86.8 50.2 179
Tharaka-Nithi 74.4 90.1 51.5 33 80.9 92.5 51.8 49
Embu 79.6 84.5 49.4 51 75.0 75.5 56.5 58
Kitui 75.4 86.5 65.6 140 96.7 94.4 80.9 142
Machakos 88.1 98.1 68.1 205 84.9 86.8 54.5 200
Makueni 76.3 88.2 55.0 133 86.9 98.4 52.5 113
Nyandarua 80.2 96.2 59.1 79 85.3 79.7 47.0 73
Nyeri 88.2 86.8 62.0 85 88.0 80.2 53.7 81
Kirinyaga 82.2 92.9 65.0 79 93.3 90.6 74.0 70
Murang’a 81.7 89.5 47.3 118 96.0 97.4 64.0 114
Kiambu 80.3 85.3 50.8 368 72.2 80.7 37.5 309
Turkana 67.0 75.6 23.2 63 70.1 73.8 49.4 38
West Pokot 74.7 79.6 43.7 77 90.8 94.9 77.2 61
Samburu 67.3 84.8 31.8 32 73.5 88.5 30.6 22
Trans Nzoia 91.1 98.6 74.0 144 82.9 93.7 64.3 129
Uasin Gishu 79.5 90.5 56.6 218 85.5 82.6 63.0 164
Elgeyo/Marakwet 82.1 92.4 53.6 38 77.8 69.6 43.7 46
Nandi 76.6 87.0 43.0 137 85.0 77.0 61.9 111
Baringo 69.5 88.4 46.8 76 78.6 69.9 45.2 87
Laikipia 81.1 88.0 50.0 62 75.9 90.2 44.4 67
Nakuru 84.2 89.1 54.3 262 75.9 76.5 35.1 294
Narok 76.2 87.8 49.7 156 69.5 87.3 35.6 138
Kajiado 80.2 90.6 60.0 149 88.5 92.3 50.4 114
Kericho 88.6 87.4 49.0 140 97.0 98.5 85.4 115
Bomet 82.3 94.5 58.2 129 94.1 91.7 54.2 110
Kakamega 75.1 88.8 50.6 251 86.0 97.3 44.3 279
Vihiga 75.5 83.7 58.5 99 76.5 81.6 50.1 82
Bungoma 68.7 85.3 32.4 237 69.4 80.0 36.1 231
Busia 83.1 93.3 63.3 147 75.9 82.9 38.3 136
Siaya 90.4 90.8 71.5 106 83.0 91.5 39.9 114
Kisumu 95.8 95.6 73.5 159 97.0 99.4 78.9 126
Homa Bay 86.7 90.8 58.4 143 82.3 77.0 49.4 122
Migori 71.9 82.8 44.8 144 94.5 99.1 62.7 106
Kisii 92.1 97.3 78.8 182 97.7 99.2 95.0 150
Nyamira 86.9 96.6 78.2 68 75.6 84.6 51.9 62
Nairobi City 87.8 89.7 58.0 715 95.6 98.9 74.2 578
Total 15–24 79.4 88.0 54.2 6,188 83.2 88.6 55.2 5,579
1
Using condoms every time they have sexual intercourse
2
Partner who has no other partners
3
Knowledge about HIV prevention means knowing that consistent use of condoms during sexual intercourse and having just one uninfected
faithful partner can reduce the chance of getting HIV, knowing that a healthy-looking person can have HIV, and rejecting two common
misconceptions about transmission or prevention of HIV: HIV can be transmitted by mosquito bites and a person can become infected by
sharing food with a person who has HIV.
3.17.3 Sexual behavior
Information on sexual behavior is important in designing, implementing, and monitoring HIV prevention
programs. Tables 24.1, 24C.1, 24.2, and 24C.2 present information on multiple sexual partners and
higher-risk sexual intercourse in the last 12 months among women and men who have ever had sexual
intercourse.
63
▪ A higher proportion of men (15%) than women (4%) reported having two or more sexual partners in
the 12 months prior to the survey. Of those with more than one partner in the last 12 months, 24% of
women and 45% of men reported using a condom during their last sexual intercourse.
▪ In the 12 months before the survey, 19% of women had sex with a person who neither was their
husband nor lived with them, and just 37% of these women reported using a condom during their last
sexual intercourse with such a partner.
▪ Thirty-five percent of men reported having sex in last 12 months with a person who neither was their
wife nor lived with them, and 68% of these men reported using a condom during their last sexual
intercourse with such a partner.
▪ Average numbers of sexual partners are 2.3 among women and 7.4 among men.
▪ Among women but not men, the percentage who reported using a condom at last sex with a person
who neither was their spouse nor lived with them decreases with age, from 46% among women age
15–19 to 29% among women age 30–49.
64
Table 24.1 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the last 12 months: Women
Among all women age 15–49, percentage who had sexual intercourse with more than one sexual partner in the last 12 months and percentage
who had intercourse in the last 12 months with a person who neither was their husband nor lived with them; among women having more than one
partner in the last 12 months, percentage reporting that a condom was used during last intercourse; among women who had sexual intercourse in
the last 12 months with a person who neither was their husband nor lived with them, percentage who used a condom during last sexual intercourse
with such a partner; and among women who ever had sexual intercourse, mean number of sexual partners during their lifetime, according to
Women who had
intercourse in the last
12 months with a
Women who had 2+ person who neither
partners in the last was their husband nor Women who ever had
All women 12 months lived with them sexual intercourse1
Percentage
who had
intercourse Percentage
in the last who
12 months Percentage reported
with a who using a
person who reported condom
Percentage neither was using a during last Mean
who had their condom sexual number of
2+ partners husband during last intercourse sexual
Background in the last nor lived Number of sexual Number of with such a Number of partners in Number of
characteristic 12 months with them women intercourse women partner women lifetime women
Age
15–24 3.7 24.2 6,188 35.5 227 42.6 1,498 2.0 3,669
15–19 1.5 17.5 3,125 30.7 48 46.3 546 1.6 1,029
20–24 5.8 31.1 3,063 36.8 179 40.4 952 2.1 2,640
25–29 4.7 19.9 2,916 13.4 137 35.2 581 2.5 2,825
30–39 3.2 14.8 4,652 15.6 147 29.2 688 2.4 4,541
40–49 2.4 12.4 2,960 26.0 72 29.3 367 2.5 2,912
Marital status
Never married 4.3 35.8 5,348 39.2 232 38.0 1,913 2.4 2,715
Married/living together 2.2 2.7 9,319 4.8 208 44.7 255 2.1 9,229
Divorced/separated/widowed 6.9 47.1 2,049 27.7 142 32.1 966 3.1 2,003
Residence
Urban 4.3 22.5 6,850 29.1 292 39.9 1,543 2.5 5,752
Rural 2.9 16.1 9,866 19.1 290 33.6 1,591 2.2 8,195
Education2
No education 1.6 7.0 920 * 15 23.6 64 1.6 870
Primary 3.3 16.3 6,107 21.2 204 32.1 993 2.4 5,371
Secondary 3.0 18.4 6,320 22.7 188 39.3 1,164 2.2 4,666
More than secondary 5.3 27.2 3,208 31.5 172 39.9 872 2.6 2,892
Wealth quintile
Lowest 2.5 13.7 2,599 16.5 64 29.1 356 1.9 2,168
Second 2.9 16.6 2,974 14.8 88 40.7 494 2.2 2,414
Middle 3.2 18.4 3,086 21.8 100 33.7 567 2.3 2,549
Fourth 3.7 20.1 3,729 28.4 139 37.2 751 2.4 3,197
Highest 4.4 22.3 4,328 29.0 192 38.9 966 2.6 3,620
Total 3.5 18.7 16,716 24.1 582 36.7 3,134 2.3 13,948
Note: Data for this table were collected in the woman’s full questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire. Figures in parentheses are based on
25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Means are calculated excluding respondents who gave non-numeric responses.
2
65
Table 24C.1 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the last 12 months by county: Women
Among all women age 15–49, percentage who had sexual intercourse with more than one sexual partner in the last 12 months and percentage
who had intercourse in the last 12 months with a person who neither was their husband nor lived with them; among women having more than
one partner in the last 12 months, percentage reporting that a condom was used during last intercourse; among women who had sexual
intercourse in the last 12 months with a person who neither was their husband nor lived with them, percentage who used a condom during last
sexual intercourse with such a partner; and among women who ever had sexual intercourse, mean number of sexual partners during their
lifetime, according to county, Kenya DHS 2022
Women who had
12 months with a
Women who had 2+ person who neither was
partners in the last their husband nor lived Women who ever had
All women 12 months with them sexual intercourse1
Percentage
who had
inter- Percentage
course in Percentage who
the last 12 who reported
months with reported using a
a person using a condom
Percentage who neither condom during last Mean
who had 2+ was their during last sexual number of
partners in husband sexual intercourse sexual
the last 12 nor lived Number of inter- Number of with such a Number of partners in Number of
County months with them women course women partner women lifetime women
Mombasa 2.1 14.6 494 * 11 49.7 72 1.9 401
Kwale 0.5 7.8 260 * 1 (12.3) 20 1.3 195
Kilifi 4.7 19.9 489 * 23 30.7 97 2.2 379
Tana River 0.5 3.9 80 * 0 * 3 1.5 67
Lamu 3.8 11.2 54 * 2 (36.4) 6 2.3 43
Taita/Taveta 1.4 18.7 122 * 2 (33.9) 23 2.2 105
Garissa 3.0 4.3 163 * 5 * 7 1.3 111
Wajir 0.8 0.8 90 * 1 * 1 1.3 61
Mandera 0.0 0.5 113 * 0 * 1 1.3 85
Marsabit 2.4 2.5 72 * 2 * 2 1.2 61
Isiolo 3.3 9.3 77 * 3 (28.1) 7 2.0 58
Meru 2.3 20.2 488 * 11 22.1 99 2.2 423
Tharaka-Nithi 1.4 10.7 132 * 2 (49.0) 14 1.8 120
Embu 2.7 13.2 180 * 5 (29.8) 24 2.1 151
Kitui 3.0 11.8 374 * 11 (12.0) 44 2.6 296
Machakos 3.4 17.8 544 * 19 32.9 97 2.5 443
Makueni 1.5 13.8 356 * 5 23.0 49 2.2 292
Nyandarua 1.4 13.1 225 * 3 (19.7) 30 2.7 177
Nyeri 2.0 19.6 261 * 5 32.6 51 2.6 217
Kirinyaga 2.7 20.2 262 * 7 24.9 53 2.5 224
Murang’a 11.0 27.7 339 (19.6) 37 43.4 94 3.3 276
Kiambu 5.8 22.8 1095 * 63 30.4 250 2.6 917
Turkana 0.9 7.0 172 * 2 (28.0) 12 1.4 147
West Pokot 0.9 13.4 197 * 2 5.3 26 1.5 179
Samburu 0.8 21.1 79 * 1 25.4 17 1.9 74
Trans Nzoia 1.2 16.1 359 * 4 34.4 58 2.1 298
Uasin Gishu 3.7 24.5 527 * 19 45.1 129 2.5 452
Elgeyo/Marakwet 3.2 22.1 116 * 4 41.1 26 2.6 106
Nandi 1.4 25.0 332 * 5 31.0 83 2.1 274
Baringo 3.4 18.0 193 * 7 25.0 35 2.2 162
Laikipia 4.6 20.5 173 * 8 36.4 36 2.3 141
Nakuru 1.9 19.9 862 * 16 41.6 172 2.2 772
Narok 4.7 19.1 374 * 18 39.1 71 2.1 337
Kajiado 3.0 20.6 451 * 14 36.7 93 2.2 401
Kericho 6.5 27.9 372 (16.9) 24 29.5 104 2.6 330
Bomet 1.3 10.5 327 * 4 45.7 35 1.6 262
Kakamega 1.5 16.5 652 * 10 43.6 108 2.4 545
Vihiga 0.7 13.5 201 * 1 40.3 27 1.9 143
Bungoma 5.5 23.6 572 * 32 43.2 135 2.8 483
Busia 6.2 17.3 336 (23.4) 21 29.0 58 2.8 262
Siaya 3.1 15.1 275 * 9 37.7 42 3.0 221
Kisumu 3.8 18.4 396 * 15 46.9 73 2.2 321
Homa Bay 4.3 21.2 344 * 15 62.6 73 2.4 297
Migori 4.6 19.0 350 * 16 42.6 66 2.4 300
Kisii 3.1 19.8 463 * 14 40.3 92 2.2 402
Nyamira 1.2 19.9 169 * 2 45.0 34 2.4 143
Nairobi City 4.8 22.7 2157 * 103 39.7 491 2.6 1793
Total 3.5 18.7 16,716 24.1 582 36.7 3,134 2.3 13,948
Note: Data for this table were collected in the full woman’s questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire. Figures in parentheses are based
on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
66
Table 24.2 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the last 12 months: Men
Among all men age 15–49, percentage who had sexual intercourse with more than one sexual partner in the last 12 months and percentage
who had intercourse in the last 12 months with a person who neither was their wife nor lived with them; among men having more than one
partner in the last 12 months, percentage reporting that a condom was used during last intercourse; among men who had sexual intercourse
in the last 12 months with a person who neither was their wife nor lived with them, percentage who used a condom during last sexual
intercourse with such a partner; and among men who ever had sexual intercourse, mean number of sexual partners during their lifetime,
Men who had
12 months with a
Men who had 2+ person who neither
partners in the last was their wife nor lived Men who ever had
All men 12 months with them sexual intercourse1
Percentage
who had
inter- Percentage
course in Percentage who
the last who reported
12 months reported using a
with a using a condom
Percentage person who condom during last Mean
who had 2+ neither was during last sexual number of
partners in their wife sexual intercourse sexual
Background the last nor lived Number of inter- Number of with such a Number of partners in Number of
characteristic 12 months with them men course men partner men lifetime men
Age
15–24 12.2 40.8 5,579 63.5 682 69.6 2,275 5.1 3,342
15–19 5.3 25.2 3,175 62.2 170 67.0 801 3.1 1,259
20–24 21.3 61.3 2,404 64.0 512 71.1 1,474 6.3 2,083
25–29 21.7 48.6 2,268 48.4 492 66.1 1,102 8.0 2,194
30–39 17.1 27.7 3,364 31.5 575 67.3 931 8.6 3,235
40–49 13.1 17.5 2,441 27.2 319 65.2 428 8.7 2,323
Marital status
Never married 13.8 48.9 6,576 69.5 909 67.4 3,219 6.1 4,258
Married/living together 15.0 15.1 6,257 19.7 939 72.6 945 7.7 6,050
Divorced/separated/
widowed 26.7 69.9 819 55.9 219 63.4 573 12.5 785
Type of union
In polygynous union 51.2 16.2 285 8.3 146 59.4 46 12.3 269
Not in polygynous
union 13.3 15.0 5,973 21.8 794 73.3 898 7.5 5,781
Not currently in union 15.3 51.3 7,395 66.8 1,128 66.8 3,792 7.1 5,043
Residence
Urban 17.2 37.0 5,382 47.9 927 67.0 1,991 8.2 4,574
Rural 13.8 33.2 8,270 43.4 1,140 68.7 2,746 6.9 6,520
Education2
No education 14.8 19.5 369 11.4 54 37.4 72 5.8 320
Primary 15.0 29.7 4,894 36.2 735 65.2 1,456 7.9 3,911
Secondary 12.7 35.2 5,386 48.8 685 68.6 1,897 6.5 4,055
More than secondary 20.1 43.4 2,797 56.8 563 71.9 1,215 8.4 2,616
Wealth quintile
Lowest 15.6 32.2 2,062 33.1 321 62.4 663 7.0 1,598
Second 12.3 33.5 2,584 45.5 318 70.2 865 6.6 2,032
Middle 14.4 34.4 2,754 48.8 397 69.7 947 7.4 2,191
Fourth 16.9 36.9 3,325 45.9 561 65.2 1,226 7.6 2,796
Highest 16.1 35.4 2,927 50.4 471 71.4 1,035 8.2 2,477
Total 15–49 15.1 34.7 13,652 45.4 2,067 68.0 4,736 7.4 11,093
50–54 9.9 14.2 801 16.0 79 65.1 114 9.9 758
Total 15–54 14.9 33.6 14,453 44.3 2,147 67.9 4,850 7.6 11,851
1
2
67
Table 24C.2 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the last 12 months by county: Men
Among all men age 15–49, percentage who had sexual intercourse with more than one sexual partner in the last 12 months and percentage who had
intercourse in the last 12 months with a person who neither was their wife nor lived with them; among men having more than one partner in the last 12
months, percentage reporting that a condom was used during last intercourse; among men who had sexual intercourse in the last 12 months with a
person who neither was their wife nor lived with them, percentage who used a condom during last sexual intercourse with such a partner; and among
men who ever had sexual intercourse, mean number of sexual partners during their lifetime, according to county, Kenya DHS 2022
Men who had intercourse
in the last 12 months
Men who had 2+ with a person who
partners in the last neither was their wife nor Men who ever had
All men 12 months lived with them sexual intercourse1
Percentage
Percentage who
who had inter- Percentage reported
course in the who using a
last 12 months reported condom
with a person using a during last Mean
Percentage who neither condom sexual number of
who had 2+ was their wife during last intercourse sexual
partners in the nor lived with Number of sexual inter- Number of with such a Number of partners in Number of
County last 12 months them men course men partner men lifetime men
Mombasa 20.9 36.7 442 46.7 93 68.7 162 6.6 379
Kwale 13.7 35.1 209 (36.6) 29 58.8 73 7.0 150
Kilifi 16.9 38.2 405 38.0 68 65.7 155 5.7 323
Tana River 6.1 6.8 64 * 4 * 4 2.4 44
Lamu 7.7 20.3 41 * 3 (44.6) 8 4.0 31
Taita/Taveta 16.0 36.8 103 (43.5) 17 67.3 38 7.3 76
Garissa 2.3 3.4 117 * 3 * 4 2.3 67
Wajir 6.6 17.9 63 * 4 54.3 11 1.8 40
Mandera 8.1 3.9 81 (4.9) 7 * 3 1.5 45
Marsabit 9.5 24.2 45 * 4 (57.3) 11 4.2 35
Isiolo 18.9 32.6 55 (57.7) 10 78.4 18 7.1 48
Meru 11.2 31.0 489 (36.3) 55 58.9 151 7.5 384
Tharaka-Nithi 20.1 41.3 137 27.8 27 66.6 57 12.3 123
Embu 25.5 36.0 176 42.4 45 55.4 63 6.6 147
Kitui 6.6 28.9 312 * 21 73.5 90 4.8 255
Machakos 18.5 37.1 480 52.7 89 74.3 178 9.2 390
Makueni 16.4 36.4 279 67.4 46 81.8 102 6.7 233
Nyandarua 16.0 30.5 169 (61.1) 27 77.8 52 7.6 126
Nyeri 6.9 32.8 235 * 16 68.3 77 6.0 189
Kirinyaga 1.6 24.9 191 * 3 72.2 48 3.7 153
Murang’a 22.6 43.3 297 45.4 67 69.7 129 14.1 253
Kiambu 17.7 33.4 911 (36.1) 161 64.2 304 8.2 710
Turkana 5.0 18.2 111 * 6 (41.9) 20 6.8 95
West Pokot 27.2 44.5 150 23.5 41 47.5 67 7.3 145
Samburu 21.1 33.9 51 (39.0) 11 65.4 17 6.8 39
Trans Nzoia 7.6 31.8 272 * 21 80.3 87 6.7 216
Uasin Gishu 19.2 45.0 451 61.0 87 81.4 203 7.7 391
Elgeyo/Marakwet 28.5 49.4 110 49.9 32 65.9 55 10.2 102
Nandi 15.1 41.0 265 66.3 40 88.2 109 6.0 231
Baringo 8.2 27.7 165 (46.6) 14 83.0 46 7.7 130
Laikipia 13.8 39.2 145 (39.5) 20 69.6 57 7.5 123
Nakuru 9.5 22.3 670 (30.6) 64 70.1 149 7.1 515
Narok 42.5 61.9 314 29.3 133 64.5 194 8.0 284
Kajiado 11.3 33.2 339 (34.1) 38 52.4 112 7.7 275
Kericho 2.2 38.1 330 * 7 61.1 126 4.0 300
Bomet 14.3 34.0 268 36.3 38 67.6 91 3.8 225
Kakamega 5.6 20.3 532 * 30 67.7 108 7.6 365
Vihiga 6.9 30.3 156 (54.9) 11 67.6 47 6.7 114
Bungoma 14.6 36.2 448 (58.4) 66 68.9 162 6.2 320
Busia 14.8 32.0 262 (32.7) 39 64.7 84 8.4 185
Siaya 13.2 22.8 228 (40.4) 30 88.2 52 7.1 162
Kisumu 19.7 37.6 345 48.7 68 84.6 130 9.6 272
Homa Bay 15.9 34.9 258 (58.1) 41 88.8 90 7.7 223
Migori 28.7 44.1 246 41.5 71 63.2 108 7.5 221
Kisii 6.4 22.2 326 * 21 86.6 72 4.6 267
Nyamira 13.1 28.9 133 (55.7) 17 80.5 38 5.5 107
Nairobi City 18.4 43.6 1,777 52.5 326 58.3 775 9.3 1,586
Total 15–49 15.1 34.7 13,652 45.4 2,067 68.0 4,736 7.4 11,093
Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases
and has been suppressed.
1
68
3.17.4 Prior HIV testing
HIV testing services function as the entry point to HIV prevention, care, and treatment. This is important
since those newly diagnosed with HIV are linked to care and start antiretroviral therapy and those who test
HIV negative are linked to age-appropriate HIV prevention services.
Tables 25.1, 25C.1, 25.2, and 25C.2 present information on coverage of prior HIV testing among women
and men age 15–49 by background characteristics.
▪ A greater percentage of women (85%) than men (73%) have ever been tested for HIV.
▪ In the 12 months preceding the survey, 47% of women and 39% of men were tested for HIV and
received the results of the last test.
▪ The percentages of respondents who were tested in the last 12 months and received the test results
vary widely by county, from a low of 5% in Mandera to a high of 72% in Turkana among women and
from a low of 15% in Tana River and Wajir to a high of 59% in Kisumu among men.
Table 25.1 Coverage of prior HIV testing: Women

Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by HIV testing status and by whether they received the results of the last test, percentage of
women ever tested, and percentage of women who were tested in the last 12 months and received the results of the last test, according
to background characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
Percentage
Percent distribution of women by testing who were
status and by whether they received tested for HIV
the results of the last test in the last 12
Ever tested, months and
Ever tested did not received the
Background and received receive Never Percentage results of the Number of
characteristic results results tested1 Total ever tested last test women
Age
15–24 67.0 0.6 32.4 100.0 67.6 40.2 6,188
15–19 46.6 0.8 52.6 100.0 47.4 25.2 3,125
20–24 87.9 0.4 11.8 100.0 88.2 55.5 3,063
25–29 96.9 0.6 2.5 100.0 97.5 60.1 2,916
30–39 96.0 0.8 3.2 100.0 96.8 50.8 4,652
40–49 92.5 0.6 6.9 100.0 93.1 40.9 2,960
Marital status
Never married 62.9 0.6 36.6 100.0 63.4 35.3 5,348
Ever had sex 84.9 0.4 14.7 100.0 85.3 52.1 2,775
Never had sex 39.1 0.7 60.2 100.0 39.8 17.3 2,573
Married or living together 95.1 0.7 4.2 100.0 95.8 52.0 9,319
Divorced/separated/widowed 95.4 0.5 4.1 100.0 95.9 52.8 2,049
Residence
Urban 88.4 0.5 11.1 100.0 88.9 49.7 6,850
Rural 82.3 0.7 16.9 100.0 83.1 44.7 9,866
Education2
No education 72.3 1.4 26.4 100.0 73.6 32.4 920
Primary 86.1 0.7 13.1 100.0 86.9 45.4 6,107
Secondary 81.1 0.7 18.2 100.0 81.8 46.5 6,320
More than secondary 92.7 0.2 7.1 100.0 92.9 54.0 3,208
Wealth quintile
Lowest 75.4 0.9 23.7 100.0 76.3 38.6 2,599
Second 80.7 1.0 18.3 100.0 81.7 43.3 2,974
Middle 85.9 0.6 13.5 100.0 86.5 48.2 3,086
Fourth 89.9 0.3 9.8 100.0 90.2 51.8 3,729
Highest 88.1 0.6 11.3 100.0 88.7 48.7 4,328
Total 84.8 0.6 14.6 100.0 85.4 46.8 16,716
Note: Data for this table were collected in the woman’s full questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire.
1
Includes respondents who have not heard of HIV or who refused to answer questions on testing
2
69
Table 25C.1 Coverage of prior HIV testing by county: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by HIV testing status and by whether they received the results of the last test,
percentage of women ever tested, and percentage of women who were tested in the last 12 months and received the results
of the last test, according to county, Kenya DHS 2022
Percentage
Percent distribution of women by testing who were
status and by whether they received the tested for HIV
results of the last test in the last 12
and received receive Never Percentage results of the Number of
County results results tested1 Total ever tested last test women
Mombasa 89.9 0.4 9.7 100.0 90.3 49.0 494
Kwale 73.5 0.0 26.5 100.0 73.5 38.5 260
Kilifi 82.7 0.4 17.0 100.0 83.0 39.8 489
Tana River 73.2 0.4 26.4 100.0 73.6 29.3 80
Lamu 80.2 0.6 19.2 100.0 80.8 35.5 54
Taita/Taveta 91.9 0.5 7.7 100.0 92.3 45.3 122
Garissa 52.4 0.0 47.6 100.0 52.4 18.6 163
Wajir 49.2 0.0 50.8 100.0 49.2 16.7 90
Mandera 16.5 4.5 79.0 100.0 21.0 4.9 113
Marsabit 53.1 2.0 44.9 100.0 55.1 17.4 72
Isiolo 75.9 0.2 23.9 100.0 76.1 28.8 77
Meru 85.3 2.1 12.6 100.0 87.4 38.8 488
Tharaka-Nithi 91.6 0.6 7.8 100.0 92.2 49.6 132
Embu 86.4 0.2 13.4 100.0 86.6 39.0 180
Kitui 76.6 0.0 23.4 100.0 76.6 25.2 374
Machakos 86.5 1.4 12.1 100.0 87.9 46.2 544
Makueni 85.0 0.5 14.5 100.0 85.5 53.5 356
Nyandarua 82.7 1.4 15.9 100.0 84.1 46.8 225
Nyeri 90.0 0.5 9.5 100.0 90.5 55.6 261
Kirinyaga 91.6 0.6 7.8 100.0 92.2 48.8 262
Murang’a 92.2 1.1 6.7 100.0 93.3 51.7 339
Kiambu 90.1 1.0 8.9 100.0 91.1 49.9 1,095
Turkana 92.0 0.0 8.0 100.0 92.0 71.7 172
West Pokot 79.0 1.3 19.8 100.0 80.2 37.6 197
Samburu 80.7 0.2 19.2 100.0 80.8 38.1 79
Trans Nzoia 81.5 0.0 18.5 100.0 81.5 48.0 359
Uasin Gishu 84.9 1.1 14.0 100.0 86.0 46.8 527
Elgeyo/Marakwet 88.4 0.7 10.9 100.0 89.1 45.2 116
Nandi 79.9 0.3 19.8 100.0 80.2 42.4 332
Baringo 80.3 1.1 18.6 100.0 81.4 37.1 193
Laikipia 88.2 0.0 11.8 100.0 88.2 46.8 173
Nakuru 86.3 0.7 13.0 100.0 87.0 42.7 862
Narok 84.1 0.9 15.0 100.0 85.0 48.5 374
Kajiado 86.1 0.7 13.1 100.0 86.9 48.4 451
Kericho 81.8 3.0 15.2 100.0 84.8 36.8 372
Bomet 81.9 0.6 17.5 100.0 82.5 43.8 327
Kakamega 82.8 0.0 17.2 100.0 82.8 45.0 652
Vihiga 76.5 0.3 23.1 100.0 76.9 44.4 201
Bungoma 74.3 1.3 24.5 100.0 75.5 39.3 572
Busia 77.9 0.3 21.8 100.0 78.2 46.2 336
Siaya 87.7 0.4 11.9 100.0 88.1 59.2 275
Kisumu 95.1 0.0 4.9 100.0 95.1 66.5 396
Homa Bay 93.1 0.7 6.2 100.0 93.8 66.3 344
Migori 91.3 0.5 8.2 100.0 91.8 59.1 350
Kisii 91.5 0.3 8.3 100.0 91.7 63.5 463
Nyamira 88.3 0.4 11.4 100.0 88.6 56.2 169
Nairobi City 90.1 0.1 9.8 100.0 90.2 50.3 2,157
Total 84.8 0.6 14.6 100.0 85.4 46.8 16,716
Note: Data for this table were collected in the woman’s full questionnaire but not in the short questionnaire.
1
70
Table 25.2 Coverage of prior HIV testing: Men
Percent distribution of men age 15–49 by HIV testing status and by whether they received the results of the last test, percentage of men
ever tested, and percentage of men who were tested in the last 12 months and received the results of the last test, according to background
Percentage
Percent distribution of men by testing who were
status and by whether they received tested for HIV
the results of the last test in the last 12
Background and received receive Never Percentage results of the Number of
characteristic results results tested1 Total ever tested last test men
Age
15–24 49.9 0.6 49.5 100.0 50.5 25.0 5,579
15–19 32.5 0.8 66.7 100.0 33.3 12.3 3,175
20–24 72.9 0.3 26.8 100.0 73.2 41.8 2,404
25–29 89.1 0.4 10.6 100.0 89.4 55.6 2,268
30–39 89.3 0.3 10.4 100.0 89.6 49.3 3,364
40–49 84.8 0.4 14.9 100.0 85.1 40.5 2,441
Marital status
Never married 55.0 0.5 44.5 100.0 55.5 28.1 6,576
Ever had sex 68.8 0.4 30.8 100.0 69.2 37.8 4,303
Never had sex 28.8 0.8 70.4 100.0 29.6 9.7 2,273
Married or living together 89.0 0.4 10.6 100.0 89.4 49.6 6,257
Divorced/separated/widowed 84.5 0.3 15.2 100.0 84.8 43.5 819
Residence
Urban 82.0 0.3 17.7 100.0 82.3 44.7 5,382
Rural 66.0 0.5 33.4 100.0 66.6 35.1 8,270
Education2
No education 56.6 0.1 43.3 100.0 56.7 28.6 369
Primary 66.6 0.6 32.8 100.0 67.2 32.1 4,894
Secondary 68.8 0.5 30.7 100.0 69.3 36.7 5,386
More than secondary 90.5 0.1 9.4 100.0 90.6 55.5 2,797
Wealth quintile
Lowest 58.7 0.5 40.8 100.0 59.2 29.4 2,062
Second 64.9 0.5 34.7 100.0 65.3 34.1 2,584
Middle 68.5 0.5 31.1 100.0 68.9 36.3 2,754
Fourth 80.2 0.6 19.2 100.0 80.8 44.2 3,325
Highest 83.3 0.2 16.5 100.0 83.5 46.1 2,927
Total 15–49 72.3 0.4 27.2 100.0 72.8 38.9 13,652
50–54 85.6 0.5 13.9 100.0 86.1 39.3 801
Total 15–54 73.1 0.5 26.5 100.0 73.5 38.9 14,453
1
2
71
Table 25C.2 Coverage of prior HIV testing by county: Men
Percent distribution of men age 15–49 by HIV testing status and by whether they received the results of the last test, percentage
of men ever tested, and percentage of men who were tested in the last 12 months and received the results of the last test,
Percentage
Percent distribution of men by testing who were
status and by whether they received the tested for HIV
results of the last test in the last 12
and received receive Never Percentage results of the Number of
County results results tested1 Total ever tested last test men
Mombasa 80.2 0.4 19.4 100.0 80.6 44.3 442
Kwale 65.2 0.5 34.3 100.0 65.7 40.0 209
Kilifi 64.8 0.7 34.5 100.0 65.5 34.3 405
Tana River 53.3 0.1 46.6 100.0 53.4 14.6 64
Lamu 68.1 0.0 31.9 100.0 68.1 37.5 41
Taita/Taveta 76.0 0.0 24.0 100.0 76.0 45.6 103
Garissa 51.6 0.0 48.4 100.0 51.6 24.4 117
Wajir 38.8 0.7 60.5 100.0 39.5 14.9 63
Mandera 45.9 0.2 53.9 100.0 46.1 24.3 81
Marsabit 61.8 0.3 37.9 100.0 62.1 25.3 45
Isiolo 73.0 0.7 26.3 100.0 73.7 39.6 55
Meru 69.5 0.0 30.5 100.0 69.5 31.1 489
Tharaka-Nithi 69.9 0.3 29.8 100.0 70.2 33.9 137
Embu 68.7 0.3 30.9 100.0 69.1 35.1 176
Kitui 59.6 0.0 40.4 100.0 59.6 29.6 312
Machakos 76.9 0.0 23.1 100.0 76.9 34.8 480
Makueni 76.7 1.0 22.3 100.0 77.7 41.0 279
Nyandarua 68.0 1.3 30.6 100.0 69.4 34.8 169
Nyeri 77.7 0.8 21.5 100.0 78.5 40.2 235
Kirinyaga 75.4 0.0 24.6 100.0 75.4 35.7 191
Murang’a 78.0 2.6 19.5 100.0 80.5 42.0 297
Kiambu 76.1 0.6 23.3 100.0 76.7 31.7 911
Turkana 72.7 0.0 27.3 100.0 72.7 49.6 111
West Pokot 61.4 0.1 38.6 100.0 61.4 34.1 150
Samburu 68.6 0.0 31.4 100.0 68.6 41.4 51
Trans Nzoia 65.8 0.3 33.8 100.0 66.2 33.4 272
Uasin Gishu 79.0 0.2 20.8 100.0 79.2 44.9 451
Elgeyo/Marakwet 65.6 1.2 33.1 100.0 66.9 38.8 110
Nandi 51.2 2.6 46.2 100.0 53.8 28.1 265
Baringo 52.1 0.5 47.4 100.0 52.6 26.3 165
Laikipia 73.5 0.7 25.8 100.0 74.2 33.7 145
Nakuru 60.1 0.3 39.7 100.0 60.3 30.5 670
Narok 74.9 0.0 25.1 100.0 74.9 55.3 314
Kajiado 75.5 0.0 24.5 100.0 75.5 35.7 339
Kericho 69.7 0.9 29.3 100.0 70.7 38.3 330
Bomet 72.6 0.5 26.9 100.0 73.1 35.6 268
Kakamega 55.4 0.0 44.6 100.0 55.4 32.2 532
Vihiga 60.0 0.0 40.0 100.0 60.0 26.7 156
Bungoma 56.9 0.3 42.8 100.0 57.2 30.8 448
Busia 62.2 1.2 36.6 100.0 63.4 30.2 262
Siaya 78.1 0.0 21.9 100.0 78.1 42.7 228
Kisumu 84.0 0.3 15.7 100.0 84.3 59.0 345
Homa Bay 85.1 1.5 13.4 100.0 86.6 53.5 258
Migori 82.4 0.5 17.1 100.0 82.9 53.7 246
Kisii 80.7 0.3 19.0 100.0 81.0 47.2 326
Nyamira 73.6 0.0 26.4 100.0 73.6 44.0 133
Nairobi City 89.1 0.2 10.8 100.0 89.2 50.3 1,777
Total 72.3 0.4 27.2 100.0 72.8 38.9 13,652
1
3.18 WOMEN’S AND MEN’S OWNERSHIP OF A HOUSE OR LAND AND DOCUMENTATION OF

