Manajemen Malnutrisi Infant
Manajemen Malnutrisi Infant
Manajemen Malnutrisi Infant
Acknowledgements
Contributing Authors:
Marko Kerac1, Marie McGrath2, Carlos Grijalva-Eternod1, Cecile Bizouerne3, Jenny Saxton1, Heather
Bailey1, Caroline Wilkinson3, June Hirsch3, Hannah Blencowe4, Jeremy Shoham2, Andrew Seal1
1)
2)
3)
4)
Acknowledgements
We thank the UNICEF-led Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) Global Nutrition Cluster for
funding and supporting this project, in particular Bruce Cogill and Leah Richardson.
We also thank the many organizations and individuals who made the MAMI Project possible, and are
particularly grateful for inputs from the following:
Chapter authors:
Lead authors: Marko Kerac, Marie McGrath, Andy Seal
Lead authors to specific chapters/sections: Carlos Grijalva-Eternod, Cecile Bizouerne, June Hirsch,
Jenny Saxton, Marko Kerac, Hannah Blencowe, Heather Bailey, Marie McGrath, Caroline Wilkinson.
Editorial team: Chloe Angood, Marko Kerac, Marie McGrath, Jeremy Shoham
Particular sections were greatly informed by related collaborative work by IFE Core Group
members and collaborators, in particular Karleen Gribble, Lida Lhotska, Mary Lungaho, Ali Maclaine,
Marie McGrath and Rebecca Norton (global policy and strategy on infant and young child feeding in
emergencies) and Lida Lhotska, Marie McGrath, Pamela Morrison, Rebecca Norton, Marian
Schilperoord and Caroline Wilkinson (HIV and infant feeding).
Acknowledgements
Contents
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Chapter 1: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Contents
3.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.5.1 Explaining differences in NCHS v WHO-GS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.5.2 Clinical profile differences in infants <6 m in NCHS v WHO-GS . . . . . . . . . . . .44
3.5.3 Policy implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.5.4 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
3.6 Summary findings and recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Chapter 4:
Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Guidelines overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Guideline Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
4.4.1 Case definitions of SAM & MAM (general) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.4.2 Infant <6m SAM and MAM case definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.4.3 Key medical treatments for infants <6m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.4.4 Nutritional treatments for infants <6m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.4.5 Maternal care, preparation for discharge & follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.5 An appraisal of current guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6 Summary findings and recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
Chapter 5:
Chapter 6:
Contents
Chapter 7:
Chapter 8:
Chapter 9:
Contents
E
F
Tables
Tables
Table 1: Contribution of malnutrition treatment and optimal IYCF to meeting Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Table 2: WHO classification of acute malnutrition, 1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Table 3: NCHS and WHO-GS growth norms as applied to the case definition of acute malnutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Table 4: Linear regression models showing relationships between key variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Table 5: Overview of available acute malnutrition guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Table 6: Case definitions of SAM & MAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Table 7: Infant <6m SAM & MAM case definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Table 8: Key medical treatments recommended for infants <6m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Table 9: Nutritional treatments for infants <6m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Table 10: Maternal care, preparation for discharge & follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Table 11: Description of the raw databases of children 0 to 59m received for analysis by country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Table 12: Details of the data cleaning results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Table 13: Programme type coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Table 14: Number of individuals enrolled in different types of programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
Table 15: Definition of age categories & frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
Table 16: Re-coding of original discharge codes into a Sphere-compatible code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Table 17: Frequency distribution by age group and programme type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
Table 18: Programme and country distribution of the final sample included for analysis and the
sub-sample of infants <6m of age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Table 19: Burden of disease: Age distribution by country and by programme, of the sample of
children selected for analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Table 20: Age distribution by country and by programme type of the sample of infant selected for analysis . . . . . . . . .106
Table 21: Male to female ratio by age group, by country and by programme type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Table 22: Male to female ratio by age group, by country and by programme type for infants aged <6m . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Table 23: Oedema frequency distribution among different age groups and programme types provided
for the sample included for SAM analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Table 24: Frequency and percentage of missing values of anthropometry by age group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Table 25: Frequency and percentage of missing values of anthropometry by country and programme
type in infants <6m. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Table 26: Frequency of flagged values using Epi-info criteria by age group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Table 27: Frequency table for different admission criteria: Comparing infants <6m and children
6 to 59m of age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Table 28: Sphere discharge outcomes by country and age group: Values in italics are those meeting the
Sphere standards/MAMI indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Table 29: Outcomes by programme type and age group: Values in italics are those meeting the Sphere
standards/MAMI indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Table 30: Prevalence and causes of infant <6m malnutrition: key informant feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Table 31: Identification of malnourished infants <6m and admission to programme: key informant feedback . . . . . . .129
Table 32: Programme details: key informant feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Table 33: Challenges in managing infants <6m: key informant feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
Table 34: Training and support: key informant feedback. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
Table 35: Ways forward: key informant feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
Table 36: Importance gradient of key properties of breastfeeding assessment tools from community to
clinical contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
Table 37: Theory-based breastfeeding assessment tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Table 38: Breastfeeding assessment tools validated against maternal and infant outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
Table 39: Tool coverage of breastfeeding domains and value of use in different contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
Table 40: Number of articles by keywords (Medline, February 2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Table 41: Research papers included in literature review on maternal depression (Appendix F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Table 43: Discharge codes by country and by frequency (Appendix C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204
Table 44: Oedema by country and programme (Appendix C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
Table 45: Profile of 31 key informants interviewed (Appendix D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
Table 46: Cross-sectional studies on maternal depression and child malnutrition (Appendix F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Table 47: Longitudinal studies on maternal depression and child malnutrition (Appendix F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
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AFASS
AGREE
ARV
Antiretroviral drugs
BF
BFHI
BMS
Breastmilk substitute
CF
Complementary food
CFR
CHW
CIHD
CMAM
CSB
CTC
DC
Day Centre
DHS
EBF
EBM
ENN
GAM
HA
Height-for-Age
HAM
Height-for-Age % of median
HAZ
Height-for-Aged Z-score
HC
Head Circumference
HCW
Healthcare worker
HT
Home Treatment
IFE
IMCI
Infant(s) <6m
IPC
IUGR
IYCF
LBW
MAM
MAMI
MAMI Project
MDG
MoH
Ministry of Health
MSF
MUAC
NCHS
NGO
Non-Governmental Organization
NRU
Ops Guidance on IFE Operational Guidance on infant and young child feeding in emergencies
10
OTP
RCT
RSL
RUSF
RUTF
SAM
SC
Stabilisation Centre
SFC
SFP
SGA
SS
Supplementary Suckling
TFC
TFP
UNHCR
UTI
IASC
WA
Weight-for-age
WAM
Weight-for-age % of median
WAZ
Weight-for-age Z-score
WH
Weight-for-height
WHA
WHM
Weight-for-height % of median
WHZ
Weight-for-height Z-score
WHZ(WHO)
WHZ(NCHS)
WHO
WHO-GS
Executive Summary
Executive Summary
Child malnutrition is a major global public health
problem. In developing countries, it is estimated that
19 million children are severely wasted and
malnutrition is responsible for 11% of the total global
disease burden. Challenges in managing acute
malnutrition in infants <6m (MAMI) have been widely
reported over the past eight years. Non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) have undertaken different
interventions in response, sometimes guided by field
research. Until now, this accumulated body of
experience has remained disparate and largely hidden.
The aim of the MAMI Project was to investigate the
management of acutely malnourished infants <6m in
emergency programmes. The objectives were to:
Establish the burden of acute malnutrition is in this
age-group
Identify what guidelines, policies and strategies
currently stipulate with regard to case
management
Determine practice in the field and make
recommendations for future practice and research.
The MAMI Project focused on available treatment in
selective feeding programmes.
The MAMI Project was implemented from March
2008 to July 2009 in a partnership between the
Emergency Nutrition Network (ENN), University
College London Centre for International Child Health
and Development (CIHD) and Action Contre la Faim
(ACF). A research advisory group (RAG) and an
interagency steering group (IASG) informed research
questions and the process. A draft framework for the
management of acute malnutrition in infants <6m,
modelled on the UNICEF conceptual framework on the
causes of malnutrition, informed early planning and
was further developed during the course of the
project.
Guidelines review
A review of 14 international and 23 national guidelines
for management of acute malnutrition found wide
variation in the way acute malnutrition in infants <6m
is addressed. Some only implicitly recognise the
problem. Both inpatient and community-based
guidelines recommend inpatient care for severe acute
malnutrition (SAM) in infants <6m. They focus on
nutritional treatments with the aim of restoring
exclusive breastfeeding (using the supplementary
suckling technique). Very few guidelines give details of
moderate acute malnutrition (MAM) management in
infants <6m or infant and young child feeding/
breastfeeding support. MSF guidelines (2006), ACF
Assessment and Treatment of Malnutrition guidelines
(2002) and IFE Module 2 were found to be important
exceptions.
Field data
Based on 33 selective feeding programme datasets
from 21 countries, an analysis of individual and
summary level data on infants <6m found that this
demographic group accounted for 16% of admissions,
ranging from 1.2% in Uganda to 23.1% in Tajikistan.
The majority of infants <6m did not fulfil standard
anthropometric SAM criteria for admission. In line with
expectations, % mortality in infants <6m was
significantly higher than children aged 6 to 59 months
(4.7% vs. 4% respectively, p<0.01). Lack of survey data
on infants <6m meant it was not possible to compare
inpatient mortality figures with those of infants <6m in
the general population. Few countries met all Sphere
exit indicators for therapeutic care (Correction of
Malnutrition Standard 2); current Sphere Standards
have their limitations with regard to this age-group.
The analysis also showed that significant work is
needed to harmonize and improve the quality of field
11
Field experiences
Key informant interviews found that many therapeutic
feeding programmes struggle in treating malnourished
infants <6m. There is much inter-programme variation
in the profile of admission, with a combination of
clinical judgement and/or anthropometric indicators
often used to determine admission. Nutritional and
psychosocial care of the mother was often lacking.
Experiences with the supplementary suckling
technique were sometimes good but varied; staff time
and experience were important limiting factors.
Interviewees identified ways forward that centred on
admission criteria, guidance development, linking with
other services, building staff capacity and on the job
training and support.
Psychosocial considerations
WHO 1999 guidelines on treatment of SAM include
guidance on psychosocial support and stimulation for
children under five years and their mothers. The MAMI
Project identified little guidance on specific stimulation
activities for infants <6m, a lack of knowledge
concerning the impact of severe malnutrition in infants
<6m on psychosocial development, and little evidence
of the long term effects of psychosocial support on this
age group. Psychosocial stimulation is not currently
integrated into community-based management of
acute malnutrition (CMAM) recommendations and not
routinely integrated into emergency programmes in
general. Building upon a recent review of maternal
depression and child growth, our review indicates
evidence of the consequences of maternal depression
on breastfeeding, child development and the ability to
seek treatment. The available evidence is sufficient to
recommend detection and appropriate treatment of
maternal depression within the framework of
management of infant malnutrition. Strengthened
psychosocial stimulation/support of the inpatient
12
Antibiotics review
Our review of antibiotic use in infants <6m shows the
evidence base on antimicrobial treatment in infants
<6m is severely lacking, and for malnourished infants
and children needs urgently updating. Sensitivity to
amoxicillin, which is the commonest currently
recommended antibiotic, is low. There is a lack of
intervention trials. New trials are needed which use
current case definitions of acute malnutrition,
especially in settings where HIV is now prevalent.
Conclusions
The MAMI Project has found that the burden of care for
infants <6m is significant, the implications of the
rollout of the 2006 WHO Growth Standards for infants
<6m are important and need to be explored urgently,
the current evidence base for treating malnourished
infants <6m is relatively weak and that programmes
struggle using current guidelines to manage
malnourished infants <6m.Of most immediate concern
13
Chapter 1 Introduction
14
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Background to the MAMI Project
The management of acute malnutrition in infants under six months (MAMI) is currently hampered by poor
evidence on which to base guidelines. Both facility-based1 and community-based programmes2, 3 face
challenges in their management. Such challenges have been highlighted in recent published concerns,4, 5
documented field experiences and debate6, a WHO technical review of the management of severe
malnutrition7 and in the proceedings of the Infant Feeding in Emergencies (IFE) Core Group8.
As a result, infants under six months are admitted to programmes with variable capacity and skill to
manage them. Efforts have been made to stop-gap the lack of guidance9, 10 and operational agencies have
undertaken different interventions, sometimes guided by field research. Thus a body of experience in
MAMI has accumulated. However, this remains disparate and often exists as raw data or internal agency
documents. Once collated and formally analysed, however, these data are valuable and worthy of use as
an initial basis for investigation.
The Emergency Nutrition Network (ENN) was established in 1996 by international humanitarian agencies
to accelerate learning and improve institutional memory in the emergency food and nutrition sector.
Many of the challenges around MAMI have been highlighted to ENN in its flagship publication, Field
Exchange, and through its involvement in the IFE Core Group. The MAMI Project was conceptualised by
the ENN and implemented in collaboration with UCL Centre for International Child Health and
Development (CIHD) and Action Contre la Faim (ACF). MAMI was funded by the UNICEF-led Inter-Agency
Standing Committee (IASC) Nutrition Cluster.
Given the background and ENNs mandate, the MAMI Project is located in the emergency nutrition sector
and speaks especially to those concerned with humanitarian response.
Vision: Long term, all malnourished infants should receive effective, evidence-based care. There are
multiple competing health needs in vulnerable populations, therefore strategies to treat this group
should also be cost effective and achieve maximal possible public health impact.
Outputs: Evidence presented in the MAMI report will be used to form the basis of:
Summary report targeted at field staff, with an emphasis on content relevant to inform better practice
Published research
i
This first objective was not in the original project objectives, but was added following initial consultations with stakeholders.
15
It is hoped that the MAMI Project will provide a starting place for the development of a stronger evidence
base through further operational and formal research, leading to more formal best practice guidelines in
future.
Target audience: This report should be of particular interest to:
a) Policy makers, programme managers and clinicians involved in MAMI in emergency contexts and
nutritionally vulnerable settings.
b) Professionals in related disciplines with indirect involvement in MAMI, such as neonatal, reproductive
health, psychosocial, speech and language, breastfeeding counsellors and community development
specialists.
c) Researchers, students and others wishing to gain a rapid overview of current practices and key issues
surrounding MAMI.
Endnotes
1
2
3
7
8
10
11
16
WHO. (2009) Management of severe malnutrition: a manual for physicians and other senior health workers. Geneva: World Health
Organisation.
Valid International. (2006) Community-based Therapeutic Care (CTC). A Field Manual. Oxford: Valid International.
WHO, WFP, UNSCN & UNICEF. (2007) Community-based management of severe acute malnutrition. A Joint Statement by the World
Health Organization, the World Food Programme, the United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition and the United Nations
Childrens Fund.
Seal, A., Taylor, A., Gostelow, L. & McGrath, M. (2001) Review of policies and guidelines on infant feeding in emergencies: common
ground and gaps. Disasters. 2001 Jun; 25(2):136-48.
Seal, A., McGrath, M., Seal, A., Taylor, A. (2002) Infant feeding indicators for use in emergencies: an analysis of current recommendations
and practice. Public Health Nutr. 2002 Jun; 5(3):365-72.
Corbett, M. (2000) Infant feeding in a TFP, Field Exchange 9, p7; ENN (2000) ENN/GIFA Project, summary of presentation, Field Exchange
19, p28; ENN (2003) Diet and renal function in malnutrition, Summary of presentation, Field Exchange 19, p24; McGrath, M., Shoham, J
& OReilly, F. (2003) Debate on the management of severe malnutrition. Field Exchange 20, p16.
WHO. (2004) Severe malnutrition: Report of a consultation to review current literature. Geneva: World Health Organisation..
IFE Core Group (2006) Infant and Young Child Feeding in Emergencies. Making it Matter. Proceedings of an International Strategy
Meeting, 1-2 November 2006. IFE Core Group.
ENN (2004) Infant feeding in emergencies. Module 2. Version 1.0 Developed through collaboration of ENN, IBRAN, Terre des Hommes,
UNICEF, UNHCR, WHO, WFP. Core Manual (for training, practice and reference).
ENN et al. (2009) Integration of infant and young child feeding into CTC/CMAM. Manual.
MAINN (Maternal & Infant Nutrition & Nurture) Conference, UK, workshop session on MAMI led by Marko Kerac; CAPGAN (Commonwealth
Association of Paediatric Gastroenterology & Nutrition), Blantyre, Malawi, August 12th to 16th 2009; Sphere Regional Consultation,
Malawi, August 2009; MSF (Medecins Sans Frontiers) Scientific Day London, UK, June 11th 2009; Infant feeding in emergencies UNICEF
regional training, Nairobi, July, 2009; Working Group on Nutrition in Emergencies, SCN 1 day meeting, Bangkok, 10th October, 2009;
Nutrition Cluster Meeting, London, 20 October 2009; Sphere Core Meeting, London, 22-23 October, 2009
Chapter 2
Setting the scene
17
18
Infant and young child feeding in the context of HIV is an added challenge in emergency contexts:
The HIV pandemic and the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV through breastfeeding pose
unique challenges to the promotionof breastfeeding, even among unaffected families. Complex
emergencies, which are often characterized by population displacement food insecurity and armed
conflict, are increasing in numberand intensity, further compromising the care and feeding of infant
and young children the world over.
Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child Feeding. UNICEF/WHO, 2003.
Feeding practices are a key determinant of HIV-free child survival and an important MAMI consideration
(See Chapter 9).
Feeding differences
Infants <6m are unique in their dependence on breastfeeding (or a breastmilk substitute in non-breastfed
infants) to meet all their fluid and nutrient needs. The mother (or maternal substitute) is thus critical to
his/her nourishment. This dependence on breastfeeding for survival and the challenges of managing
infants where breastfeeding or breastmilk is not available have immense practical implications for the
management of acute malnutrition in this age-group.
19
Pathological differences
Because of underlying physiological differences and exposures, infants <6m also suffer from a different r
ange of pathologies compared to older children:
Some are different but overlap with older children, e.g. many bacterial infections occur at all ages but
some are more common in certain ages than others.
Some conditions are unique to infants <6m, e.g. certain types of congenital heart disease may not be
compatible with life much beyond birth.
Some conditions are relatively rare in infants, e.g. severe allergic reactions to food.
Weight loss
Growth faltering
Immunity lowered
Mucosal damage
Disease:
- incidence
- severity
- duration
Inadequate dietary
intake
Appetite loss
Nutrient loss
Malabsorption
Altered metabolism
Source: Tomkins & Watson, ACC/SCN, Geneva 1989. (In UNICEF State of the Worlds Children, 1998)
Figure 2: Bar chart showing deaths by age group in a feeding programme in Kabul
Deaths as % of admissions
20
15
10
20
0-5
6-11
12-17
18-23
24-29
30-35
36-47
48-59
OLDER PEOPLE
Malnourished
Inadequate
food, health
and care
BABY
Low birthweight
Inadequate
catch up
growth
Inadequate
foetal
nutrition
CHILD
Stunted
WOMEN
Malnourished
Reduced mental
capacity
PREGNANCY
Low weight gain
Higher maternal
mortality
Untimely/inadequate
feeding
Frequent infections
Inadequate food,
health and care
Inadequate food,
health and care
ADOLESCENT
Stunted
Inadequate food,
health and care
21
Context-specific Application
Universal Application
Figure 4: Key strategies, policies and guidance related to infant and young child
feeding in emergencies
Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNHCR, 1989
Global and
International Innocenti Declaration (1990; 2005)
Conventions, International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes
(WHO, 1981) and subsequent relevant World Health Assembly
Declarations
(WHA) Resolutions
and Standards
Guiding
Principles,
Strategies,
and Policies
Practical field-orientated
material; aim to assist with the
practical implementation of
guiding principles
22
Child malnutrition,
death and disability
Manifestations
of a problem
Inadequate dietary
intake
Insufficient
access to food
Inadequate and/or
inappropiate knowledge
and discriminatory
attitudes linit household
access to actual resources
Disease
Poor
water/sanitation
and inadequate
health services
Inadequate
maternal and
child-care
Immediate
causes
Underlying
causes at
household/
family level
Underlying
causes at
societal level
Potential resources:
environment, technology,
people
Source: UNICEF, 1998. The State of the Worlds Children.
23
Optimal IYCF44
MDG 7 (Ensure
environmental
sustainability)
WHO Guiding Principles for feeding infants and young children during emergencies (2004)
Published in 2004, the WHO Guiding Principles for feeding infants and young children during emergencies69
emphasises both optimal infant and young child feeding practices and the recognition and treatment of acute
malnutrition, detailed in ten guiding principles and summarised here (Box 3).
24
Box 3: Guiding principles for feeding infants and young children during emergencies
(WHO, 2004)
Principle 1
Infants born into populations affected by emergencies should normally be exclusively breastfed from birth to 6
months of age.
Principle 2
The aim should be to create and sustain an environment that encourages frequent breastfeeding for children
up to two years or beyond.
Principle 3
The quantity, distribution and use of breast-milk substitutes at emergency sites should be strictly controlled.
Principle 4
To sustain growth, development and health, infants from 6 months onwards and older children need
hygienically prepared, and easy-to-eat and digest, foods that nutritionally complement breast milk.
Principle 5
Caregivers need secure uninterrupted access to appropriate ingredients with which to prepare and feed
nutrient-dense foods to older infants and young children.
Principle 6
Because the number of caregivers is often reduced during emergencies as stress levels increase, promoting
caregivers coping capacity is an essential part of fostering good feeding practices for infants and young
children.
Principle 7
The health and vigour of infants and children should be protected so they are able to suckle frequently and
well and maintain their appetite for complementary foods.
Principle 8
Nutritional status should be continually monitored to identify malnourished children so that their condition can
be assessed and treated, and prevented from deteriorating further. Malnutritions underlying causes should be
investigated and corrected.
Principle 9
To minimize an emergencys negative impact on feeding practices, interventions should begin immediately.
The focus should be on supporting caregivers and channelling scarce resources to meet the nutritional needs
of the infants and young children in their charge.
Principle 10
Promoting optimal feeding for infants and young children in emergencies requires a flexible approach based
on continual careful monitoring.
25
26
Appropriate and timely support of infant and young child feeding in emergencies (IFE) saves lives.
2. Every agency should develop a policy on IFE. The policy should be widely disseminated to all staff,
agency procedures adapted accordingly and policy implementation enforced.
3.
Agencies should ensure the training and orientation of their technical and non-technical staff in IFE, using
available training materials.
4.
Within the United Nations (UN) Inter-agency Standing Committee (IASC) cluster approach to
humanitarian response, UNICEF is likely the UN agency responsible for co-ordination of IFE in the field.
Also, other UN agencies and NGOs have key roles to play in close collaboration with the government.
5.
Key information on infant and young child feeding needs to be integrated into routine rapid assessment
procedures. If necessary, more systematic assessment using recommended methodologies could be
conducted.
6.
Simple measures should be put in place to ensure the needs of mothers, infants and young children are
addressed in the early stages of an emergency. Support for other caregivers and those with special
needs, e.g. orphans and unaccompanied children, must also be established at the outset.
7.
Breastfeeding and infant and young child feeding support should be integrated into other services for
mothers, infants and young children.
8.
Foods suitable to meet the nutrient needs of older infants and young children must be included in the
general ration for food aid dependent populations.
9.
Donated (free) or subsidised supplies of breastmilk substitutes (e.g. infant formula) should be avoided.
Donations of bottles and teats should be refused in emergency situations. Any well-meant but ill-advised
donations of breastmilk substitutes, bottles and teats should be placed under the control of a single
designated agency.
10. The decision to accept, procure, use or distribute infant formula in an emergency must be made by
informed, technical personnel in consultation with the co-ordinating agency, lead technical agencies and
governed by strict criteria.
11. Breastmilk substitutes, other milk products, bottles and teats must never be included in a general ration
distribution. Breastmilk substitutes and other milk products must only be distributed according to
recognised strict criteria and only provided to mothers or caregivers for those infants who need them. The
use of bottles and teats in emergency contexts should be actively avoided.
Extracted from: Operational Guidance on IFE, v2.1, 2007
27
Nutritional oedema
(symmetrical)
No
Yes
Weight-for-Height
* Weight-for-height percent of median (WHM) is the ratio of the measured value in the individual to the median value of the reference data.
** Weight-for-height Z-scores (WHZ) are where -1 z-score is 1 standard deviation (SD) below the growth norm median and +1 Z is 1SD above.
Weight-for-age indicators are no longer used as a measure of acute malnutrition, however they are still
commonly used in growth monitoring. Related to the above definitions, GAM (Global Acute Malnutrition)
is another commonly used term. GAM = SAM + MAM.
28
Acute malnutrition
<80% of median weight for
height (<-2 SD-score)
or
bilateral pitting oedema
or
mid-upper arm
circumference <110mm
and
one of the following:
Anorexia
Severe
uncomplicated
malnutrition
Moderate
uncomplicated
malnutrition
Lower respiratory
tractinfection
Appetite
High fever
Alert
Clinically well
Appetite
Clinically well
Alert
Severe dehydration
Not alert
Inpatient
stabilisation care
Outpatient
therapeutic care
Outpatient
supplementary
feeding
Source: Collins & Yates, 2003
The MAMI Project focuses on secondary and tertiary treatment with specific reference to supplementary
feeding programmes (SFP) and therapeutic feeding programmes (TFP), collectively described as selective
feeding programmes. Primary prevention is critical but is beyond the scope of this investigation. SFP and
TFP (both inpatient and community-based) will now be described.