OWNERSHIP
Women’s access to land and property with secure tenure is central to their economic empowerment as it
serves as a base for income as well as collateral for credit (Kabeer 2009). Ownership and control of land
and other assets by women and men enhance their ability to access economic resources at the societal level
and confer additional economic value, status, and bargaining power at the household level. For women in
particular, ownership of assets may provide protection in case of marital dissolution or abandonment,
positively influence their position in their homes, and decrease their vulnerability to various forms of
violence or discrimination. In the 2022 KDHS, respondents were asked if they own a house and
agricultural and nonagricultural land alone, jointly with someone else, both alone and jointly, or not at all.
72
Ownership of a house or land
Respondents who own a house or land, whether alone or jointly with their
spouse, someone else, or both their spouse and someone else.
Documentation of ownership of a house or land
Respondents whose name is on the title deed or other government-recognized
document.
Sample: Women age 15–49 and men age 15–54
3.18.1 House and land ownership
Table 26.1 presents details on house and land ownership among women age 15–49 according to marital
status.
▪ Thirty-three percent of women own a house, including 5% who do so alone and 28% who own it
jointly with their spouse or partner only.
▪ Twenty-five percent of women own agricultural land. Three percent own land alone, while 20% own
land jointly with their spouse or partner only.
▪ Only 7% of women own nonagricultural land.
Table 26.1 House and land ownership: Women

Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by house and land ownership, according to current marital status, Kenya
DHS 2022
Marital status
Never Married/living Divorced/
Ownership status married together Widowed separated Total
HOUSE OWNERSHIP
Owns 1.8 52.5 65.2 14.0 32.8

Alone 1.6 2.5 54.7 11.8 4.5
Jointly with spouse/partner only na 49.1 9.4 1.5 27.7
Jointly with someone else only 0.0 0.2 0.6 0.6 0.2
Jointly with spouse/partner and
someone else Na 0.6 0.4 0.0 0.3
Both alone and jointly 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1
Does not own 98.2 47.5 34.8 86.0 67.2
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of women 10,438 17,822 908 2,989 32,156
AGRICULTURAL LAND OWNERSHIP
Owns 1.7 39.4 48.6 10.7 24.8
Alone 1.4 1.6 37.3 7.8 3.1
someone else na 1.8 1.1 0.0 1.1
Does not own 98.3 60.6 51.4 89.3 75.2
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of women 10,438 17,822 908 2,989 32,156
NONAGRICULTURAL LAND OWNERSHIP
Owns 1.1 10.2 11.5 4.1 6.7
Alone 0.9 0.9 10.0 3.1 1.4
someone else na 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.2
Does not own 98.9 89.8 88.5 95.9 93.3
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of women 10,438 17,822 908 2,989 32,156
na = not applicable
73
Table 26.2 presents details on house and land ownership among men by marital status. Forty-five percent
of men age 15–49 own a house, 31% own agricultural land, and 8% own nonagricultural land.
Table 26.2 House and land ownership: Men
Percent distribution of men age 15–49 by house and land ownership, according to current marital status, Kenya DHS 2022
Marital status
Never Married/living Divorced/
Ownership status married together Widowed separated Total 15–49 50–54 Total 15–54
HOUSE OWNERSHIP
Owns 18.3 70.1 (76.5) 60.1 44.6 88.7 47.0

Alone 16.1 51.0 (76.5) 58.3 34.7 63.1 36.3
Jointly with spouse/partner only na 18.4 (0.0) 0.4 8.5 24.7 9.4
Jointly with someone else only 0.0 0.3 (0.0) 1.3 0.2 0.5 0.2
someone else na 0.3 (0.0) 0.0 0.6 0.4 0.6
Both alone and jointly 1.3 0.1 (0.0) 0.1 0.7 0.0 0.6
Does not own 81.7 29.9 (23.5) 39.9 55.4 11.3 53.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number 6,576 6,257 49 771 13,652 801 14,453
AGRICULTURAL LAND OWNERSHIP
Owns 8.7 53.3 (60.5) 42.2 31.2 73.3 33.6
Alone 6.3 41.5 (57.5) 35.8 24.3 58.6 26.2
Jointly with spouse/partner only na 7.6 (0.0) 0.2 3.5 10.3 3.9
someone else Na 0.9 (0.0) 0.0 0.4 1.1 0.5
Does not own 91.3 46.7 (39.5) 57.8 68.8 26.7 66.4
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number 6,576 6,257 49 771 13,652 801 14,453
NONAGRICULTURAL LAND OWNERSHIP
Owns 2.1 14.0 (18.9) 8.3 8.0 22.6 8.8
Alone 1.5 11.3 (18.0) 7.3 6.4 18.3 7.0
Jointly with spouse/partner only Na 1.9 (0.0) 0.3 0.9 2.9 1.0
someone else na 0.3 (0.0) 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1
Does not own 97.9 86.0 (81.1) 91.7 92.0 77.4 91.2
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number 6,576 6,257 49 771 13,652 801 14,453
Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.

na = not applicable
3.18.2 House ownership and documentation of ownership
Table 27.1 presents the percentage distribution of women age 15–49 by house ownership and
documentation of ownership. Five percent of women report owning a house alone, while 28% own a house
jointly with their husband and/or with someone else. Among women who own a house, only 9% have a
title deed or any other government-recognized document with their name on it; 73% do not have a title
deed or any other government-recognized document.
▪ House ownership increases with age and is highest among women age 45–49 (63%).
▪ Women in rural areas (44%) are more likely to own a house than women in urban areas (17%),
although women in urban areas are much more likely to have a title deed for the house they own than
women in rural areas.
▪ House ownership among women increases with increasing wealth. Three percent of women in the
lowest wealth quintile own a house and have their name on the ownership documents, as compared
with 29% of women in the highest wealth quintile.
74
Table 27.1 House ownership and documentation of ownership: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by ownership of a house, and among women who own a house, percent distribution by whether the house
owned has a title deed and whether or not the woman’s name appears on the title deed, according to background characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
Percentage who House has a
own a house: Percent- title deed:1
Both age who Woman’s Woman’s Does not Number
alone do not name is name is have a of women
Background and own a on title/ not on title title/ Don’t who own
characteristic Alone Jointly2 jointly house Total Number deed1 deed1 deed1 know3 Total a house4
Age
15–19 0.3 2.8 0.1 96.8 100.0 6,025 6.0 9.8 80.6 3.6 100.0 196
20–24 1.0 16.7 0.1 82.1 100.0 6,001 3.5 10.5 82.9 3.1 100.0 1,072
25–29 2.0 30.3 0.1 67.6 100.0 5,687 6.9 13.0 78.1 2.0 100.0 1,842
30–34 4.5 37.4 0.1 57.9 100.0 4,530 9.8 13.9 74.6 1.7 100.0 1,906
35–39 8.1 41.7 0.2 50.0 100.0 4,311 11.1 16.9 71.2 0.9 100.0 2,155
40–44 11.4 46.9 0.1 41.7 100.0 3,084 11.7 18.3 68.7 1.3 100.0 1,799
45–49 14.0 48.8 0.2 37.1 100.0 2,518 11.2 20.4 67.3 1.1 100.0 1,584
Residence
Urban 2.4 14.6 0.1 82.9 100.0 13,143 22.0 23.7 52.5 1.8 100.0 2,253
Rural 6.0 37.5 0.1 56.3 100.0 19,013 5.9 13.4 79.1 1.6 100.0 8,300
Education5
No education 10.2 36.3 0.4 53.1 100.0 1,770 5.3 8.9 84.8 0.9 100.0 830
Primary 6.7 36.6 0.1 56.7 100.0 11,687 5.3 14.4 78.6 1.7 100.0 5,065
Secondary 2.4 21.1 0.1 76.4 100.0 12,204 8.9 16.6 72.4 2.1 100.0 2,883
More than
secondary 2.9 23.3 0.1 73.6 100.0 6,150 25.7 21.8 51.6 0.9 100.0 1,623
Wealth quintile
Lowest 8.8 36.8 0.1 54.2 100.0 5,019 2.8 8.2 87.5 1.4 100.0 2,297
Second 5.7 38.3 0.1 56.0 100.0 5,698 3.5 12.7 81.9 2.0 100.0 2,509
Middle 4.6 34.0 0.1 61.3 100.0 6,069 6.3 15.2 77.2 1.3 100.0 2,351
Fourth 2.9 21.1 0.1 75.8 100.0 7,139 11.9 20.3 66.0 1.8 100.0 1,726
Highest 2.4 17.8 0.1 79.7 100.0 8,231 29.0 26.1 43.4 1.5 100.0 1,669
Total 4.5 28.2 0.1 67.2 100.0 32,156 9.4 15.6 73.4 1.6 100.0 10,553
1
Title deed or other government-recognized document
2
Jointly with husband, someone else, or both husband and someone else
3
Includes women who have a house with a title deed or other government-recognized document, but they do not know if their name is on it, and
women who do not know if there is a title deed or other government-recognized document for the house
4
Includes women who own a house alone, jointly with their husband only, jointly with someone else only, jointly with their husband and someone
else, or both alone and jointly
5
Table 27C.1 presents information on house ownership and documentation of ownership status among
women age 15–49 according to county. The percentage of women who own a house is highest in Samburu
(61%) and lowest in Garissa and Wajir (8% each).
75
Table 27C.1 House ownership and documentation of ownership by county: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by ownership of a house, and among women who own a house, percent distribution by whether the house
owned has a title deed and whether or not the woman’s name appears on the title deed, according to county, Kenya DHS 2022
own a house: title deed:1
Percent- Woman’s Number
Both age who Woman’s name is Does not of
alone do not name is not on have a women
and own a on title/ title/ title/ Don’t who own
County Alone Jointly2 jointly house Total Number deed1 deed1 deed1 know3 Total a house4
Mombasa 4.3 12.4 0.2 83.1 100.0 947 24.0 17.9 56.6 1.5 100.0 160
Kwale 3.7 29.9 0.0 66.4 100.0 498 7.3 3.1 89.2 0.4 100.0 167
Kilifi 5.1 24.4 0.0 70.5 100.0 928 7.5 6.4 82.8 3.3 100.0 274
Tana River 4.8 45.5 0.0 49.7 100.0 149 1.2 2.2 95.5 1.0 100.0 75
Lamu 6.7 28.7 0.2 64.4 100.0 101 14.4 8.0 76.7 0.8 100.0 36
Taita/Taveta 6.7 20.5 0.1 72.7 100.0 234 12.6 37.8 48.7 0.9 100.0 64
Garissa 2.3 6.1 0.0 91.6 100.0 290 27.6 19.3 53.1 0.0 100.0 24
Wajir 5.7 2.0 0.1 92.2 100.0 160 1.2 0.0 97.4 1.4 100.0 13
Mandera 3.2 7.3 2.7 86.8 100.0 206 12.1 10.6 76.5 0.8 100.0 27
Marsabit 4.9 9.9 0.2 85.0 100.0 129 3.8 1.0 95.2 0.0 100.0 19
Isiolo 3.5 26.7 0.1 69.8 100.0 137 9.0 13.7 75.2 2.1 100.0 41
Meru 9.4 33.3 0.2 57.1 100.0 979 8.2 24.6 65.6 1.6 100.0 420
Tharaka-Nithi 6.1 36.8 0.6 56.4 100.0 271 3.7 9.7 85.7 0.9 100.0 118
Embu 4.4 23.0 0.0 72.6 100.0 358 11.2 16.4 72.4 0.0 100.0 98
Kitui 4.0 36.6 0.1 59.4 100.0 735 8.3 3.6 87.2 0.9 100.0 299
Machakos 3.3 42.8 0.0 53.9 100.0 992 8.8 11.8 77.0 2.4 100.0 457
Makueni 3.7 35.0 0.0 61.3 100.0 683 2.5 12.7 84.7 0.0 100.0 265
Nyandarua 5.5 35.5 0.0 59.0 100.0 409 11.0 44.6 44.4 0.0 100.0 168
Nyeri 2.9 23.9 0.0 73.2 100.0 501 15.4 21.9 62.8 0.0 100.0 134
Kirinyaga 5.4 28.2 0.0 66.4 100.0 481 15.3 16.1 66.5 2.1 100.0 162
Murang’a 3.9 25.9 0.3 69.9 100.0 692 6.0 21.2 72.2 0.7 100.0 209
Kiambu 4.2 18.1 0.5 77.2 100.0 2,094 15.4 15.9 68.7 0.0 100.0 477
Turkana 17.7 38.8 0.2 43.2 100.0 331 2.0 2.8 95.0 0.2 100.0 188
West Pokot 3.3 45.9 0.0 50.8 100.0 384 3.8 4.2 91.9 0.1 100.0 189
Samburu 10.7 50.4 0.0 38.9 100.0 156 2.3 4.5 93.0 0.2 100.0 95
Trans Nzoia 3.3 36.1 0.2 60.4 100.0 675 13.7 16.3 68.7 1.3 100.0 267
Uasin Gishu 3.3 23.8 0.1 72.8 100.0 983 15.8 19.3 64.4 0.5 100.0 267
Elgeyo/Marakwet 1.6 20.9 0.2 77.3 100.0 228 4.7 30.5 63.2 1.6 100.0 52
Nandi 7.0 36.6 0.0 56.4 100.0 622 2.5 3.9 91.2 2.4 100.0 271
Baringo 10.6 23.1 0.0 66.3 100.0 378 4.4 9.1 85.1 1.4 100.0 127
Laikipia 7.1 9.0 0.0 83.9 100.0 332 19.7 28.7 51.6 0.0 100.0 53
Nakuru 3.6 24.2 0.0 72.2 100.0 1,658 9.8 22.6 66.8 0.8 100.0 461
Narok 5.5 53.6 0.3 40.6 100.0 718 8.8 32.4 57.4 1.4 100.0 427
Kajiado 5.6 25.1 0.2 69.1 100.0 887 20.6 19.2 58.4 1.8 100.0 274
Kericho 2.9 17.5 0.0 79.6 100.0 729 9.0 8.3 82.7 0.0 100.0 149
Bomet 5.4 23.7 0.1 70.8 100.0 650 2.2 1.5 96.3 0.0 100.0 190
Kakamega 3.2 30.4 0.0 66.4 100.0 1,283 7.2 2.9 89.3 0.5 100.0 431
Vihiga 5.5 34.2 0.1 60.2 100.0 371 2.5 11.4 85.4 0.7 100.0 148
Bungoma 3.7 42.8 0.1 53.4 100.0 1,138 6.1 7.0 85.0 1.9 100.0 531
Busia 6.4 44.6 0.0 49.0 100.0 622 4.8 10.7 84.5 0.0 100.0 317
Siaya 4.4 47.4 0.0 48.2 100.0 537 7.9 25.9 64.8 1.5 100.0 278
Kisumu 5.9 26.2 0.0 67.9 100.0 771 4.2 6.9 88.4 0.5 100.0 247
Homa Bay 8.2 51.1 0.0 40.7 100.0 662 7.7 26.7 60.9 4.7 100.0 392
Migori 9.8 31.9 0.0 58.3 100.0 674 6.7 18.9 72.8 1.6 100.0 281
Kisii 2.7 53.9 0.1 43.3 100.0 831 1.2 11.2 80.4 7.2 100.0 471
Nyamira 6.5 43.3 0.0 50.3 100.0 327 1.7 9.5 87.0 1.8 100.0 162
Nairobi City 1.4 12.2 0.0 86.4 100.0 4,235 29.8 32.0 34.4 3.8 100.0 576
Total 4.5 28.2 0.1 67.2 100.0 32,156 9.4 15.6 73.4 1.6 100.0 10,553
1
2
3
Includes women who have a house with a title deed or other government-recognized document, but they do not know if their name is on it, and
women who do not know if there is a title deed or other government-recognized document for the house
4
Includes women who own a house alone, jointly with their husband only, jointly with someone else only, jointly with their husband and someone else,
or both alone and jointly
Tables 27.2 presents the percent distribution of men by ownership of a house and, among those who own a
house, ownership documentation.
▪ Thirty-five percent of men age 15–49 own a house alone, 9% own a house jointly with their wife or
someone else, and 1% own a house alone and jointly with someone else.
▪ Among men who own a house, 83% report that the house does not have a title deed or any other
government-recognized document.
76
▪ Only 11% of men who own a house have a title deed or any other government-recognized document
with their name on it.
Table 27.2 House ownership and documentation of ownership: Men