29
Table 3: NCHS and WHO-GS growth norms as applied to the case definition of acute
malnutrition
NCHS
WHO-GS
Reference
Standard
Mixed
yes
yes
SAM (% of median)
not used
MAM (% of median)
not used
SAM (z-score)
MAM (z-score)
-3 to <-2 WHZ
-3 to <-2 WHZ
MUAC-defined SAM
( 6 to59m children)
110mm
115mm
Key characterisitics
1 (reference)
SAM:
WHM (NCHS) to WHZ (WHO)
1 (reference)
MAM:
WHZ (NCHS) to WHZ (WHO)
1 (reference)
Inpatient treatment
Traditionally, all children with severe acute malnutrition (SAM) were treated in inpatient facilities
(therapeutic feeding centres, nutrition rehabilitation units or paediatric wards). The focus of such
30
treatment is to optimise the quality of care offered to individual children. This was often challenging in
resource limited settings; a 1995 review found case fatality rates (CFR) to be typically 20-30% and
sometimes as high as 60%.85 Poor case management was identified as a major cause. In 1999 the WHO
Management of severe malnutrition: a manual for physicians and other senior health workers was
produced as part of an international initiative to improve case management of SAM.86 87 88 Training
materials support these guidelines.
According to the WHO guidelines, children with SAM are treated in two main phases, following a ten
steps approach to care89 (see Figure 7). During initial treatment (stabilisation phase) therapeutic milk F75
is used; during rehabilitation F100 is used following a short transition period. Medical treatment include
routine use of antibiotics and the importance of psychosocial support is also recognised. In the WHO
(1999) guidelines, infants <6m are implicitly part of the < 5 year old group, but are not dealt with
separately recognising the differences from older children (this is discussed more detail in Chapter 4).
Stabilisation Phase
Step
Days 1 2
Days 3 7
Rehabilition Phase
Weeks 2 6
1. Hypoglycaemia
2. Hypothemia
3. Dehydration
4. Electrolytes
5. Infection
6. Micronutrients
no iron
with iron
7. Cautious feeding
8. Catch-up growth
9. Sensory stimulation
10. Prepare for follow-up
Source: Ashworth et al, 200390
31
e) After stabilisation, patients are returned to the OTP to complete rehabilitation (phase 2) in the
community.
f) Following recovery from OTP treatment, patients are often referred to SFP (if available).
In current guidelines, RUTF is not recommended for infants <6m; infants <6m with SAM are considered
complicated cases and are referred for inpatient treatment (this is explored in more detail in Chapter 4).
Referral
Death
SC
OTP
Stabilisation
Active case
finding
Death
Default
Community
Mobilisation
SFP
OTP: Outpatient therapeutic programme
SFP: Supplementary Feeding Programme
SC: Stabilisation Centre
Death
Default
Source: Valid International, 2006.95
32
Endnotes
Endnotes
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
33
Endnotes
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
34
Gupta, A. and J. E. Rohde (1993) Economic value of breast-feeding in India. Economic and Political Weekly 28(26): 1390-93.
Connolly, K. D. (2004-05) The ecology of breastfeeding. Southeastern Environmental Law Journal 13: 157-70.
Schultink, W., M. Arabi, et al. (2009) Effective nutrition programming for children and the role of UNICEF: consensus points from an
expert consultation. Food & Nutrition Bulletin 30(2): 189-96.
Resolution 34.22 (1981)
WHO (1981) The International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes. Full Code and relevant WHA resolutions are at:
http://www.who.int/nut/documents/code_english.PDF
WHO (2004). Guiding Principles for feeding infants and young children during emergencies.
Sphere (2004) Sphere Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response. Available from:
http://www.sphereproject.org/content/view/27/84/lang,English/.
The Sphere Project Reference. Guidance notes in the handbook provide specific points to consider when applying the standards and
indicators in different situations, guidance on tackling practical difficulties, and advice on priority issues. They may also describe
dilemmas, controversies or gaps in current knowledge.
Morris, S.S., Cogill, B., LUauy, R. (2008) Effective international action against undernutrition: why has it proven so difficult and what can
be done to accelerate progress? for the Maternal and Child Undernutrition Study Group, Published Online. January 17, 2008
IFE Core Group. Operational Guidance on IFE for programme staff and relief workers. v2.1, February 2007.
WHO (1995) Physical status: the use and interpretation of anthropometry. Report of a WHO Expert Committee. Technical Report Series
No. 854.
WHO. (1999) Management of severe malnutrition: a manual for physicians and other senior health workers. World Health Organisation.
Geneval: World Health Organisation..
WHO & UNICEF (2009) WHO child growth standards and the identification of severe acute malnutrition in infants and children. A joint
statement by the World Health Organization and the United Nations Children's Fund. May.
Myatt, M., Khara, T. & Collins, S. (2006) A review of methods to detect cases of severely malnourished children in the community for their
admission into community-based therapeutic care programs. Food Nutr Bull. 2006 Sep;27(3 Suppl):S7-23.
Collins, S. & Yates, R. (2003) The need to update the classification of acute malnutrition. Lancet. 2003 Jul 19;362(9379):249.
de Onis, M. & Habicht, J.P. (1996) Anthropometric reference data for international use: recommendations from a World Health
Organization Expert Committee. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996 Oct;64(4):650-8.
de Onis, M., Garza, C., Habicht, J.P. (1997) Time for a new growth reference. Pediatrics. 1997 Nov;100(5):E8.
World Health Organization. The WHO child growth standards: Available from: http://www.who.int/childgrowth/standards/en/.
(2006) Enrolment and baseline characteristics in the WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study. Acta Paediatr Suppl. 2006 Apr;450:7-15.
WHO & UNICEF (2009) WHO child growth standards and the identification of severe acute malnutrition in infants and children. A joint
statement by the World Health Organization and the United Nations Children's Fund.
IASC (Inter-Agency Standing Committee) Nutrition Cluster Informal Consultation, Geneva, June 25-27 2008.
Schofield, C. & Ashworth, A. (1996) Why have mortality rates for severe malnutrition remained so high? Bull World Health Organ.
1996;74(2):223-9.
Deen, J.L., Funk, M., Guevara, V.C., Saloojee, H., Doe, J.Y., Palmer, A., et al. (2003) Implementation of WHO guidelines on management of
severe malnutrition in hospitals in Africa. Bull World Health Organ. 2003;81(4):237-43.
WHO (2003) Training course on the management of severe malnutrition. Geneva: World Health Organisation.
Bhan, M.K., Bhandari, N., Bahl, R. (2003) Management of the severely malnourished child: perspective from developing countries. British
Medical Journal. 2003 Jan 18;326(7381):146-51.
WHO (1999) Management of severe malnutrition : a manual for physicians and other senior health workers. Geneva: World Health
Organization.
Ashworth, et al. (2003) Guidelines for the inpatient treatment of severely malnourished children. Geneva: World Health Organisation.
Khara, T. & Collins, S. (2004) Community-based Therapeutic Care (CTC). ENN (Emergency Nutrtion Network) Supplement Series No2.
November 2004.
Collins, S. (2001) Changing the way we address severe malnutrition during famine. Lancet. 2001 Aug 11;358(9280):498-501.
Grobler-Tanner, C. & Collins, S. (2004) Community Therapeutic Care(CTC). A new approach to managing acute malnutrition in
emergencies and beyond: FANTA (Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance)2004. Report No.: 8 (Technical Report).
WHO, WFP & UNICEF (2007) Community-based management of severe acute malnutrition. A Joint Statement by the World Health
Organization, the World Food Programme, the United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition and the United Nations Childrens
Fund.
Valid International (2006) International. Community-based Therapeutic Care (CTC). A Field Manual. Oxford: Valid International.
Chapter 3
How big is the problem?
35
3.2 Aims
This chapter aims to:
Describe the prevalence of wasting amongst infant <6m in nutritionally vulnerable settings
Examine how new case definitions based on WHO-GS affect the burden of disease
Explore key characteristics of wasted infants <6m
Wasting (weight-for-height <-2 z-scores) was described rather than global acute malnutrition (weight-forheight <-2z and/or bilateral oedema) since analysis was conducted on Demographic & Health Survey
(DHS) datasets that do not gather data on oedematous malnutrition.
36
3.3.2Data handling
Permission to download DHS datasets was obtained from http://www.measuredhs.com/accesssurveys/
search/start.cfm. Data management and main analyses used SPSSv.15 ( SPSS Inc USA). Weight for height
Z scores (WHZ) (using both NCHS references and WHO-GS), were calculated from weight, height/length,
sex and age using ENA for SMART software (version October 2007).106 Cases with extreme values were
cleaned according to standard criteria.107 These exclude individuals with:
To ensure a balanced comparison, if a childs z-scores were valid by these NCHS criteria, then the same
childs WHZ(WHO) was considered valid.
37
3.4 Results
3.4 Results
3.4.1 Country prevalence of infant <6m and child wasting: is it an
emergency?
Wasting was prevalent in the countries examined, but there were large age-group and inter-country
variations (see Figure 9).
Figure 9a shows infant <6m wasting. Countries are ordered by increasing infant <6m wasting prevalence
(NCHS). Prevalence is lowest using NCHS growth references. Even so, only 7/21 countries have acceptably
low infant <6m wasting prevalence (<3% by the IPC classification). One has prevalence of >15% and is
therefore defined a humanitarian emergency. Using WHO-GS for diagnosis, the prevalence of infant <6m
wasting increases markedly: only 1/21 countries remain with an acceptably low <3% prevalence and
11/21 are in the humanitarian emergency class.
Figure 9b, shows that NCHS/WHO changes amongst children aged six to 59 months are minimal. With
NCHS-based diagnosis, 3/21 countries have a low <3% prevalence of child wasting. Two have a high
humanitarian emergency level. Using WHO-GS based diagnosis, the IPC classification of countries does
not change.
Figure 9: Country prevalence of wasting (WHZ <-2) as defined by NCHS and WHO-GS
a) Infants <6m
Famine
% wasting
30%
Humanitarian emergency
NCHS
20%
WHO
Acute crisis
10%
Moderately insecure
India
Burkina Faso
Mali
Nigeria
Egypt
Ethiopia
Ghana
Madagascar
Niger
Kenya
Malawi
Zambia
Cambodia
Cameroon
Bangladesh
Guatemala
Cote DIvoire
Tanzania
Mozambique
Turkey
Peru
0%
b) Infants 6-59m
% wasting
30%
NCHS
20%
WHO
10%
38
India
Burkina Faso
Mali
Nigeria
Egypt
Ethiopia
Ghana
Madagascar
Niger
Kenya
Malawi
Zambia
Cambodia
Cameroon
Bangladesh
Guatemala
Cote DIvoire
Mozambique
Turkey
Tanzania
Peru
0%
3.4 Results
Figure 10: Weight cut-offs used to define wasting by either NCHS or WHO-GS criteria (boys)
10.0
tt t
tttt t
nn
nn
nn
nn
nn n
nn
nn
nn
n nn
2.0
1.0
n nn
nnn
1 year
nnn
nn
n
nn
nn
nn n
nnn
nn
6 months
n
nn n
tt
3.0
nn
t tt t
t
4.0
tt
tt
Weight (kg)
5.0
tt
tt
tt
tt
tt
tt
t
tt
6.0
n
nnn
t
tt
tt t
t
7.0
n
nn
tt
-2 z-score NCHS
tt
-2 z-score WHO
8.0
t
tt
tt
tt
tt
tt t
tt
tt
tt
9.0
0.0
49.0
52.0
55.0
58.0
61.0
64.0
67.0
70.0
76.0
79.0
Length (cm)
39
3.4 Results
Figure 11: Scatter plots of country prevalence (NCHS v WHO) of severe and moderate
wasting
b) Age-specific prevalence of moderate wasting, by
NCHS or WHO
20
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
x=y
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
20
10
12
14
16
18 20
Figure key: Regression and identity lines are shown. Each country survey is represented by one filled and one unfilled circle.
Figure 12: Scatter plot on effect of switch from NCHS to WHO-GS on age profile of selective
feeding programme admissions
a) % of Therapeutic Feeding Programme admissions
x=y
36
32
28
24
20
16
12
8
4
0
0
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
40
x=y
36
32
28
24
20
16
12
8
4
0
0
12
Figure key: Regression and identity lines are shown. Each circle represents one country survey.
40
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
3.4 Results
From
(95% C.I.)