Percent distribution of men age 15–49 by ownership of a house, and among men who own a house, percent distribution by whether the house
owned has a title deed and whether or not the man’s name appears on the title deed, according to background characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
own a house: title deed:1
Percent- Man’s
Both age who Man’s name is Does Number
alone do not name is not on not have of men
Background and own a Number on title/ title/ a title/ Don’t who own
characteristic Alone Jointly2 jointly house Total of men deed1 deed1 deed1 know3 Total a house4
Age
15–19 10.5 0.9 1.4 87.2 100.0 3,175 0.4 0.6 98.6 0.4 100.0 408
20–24 19.3 3.1 1.1 76.5 100.0 2,404 2.9 3.4 93.5 0.2 100.0 566
25–29 33.4 9.0 0.6 57.1 100.0 2,268 5.1 6.4 88.1 0.3 100.0 973
30–34 47.9 13.1 0.1 38.9 100.0 1,787 9.8 6.9 82.9 0.3 100.0 1,091
35–39 56.4 15.1 0.1 28.5 100.0 1,577 13.4 6.8 79.6 0.2 100.0 1,128
40–44 58.7 19.6 0.0 21.6 100.0 1,332 16.6 7.1 76.1 0.1 100.0 1,044
45–49 59.0 20.1 0.1 20.8 100.0 1,109 17.8 5.4 76.5 0.3 100.0 878
Residence
Urban 21.7 7.1 0.1 71.1 100.0 5,382 18.9 3.7 76.9 0.5 100.0 1,558
Rural 43.1 10.7 1.0 45.2 100.0 8,270 8.0 6.6 85.2 0.2 100.0 4,532
Education5
No education 46.7 20.7 0.3 32.3 100.0 369 15.6 4.0 80.3 0.1 100.0 250
Primary 42.6 12.1 0.5 44.8 100.0 4,894 7.5 6.7 85.6 0.2 100.0 2,701
Secondary 27.2 6.5 0.9 65.4 100.0 5,386 9.4 5.1 85.0 0.5 100.0 1,862
More than
secondary 32.2 8.4 0.5 59.0 100.0 2,797 20.2 5.9 73.7 0.2 100.0 1,147
Wealth quintile
Lowest 43.8 12.3 1.0 42.9 100.0 2,062 3.7 6.1 89.9 0.2 100.0 1,178
Second 43.9 10.3 1.5 44.3 100.0 2,584 5.4 6.5 87.9 0.1 100.0 1,439
Middle 38.2 9.7 0.4 51.7 100.0 2,754 8.9 6.8 84.1 0.2 100.0 1,331
Fourth 29.8 8.0 0.5 61.6 100.0 3,325 14.0 5.1 80.4 0.5 100.0 1,276
Highest 22.4 7.1 0.1 70.5 100.0 2,927 27.4 4.1 68.2 0.3 100.0 865
Total 15–49 34.7 9.2 0.7 55.4 100.0 13,652 10.8 5.9 83.1 0.3 100.0 6,089
50–54 63.1 25.6 0.0 11.3 100.0 801 24.2 5.2 70.2 0.4 100.0 710
Total 15–54 36.3 10.2 0.6 53.0 100.0 14,453 12.2 5.8 81.7 0.3 100.0 6,799
1
2
Jointly with wife, someone else, or both wife and someone else
3
Includes men who have a house with a title deed or other government-recognized document, but they do not know if their name is on it, and men
who do not know if there is a title deed or other government-recognized document for the house
4
Includes men who own a house alone, jointly with their wife only, jointly with someone else only, jointly with their wife and someone else, or both
alone and jointly
5
77
3.18.3 Agricultural land ownership and documentation of ownership
Women age 15–49 were asked if they own agricultural land alone, jointly with someone else, or both alone
and jointly. Women who reported owning agricultural land were asked if they had a title deed for the land
and whether their name appeared on the title deed. The results by background characteristics are shown in
Table 28.1.
▪ Twenty-five percent of women own agricultural land, including 3% who own agricultural land alone.
Sixty-two percent of women do not have a title deed for the agricultural land they own, and 13% who
own agricultural land have a title deed with their name on it.
▪ Thirty-two percent of women in rural areas own agricultural land, as compared with 14% of women in
urban areas. However, women in urban areas who own agricultural land are three times more likely
(27%) to have their name on the title deed than their counterparts in rural areas (9%).
▪ The likelihood of women who own agricultural land having the title deed in their name increases with
increasing wealth, from 4% among women in the lowest quintile to 33% among those in the highest
quintile.
Table 28.1 Agricultural land ownership and documentation of ownership: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by ownership of agricultural land, and among women who own agricultural land, percent distribution by
whether the agricultural land owned has a title deed and whether or not the woman’s name appears on the title deed, according to background
Land has a title
Percentage who own land: deed:1
Woman’s Number
Both Percent- Woman’s name is Does not of
alone age who name is not on have a women
Background and do not on title/ title/ title/ Don’t who own
characteristic Alone Jointly2 jointly own land Total Number deed1 deed1 deed1 know3 Total land4
Age
15–19 0.3 1.8 0.0 97.9 100.0 6,025 6.7 22.5 62.4 8.4 100.0 124
20–24 0.9 12.8 0.1 86.3 100.0 6,001 8.4 23.3 64.7 3.6 100.0 825
25–29 2.0 23.3 0.0 74.7 100.0 5,687 13.1 21.6 62.8 2.5 100.0 1,439
30–34 3.4 28.4 0.1 68.1 100.0 4,530 14.7 20.5 63.3 1.5 100.0 1,447
35–39 4.8 31.6 0.5 63.2 100.0 4,311 14.4 22.1 61.7 1.7 100.0 1,587
40–44 7.1 36.1 0.2 56.6 100.0 3,084 15.1 22.9 60.3 1.7 100.0 1,337
45–49 9.5 38.4 0.2 52.0 100.0 2,518 12.9 27.8 57.6 1.7 100.0 1,209
Residence
Urban 2.1 11.9 0.1 85.9 100.0 13,143 27.4 29.0 42.1 1.5 100.0 1,854
Rural 3.8 28.2 0.2 67.8 100.0 19,013 9.1 21.0 67.6 2.3 100.0 6,114
Education5
No education 3.3 20.6 0.2 76.0 100.0 1,770 6.8 16.4 75.2 1.6 100.0 426
Primary 4.2 28.1 0.2 67.6 100.0 11,687 8.4 22.2 67.4 2.0 100.0 3,791
Secondary 2.1 16.4 0.1 81.4 100.0 12,204 13.3 23.6 60.4 2.7 100.0 2,270
More than
secondary 2.9 19.1 0.2 77.8 100.0 6,150 30.2 26.4 41.8 1.5 100.0 1,366
Wealth quintile
Lowest 4.0 25.1 0.1 70.8 100.0 5,019 4.3 16.0 77.7 2.0 100.0 1,466
Second 4.1 29.1 0.0 66.8 100.0 5,698 6.4 18.6 71.8 3.2 100.0 1,893
Middle 3.1 26.0 0.2 70.6 100.0 6,069 10.0 22.9 65.2 1.9 100.0 1,782
Fourth 2.2 16.7 0.2 80.9 100.0 7,139 16.7 29.8 51.8 1.7 100.0 1,362
Highest 2.6 15.1 0.1 82.2 100.0 8,231 32.6 28.6 37.3 1.4 100.0 1,465
Total 3.1 21.5 0.1 75.2 100.0 32,156 13.4 22.8 61.7 2.1 100.0 7,968
1
2
3
Includes women who have land with a title deed or other government-recognized document, but they do not know if their name is on it, and women
who do not know if there is a title deed or other government-recognized document for the land
4
Includes women who own land alone, jointly with their husband only, jointly with someone else only, jointly with their husband and someone else,
5
78
Table 28.2 shows agricultural land ownership and documentation of ownership among men.
▪ Twenty-four percent of men age 15–49 own agricultural land alone and 7% own land jointly with
others.
▪ Twenty-two percent of men have their name on the title deed, while 59% do not have a title deed for
their agricultural land.
Table 28.2 Agricultural land ownership and documentation of ownership: Men

Percent distribution of men age 15–49 by ownership of agricultural land, and among men who own agricultural land, percent distribution by whether
the agricultural land owned has a title deed and whether or not the man’s name appears on the title deed, according to background characteristics,
Kenya DHS 2022
Land has a
Percentage who own land: title deed:1
Man’s
Both Percent- Man’s name is Does not Number
alone age who name is not on have a of men
Background and do not Number on title/ title/ title/ Don’t who own
characteristic Alone Jointly2 jointly own land Total of men deed1 deed1 deed1 know3 Total land4
Age
15–19 2.2 1.6 0.2 95.9 100.0 3,175 8.4 18.1 58.0 15.5 100.0 129
20–24 8.6 3.9 0.1 87.4 100.0 2,404 7.9 25.6 63.1 3.4 100.0 302
25–29 21.8 6.7 0.4 71.2 100.0 2,268 15.8 24.0 59.4 0.8 100.0 654
30–34 36.9 7.0 0.0 56.0 100.0 1,787 21.9 17.8 59.9 0.4 100.0 786
35–39 43.6 11.1 0.2 45.2 100.0 1,577 21.4 17.4 60.9 0.3 100.0 865
40–44 46.4 12.7 0.2 40.7 100.0 1,332 25.5 18.7 55.4 0.3 100.0 790
45–49 51.9 14.1 0.6 33.4 100.0 1,109 30.8 12.7 56.0 0.5 100.0 739
Residence
Urban 16.7 5.2 0.1 78.0 100.0 5,382 34.5 20.6 44.2 0.8 100.0 1,186
Rural 29.2 7.8 0.3 62.8 100.0 8,270 16.8 17.7 64.3 1.2 100.0 3,079
Education5
No education 18.6 15.1 0.3 66.0 100.0 369 17.4 11.9 68.8 1.9 100.0 125
Primary 30.6 8.9 0.3 60.3 100.0 4,894 15.7 18.4 64.8 1.1 100.0 1,945
Secondary 17.1 4.6 0.3 78.0 100.0 5,386 20.5 19.8 58.0 1.7 100.0 1,184
More than
secondary 27.1 5.9 0.1 66.9 100.0 2,797 36.5 18.5 44.8 0.2 100.0 925
Wealth quintile
Lowest 26.1 9.7 0.3 63.9 100.0 2,062 8.1 16.0 74.3 1.5 100.0 744
Second 29.2 6.6 0.4 63.8 100.0 2,584 12.9 15.8 70.8 0.6 100.0 935
Middle 26.8 7.6 0.2 65.4 100.0 2,754 16.9 22.1 59.4 1.6 100.0 954
Fourth 20.0 6.1 0.2 73.7 100.0 3,325 31.0 20.0 47.5 1.5 100.0 874
Highest 21.0 4.8 0.1 74.1 100.0 2,927 41.1 18.1 40.4 0.4 100.0 758
Total 15–49 24.3 6.8 0.2 68.8 100.0 13,652 21.7 18.5 58.7 1.1 100.0 4,265
50–54 58.6 14.7 0.0 26.7 100.0 801 34.9 13.2 51.9 0.0 100.0 587
Total 15–54 26.2 7.2 0.2 66.4 100.0 14,453 23.3 17.9 57.9 1.0 100.0 4,852
1
2
3
Includes men who have land with a title deed or other government-recognized document, but they do not know if their name is on it, and men who
do not know if there is a title deed or other government-recognized document for the land
4
Includes men who own land alone, jointly with their wife only, jointly with someone else only, jointly with their wife and someone else, or both alone
and jointly
5
3.18.4 Nonagricultural land ownership and documentation of ownership
Table 28.3 presents information on nonagricultural land ownership and documentation of ownership
among women age 15–49. Women were asked if they own nonagricultural land alone, jointly with
someone else, both alone and jointly, or not at all. Women who own nonagricultural land were asked if
they had a title deed for the land and whether or not their name appeared on the title deed.
▪ Only 7% of women own nonagricultural land: 1% own land alone and 5% own land jointly with their
husband and/or with someone else.
▪ Thirty-one percent of women who own nonagricultural land have their name on the title deed, while
44% report that the land they own does not have a title deed.
79
Table 28.3 Nonagricultural land ownership and documentation of ownership: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by ownership of nonagricultural land, and among women who own nonagricultural land, percent distribution
by whether the nonagricultural land owned has a title deed and whether or not the woman’s name appears on the title deed, according to background
Land has a title
Woman’s Number
Both Percent- Woman’s name is Does not of
alone age who name is not on have a women
Background and do not on title/ title/ title/ Don’t who own
characteristic Alone Jointly2 jointly own land Total Number deed1 deed1 deed1 know3 Total land4
Age
15–19 0.0 0.4 0.1 99.4 100.0 6,025 (9.0) (26.6) (47.8) (16.6) 100.0 34
20–24 0.3 2.0 0.1 97.6 100.0 6,001 22.0 24.1 51.9 2.0 100.0 141
25–29 1.1 5.9 0.0 93.1 100.0 5,687 23.0 25.6 49.9 1.4 100.0 395
30–34 1.6 7.1 0.1 91.3 100.0 4,530 36.2 24.8 37.7 1.2 100.0 396
35–39 2.7 8.4 0.3 88.6 100.0 4,311 35.5 21.4 42.3 0.8 100.0 490
40–44 2.9 9.4 0.3 87.4 100.0 3,084 30.7 27.1 41.8 0.4 100.0 387
45–49 3.4 9.3 0.1 87.2 100.0 2,518 32.7 23.8 42.8 0.7 100.0 323
Residence
Urban 1.7 5.1 0.1 93.2 100.0 13,143 44.5 27.6 27.3 0.6 100.0 900
Rural 1.2 5.3 0.2 93.3 100.0 19,013 21.0 22.1 55.2 1.7 100.0 1,265
Education5
No education 1.7 5.2 0.1 92.9 100.0 1,770 18.4 24.0 57.4 0.1 100.0 125
Primary 1.1 4.5 0.1 94.2 100.0 11,687 16.0 21.5 60.1 2.4 100.0 675
Secondary 0.8 3.8 0.1 95.2 100.0 12,204 30.3 26.9 41.6 1.2 100.0 584
More than
secondary 2.8 9.4 0.2 87.7 100.0 6,150 47.1 25.7 26.9 0.4 100.0 755
Wealth quintile
Lowest 0.8 3.8 0.1 95.3 100.0 5,019 9.0 21.1 67.9 2.0 100.0 236
Second 0.9 3.1 0.2 95.8 100.0 5,698 12.2 19.0 66.3 2.5 100.0 241
Middle 1.0 4.9 0.1 93.9 100.0 6,069 20.8 19.1 58.8 1.3 100.0 367
Fourth 1.6 5.5 0.1 92.8 100.0 7,139 27.2 26.9 44.6 1.3 100.0 513
Highest 2.1 7.6 0.1 90.2 100.0 8,231 49.5 27.8 22.1 0.5 100.0 807
Total 1.4 5.2 0.1 93.3 100.0 32,156 30.8 24.4 43.6 1.2 100.0 2,165

1
2
3
Includes women who have land with a title deed or other government-recognized document, but they do not know if their name is on it, and women
who do not know if there is a title deed or other government-recognized document for the land
4
Includes women who own land alone, jointly with their husband only, jointly with someone else only, jointly with their husband and someone else,
5
80
Table 28.4 shows ownership of nonagricultural land and documentation among men. Eight percent of men
age 15–49 own non-agricultural land, including 6% who own non-agricultural land alone and 2% who own
land jointly with others. Forty-six percent of men who own nonagricultural land have their name on the
title deed, and 43% report that their non-agricultural land does not have a title deed.
Table 28.4 Nonagricultural land ownership and documentation of ownership: Men

Percent distribution of men age 15–49 by ownership of nonagricultural land, and among men who own nonagricultural land, percent distribution by
whether the nonagricultural land owned has a title deed and whether or not the man’s name appears on the title deed, according to background
Land has a title
Man’s
Both Percent- Man’s name is Does not Number
alone age who name is not on have a of men
Background and do not Number on title/ title/ title/ Don’t who own
characteristic Alone Jointly2 jointly own land Total of men deed1 deed1 deed1 know3 Total land4
Age
15–19 0.5 0.4 0.0 99.1 100.0 3,175 (15.6) (23.4) (46.5) (14.5) 100.0 28
20–24 2.3 1.1 0.1 96.5 100.0 2,404 24.4 23.4 50.6 1.5 100.0 83
25–29 4.4 1.3 0.0 94.2 100.0 2,268 30.1 15.1 54.7 0.0 100.0 131
30–34 8.8 1.9 0.0 89.2 100.0 1,787 54.2 11.7 34.1 0.0 100.0 193
35–39 12.6 2.4 0.0 85.0 100.0 1,577 53.9 7.1 38.8 0.1 100.0 237
40–44 12.9 3.3 0.3 83.6 100.0 1,332 46.5 9.2 44.1 0.2 100.0 218
45–49 15.0 3.2 0.0 81.8 100.0 1,109 49.6 7.7 42.8 0.0 100.0 202
Residence
Urban 6.9 1.3 0.1 91.7 100.0 5,382 58.8 8.3 32.6 0.3 100.0 444
Rural 6.0 1.8 0.0 92.2 100.0 8,270 36.5 12.9 49.8 0.7 100.0 648
Education5
No education 6.4 2.3 0.0 91.3 100.0 369 (34.9) (4.1) (61.0) (0.0) 100.0 32
Primary 5.5 1.5 0.0 92.9 100.0 4,894 29.9 12.5 57.2 0.4 100.0 345
Secondary 4.1 1.4 0.1 94.5 100.0 5,386 43.5 11.9 43.2 1.4 100.0 299
More than
secondary 11.8 2.0 0.1 86.1 100.0 2,797 62.8 10.0 27.1 0.2 100.0 389
Wealth quintile
Lowest 3.4 1.9 0.0 94.7 100.0 2,062 22.9 15.2 60.7 1.2 100.0 110
Second 5.1 1.1 0.0 93.8 100.0 2,584 25.1 11.9 62.2 0.7 100.0 161
Middle 6.0 2.0 0.0 92.0 100.0 2,754 32.0 14.7 52.4 0.8 100.0 221
Fourth 5.6 1.6 0.1 92.7 100.0 3,325 48.7 13.4 37.4 0.5 100.0 243
Highest 10.7 1.5 0.1 87.8 100.0 2,927 68.0 5.6 26.3 0.1 100.0 358
Total 15–49 6.4 1.6 0.0 92.0 100.0 13,652 45.6 11.1 42.8 0.6 100.0 1,093
50–54 18.3 3.5 0.8 77.4 100.0 801 61.8 9.2 29.0 0.0 100.0 181
Total 15–54 7.0 1.7 0.1 91.2 100.0 14,453 47.9 10.8 40.8 0.5 100.0 1,274

1
2
3
Includes men who have land with a title deed or other government-recognized document, but they do not know if their name is on it, and men who
do not know if there is a title deed or other government-recognized document for the land
4
Includes men who own land alone, jointly with their wife only, jointly with someone else only, jointly with their wife and someone else, or both alone
and jointly
5
3.19 GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE
Gender-based violence has been acknowledged worldwide as a violation of basic human rights. Research
has highlighted the health burdens, intergenerational effects, and demographic consequences of such
violence (United Nations 2006). Gender-based violence is defined as any act of violence that results in
physical, sexual, economic, or psychological harm or suffering to women, girls, men, and boys, as well as
threats of such acts, coercion, or the arbitrary deprivation of liberty. This definition covers violence by
both current and former spouses and partners.
The module on violence against women and men was implemented in separate subsamples of households.
In keeping with ethical requirements, only one woman or man per household was randomly selected for
the module. As a result of these restrictions, a total of 16,926 women age 15–49 (unweighted) and 5,583
men age 15–54 (unweighted) were eligible for the module. About 5% of eligible women and 1% of
eligible men could not be successfully interviewed because privacy could not be obtained or for other
81
reasons. Specially constructed weights were used to adjust for the selection of only one respondent per
household and to ensure that the subsample was nationally representative.
3.19.1 Measurement of violence
Terminology for this section

Husband: a man with whom a woman is married or living with as if married.
Wife: a woman with whom a man is married or living with as if married.
Intimate partner for women: a man with whom a never-married woman is in a
relationship that involves physical and/or emotional intimacy and for which the
relationship is or has the expectation of being long lasting. As defined for the
purposes of this chapter, an intimate partner is not a husband or a man a
woman is living with and is also not a boyfriend with whom her relationship is
casual or a man with whom she has a one-time encounter.
Intimate partner for men: a woman with whom a never-married man is in a
relationship that involves physical and/or emotional intimacy and for which the
relationship is or has the expectation of being long lasting. As defined for the
purposes of this chapter, an intimate partner is not a wife or a woman a man is
living with and is also not a girlfriend with whom his relationship is casual or a
woman with whom he has a one-time encounter.
Boyfriend: a man with whom a woman has a casual relationship and who she
did not mention as an intimate partner.
Girlfriend: a woman with whom a man has a casual relationship and who he
did not mention as an intimate partner.
In the 2022 KDHS, information was obtained from women and men age 15–49 on their experience of
violence committed by any perpetrator, including current and former husbands, wives, or other intimate
partners. To capture intimate partner violence, ever-married respondents were asked about experiences of
violence committed by their current and former husbands/wives, and, if applicable, never-married
respondents were asked about experiences of violence committed by their current and former intimate
partners. More specifically, intimate partner violence was measured by asking women and men if their
current or former spouse/intimate partner ever did the following to them:
▪ Physical violence: push you, shake you, or throw something at you; slap you; twist your arm or pull
your hair; punch you with his/her fist or with something that could hurt you; kick you, drag you, or
beat you up; try to choke you or burn you on purpose; or attack you with a knife, gun, or other weapon
▪ Sexual violence: physically force you to have sexual intercourse with him/her when you did not want
to, physically force you to perform any other sexual acts you did not want to, or force you with threats
or in any other way to perform sexual acts you did not want to
▪ Emotional violence: say or do something to humiliate you in front of others, threaten to hurt or harm
you or someone you care about, or insult you or make you feel bad about yourself
In addition to the questions on different forms of intimate partner violence, information was also obtained
from respondents about physical violence committed by anyone (other than a spouse/intimate partner)
since they were age 15 by asking if anyone had hit, slapped, kicked, or done something else to hurt them
physically. Similarly, respondents were asked about experiences of sexual violence committed by anyone
(other than a spouse/intimate partner) by asking if at any time in their life, as a child or as an adult, they
were forced in any way to have sexual intercourse or to perform any other sexual acts when they did not
want to.
82
3.19.2 Experience of physical violence
Physical violence by perpetrator