Constant
r2
0.56
(0.37 0.75)
0.23
0.66
1.42
(1.14 1.72)
1.53
0.84
(95% C.I.)
Constant
r2
From
3.54
(2.63 4.44)
2.30
0.78
1.68
(1.51 1.84)
0.12
0.96
1.43
(1.08 1.79)
2.02
0.79
0.73
(-0.05 1.51)
15.28
0.17
(95% C.I.)
Constant
r2
From
0.73
(-0.05 1.51)
15.28
0.17
1.59
(1.21 1.96)
3.31
0.80
NCHS: National Centre for Health Statistics references; WHO-GS: World Health Organisation growth standards.
Figure 13: Age profile of severely wasted infants (NCHS and WHO-GS)
a) NCHS
b) WHO-GS
22%
8%
9%
19%
15%
17%
15%
16%
22%
Age in months
21%
18%
17%
0
41
3.4 Results
b) Sex profile
Male: female ratio of severely wasted infants is reasonably balanced (Figure 14), but differs according to
the growth norm used. WHZ-NCHS has a slight excess in females and WHZ-WHO an excess in males.
Figure 14: Sex profile of severely wasted infants (NCHS and WHO-GS)
a) NCHS
b) WHO-GS
47%
52%
48%
53%
Sex of child
Male
Female
Figure 15: Reported birth size of severely wasted infants <6m (NCHS and WHO-GS)
a) NCHS (n=257)
14%
b) WHO-GS (n=1337)
7%
15%
7%
8%
1%
7%
18%
18%
55%
Size of child at birth
53%
Very large
Very small
Average
DK
Although LBW does not underlie the majority of cases of infant <6m wasting, LBW infants do appear to
have elevated risk of subsequently developing both severe and moderate wasting compared to normal
birth weight infants (see Figures 16 and 17). Interestingly, this is most pronounced in those under six
months and when using WHO-GS diagnostic criteria.
42
3.4 Results
a) Infants <6m
12%
10%
8%
NCHS
6%
WHO
4%
2%
0%
b) children 6 to 59m
12%
10%
8%
NCHS
6%
WHO
4%
2%
0%
Very large
Larger
than
average
Average
Smaller
than
average
Very
small
DK
a) Infants <6m
15%
10%
NCHS
WHO
5%
0%
b) children 6 to 59m
15%
10%
NCHS
WHO
5%
0%
Very large
Larger
than
average
Average
Smaller
than
average
Very
small
DK
43
3.5 Discussion
3.5 Discussion
The analysis shows that wasting among infants <6m is a prevalent public health problem. The prevalence
of wasting in infants <6m is significant using both NCHS and WHO-GS. Disease burden is greatest,
however, using WHO-GS for diagnosis. With forthcoming international rollout of WHO-GS for feeding
programmes in emergency and other nutritionally vulnerable settings urgent follow-on work is needed to
explore the reasons for and implications of our observations. Some initial ideas follow.
44
3.5 Discussion
3.5.4 Limitations
Future work is needed to address the limitations of data presented in this chapter. TFPs admit cases of
severe wasting and/or oedematous malnutrition. This analysis looks at wasting alone since DHS data do
not include oedema. Thus the full implications for TFP admissions are not reflected here.
There is no data on the timing or nature of the observed wasting to strategise on interventions, e.g. the
contribution of HIV to malnutrition in this age group. It is important to repeat these analyses in different
settings to explore their wider generalisability. Age-specific effects may be very situation dependent.
Further investigation is also needed into how accurately anthropometric measurement in infants <6m is
conducted in routine surveys, such as DHS.
It is critical to note that these analyses have focused on z score comparisons. Z-scores are the international
standard for surveys reporting on the prevalence of wasting and results are used to plan programmes.
However, many selective feeding programmes use a closely related but not identical weight-for-height %
of median (WHM) indicator (<70% WHM = severe wasting; 70 to <80% WHM = moderate wasting). Both z-
45
scores (NCHS) and % of median (NCHS) are recognized in current WHO protocols for the management of
acute malnutrition.129 In contrast, tables using WHO-GS only present z-scores. The magnitude of WHMNCHS to WHZ-WHO changes may differ from WHZ-NCHS to WHZ-WHO changes. This urgently needs to be
explored to determine more accurately how the shift to WHZ-WHO will manifest at field level for infants
<6m.
Lastly, it is important to establish how well different anthropometric indicators predict mortality and
which indicator(s) best identifies infants <6m who will benefit from selective feeding programme
admission. It is also important to know the nature of the risk profile; whether there is a linear increase in
mortality risk with decreasing weight, or whether there is a threshold beyond which there are marked risk
increases.
Summary recommendations
A risk-benefit analysis of a potential large increase in infants <6m presenting to selective feeding
programmes is needed. A priority investigation is how single and serial growth measures and chart
position is interpreted by health workers using NCHS v WHO-GS based charts.
Feeding programmes should more actively consider likely prevalence of infant <6m wasting, for example,
nutrition surveys should more routinely include infants <6m to establish local burden of disease. This
requires training specific to assessment in this age group and appropriate equipment.
The MAMI analysis could be used to approximate infant <6m wasting prevalence. This should only be
done as a stop gap measure where there is complete absence of other information. Further validation is
needed before this could be considered a reliable or precise approach.
The implications of moving from WHM using NCHS to WHZ based on WHO-GS urgently needs to be
explored to determine more accurately how the shift to WHO-GS will affect individual diagnosis and
outcomes for infants <6m in pre-existing programmes.
Further research is also needed into the prevalence of oedematous infant <6m SAM, whether WHZ is the
best indicator for this age, how well different anthropometric indicators predict mortality, and the clinical
profile of malnourished infants <6m.
46
Endnotes
Endnotes
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
Posting to Child 2015 (Child Healthcare Information and Learning Discussion-group) online discussion group. 2009. [26.3.2009];
Available from: www.hifa2015.org/child2015-forum.
WHO. (1995) Field guide on rapid nutritional assessment in emergencies. World Health Organisation. Regional office for the Eastern
Mediterranean.
Seal, A. & Kerac, M. (2006) Operational implications of using 2006 World Health Organization growth standards in nutrition programmes:
secondary data analysis. BMJ. 2007 April 7, 2007;334(7596):733.
Fenn, B. & Penny, M.E. (2008) Using the New World Health Organisation Growth Standards: Differences From 3 Countries. Journal of
Pediatric Gastroenterology & Nutrition. 2008;46(3):316-21.
Seal, A. & Kerac, M. (2006) Operational implications of using 2006 World Health Organization growth standards in nutrition programmes:
secondary data analysis. BMJ. 2007 April 7, 2007;334(7596):733.
Seal, A. & Kerac, M. (2006) Operational implications of using 2006 World Health Organization growth standards in nutrition programmes:
secondary data analysis. BMJ. 2007 April 7, 2007;334(7596):733.
Isanaka, S., Villamor, E., Shepherd, S. & Grais, R.F. (2009) Assessing the Impact of the Introduction of the World Health Organization
Growth Standards and Weight-for-Height z-Score Criterion on the Response to Treatment of Severe Acute Malnutrition in Children:
Secondary Data Analysis. Pediatrics. 2009 January 1, 2009;123(1):e54-9.
Transitioning to the WHO Growth Standards: Implications for Emergency Nutrition Programmes. IASC (Inter-agency Standing Committee)
Nutrition Cluster Informal Consultation. Geneva, 25th-27th June 2008.
DHS are large, nationally representative surveys (http://www.measuredhs.com/). Standardized methodologies across and within different
countries help to miniise variable related biases.
Black, R.E., Allen, L.H., Bhutta, Z.A., Caulfield, L.E., de Onis, M., Ezzati, M., et al. (2008) Maternal and child undernutrition: global and
regional exposures and health consequences. Lancet. 2008 Jan 19;371(9608):243-60.
Emergency Nutrition Assessment (ENA) software for Standardized Monitoring and Assessment of Relief and Transitions (SMART). Version
October 2007.
Dean, A.G., Dean, J.A., Coulombier, D., Brendel, K.A., Smith, D.C., Burton, A.H., Dicker, R.C., Sullivan, K., Fagan, R.F., Arner, T.G. (2006)
Epi Info, Version 6: a word processing, database, and statistics program for public health on IBM-compatible microcomputers. Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A., 1996. (USER MANUAL).
IPC Global Partners. (2008) Integrated Food Security Phase Classification Technical Manual. Version 1.1. FAO. Rome. ISBN: 978-92-5106027-8 Reprint 2009.
WHO (1983) Measuring change in nutritional status. Geneva: World Health Organisation.
World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards 2006.
UNICEF. ChildInfo: monitoring the situation of women and children [cited 2009 4th February]: Available from:
http://www.childinfo.org/breastfeeding_countrydata.php.
Jones, G., Steketee, R.W., Black, R.E., Bhutta, Z.A., Morris, S.S. (2003) How many child deaths can we prevent this year? Lancet. 2003
Jul 5;362(9377):65-71.
WHO child growth standards : length/height-for-age, weight-for-age, weight-for-length, weight-forheight and body mass index-for-age :
methods and development. (Technical Report).
Angood, C. (2006) Weighing scales for young infants: a survey of relief workers. Field Exchange. 2006(29):11-2.
Tilley, N. (2008) An investigation of anthropometric training by NGOs, Naomi Tilley, Field Exchange Issue 32, January 2008.
Training Course on Child Growth Assessment, WHO Child Growth Standards, B Measuring a Childs Growth, WHO Department of Nutrition
for Health and Development.
de Onis, M., Onyango, A.W., Borghi, E., Garza, C., Yang, H. (2006) Comparison of the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth
Standards and the National Center for Health Statistics/WHO international growth reference: implications for child health programmes.
Public Health Nutr. 2006 Oct;9(7):942-7.
Prost, M.A., Jahn, A., Floyd, S., Mvula, H., Mwaiyeghele, E., Mwinuka, V, et al. (2008) Implication of new WHO growth standards on
identification of risk factors and estimated prevalence of malnutrition in rural Malawian infants. PLoS ONE. 2008;3(7):e2684.
Collins, S., Dent, N., Binns, P., Bahwere, P., Sadler, K., Hallam, A. (2006) Management of severe acute malnutrition in children. Lancet.
2006 Dec 2;368(9551):1992-2000.
Black, R.E., Allen, L.H., Bhutta, Z.A., Caulfield, L.E., de Onis, M., Ezzati, M., et al. (2008) Maternal and child undernutrition: global and
regional exposures and health consequences. Lancet. 2008 Jan 19;371(9608):243-60.
WHO, WFP & UNICEF (2007) Community-based management of severe acute malnutrition. A Joint Statement by the World Health
Organization, the World Food Programme, the United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition and the United Nations Childrens
Fund.
WHO. (1999) Management of severe malnutrition: a manual for physicians and other senior health workers. World Health Organisation.
Geneva: World Health Organisation.
Binns, C. & Lee, M. (2006) Will the new WHO growth references do more harm than good? Lancet. 2006 Nov 25;368(9550):1868-9.
Victora, C.G., Smith, P.G., Vaughan, J.P., Nobre, L.C., Lombardi, C., Teixeira, A.M., et al. (1987) Evidence for protection by breast-feeding
against infant deaths from infectious diseases in Brazil. Lancet. 1987 Aug 8;2(8554):319-22.
Black, R.E., Allen, L.H., Bhutta, Z.A., Caulfield, L.E., de Onis, M., Ezzati, M., et al. (2008) Maternal and child undernutrition: global and
regional exposures and health consequences. Lancet. 2008 Jan 19;371(9608):243-60.
WHO. (2004) Severe malnutrition: Report of a consultation to review current literature. Geneva, Switzerland, 06 - 07 September, 2004.
Binns, C., Lee, M. (2006) Will the new WHO growth references do more harm than good? Lancet. 2006 Nov 25;368(9550):1868-9.
de Onis ,M. & Onyango, A.W. (2003) WHO child growth standards. Lancet. 2008 Jan 19;371(9608):204.
Ashworth, A., et al. (2003) Guidelines for the inpatient treatment of severely malnourished children. Geneva: World Health Organisation.
47
Chapter 4
Review of MAMI guidelines
48
4.2 Methods
SAM and MAM guidelines and protocols (collectively referred to as guidelines from heron) were identified
by purposive sampling of:
Published guidelines available in print and on-line
Final and draft guidelines, obtained via MAMI steering group members and key informants.
Key themes and topics relevant to infants <6m were identified and tabulated. Internationally recognised
AGREE (Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation) criteria were used to appraise guideline
quality130 (see Box 5). A formal AGREE scoring was not applied to each individual guideline, as this was
beyond the scope of the MAMI Project. Instead an overview discussion highlights common issues.