Percentage of women who have experienced any physical violence (committed
by a husband, intimate partner, or anyone else) since age 15 and in the 12
months before the survey.
Percentage of men who have experienced any physical violence (committed by
a wife, intimate partner, or anyone else) since age 15 and in the 12 months
before the survey.
Sample: Men age 15–49
Prevalence of Physical Violence
Thirty-four percent of women in Kenya have experienced physical violence since age 15, including 16%
who experienced physical violence often or sometimes in the 12 months before the survey. Slightly lower
proportions of men experienced physical violence; 27% of men have experienced physical violence since
age 15, including 10% who experienced such violence in the 12 months before the survey (Table 29).
Trends: The percentage of women who experienced physical violence in the 12 months before the survey
declined from 20% in 2014 to 16% in 2022. Over the same period, the percentage among men declined
slightly from 12% to 10%.
▪ Experience of violence among women increases with age; 20% of women age 15–19 have experienced
physical violence since age 15, as compared with 42% of women age 45–49.
▪ Marital status is linked to experiences of violence among women. Women who have ever been married
are much more likely to have experienced violence since age 15 than those who have never been
married (41% versus 20%).
▪ By county, the percentage of women who have experienced physical violence since age 15 is highest
in Bungoma (62%) and lowest in Mandera (9%) (Table 29C).
83
Table 29 Experience of physical violence
Percentage of women and men age 15–49 who have experienced physical violence since age 15 and percentage who experienced physical violence
in the 12 months preceding the survey, according to background characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
Women Men
Percent- Percent-
age who age who
have Percentage who experienced have Percentage who experienced
experi- physical violence experi- physical violence
enced in the last 12 months enced in the last 12 months
physical physical
violence Often or violence Often or
Background since Some- some- Number since Some- some- Number
characteristic age 151 Often times times2 of women age 153 Often times times4 of men
Age
15–19 19.5 1.0 10.0 11.2 3,063 29.2 1.7 15.5 17.4 1,252
20–24 29.0 2.9 12.3 15.4 3,289 26.6 0.7 9.7 10.4 921
25–29 36.9 4.4 14.4 18.9 3,071 28.3 0.6 7.8 8.3 847
30–39 40.2 4.9 13.2 18.2 4,575 25.3 0.9 7.5 8.4 1,350
40–49 41.7 4.0 9.8 13.9 2,928 26.1 1.0 4.9 6.0 996
Residence
Urban 31.6 3.3 10.0 13.4 6,742 29.1 0.7 11.9 12.7 1,992
Rural 35.5 3.7 13.5 17.3 10,184 25.8 1.2 7.8 9.1 3,373
Marital status
Never married 19.8 0.9 8.0 9.0 5,465 28.1 1.2 12.0 13.4 2,524
Never ever had intimate
partner 12.3 0.5 6.2 6.7 2,314 30.0 1.1 14.5 15.6 1,204
Ever had intimate partner 25.2 1.3 9.3 10.7 3,151 26.3 1.3 9.8 11.3 1,319
Ever married 40.7 4.8 14.0 19.0 11,461 26.1 0.9 6.9 7.8 2,842
Married/living together 37.0 4.1 14.7 18.9 9,492 23.5 0.6 5.9 6.5 2,510
Divorced/separated/widowed 58.4 8.1 10.8 19.3 1,969 45.5 2.6 14.3 17.1 332
Education5
No education 35.9 4.9 12.7 17.6 896 11.5 0.0 5.1 5.1 148
Primary 42.7 5.5 15.7 21.4 6,126 26.3 1.4 9.1 10.6 2,024
Secondary 30.9 2.9 11.6 14.7 6,469 29.5 0.9 11.1 12.1 2,063
More than secondary 23.3 0.9 5.8 6.8 3,253 25.9 0.8 6.8 7.6 1,047
Wealth quintile
Lowest 36.9 5.3 15.8 21.2 2,716 23.0 1.1 8.1 9.2 828
Second 36.7 4.4 14.4 19.0 3,045 27.2 1.2 9.4 10.9 1,085
Middle 36.8 3.5 13.8 17.4 3,231 28.6 1.7 9.1 10.8 1,137
Fourth 33.6 2.8 11.0 14.1 3,775 27.4 0.3 8.5 8.8 1,230
Highest 28.1 2.4 7.6 10.0 4,159 27.9 0.9 11.3 12.2 1,085
Total 15–49 33.9 3.5 12.1 15.8 16,926 27.0 1.0 9.3 10.4 5,365
50–54 na na na na na 22.8 0.6 4.2 4.8 318
Total 15–54 na na na na na 26.8 1.0 9.0 10.1 5,683
1
Includes physical violence in the last 12 months. For women who were married or living together with a partner before age 15 and reported violence
only by their husband and for never-married women who had an intimate partner before age 15 and reported violence only by their intimate partner,
the violence could have occurred before age 15.
2
Includes women for whom frequency in the last 12 months is not known
3
Includes physical violence in the last 12 months. For men who were married or living together with a partner before age 15 and reported violence
only by their wife and for never-married men who had an intimate partner before age 15 and reported violence only by their intimate partner, the
violence could have occurred before age 15.
4
Includes men who reported physical violence in the last 12 months but for whom frequency is not known
5
84
Table 29C Experience of physical violence by county
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have experienced physical violence since age 15 and percentage who
experienced physical violence in the 12 months preceding the survey, according to county, Kenya DHS 2022
Percentage
who have
Percentage who experienced physical violence
experienced
in the last 12 months
physical
violence since Often or Number of
County age 151 Often Sometimes sometimes2 women
Mombasa 24.5 2.1 9.4 11.5 500
Kwale 13.1 3.0 8.3 11.3 264
Kilifi 20.1 1.6 5.9 8.3 491
Tana River 35.8 1.5 21.8 23.2 81
Lamu 33.9 4.3 7.7 12.0 51
Taita/Taveta 29.5 2.1 5.4 7.4 110
Garissa 21.0 6.4 6.4 12.8 148
Wajir 13.2 1.4 4.1 5.5 84
Mandera 8.6 0.7 2.6 3.3 104
Marsabit 16.4 1.7 12.3 14.2 68
Isiolo 45.6 9.8 19.5 29.3 69
Meru 35.8 4.9 10.2 15.1 547
Tharaka-Nithi 34.6 2.8 11.0 13.9 146
Embu 40.3 5.6 22.1 27.7 207
Kitui 11.5 0.5 4.1 4.7 391
Machakos 25.7 2.8 7.4 10.1 515
Makueni 22.7 2.2 9.7 11.9 362
Nyandarua 24.3 1.4 3.6 5.0 222
Nyeri 36.9 3.1 11.7 15.4 276
Kirinyaga 39.6 1.2 10.4 12.5 263
Murang’a 53.7 6.3 15.7 22.0 359
Kiambu 41.7 5.6 12.2 17.9 1,091
Turkana 42.4 5.0 14.9 19.9 176
West Pokot 27.1 4.2 14.8 19.1 205
Samburu 48.6 9.7 18.7 28.5 87
Trans Nzoia 40.8 5.0 12.2 17.2 351
Uasin Gishu 41.9 2.3 9.7 12.4 495
Elgeyo/Marakwet 30.2 1.7 14.2 15.9 119
Nandi 39.4 2.5 12.5 15.0 334
Baringo 37.9 8.5 10.3 19.6 207
Laikipia 34.5 2.9 8.8 11.7 175
Nakuru 23.5 1.2 8.2 9.4 898
Narok 40.5 3.6 12.6 16.3 376
Kajiado 36.1 5.6 11.0 17.0 471
Kericho 16.3 2.1 8.0 10.2 386
Bomet 32.8 1.6 9.1 10.7 369
Kakamega 40.1 3.5 15.5 19.1 707
Vihiga 33.8 3.1 13.9 17.1 195
Bungoma 62.2 4.0 24.8 29.4 623
Busia 38.4 6.5 14.6 21.1 309
Siaya 23.6 2.1 14.8 16.9 291
Kisumu 36.0 1.7 24.1 26.0 420
Homa Bay 53.5 6.9 19.7 26.6 352
Migori 51.1 4.7 24.7 29.5 364
Kisii 35.7 4.9 14.8 19.8 404
Nyamira 33.3 1.8 7.1 11.3 176
Nairobi City 29.7 3.6 9.9 13.5 2,088
Total 33.9 3.5 12.1 15.8 16,926
1
Includes physical violence in the last 12 months. For women who were married or living together with a partner
before age 15 and reported violence only by their husband and for never-married women who had an intimate partner
before age 15 and reported violence only by their intimate partner, the violence could have occurred before age 15.
2
Includes women for whom frequency in the last 12 months is not known
Perpetrators of Physical Violence
Table 30 shows perpetrators of physical violence, according to marital status, among women and men age
15–49 who reported experiencing any physical violence since age 15.
▪ The most commonly reported perpetrator of physical violence among women who have ever been
married or ever had an intimate partner was their current husband or intimate partner (54%), followed
by a former husband/intimate partner (34%).
85
▪ The most common perpetrators of physical violence among men who have ever been married or ever
had an intimate partner were teachers (28%), followed by current wives/intimate partners (20%) and
former wives/intimate partners (19%). Twenty-three percent of men who have ever been married or
had an intimate partner experienced physical violence at the hands of other persons.
▪ Teachers (33%) and mothers/stepmothers (25%) were the most common perpetrators of physical
violence against women who have never been married or never had an intimate partner. Teachers
(46%) and schoolmates/classmates (22%) were the most common perpetrators of physical violence
against men who have never been married or had an intimate partner.
Table 30 Persons committing physical violence

Among women and men age 15–49 who have experienced physical violence since age
15, percentage who report specific persons who committed the violence, according to the
respondent’s partnership status, Kenya DHS 2022
Partnership status
Never
Ever married/ married/
ever had never had
intimate intimate
Person partner partner Total
WOMEN
Current husband/intimate partner 53.9 na 51.2

Former husband/intimate partner 33.7 na 32.0
Current boyfriend 0.2 0.0 0.2
Former boyfriend 2.2 3.2 2.2
Father/stepfather 5.2 16.8 5.7
Mother/stepmother 8.1 24.8 8.9
Sister/brother 3.3 10.9 3.7
Daughter/son 0.1 0.0 0.1
Other relative 2.6 9.9 3.0
Mother-in-law 0.2 na 0.2
Father-in-law 0.1 na 0.1
Other in-law 1.0 na 0.9
Teacher 5.8 32.5 7.1
Schoolmate/classmate 1.8 14.3 2.4
Employer/someone at work 0.4 0.0 0.4
Police/soldier 0.3 0.9 0.3
Other 2.7 5.0 2.8
Number of women who have experienced
physical violence since age 15 5,458 286 5,744
MEN
Current wife/intimate partner 19.8 na 14.8
Former wife/intimate partner 19.3 na 14.5
Current girlfriend 0.3 0.0 0.2
Former girlfriend 1.5 0.0 1.2
Father/stepfather 13.1 13.5 13.2
Mother/stepmother 8.0 13.9 9.5
Sister/brother 3.4 7.3 4.4
Daughter/son 0.0 0.0 0.0
Other relative 5.7 7.9 6.2
Mother-in-law 0.1 na 0.1
Father-in-law 0.0 na 0.0
Other in-law 0.9 na 0.7
Teacher 27.9 46.2 32.5
Schoolmate/classmate 16.3 22.3 17.8
Employer/someone at work 5.4 0.5 4.2
Police/soldier 6.6 0.7 5.1
Other 22.5 18.9 21.6
Number of men who have experienced
physical violence since age 15 1,089 362 1,451
Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married; the
term wife includes a partner with whom a man is living as if married. Percentages may
add to more than 100% since the respondent can report more than one perpetrator.
na = not applicable
86
3.19.3 Experience of sexual violence
Sexual violence by any perpetrator

Percentage of women who have experienced any sexual violence (committed
by a husband, intimate partner, or anyone else) ever and in the 12 months
before the survey.
Percentage of men who have experienced any sexual violence (committed by a
wife, intimate partner, or anyone else) ever and in the 12 months before the
survey.
Sample: Men age 15–49
Prevalence of Sexual Violence
Thirteen percent of women reported that they had experienced sexual violence at some point in their lives,
and 7% reported that they had experienced sexual violence in the last 12 months (Table 31). A slightly
lower proportion of men reported experiencing sexual violence; 7% have ever experienced sexual
violence, and 4% experienced sexual violence in the 12 months preceding the survey.
▪ The percentage of women who have experienced sexual violence increases with age, from 7% among
those age 15–19 to 18% among those age 40–49.
▪ Three percent of women who have never been married and never had an intimate partner report sexual
violence, as compared with 12% of never married women who ever had an intimate partner, 13% of
currently married women, and 27% of formerly married women.
▪ By county, the percentages of women who have experienced sexual violence are highest in Bungoma
(30%), Murang’a (24%), Homa Bay (23%), and Embu (22%) (Table 31C).
87
Table 31 Experience of sexual violence
Percentage of women and men age 15–49 who have ever experienced sexual violence and percentage who experienced sexual violence in the
12 months preceding the survey, according to background characteristics, Kenya DHS 2022
Women Men
Background In the last Number of In the last Number of
characteristic Ever1 12 months women Ever1 12 months men
Age
15–19 7.2 3.3 3,063 4.8 2.9 1,252
20–24 11.3 6.3 3,289 8.1 5.5 921
25–29 13.1 7.6 3,071 7.6 5.1 847
30–39 15.2 7.9 4,575 8.0 3.7 1,350
40–49 17.5 7.0 2,928 6.7 2.9 996
Residence
Urban 12.8 5.7 6,742 8.5 5.1 1,992
Rural 13.1 7.1 10,184 6.1 3.2 3,373
Marital status
Never married 8.4 3.3 5,465 5.2 3.1 2,524
Never ever had intimate
partner 3.0 0.5 2,314 1.7 0.2 1,204
Ever had intimate partner 12.3 5.3 3,151 8.4 5.7 1,319
Ever married 15.2 8.1 11,461 8.5 4.6 2,842
Married/living together 12.9 8.1 9,492 6.9 3.8 2,510
Divorced/separated/widowed 26.5 8.3 1,969 21.1 10.9 332
Employment
Employed for cash 16.4 7.8 8,342 8.2 4.6 3,958
Employed not for cash 14.0 8.2 1,748 3.0 2.1 389
Not employed 8.6 4.6 6,836 3.9 1.8 1,018
Education2
No education 8.0 4.8 896 5.3 2.5 148
Primary 16.2 8.3 6,126 7.0 4.2 2,024
Secondary 11.7 6.3 6,469 7.0 4.2 2,063
More than secondary 11.2 4.3 3,253 6.6 3.0 1,047
Wealth quintile
Lowest 12.7 7.2 2,716 5.6 3.8 828
Second 14.8 8.1 3,045 7.4 3.8 1,085
Middle 12.9 7.2 3,231 7.2 3.9 1,137
Fourth 13.7 6.2 3,775 7.2 4.6 1,230
Highest 11.3 4.8 4,159 7.1 3.3 1,085
Total 15–49 13.0 6.5 16,926 7.0 3.9 5,365
50–54 na na na 6.3 0.2 318
Total 15–54 na na na 6.9 3.7 5,683
I
Includes experience of sexual violence in the last 12 months
2
88
Table 31C Experience of sexual violence by county
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have ever experienced sexual violence
and percentage who experienced sexual violence in the 12 months preceding
the survey, according to county, Kenya DHS 2022
In the last Number of
County Ever1 12 months women
Mombasa 9.8 3.8 500
Kwale 4.3 3.3 264
Kilifi 12.2 6.5 491
Tana River 2.3 1.5 81
Lamu 14.5 6.3 51
Taita/Taveta 14.0 3.0 110
Garissa 5.8 3.5 148
Wajir 1.5 1.0 84
Mandera 0.8 0.8 104
Marsabit 1.0 1.0 68
Isiolo 9.2 5.3 69
Meru 16.0 8.2 547
Tharaka-Nithi 12.5 6.9 146
Embu 21.5 13.0 207
Kitui 0.9 0.4 391
Machakos 6.3 3.0 515
Makueni 4.7 3.2 362
Nyandarua 17.5 6.9 222
Nyeri 15.1 5.6 276
Kirinyaga 12.9 3.2 263
Murang’a 24.3 13.6 359
Kiambu 16.6 9.8 1,091
Turkana 10.8 6.7 176
West Pokot 7.5 6.3 205
Samburu 6.9 4.2 87
Trans Nzoia 13.1 5.6 351
Uasin Gishu 9.9 4.6 495
Elgeyo/Marakwet 6.9 4.0 119
Nandi 6.0 2.6 334
Baringo 8.4 5.7 207
Laikipia 10.9 3.1 175
Nakuru 13.8 3.6 898
Narok 17.5 8.7 376
Kajiado 16.9 8.6 471
Kericho 3.2 1.5 386
Bomet 12.9 7.4 369
Kakamega 16.8 8.9 707
Vihiga 11.9 5.6 195
Bungoma 30.3 16.6 623
Busia 14.7 8.9 309
Siaya 5.7 4.3 291
Kisumu 10.8 6.6 420
Homa Bay 23.1 10.8 352
Migori 16.7 7.4 364
Kisii 16.0 10.1 404
Nyamira 14.5 6.3 176
Nairobi City 12.2 5.8 2,088
Total 13.0 6.5 16,926
1
Includes experience of sexual violence in the last 12 months
89
Perpetrators of Sexual Violence
The most commonly reported perpetrators of sexual violence among women who have ever been married
or ever had an intimate partner were current husbands or intimate partners (71%) and former husbands or
intimate partners (19%). Similarly, the most commonly reported perpetrators of sexual violence among
men who have ever been married or had an intimate partner were current wives or intimate partners (63%)
and former wives or intimate partners (32%) (Table 32).
Table 32 Persons committing sexual violence

Among women and men age 15–49 who have experienced sexual violence, percentage who report specific persons who
committed the violence, according to respondent’s partnership status, Kenya DHS 2022
Partnership status
Ever married/ever had Never married/never had
Person intimate partner intimate partner Total
WOMEN
Current husband/intimate partner 70.9 na 68.6

Former husband/intimate partner 19.2 na 18.6
Current/former boyfriend 3.1 (2.6) 3.1
Father/stepfather 0.1 (1.9) 0.1
Brother/stepbrother 0.8 (0.7) 0.8
Other relative 5.1 (29.7) 5.9
In-law 0.4 na 0.4
Own friend/acquaintance 3.0 (21.1) 3.6
Family friend 1.5 (8.5) 1.7
Teacher 1.4 (0.0) 1.4
Schoolmate/classmate 1.4 (6.0) 1.6
Employer/someone at work 0.7 (0.5) 0.7
Police/soldier 0.3 (1.4) 0.4
Priest/religious leader 0.1 (0.0) 0.1
Stranger 6.0 (22.2) 6.5
Other 2.5 (6.7) 2.6
Number of women who have
experienced sexual violence 2,132 70 2,202
MEN
Current wife/intimate partner 62.5 na 59.0
Former wife/intimate partner 32.2 na 30.5
Current/former girlfriend 6.1 * 7.2
Father/stepfather 0.1 * 0.1
Brother/stepbrother 0.0 * 0.0
Other relative 1.1 * 1.4
In-law 0.0 na 0.0
Own friend/acquaintance 3.1 * 5.0
Family friend 1.4 * 1.5
Teacher 1.5 * 1.4
Schoolmate/classmate 1.9 * 2.0
Employer/someone at work 2.2 * 2.1
Police/soldier 0.8 * 0.8
Priest/religious leader 0.0 * 0.0
Stranger 3.8 * 4.8
Other 7.3 * 7.1
Number of men who have experienced
sexual violence 354 21 374
Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married; the term wife includes a partner
with whom a man is living as if married. Percentages may add to more than 100% since the respondent can report more
than one perpetrator. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is
based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
na = not applicable
3.20 FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION/CUTTING
Female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), also known as female circumcision, is defined as any
procedure that involves partial or total removal of the external genitalia and/or injury to the female genital
organs, whether for cultural or any other nontherapeutic reasons (WHO, UNICEF, and UNFPA 1997).
FGM/C is widely recognized as a violation of human rights and is deeply rooted in beliefs and perceptions
over generations.
90
The 2010 Constitution of Kenya protects children and women from abuse, harmful cultural practices, and
all forms of violence. The Government of Kenya has enacted legislation prohibiting FGM/C, including the
Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act, 2011 and the Children’s Act, 2022. Furthermore, Sessional
Paper No. 3 of 2019 on the National Policy for the Eradication of Female Genital Mutilation and the
National Policy on Gender Based Violence 2019 guide the regulation of FGM/C in Kenya.
WHO classifies female genital mutilation into four main categories:
Type I: Excision of the prepuce with or without excision of part or all of the clitoris.
Type II: Excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the labia minora.
Type III: Excision of part or all of the external genitalia and stitching or narrowing of the vaginal
opening (infibulation).
Type IV: Other forms, including pricking, piercing, or incising of the clitoris and/or labia;
stretching of the clitoris and/or labia; cauterization by burning of the clitoris and
surrounding tissue; scraping of tissue surrounding the opening of the vagina or cutting of
the vagina; and introduction of corrosive substances or herbs into the vagina to cause
bleeding or to tighten or narrow the vagina.
In the 2022 KDHS subsample of households selected for the male survey, women age 15–49 and men age
15–54 were asked if they had ever heard of female circumcision. In addition, women were asked whether
they had ever been circumcised.
3.20.1 Respondents’ knowledge of female genital mutilation
Table 33 and Table 33C present information on knowledge of female circumcision among women age
15–49 and men age 15–54. The results show that knowledge of female circumcision is almost universal
among women and men age 15–49 (97% each).
Table 33 Knowledge of female circumcision

Percentage of women and men age 15–49 who have heard of female circumcision, according to background
Women Men
Background Have heard of female Number of Have heard of female Number of
characteristic circumcision women circumcision men
Age
15–19 94.4 3,125 93.8 3,175
20–24 96.9 3,063 97.9 2,404
25–29 97.7 2,916 98.2 2,268
30–34 97.7 2,364 98.0 1,787
35–39 97.5 2,288 99.0 1,577
40–44 98.3 1,615 98.8 1,332
45–49 97.2 1,346 98.9 1,109
Residence
Urban 98.0 6,850 97.5 5,382
Rural 96.2 9,866 97.2 8,270
Education1
No education 92.4 920 93.8 369
Primary 95.1 6,107 95.4 4,894
Secondary 98.2 6,320 98.1 5,386
More than secondary 99.3 3,208 99.9 2,797
Wealth quintile
Lowest 93.2 2,599 95.8 2,062
Second 96.5 2,974 96.5 2,584
Middle 96.8 3,086 97.7 2,754
Fourth 98.1 3,729 97.5 3,325
Highest 98.6 4,328 98.5 2,927
Total 15–49 96.9 16,716 97.3 13,652
50–54 na na 99.0 801
Total 15–54 na na 97.4 14,453
Note: Data for this table were collected in the full woman’s and man’s questionnaires but not in the short questionnaires.
na = not applicable
1
No education includes informal education (Madrassa/Duksi/adult education), and more than secondary includes middle-
level colleges and universities. Excludes people who reported vocational training as the highest education level attended.
91
Table 33C Knowledge of female circumcision by county
Percentage of women and men age 15–49 who have heard of female circumcision, according to county, Kenya
DHS 2022
Women Men
Have heard of Number of Have heard of Number of
County female circumcision women female circumcision men
Mombasa 96.6 493 97.1 442
Kwale 84.7 260 91.5 209
Kilifi 83.3 489 95.7 405
Tana River 93.0 79 94.8 64
Lamu 91.9 54 93.3 41
Taita/Taveta 97.3 122 93.8 103
Garissa 98.8 163 96.0 117
Wajir 100.0 90 100.0 63
Mandera 98.6 113 97.2 81
Marsabit 97.1 72 99.3 45
Isiolo 97.4 76 100.0 55
Meru 99.7 488 100.0 489
Tharaka-Nithi 98.0 131 100.0 137
Embu 98.5 180 100.0 176
Kitui 94.8 373 97.9 312
Machakos 98.2 544 100.0 480
Makueni 97.4 356 97.2 279
Nyandarua 98.8 225 99.4 168
Nyeri 97.0 261 98.6 235
Kirinyaga 98.1 262 99.1 191
Murang’a 99.7 339 98.5 297
Kiambu 97.9 1,095 99.3 911
Turkana 84.4 172 85.3 111
West Pokot 99.4 197 98.9 150
Samburu 99.8 79 100.0 51
Trans Nzoia 98.2 359 99.0 272
Uasin Gishu 96.6 527 99.1 451
Elgeyo/Marakwet 98.1 116 98.9 110
Nandi 94.1 332 98.9 265
Baringo 99.0 193 97.9 165
Laikipia 96.4 173 97.2 145
Nakuru 98.7 862 98.9 670
Narok 99.4 374 99.3 313
Kajiado 98.2 451 99.3 339
Kericho 98.4 372 100.0 330
Bomet 99.4 327 98.3 268
Kakamega 95.3 652 88.8 532
Vihiga 97.0 201 92.9 156
Bungoma 96.2 572 92.7 448
Busia 98.0 336 99.3 262
Siaya 95.4 275 93.8 227
Kisumu 98.6 396 99.5 345
Homa Bay 98.5 344 96.1 258
Migori 94.5 350 99.4 246
Kisii 100.0 463 99.3 326
Nyamira 98.9 168 98.5 133
Nairobi City 97.9 2,157 95.6 1,777
Total 96.9 16,716 97.3 13,652
Note: Data for this table were collected in the full woman’s and man’s questionnaires but not in the short
questionnaires.
92
3.20.2 Prevalence and type of female genital mutilation
Table 34 presents findings on the prevalence and type of female circumcision among women age 15–49
by background characteristics. The prevalence of FGM is 15%. Seventy percent of women who were
circumcised were cut and flesh removed.
Trends: The prevalence of FGM declined from 38% Figure 10 Trends in female genital
in 1998 to 15% in 2022 (Figure 10). Since 2014, the mutilation
percentage of circumcised women who were cut and Percentage of women 15–49 circumcised
had flesh removed declined from 87% to 70%, while
the percentage of circumcised women sewn closed
increased from 9% to 12%.
▪ The prevalence of FGM generally increases with 38

age; 9% of women age 15–19 have been 32
27
circumcised, compared with 23% of women age 21
15
45–49.
1998 2003 2008–09 2014 2022

KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS KDHS
Note: Data from 2003 and later are nationally representative, while
data collected before 2003 exclude the North Eastern region and
several northern districts in the Eastern and Rift Valley regions.
Table 34 Prevalence of female circumcision

Percentage of women age 15–49 circumcised, and percent distribution of circumcised women by type of circumcision, according to background
Percentage Type of circumcision Number of

Background of women Number of Cut, no flesh Cut, flesh Sewn circumcised
characteristic circumcised women removed removed closed Don’t know Total women
Age
15–19 9.1 3,125 11.9 67.3 12.6 8.1 100.0 286
20–24 9.9 3,063 13.9 63.3 13.0 9.9 100.0 303
25–29 13.2 2,916 12.0 69.5 12.0 6.4 100.0 384
30–34 16.1 2,364 11.3 69.8 12.7 6.2 100.0 380
35–39 18.7 2,288 12.3 70.1 11.6 6.0 100.0 428
40–44 23.8 1,615 11.1 72.9 10.9 5.1 100.0 385
45–49 23.1 1,346 10.9 76.6 7.9 4.5 100.0 311
Residence
Urban 9.7 6,850 14.0 61.6 16.7 7.7 100.0 662
Rural 18.4 9,866 11.1 73.1 9.7 6.1 100.0 1,815
Education1
No education 56.3 920 4.1 70.4 17.9 7.6 100.0 518
Primary 18.4 6,107 11.2 73.8 9.7 5.3 100.0 1,126
Secondary 10.0 6,320 16.7 64.5 10.8 8.0 100.0 634
More than secondary 5.9 3,208 21.8 64.2 8.0 6.0 100.0 189
Wealth quintile
Lowest 32.0 2,599 8.8 74.7 11.3 5.2 100.0 832
Second 16.8 2,974 11.8 72.2 8.4 7.6 100.0 498
Middle 14.6 3,086 12.7 71.9 7.4 7.9 100.0 450
Fourth 11.0 3,729 15.7 61.4 16.4 6.5 100.0 409
Highest 6.6 4,328 14.3 62.2 17.3 6.2 100.0 287
Total 14.8 16,716 11.9 70.1 11.6 6.5 100.0 2,476
1
93
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Kenya National Bureau of Statistics

The DHS Program

2 SURVEY IMPLEMENTATION ................................................................................................... 3

Figure 1 Trends in fertility by residence .......................................................................................... 15

Map 1 Delivery by skilled provider by county ............................................................................. 29

BCG bacillus Calmette-Guérin

CAPI computer-assisted personal interviewing

DHS Demographic and Health Survey

FBO faith-based organization

GFR general fertility rate

IPTp intermittent preventive treatment during pregnancy

KDHS Kenya Demographic and Health Survey

LAM lactational amenorrhea method

MoH Ministry of Health

NGO nongovernmental organization

OPV oral polio vaccine

UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS

WFP World Food Programme

The specific objectives of the 2022 KDHS are to:

▪ Estimate fertility levels and contraceptive prevalence

2.2 SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRES

▪ Socioeconomic and demographic characteristics

▪ Socioeconomic and demographic characteristics

2.3 ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS

2.4.1 Training of trainers

▪ Test the adequacy of training agenda for the main survey

2.4.3 Training of field staff for the main survey

2.5 FIELDWORK LOGISTICS

2.6 DATA PROCESSING

Table 1 Results of the household and individual interviews

Table 2 Background characteristics of respondents

Table 2C Background characteristics of respondents by county

Table 3 Health insurance coverage

3.4 DISABILITY AMONG THE HOUSEHOLD POPULATION

Total fertility rate

1989 1993 1998 2003 2008–09 2014 2022

Table 5 Current fertility

Note: Age-specific fertility rates are per 1,000 women.

3.6 TEENAGE FERTILITY

Table 6 Teenage pregnancy

3.7 FERTILITY PREFERENCES

Desire for another child

Table 7 Fertility preferences according to number of living children

3.8 FAMILY PLANNING

3.8.1 Contraceptive use

Number of living children

1993 1998 2003 2008–09 2014 2022

3.8.2 Need and demand for family planning

Unmet need for family planning

Demand for Unmet need for family planning

Proportion of Current contraceptive use (any method)

Proportion of Current contraceptive use (any modern method)

3.9 MATERNAL CARE

Antenatal care from a skilled provider

3.9.2 Tetanus toxoid

Protection against neonatal tetanus

Table 10 Maternal care indicators

Mother’s age at birth