49
4.2 Methods
50
quality of implementation or patient profiles. Common terminologies and shared understandings also
enable global sharing of ideas and staff exchange. A possible disadvantage of having guidelines that
come as a package, is that individual elements become standard and difficult to withhold, even if the
underlying evidence for them is slim.
51
Guideline
Date CMAM
or
Inpatient
only
Authors / contributors
SAM
or
MAM
focus
language
Local notes
NGO or
consultant
International guidelines:
Management 1999 Inpatient
of severe
only
malnutrition:
a manual for
physicians &
other senior
health
workers*
SAM
English,
FIN
Spanish,
French,
Portuguese
n/a
n/a
n/a
WHO
SAM
English,
French,
Spanish
FIN
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
WHO
Manual for
2008 CMAM
the health
care of
children in
humanitarian
emergencies
both
SAM
and
MAM
English
FIN
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
available on WHO
website:
http://whqlibdoc.who.
int/publications/2008/
9789241596879_eng.pdf
WHO
SAM
English,
FIN
French,
Portuguese,
Russian
n/a
n/a
n/a
WHO
Handbook
2005 n/a
IMCI
Integrated
Management
of Childhood
Illness*
MAM
English,
(for SAM French
guidance
is to
refer to
hospital)
FIN
n/a
n/a
Action
Contre la
Faim
(Claudine
Prudhon)
both
SAM
and
MAM
English
FIN
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
MSF
Nutrition
Guidelines
(1st edition)
both
SAM
and
MAM
English
FIN
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
International
WHO
52
1995 inpatient
only
Table 5 contd
Guideline type
Region Country or
Organization
Guideline
Authors / contributors
Date CMAM
or
Inpatient
only
Local notes
NGO or
consultant
May CMAM
2006
both
SAM
and
MAM
English
FIN
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Update of 1995
guidelines,
though available in
electronic version rather
as a book
International
International guidelines:
MSF
Nutrition
Guidelines
MSF
Guideline
Oct n/a
Infants less
2007
than 6months
old (Benson)
MSF - OCBA
SAM
English
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Valid
International
Communitybased
Therapeutic
Care (CTC), A
field manual
(first edition)
2006 CMAM
both
SAM
and
MAM
English
FIN
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
UNHCR
both
SAM
and
MAM
English
FIN
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Available online
http://www.unhcr.org/
publ/PUBL/ 471db4c92.
html
NB Interesting to note
that 3rd edition has
significantly more IYCF
detail than 2nd
UNHCR
The
2000 Inpatient
management
only
of Nutrition
in Major
Emergencies
both
SAM
and
MAM
English
FIN
n/a
n/a
n/a
IFE Core
Group
Infant
Dec n/a
Feeding in
2007
Emergencies
IFE module 2,
version 1.1
for health
and nutrition
workers in
emergency
situations, for
training,
practice and
reference
SAM
English
FIN
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Training module
covering externsive
details of IYCF especially
skilled breastfeeding
support produced in UN
and NGO collaboration
with expert collaborators
and review. Includes a
chapter dedicated to
management of acutely
malnourished infants
<6m (Chapter 8),
supported by content in
other chapters. Available
on ENN website:
http://www.ennonline.
net/resources/view.aspx?
resid=4
ICRC
(International
Committee of
the Red Cross)
Nutrition
Aug n/a
Manual for
2008
Humanitarian
Action
English
FIN
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
53
Table 5 contd
Guideline type
Region Country or
Organization
Guideline
Date CMAM
or
Inpatient
only
Authors / contributors
Local
notes
NGO or
consultant
1. a) Eastern Africa
National guidelines
Burundi
Protocole
National de
Nutrition
Ethiopia
Protocol for
Mar CMAM
the
2007
Management
of Severe
Acute
Malnutrition
Madagascar
Depistage et
prise en
charge de la
malnutrition
aigue
Malawi
Mozambique Manual de
Orientacao
para
Tratamento
da
Desnutricao
Aguda Grave
54
Aug Inpatient
2002 only
Sep CMAM
2007
Jun CMAM
2008
French
FIN
SAM
only
English
FIN
no
both
SAM
and
MAM
French
FIN
SAM
English
FIN
One of a set of
guidelines on acute
malnutrition - others
focus on CMAM.
Separate MAM / CMAM
guidelines available
both
SAM
and
MAM
Portugese Dr
Tanzania
both English
SAM
(main
focus)
and
MAM
FIN
includes checklist of
SAM management
Uganda
Integrated
Nov inpatient
Management 2006 only
of Acute
Malnutrition
both
SAM
and
MAM
English
Dr
reference made to
separate guidelines
focused on therapeutic
feeding centres
Zambia
Integrated
2009 CMAM
Management
of Acute
Malnutrition
both English
SAM
(main
focus)
and
MAM
Dr
includes supervision
checklist
Zimbabwe
both English
SAM
(main
focus)
and
MAM
FIN
n/s
guidelines include:
1) supervision checklist
2) indicators for
assessing quality &
appropriateness
Reference also made to
the "Zimbabwe
therapeutic feeding
protocol" which outlines
details of infant <6m
care
Table 5 contd
Guideline type
Region Country or
Organization
Guideline
Date CMAM
or
Inpatient
only
Authors / contributors
Local
notes
NGO or
consultant
1.d) Southern
Africa
National guidelines
DRC
Protocol
Oct
CMAM
National de
2008
Prise en Charge
de la
Malnutrition
Aigue
French
FIN
Acknowledgements
page blank
Sudan
(Southern)
SAM
English
Dr
references WHO
(1999), Valid (2006)
& Golden & Grellety
as sources
Sudan
(North)
National
Jan CMAM
Integrated
2008
Manual on the
Management
of Severe Acute
Malnutrition
in health
facilities & at
community
level
SAM
English
Dr
n/s
Botswana
SAM
English
Dr
Burkina
Faso
None yet - in
draft
both
SAM
and
MAM
French
Dr
Cote
D'Ivoire
Protocole
May
National de
2005
Prise en charge
de la
malnutrition
severe
French
FIN
Guinea
Protocole
May CMAM
National de
2008
Prise en Charge
de la
Malnutrition
Aigue
SAM
and
MAM
French
FIN
Mali
Protocole
Dec CMAM
National de la 2007
prise en charge
de la
malnutrition
aigue
SAM
and
MAM
French
Dr
Niger
Protocol
Dec CMAM
National de
2006
Prise en Charge
de la
Malnutrition
Aigue
both
SAM
and
MAM
French
FIN
n/s
CMAM
Inpatient only
(CMAM type
home
treatment
noted in
annex
55
Table 5 contd
Authors / contributors
Guideline type
notes
Local
NGO or
consultant
Date CMAM
or
Inpatient
only
May CMAM
2008
both
SAM
and
MAM
French
FIN
June CMAM
Afghanistan Community2008
based
Management of
Acute
Malnutrition
programme in
Aqcha and
Mardyan
District of
Jawzjan
Province
Northern
Afghanistan
(Stabilization
Centre
Guidelines)
SAM
English
Dr
No
compiled by Save
the Children UK
India
English
FIN
No
Published in
journal 'Indian
Paediatrics,
(2007: 44: 443-61)
Pakistan
English
Dr
Sri Lanka
n/s
None yet - in
draft
Management of
Severe Acute
Undernutrition:
Manual for
Health Workers
in Sri Lanka
both
SAM
and
MAM
French
Dr
Region Country or
Organization
Guideline
National guidelines
Senegal
Protocole de
prise en charge
de la
malnutrition
aigue
CMAM
*These WHO resources are the same guideline produced in different formats.
56
MUAC
MUAC is increasingly used in SAM/MAM guidelines. It is an independent admission criterion noted
alongside weight-for-height, and in a small number or guidelines (Valid 2006, Uganda 2006), it is the
major case definition criterion. No guidelines recommend its use in infants <6m.
57
Date Growth
'norm'
(alternative,
if noted)
Index
(WH:
weight for
height;
WA:
weight or
age)
Main
Recommended
indicator
(+ alternative, if
noted)
Indicator
presented
in tables
(if shown)
Case
definition
SAM
(in all
guidelines,
oedema
=SAM)
MUACbased case
definition
of SAM
Case
MUACNotes
definition based
MAM
case
definition
of MAM
International guidelines
WHO
Management
of severe
malnutrition:
a manual for
physicians &
other senior
health
workers
1999 NCHS
WH
z-score
(% of median)
WHZ
<-3 WHZ
(NCHS)
(<70%
boys & girls WHM)
split sex
tables
not used
Length
measured if child
<85cm or <2
years.
Height if >85cm
or >2years
WHO
WH
z-score
(% of median)
WHZ
<-3 WHZ
(NCHS)
(<70%
boys & girls WHM)
split sex
tables
not used
-3 WHZ
<-2
(70 to
79%
WHM)
not used
Length
measured if child
<85cm & height
if >85cm
WHO
Manual for
2008 n/s
the health
care of
children in
humanitarian
emergencies
WA
no visible
severe
wasting,
MUAC
>110mm
very low
weightfor-age
n/s
WHO
Pocket book
of Hospital
care for
children
WH
z-score
OR
% of median
WHZ
<-3 WHZ
not used
(NCHS)
OR
boys & girls <70% WHM
split sex
tables
n/s
n/s
Length
measured if child
<85cm & height
if >85cm
WHO
Handbook
2005 n/s
IMCI
Integrated
Management
of Childhood
Illness
WA
Visible severe
wasting
Low weightfor-age
weight-for Low
-age chart weight-forshow in
age
annex, but
lines are
not labelled
not used
n/s
n/s
notes that on
weighing child
should wear light
clothing
Action
Contre la
Faim
(Claudine
Prudohn)
WH
% of median
(WA is
(z-score)
described)
WHM
<70% WHM
(NCHS/
(<-3 Z-score
WHO 1982)
combined
sex WHZ
(NCHS/
WHO 1983)
split sex
<110mm
(noted as
controversial
if length
<75cm)
WHM
70%
and
<80%
(WHZ 3 and
<-2)
110mm
and
<120mm
Length
measured if <2
years age, height
if >2year
(85cm a proxy if
age unknown)
Noted that WHM
predicts death
better than WHZ.
Use WHZ only
when WHM
rejects a high risk
child
MSF
Nutrition
Guidelines
(1st edition)
WH
WHM
<70% WHM
(NCHS/
(<-3 ZWHO 1982) score)
combined
sex WHZ
(NCHS/
WHO 1983)
split sex
<110mm
(if child >12
months or
>75cm
length)
WHM
70%
and
<80%
(WHZ 3 and
<-2)
<135mm
referred
for screen,
but only
enrolled if
fulfils
WHM or
WHZ
criteria
Length
measured if <2
years age, height
if >2years
(85cm a proxy if
age unknown)
58
2005 NCHS
1995 NCHS
% median
(z-score)
~ MUAC
<110mm
<110mm
(if child >6
(>6months) months old)
~ visible
severe
wasting
Table 6 contd
Guideline
Date Growth
'norm'
(alternative,
if noted)
Index
(WH:
weight for
height;
WA:
weight or
age)
Main
Recommended
indicator
(+ alternative, if
noted)
Indicator
presented
in tables
(if shown)
Case
definition
SAM
(in all
guidelines,
oedema
=SAM)
MUACbased case
definition
of SAM
Case
MUACNotes
definition based
MAM
case
definition
of MAM
<70%
WHM
(<-3 Zscore)
<110mm
WHM
(if child >6 70%
months old) and
<80%
(WHZ
-3 and
<-2)
n/s
n/a
International guidelines
MSF
Nutrition
Guidelines
May NCHS
2006
WH
% median
(notes z-scores
used in some
countries
n/a
MSF
Protocol
Infants less
than 6
months old
(Benson)
MSF - OCBA
Oct n/s
2007
WH
% of median
WHM
<70%
(NCHS/
WHM
WHO 1982)
combined
sex WHZ
(NCHS/
WHO 1983)
split sex
Valid
Community- 2006 NCHS
International based
Therapeutic
Care (CTC), A
field manual
(first edition)
MUAC*
Unadjusted
MUAC %
median or Zscore noted
no tables
shown
<70%
WHM<-3
WHZ
<110mm
(if length
>65cm)
UNHCR
WH
% of median
OR
z-score
no tables
shown
<70%
WHM (or
<-3 Zscore)
<110mm
70% to
110mm to
(if aged 6 to 79% WHM <125mm
59months) (-3 to -2
WHZ)
also mention
LBW babies (no
details given)
* recognised
WHO & states
that UNHCR is in
process of
assessing the
new standards
UNHCR
The
2000 NCHS
management
of Nutrition in
Major
Emergencies
WA
z-score
(% of median)
WHZ
<-3 WHZ
(NCHS)
(<70%
boys & girls WHM)
split sex
tables
<-3 Z
MUAC-forage /
MUAC-forheight
-3 Z
MUACf-age/
MUAC-fheight to
<-2z
notes that on
weighing child
should wear light
clothing
IFE Core
Group
Infant
Dec NCHS
Feeding in
2007
Emergencies
IFE Module 2,
version 1.1
WH
% of median
tables not
shown
<70%
WHM
(NCHS)
n/s
n/s
ICRC
Nutrition
Aug NCHS
Manual for
2008
Humanitarian
Action
WH
z-score
(describes (describes other
other
indicators)
indices,
incl WA,
MUAC)
WHZ
(NCHS)
boys & girls
split sex
tables
(MUAC by
age Z-score
tables also
given)
several
described,
including
<-3 WHZ
(NCHS) and
MUAC-forheight
<-3z (75%
median)
<110mm
(<125mm
also referred
to as
'severe' in
anthropometry
chapter)
140 or
Length
135mm to measured if <2
125mm
years age, height
if >2 years
notes that
anthropometry
should not be
the only basis of
admission
WH
combined
sex, WHM
(NCHS)
<70%
WHM
(NCHS)
<110mm
(if length
>65cm)
WHM
110mm to
70%and <125mm
<80%
(WHZ
-3 and
<-2)
-3 to <2 WHZ
(70 to
79% WHM
* MUAC
emphasised as
primary
measure(WH
noted)
National guidelines
Burundi
Protocole
National de
Nutrition
Aug NCHS
2002
% of median
between <125mm
70 to 79%
WHM
height <65cm
equated with
age <6 months
no reference
given for tables
59
Table 6 contd
Guideline
Date
Growth
'norm'
(alternative,
if noted)
Index
(WH:
weight for
height;
WA:
weight or
age)
Main
Recommended
indicator
(+ alternative, if
noted)
Indicator
presented
in tables
(if shown)
Case
definition
SAM
(in all
guidelines,
oedema
=SAM)
MUACCase
based case definition
definition MAM
of SAM
MUACNotes
based
case
definition
of MAM
National guidelines
Ethiopia
WH
% of median
combined
sex, WHM
(NCHS)
<70%
WHM
(NCHS)
<110mm
(if length
>65cm)
between <125mm
70 to 79%
WHM
height <65cm
equated with
age <6 months
no reference
given for tables
Madagascar
Depistage et
Sep NCHS
prise en charge 2007
de la
malnutrition
aigue
WH
% of median
WHM
(NCHS)
combined
sex
<70%
WHM
(NCHS)
<110mm
(if length
>65cm)
70 to 79% n/s
WHM
Malawi
WH
% of median
WHM
(NCHS)
combined
sex
<70%
WHM
(NCHS)
(NB printed as a
card separate to
the book)
Mozambique Manual de
Orientacao
para
Tratamento da
Desnutricao
Aguda Grave
Jun WHO-GS
2008 (2007
protocol
used
NCHS)
WH
% of median
* table
labelled
"% of
median
(WHO2004)
joint sex
<70%
WHM
<110mm
70 to 79% 110 to
WHM
125mm
* appears to
have calculated
weight cut-offs
based on WHO
(2006) boys
median tables
Length
measured if child
<85cm & height
if >85cm
Tanzania
Management
of Acute
Malnutrition
NATIONAL
Guidelines
2008 NCHS
WH
% of median
OR z-score
WHZ
(NCHS)
boys &
girls split
sex tables
<70%
WHM OR
<-3 WHZ
<110mm
(6-59m or
65 to
110cm)
70-79%
WHM or
<-2SD
Length
measured if child
<85cm & height
if >85cm
Uganda
Integrated
Management
of Acute
Malnutrition
Nov n/s
2006
MUAC
Unadjusted
emphasis- MUAC %
ed
median or Zscore noted
no tables
shown
<70%
WHM <-3
WHZ
<110mm
(if length
>65cm
and/or
>6months)
WHM
110mm to
70% and <125mm
<80%
(WHZ -3
and <-2)
Zambia
Integrated
Management
of Acute
Malnutrition
2009 NCHS*
WH
% of median
no tables
shown
<70%
WHM OR
<-3 WHZ
<110mm
(6-59m)
WHM
110 and
70%
<125mm
and<80%
(WHZ 3 and
<-2)
*WHO GS noted
as a footnote in
the introduction
but not
thereafter
**z-score noted
once in
introduction but
not thereafter)
Zimbabwe
WH
% of median
WHZ
(NCHS)
boys &
girls split
sex tables
<70%
WHM
<110
70 to 80% 110 to
125mm
Length if <85cm
or <2 years,
Height 85cm or
>2years
60
110120mm
Table 6 contd
Date
Growth
'norm'
(alternative,
if noted)
Index
(WH:
weight for
height;
WA:
weight or
age)
Main
Recommended
indicator
(+ alternative, if
noted)
Indicator
presented
in tables
(if shown)
Case
definition
SAM
(in all
guidelines,
oedema
=SAM)
MUACbased case
definition
of SAM
Case
MUACNotes
definition based
MAM
case
definition
of MAM
National guidelines
DRC
Protocol
Oct NCHS
National de
2008
Prise en Charge
de la
Malnutrition
Aigue
WH
% of median
WHM
(NCHS)
combined
sex
<70%
WHM
(NCHS)
<110mm
(if length
>65cm)
70 to
79.9%
110 to
119mm
Sudan
(Southern)
WH
% of median
WHM
(NCHS)
combined
sex
<70%
WHM
(NCHS)
<110mm
(for height
>65cm)
70 to
79.9%
n/s
Length
measured if child
<85cm & height
if >85cm
*WHO GS noted
as a footnote in
the introduction
but not thereafter
** z-score noted
once in
introduction but
not thereafter
Sudan
(North)
National
Jan NCHS
Integrated
2008
Manual on the
Management
of Severe Acute
Malnutrition
in health
facilities and at
community
level
WH
% of median
OR z-score
<110mm
(with length
>65cm or
>1year old)
-3 to
n/s
<-2 WHZ
or
70 to 79%
WHM
Length if <85cm
or <2 years,
Height 85cm or
>2years (tables
state 85cm cutoff,
text gives age OR
85cm cutoff)
Botswana
WH
% of median
annexes
<70%
not
WHM
complete (NCHS)
(draft
guidelines)
<110mm
n/s
n/s
Length measured
if child <85cm &
height if >85cm
equates age
<6months with
height <65cm
*z-score noted
once in
introduction but
not thereafter
Burkina
Faso
WH
% of median
WHM
(NCHS)
combined
sex
<70%
WHM
(NCHS)
<110mm
70 to
<80%
WHM
110 to
125mm
equates age
<6months with
height <65cm
Cote
D'Ivoire
Protocole
May NCHS
National de
2005
Prise en charge
de la
malnutrition
severe
WH
% of median
WHM
(NCHS)
combined
sex
<70%
WHM
(NCHS)
<110mm
n/s
n/s
Length
measured if child
<85cm & height
if >85cm
equates age
<6months with
height <65cm
Guinea
Protocole
May NCHS
National de
2008
Prise en Charge
de la
Malnutrition
Aigue
WH
% of median
WHM
(NCHS)
combined
sex
<70%
WHM
(NCHS)
<110mm
(if height
>65cm)
70 to
<80%
WHM
110 to
125mm
Length
measured if child
<85cm & height
if >85cm
61
Table 6 contd
Date
Growth
'norm'
(alternative,
if noted)
Index
(WH:
weight for
height;
WA:
weight or
age)
Main
Recommended
indicator
(+ alternative, if
noted)
Indicator
presented
in tables
(if shown)
Case
definition
SAM
(in all
guidelines,
oedema
=SAM)
MUACbased case
definition
of SAM
Case
MUACNotes
definition based
MAM
case
definition
of MAM
National guidelines
Mali
Protocole
National de la
prise en charge
de la
malnutrition
aigue
Dec NCHS
2007
WH
% of median
WHM
(NCHS)
combined
sex
<70%
WHM
(NCHS)
<110mm
(if height
>65cm)
70 to
<80%
WHM
110 to
119mm
Length <85cm,
Height 85cm
equates age
<6months with
height <65cm
Niger
Protocol
Dec NCHS
National de
2006
Prise en Charge
de la
Malnutrition
Aigue
WH
% of median
WHM
(NCHS)
combined
sex
<70%
WHM
(NHCS)
(WHZ<-3
WHO is
footnoted
as an
alternative
case
definition)
<110mm
(for height
>65cm)
70% to
<80%
WHM
n/s
Length if <85cm
or <2 years,
Height 85cm or
>2years
Senegal
Protocole de
prise en charge
de la
malnutrition
aigue
WH
% of median
OR z-score
WHM
(NCHS)
combined
sex
<70%
WHM
OR
<-3 WHZ
<110mm
-3 to <- 110 to
(if aged 6 to 2 WHZ
125mm
59 months) or
70 to 79%
WHM
Length if <2
years, Height if
>2 years <65cm
length seen as
proxy for
<6months age
WH
% median
(z-score)
annexes
not
complete
(draft
guidelines)
<70%
WHM
(or <-3
WHZ)
<110mm
n/s
n/s
Length measured
if child <85cm &
height if >85cm
if age unknown,
<65cm length is
proxy for
<6months age
India
WH
% median
(z-score)
<110mm
n/s
n/s
Pakistan
WH
% median
(z-score)
not shown
(footnotes
suggest
that Zscore table
as in WHO
1999
guidelines
likely to be
inserted)
<70%
WHM
(or <-3
WHZ)
not stated
n/s
n/s
Length
measured if child
<85cm & height
if >85cm
Sri Lanka
WH
z-score
WHZ
(WHO)
split sex
<-3Z WHZ
(WHO)
no
n/s
n/s
Length
measured if child
<2years &
height if >2years
62
May NCHS
2008
dentifying and treating infants <6m with MAM is not specifically dealt with in any of the guidelines except
one (Burkina Faso). Infant MAM is only recognized implicitly, by assuming that the same MAM weight-forlength criteria applicable to older children are applicable to infants. Management therefore requires
inference from other sections of the guidelines, e.g. where lactating mothers with infants <6m are
admitted to SFP. IFE Module 2 focuses on skilled breastfeeding support for moderately malnourished
infants (implicitly including infants <6m).135 Burkina Faso stands out by explicitly stating that infants
with MAM should be treated by their mothers receiving SFP rations and health and nutrition education.
Further assessment recommended for infants <6m
Some guidelines recommend initial admission to an assessment area where breastfeeding can be more
closely observed. No current guideline differentiates complicated vs. uncomplicated infant <6m acute
malnutrition.
Clinical admission criteria for infants <6m
Many guidelines recommend clinical admission criteria, in addition to anthropometry. Common criteria
include an infant who is too weak or feeble to suckle and mother not producing enough milk. Minor
variations of emphasis and phrasing (e.g. not enough milk with weight loss vs. not enough milk alone)
make it likely that there are significant inter-programme variations in terms of which infants <6m are
admitted to care. It is also not clear whether carer reports or clinician assessments should carry the greater
weight. Inter-user variations in interpreting even the very same guidelines are very likely.
63
Infant
<6m
SAM
Infant
<6m
MAM
Pages of
guideline
devoted
to infants
/ total
pages (excl.
annexes)
% of
guideline
devoted
to infants
Who apart
from
infants
<6m
should
follow
infant
guidelines
Anthropometric
Clinical criteria
criteria
(except for MUAC,
which is not used for
infant <6m, assume
same case definitions
of SAM, MAM unless
otherwise stated)
Notes
International guidelines:
WHO
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
WHO
Guidelines for
the inpatient
treatment of
severely
malnourished
children, 2003
not specifically
mentioned.
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
WHO
not specifically
mentioned
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
WHO
n/s
1/24
4%
no other
groups
noted
same
not specified
separate chapter on
"supportive care" gives
details of breastfeeding
issues, including
supplementary suckling
WHO
yes
n/a
no other
groups
noted
n/a
Recommends that
infants and children with
severe malnutrition are
referred urgently too
hospital, and does not
cover their specific
treatment
Action
Contre la
Faim
(Claudine
Prudohn)
Assessment &
yes
Treatment of
Malnutrition in
Emergency
Situations, 2002
yes
5/58
9%
(of section
on
treatment)
<4kg
same
1) Too weak to
suckle effectively;
and/or
2) Mother not
producing enough
milk
MSF
Nutrition
Guidelines (1st
edition), 1995
yes
n/s
1/46
2%
no other
groups
noted
same
Not specifically
stated
in "Infant feeding"
section, infant not
defined to mean infant
<6m alone
MSF
Nutrition
yes
Guidelines, 2006
n/s
14/191
7%
no other
groups
noted
WHM <70%
1) Weight loss or
growth stagnation
(1 to 2 weeks)
2) Too weak to
suckle
3) Insufficient
breastmilk
4) Inappropriate
alternative infant
feeding
64
Table 7 contd
Separate
guideline for
infants <6m?
Country or
Guideline
Organization
Infant
<6m
SAM
Infant
<6m
MAM
Pages of
guideline
devoted
to infants
/ total
pages (excl.
annexes)
% of
guideline
devoted
to infants
Who apart
from
infants
<6m
should
follow
infant
guidelines
Anthropometric
Clinical criteria Notes
criteria
(except for MUAC,
which is not used for
infant <6m, assume
same case definitions
of SAM, MAM unless
otherwise stated)
yes
n/s
(10/10)
(100%)
1) Infant too
weak or feeble
to suckle
effectively
(independent of
WHM)
yes
n/s
0.5/13
pages on
inpatient
care
4%
no other
groups
noted
WHM <70%
visible wasting
not
directly
infant U6m
mentioned
in several
paragraphs
mixed in
main text
no other
groups
noted
same
"visible severe
wasting in
conjunction with
difficulties in BF"
no other
groups
noted
same
not specifically
stated
International guidelines:
MSF
Protocol
Infants less
than 6
months old
(Benson)
MSF OCBA
2007
Valid
CommunityInternational based
Therapeutic
Care (CTC), A
field manual
(first edition)
2006
UNHCR
UNHCR
The
management
of Nutrition in
Major
Emergencies
2000
infant <6m
malnutrition
recognised, but not
split into SAM &
MAM
1/24
IFE Core
Group
Infant
Feeding in
Emergencies
IFE Module 2,
version 1.1
2007
yes
17/114
(15%)
pages
focus just
on infant
with SAM
(see notes)
>6months
old but
<65cm
~ 4kg
WHM <70%
failure to gain
weight at home
or under
management at
a breastfeeding
corner
ICRC
Nutrition
Manual for
Humanitarian
Action 2008
no
no
(notes
TFP often
restricted
to
<5years)
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
yes
4%
n/a
65
Table 7 contd
Separate
guideline for
infants <6m?
Country or
Guideline
Organization
Infant
<6m
SAM
Infant
<6m
MAM
Pages of
guideline
devoted
to infants
/ total
pages (excl.
annexes)
% of
guideline
devoted
to infants
Who apart
from
infants
<6m
should
follow
infant
guidelines
Anthropometric
Clinical criteria
criteria
(except for MUAC,
which is not used for
infant <6m, assume
same case definitions
of SAM, MAM unless
otherwise stated)
Notes
National guidelines:
Burundi
Protocole
National de
Nutrition
2002
yes
n/s
5/33
15%
<6m or
same
<3kg being
BF
1) Mother does
not have enough
milk AND infant
loosing weight
2) Infant too
weak to suckle
and loosing
weight even if
mother does have
milk
Ethiopia
n/s
8/81
10%
no other
groups
noted
WHM <70%
too weak or
feeble to suckle
effectively
(any WH)
Madagascar
Depistage et yes
prise en
charge de la
malnutrition
aigue 2007
n/s
3/52
6%
<3.5kg
WHM <70%
1) Too weak or
feeble to suckle
effectively or
2) Mother does
not have enough
milk and infant is
loosing weight
Malawi
Guidelines
yes
for the
Management
of Severe
Acute
Malnutrition
(book T3)
2007
yes (in
10/38
group
'infants
<6m with
nutrition
problems
but not
SAM')
26%
<3kg
WHM <70%
1) Infant not
gaining or loosing
weight but not
SAM or
2) Mother
reports
insufficient BM or
3) Weak or feeble
and not suckling
well but not SAM
yes
n/s
8/91
9%
<3kg
WHM <70%
1) Too weak or
feeble to suckle
effectively or
2) Not gaining
weight at home
Management yes
of Acute
Malnutrition
NATIONAL
Guidelines
2008
n/s
1/67
1%
same
not stated
Mozambique Manual de
Orientacao
para
Tratamento
da
Desnutricao
Aguda Grave
2008
Tanzania
66
Table 7 contd
Separate
guideline for
infants <6m?
Country or
Guideline
Organization
Infant
<6m
SAM
Infant
<6m
MAM
Pages of
guideline
devoted
to infants
/ total
pages (excl.
annexes)
% of
guideline
devoted
to infants
Who apart
from
infants
<6m
should
follow
infant
guidelines
Anthropometric
Clinical criteria
criteria
(except for MUAC,
which is not used for
infant <6m, assume
same case definitions
of SAM, MAM unless
otherwise stated)
Notes
National guidelines:
Uganda
Integrated
Management
of Acute
Malnutrition
2006
yes
n/s
1/53
2%
2%
same
not stated
reference made to
separate guidelines
focused on therapeutic
feeding centres reference
also make to link with
IMCI guidelines
Zambia
Integrated
Management
of Acute
Malnutrition
2009
yes
n/s
(but see
notes)
1/35
3%
<3kg
WHM <70%
1) Infant <6m
unable to
breastfeed
Zimbabwe
1/56
2%
n/s
n/s
not stated
~ reference made to
separate guidelines
focused on therapeutic
feeding centres
~ infants <6m not
otherwise focused on in
this guideline in the
chapter on "Stabilisation
Centre" care
DRC
Guideline
yes
National de
Prise en Charge
de la
Malnutrition
Aigue 2008
n/s
5/68
7%
<3.5kg
<70% WHM
1) Too weak or
feeble to suckle
effectively (any
WH) or
2) Mother does not
have enough milk
to feed her child or
3) Not gaining (or
loosing) weight at
home
Sudan
(Southern)
n/s
7/103
7%
1) Too weak or
feeble to suckle
effectively (any WH)
2) Not gaining (or
loosing) weight at
home
Sudan
(North)
National
yes
Integrated
Manual on the
Management
of Severe Acute
Malnutrition
in health
facilities and at
community
level 2008
n/s
7/103
7%
<3kg
being
breast-fed
1) Too weak or
feeble to suckle
effectively (any
WH)
2) Not gaining
weight at home
<70% WHM
67
Table 7 contd
Separate
guideline for
infants <6m?
Country or
Guideline
Organization
Infant
<6m
SAM
Infant
<6m
MAM
Pages of
guideline
devoted
to infants
/ total
pages (excl.
annexes)
% of
guideline
devoted
to infants
Who apart
from
infants
<6m
should
follow
infant
guidelines
Anthropometric
Clinical criteria
criteria
(except for MUAC,
which is not used for
infant <6m, assume
same case definitions
of SAM, MAM unless
otherwise stated)
Notes
n/s
6/28
21%
National guidelines:
Botswana
Guidelines
yes
for the
Management
of Severe
Acute
Malnutrition
in Children
2007
yes
yes
5/57
9%
<3kg
OR
length
<65cm (a
proxy for
age)
same
yes
n/s
10/65
15%
<3kg
OR
length
<65cm (a
proxy for
age)
Guinea
Protocole
National de
Prise en
Charge de la
Malnutrition
Aigue 2008
yes
n/s
8/98
8%
<3kg
Mali
Protocole
National de
la prise en
charge de la
malnutrition
aigue 2007
yes
n/s
4/97
4%
<3kg
Niger
Protocole de
prise en
charge de la
malnutrition
aigue 2008
yes
yes
7/93
(mother
referred
to SFP)
8%
<3kg
Main criterion is
notes that infant <6m
"failure of effective
should be nursed in a
breastfeeding":1) Too separate area of the ward
weak or feeble to
suckle effectively (no
matter what weightfor-height)2) Not
gaining (or loosing)
weight at home
68
Table 7 contd
Separate
guideline for
infants <6m?
Country or
Guideline
Organization
Infant
<6m
SAM
Infant
<6m
MAM
Pages of
guideline
devoted
to infants
/ total
pages (excl.
annexes)
% of
guideline
devoted
to infants
Who apart
from
infants
<6m
should
follow
infant
guidelines
Anthropometric
Clinical criteria
criteria
(except for MUAC,
which is not used for
infant <6m, assume
same case definitions
of SAM, MAM unless
otherwise stated)
Notes
National guidelines:
Senegal
Protocole de
prise en charge
de la
malnutrition
aigue 2008
yes
n/s
3/45
7%
not
mentioned
Afghanistan
Communityyes
based
Management of
Acute
Malnutrition
programme in
Aqcha and
Mardyan District
of Jawzjan
Province
Northern
Afghanistan
2008
n/s
5/26
19%
Main criterion is
"failure of effective
breastfeeding":
1) Too weak or feeble
to suckle effectively
2) Not gaining weight
at home
Guinea
Protocole
yes
National de Prise
en Charge de la
Malnutrition
Aigue 2008
n/s
8/98
8%
<3kg
India
Indian Academy
of Paeditrics
guidelines 2006
Not
n/s
explicitly.
Intro
does
mention
children
aged 0 to
4 years
0/14
0%
n/a
n/a
n/a
Pakistan
n/s
n/s
n/s
n/s
n/s
Sri Lanka
Management of
Severe Acute
Undernutrition:
Manual for
Health Workers
in Sri Lanka
2007
no
separate
section for
infant
<6m
n/s
not
mentioned
same
not specified
target
n/s
group for
protocol
is
0 to 59
months
No specific details
of infant <6m
treatment noted in
protocol summary.
Outpatient care
noted as only for 6
to 59 month old
children
69
Admission procedures
Admission procedures for SAM and MAM include a basic medical history and clinical examination. Some
guidelines annex a template history/examination proforma, thereby standardizing admission practices.
Few guidelines suggest significant extra or different admission procedures for infants <6m. Exceptions
and possible models for future guidelines include:
IFE Module 2 provides the most detail of various aspects of presentation, including recognizing low
birth weight infants, infant feeding status (e.g. breastfed or not) and full assessment of breastfeeding
(with dedicated sections and a standard checklist).
MSF 2006 highlights Additional history, including feedings other than EBF; presence and attitude of
the mother, state of the infant, flow of mothers milk and attachment and suckling.
Botswanas national guidelines note the need to observe breastfeeding position, attachment, suckling,
breast conditions
Cote dIvoire suggests that suck can be assessed by inserting a finger into the infants mouth.
Adequacy of current admission procedures will be reviewed in detail in Chapter 9.
Treatment guidelines
All guidelines recognize a phased approach to care. Many go into significantly more detail on the WHO
(1999) ten steps. There is, however, no specific focus on infants <6m with the exception of IFE Module 2.
Specific treatments
Where sections on infant <6m exist in guidelines, they commonly recommend vitamin A, folic acid, iron
(usually mixed into the therapeutic milk, but only once the child has improved and is in recovery phase) at
appropriate doses. For malaria, local guidelines are referred to. Antibiotics are universally recommended.
The most common first line therapy is amoxicillin, with several minor variations in dose/ dose regimen.
Second line therapy is often not directly covered in the infant section of the guideline. If noted, initial
ampicillin (with switch after two days to oral amoxicillin) plus gentamycin is common.
Kangaroo careii for nursing young / small infants is noted in many guidelines, but often only as a
treatment for hypothermia rather than as a default ideal position for infants <6m. One exception is IFE
Module 2, where Kangaroo care is recommended to prevent or treat hypothermia in severely
malnourished infants, and also as the default treatment of low birth weight infants, supported by detailed
content136.
HIV
Details of HIV-related issues are limited in most guidelines. Those written most recently seem to have
greater detail, which probably reflects increased availability of antiretroviral treatments. Where HIV is
mentioned, explicit links and references to local HIV-specific guidelines are not made. This is an area for
future developers to address, to ensure closer links between services (see Section 9.9 for more HIV
considerations).
ii
70
Kangaroo care is a technique where the infant is held in continuous skin-to-skin contact with an adult, usually the mother. It facilitates
temperature regulation, reduces infant stress, and helps establish and maintain breastfeeding.
Treatment Admission
objective
Vitamin
A
Iron
Other
Kangaroo
care
International guidelines
WHO
Management n/a
of severe
malnutrition:
a manual for
physicians &
other senior
health
workers
1999
Clinical
50,000IU
assessment (on
admission)
followed
by small
daily doses
WHO
Clinical
50,000IU
assessment (on
admission)
followed
by small
daily doses
50,000IU
(on
admission)
followed
by small
daily
doses
WHO
Manual for
n/a
the health
care of
children in
humanitarian
emergencies
2008
n/a
WHO
Clinical
50,000IU
assessment (on
admission)
then small
daily dose
5mg on
cotrimoxazole as above
admission x2 per day
then
for 5 days
1mg/day
also
not
notes
specified
2mg/kg/
day zinc
and
0.3mg/
kg/day
copper
WHO
Handbook
n/a
IMCI
Integrated
Management
of Childhood
Illness 2005
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/s
n/a
n/a
n/a
ACF
Assessment &
Treatment of
Malnutrition
in Emergency
Situations
2002
Increase
mothers
milk supply
until BM
alone
sufficient
for growth
clinical
examination
mentioned
but no
details
given
50,000IU
on days
1,2 and at
discharge
5mg
single
dose at
admission
amoxicillin
20mg/kg
x3 per day
for 10 days
not
specified
according to
national
protocol
in F100
dilute
(once
improved)
MSF
Nutrition
Guidelines
(1st edition)
1995
stated that
BF should
be
promoted
and
continued
during the
whole
treatment
course
no
additional
details
specified
not
specified
no specific
no specific
details given details
given
50,000IU not
(on
routinely
admission)
not
specified
If no complications
cotrimoxazole
x2 per day
for 5 days
if complications amp +
gent as above
not
specified
amoxicillin
according to
national
guideline
not
specified
not
specified
not
routinely
n/a
noted as
part of
hypothermia
prevention
not
specified
71
Table 8 contd
Country or
Guideline
Organization
Treatment Admission
objective
Vitamin
A
AntiIron
malarial
Other
Kangaroo
care
daily or weekly
supplementation
described in
micronutrients
chapter
yes
- diagram
included
International guidelines
MSF
Nutrition
Guidelines
2006
MSF
reduce
mortality &
morbidity
- discharge
on EBF
- additional
history:
- feeds other
than EBF;
presence +
attitude of
mother;
- state of
infant,
- flow of
mother's milk,
- attachment,
suckling
50,000 IU
(further
doses if
xeropthalmia)
5mg
not
single
specified
dose at
admission
Protocol
To return
Infants less
infants to
than 6
full EBF
months old
(Benson) MSF
- OCBA 2007
no additional
details
specified
50,000 IU
(further
doses if
xeropthalmia)
5mg
single
dose at
admission
amoxicillin not
35-50mg/ specified
kg x2 per
day for 5
days plus
gentamicin
not
in F100dil
specified (once improved)
yes
- diagram
included
Valid
Communitybased
Therapeutic
Care (CTC), A
field manual
(first edition)
2006
no additional
details
specified
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
UNHCR
n/s
n/s
n/s
n/s
n/s
n/s
n/s
n/s
n/s
UNHCR
The
treat
treat mother
management mother not not infant
of Nutrition
infant
in Major
Emergencies
2000
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/s
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
IFE Core
Group
Infant
Feeding in
Emergencies
IFE Module 2,
version 1.1
2007
Details
described
50,000IU
(admission
only)
5mg
single
dose
n/s
n/s
n/s
ferrous
sulphate,
in F100
dilute
(once
improved)
Gives
extensive
details of
supportive
care for
breastfeeding
Yes,
including to
prevent as
well as
treat
hypothermia
ICRC
Nutrition
n/a
Manual for
Humanitarian
Action 2008
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
no additional
details
specified
50,000 IU at
admission
5mg
single
dose at
admission
amoxycillin not
from 2kg, specified
20mg/kg
x3 per day
not
ferrous sulphate, in
specified F100dilute (once
improved)
not
specified
no additional
details
specified
50,000IU
(admission
only)
2.5mg
single
dose
amoxycillin
from 2kg,
30mg/kg
x2 per day
plus
gentamycin
national
protocol
(coartem
from 3
months)
not
specified
n/a
treat only if
infant has
malaria
- need for
nets to
prevent
transmission also
noted
National guidelines
Burundi
Protocole
National de
Nutrition
2002
Ethiopia
Protocol for
To return
the
infants to
Management full EBF
of Severe
Acute
Malnutrition
2007
72
n/s
not
specified
not clear
whether
gentamycin
is 1st or 2nd
line
treatment
ferrous
sulphate,
in F100
dilute
(once
improved)
Table 8 contd
Country or
Guideline
Organization
Treatment
objective
Admission
Vitamin
A
Folic
acid
1st line
2nd line
antibiotic antibiotic
AntiIron
malarial
not
specified
not
specified
not
specified
not
not
specified specified
ampicillin not
in F100dil
iv
specified (once
and
improved)
gentamycin
im
Other
Kangaroo
care
National guidelines
Madagascar
Depistage et
prise en
charge de la
malnutrition
aigue
2007
To ensure
mother can
produce milk
of sufficient
quantity and
quality for
infant to
grow
normally
no additional not
details
specified
specified
Malawi
Guidelines
for the
Management
of Severe
Acute
Malnutrition
(book T3)
2007
To stimulate
BF until
sufficient to
allow the
infant to
grow
properly
amoxycillin
15mg/kg
x3 / day,
phase 1 +
4 days
extra)
n/s
no additional not
details
specified
specified
amoxycillin not
20mg/kg
specified
x3 per day
plus
gentamycin
Mozambique Manual de
Orientacao
para
Tratamento
da
Desnutricao
Aguda Grave
2008
5mg
single
dose
noted in
general
section on
hypothermia
noted as
treatment
for
hypothermia
in general
section
not
in F100dil HIVspecified (once
related
improved) treatments
noted for
exposed
infants
noted in
general
section on
hypothermia
Tanzania
Management n/s
of Acute
Malnutrition
NATIONAL
Guidelines
2008
not stated
50,000 IU 5mg
d1 (+d2, single
d14 if
dose
clinical
signs
deficiency)
amoxycillin
15mg/kg
x3 per day
for 5 days
ampicillin not
3mg/kg/day elemental
plus
specified iron once improved
gentamycin
7.5mg/kg
daily for 7
days
noted as a
treatment
for
hypothermia
in general
section
Uganda
Integrated
n/s
Management
of Acute
Malnutrition
2006
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Zambia
Integrated
n/s
Management
of Acute
Malnutrition
2009
no additional 50,000IU
details
at
specified
admission
not
specified
not
specified
not
specified
not
not
specified specified
not
specified
not specified
Zimbabwe
Guidelines
n/s
for the
Management
of Severe
Acute
Malnutrition
through
Communitybased
Therapeutic
Care (CTC)
2008
n/s
5mg at
amoxycillin from 2kg,
admission 20mg/kg x3 per day
for 7-10 days
not for
<4kg
infants
not
specified
not specified
DRC
Protocol
n/s
National de
Prise en
Charge de la
Malnutrition
Aigue 2008
no additional 50,000 IU
details
at
specified
admission
only
(not if
oedema)
not
specified
not
not
specified specified
Notes
'health
education
and social
care' (for
all
children)
not specified
50,000IU
at
admission
amoxycillin not
from 2kg, specified
30mg/kg
x2 per day
n/a
not
specified
73
Table 8 contd
Country or
Guideline
Organization
Treatment
objective
Admission
Vitamin
A
Iron
Other
Kangaroo
care
National guidelines
Sudan
(Southern)
Guidelines
To improve or
for the
re-establish
Management BF
of Severe
Acute
Malnutrition
2008
no additional
details
specified
(though
disability,
maternal
illness,
maternal
trauma noted
as problem
which can
affect infant
feeding)
50,000 IU
at
admission
only
2.5mg
single
dose at
admission
amoxycillin not
from 2kg,
specified
30mg/kg
x2 per day
plus
gentamycin
not
specified
ferrous sulphate, in
F100dilute, once
improved
not
specified
Sudan
National
To return
no additional
Integrated
infants to full details
Manual on
EBF
specified
the
Management
of Severe
Acute
Malnutrition
in health
facilities and
at
community
level 2008
50,000 IU
at
admission
only
2.5mg
single
dose at
admission
amoxycillin not
from 2kg,
specified
30mg/kg
x2 per day
plus
gentamycin
not
specified
ferrous sulphate, in
F100dilute, once
improved
noted as
treatment
for
hypothermia in
general
section
Botswana
Guidelines
for the
Management
of Severe
Acute
Malnutrition
in Children
2007
~ Treat SAM
~ Restore to
health
~ Reduce
mortality
~ Treat
complications
& associated
diseases
~ Maintain
or improve
maternal
milk
production
~ Observe
breastfeeding
(position,
attachment,
suckling,
breast
conditions)
~ medical
consultation
(history,
examination)
50,000 IU
at
admission
only
2.5mg
single
dose
at
admission
amoxycillin not
from 2kg,
specified
20mg/kg
x3 per day
according ferrous
to national sulphate
guidelines 6mg
elemental
iron/kg/
day (once
improved,
growing)
To increase
the quality
and quantity
of BF
no additional 50,000 IU
details
at
specified
admission
only
5mg
single
dose at
admission
amoxycillin, not
from 2kg
specified
25mg/kg
x3 per day
not
specified
To reestablish
effective EBF
(NOT
necessarily to
regain 85%
WHM)
Note
not
~ Whether specified
preterm
~ Birth
weight
~ Feeds
(aside from
BM)
~ Strength of
infant suck
(by inserting
finger into
mouth)
5mg
single
dose at
admission
amoxycillin not
from 2kg,
specified
20mg/kg
x3 per day
no
in F100dil
treatment (once
if tests
improved)
negative
7 days
artesunate
if positive
Guinea
To
no additional
supplement details
maternal BF specified
and get to
the point
where infant
growing well
on BF alone
2.5mg
single
dose at
admission
amoxycillin, not
from 2kg
specified
30mg/kg
x2 per day
+
gentamycin
not
specified
74
Protocole
National de
Prise en
Charge de la
Malnutrition
Aigue 2005
50,000 IU
at
admission
only
Briefly
mentions
'health
education
and social
care' (for all
children)
ferrous sulphate
(once improved)
in F100dil
(once
improved)
noted as a
treatment
for
hypothermia in
general
section
not
specified
Table 8 contd
Country or
Guideline
Organization
Treatment Admission
objective
Vitamin
A
2nd line
antibiotic
Antimalarial
Iron
Other
Kangaroo
care
National guidelines
Mali
Protocole
n/s
National de la
prise en
charge de la
malnutrition
aigue 2007
no
additional
details
specified
50,000 IU
at
admission
only
2.5mg
amoxycillin, from 2kg
single
20mg/kg
dose at
x3 per day
admission
not
specified
in F100dil
(once improved)
noted as a
treatment for
hypothermia
in general
section
Niger
Protocol
National de
Prise en
Charge de la
Malnutrition
Aigue 2006
To return
infants to
full EBF
no
additional
details
specified
50,000 IU
at
admission
only
2.5mg
single
dose at
admission
amoxycillin, not
from 2kg
specified
30mg/kg
x2 per day
not
specified
in F100dil
(once improved)
not specified
Senegal
Protocole de
prise en
charge de la
malnutrition
aigue 2008
To return
infants to
full EBF
no
additional
details
specified
not noted
2.5mg
single
dose at
admission
amoxycillin not
from 2kg,
specified
20mg/kg
x2 per day
for 7 days
not
specified
not
specified
not specified
Afghanistan
Community- To return
based
infants to
Management full EBF
of Acute
Malnutrition
programme
in Aqcha and
Mardyan
District of
Jawzjan
Province
Northern
Afghanistan
(Stabilization
Centre
Guidelines)
2008
no
additional
details
specified
50,000 IU
at
admission
only
2.5mg
single
dose
at
admission
amoxycillin
from 2kg,
30mg/kg
x2 per day
add
gentamycin
(do not use
chloramphenicol)
according in F100dil
to
(once improved)
national
guidelines
noted in
section on
hypothermia,
with
implication
that is
recommended
for all children
India
Indian
Academy of
Paeditrics
guidelines
2006
n/s
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Pakistan
Protocol for
n/s
the inpatient
treatment of
severely
malnourished
children in
the Pakistan
earthquake
emergency
2005
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Sri Lanka
Management n/s
of Severe
Acute Undernutrition:
Manual for
Health
Workers in Sri
Lanka
2007
no
additional
details
specified
"according not
to
specified
national
protocol"
amoxycillin
15mg/kg
x3 per day
for 5 days
gentamycin not
7.5mg/kg specified
for 7 days
plus
ampicillin iv
for 2 days
then
3mg/kg/day once
improving/gaining
weight
noted in
section on
hypothermia
as prevention/
treatment
75
See Table 9 for summary. Most guidelines divide infants into those who have the opportunity to breastfeed and
those who do not. These will be dealt with in turn.
Treatment objective
Restoration of effective exclusive breastfeeding (or similar phrasing implying the same) is a commonly
stated treatment objective for infants <6m. This differs from the goal for older children, who aim for a
nutritional cure (commonly >80 or 85% weight-for-height / >-2 or -1 z-scores).
Breastfed infants
Most guidelines encourage the continuation of breastfeeding. However, details of breastfeeding support
are rarely described. Exceptions are IFE Module 2 and the WHO pocket handbook of hospital care (2005).
For infants <6m who can breastfeed, three hourly breastfeeding of ten to 20 minutes is generally
recommended in guidelines. Some encourage more frequent feeds as demanded by the infant. Practical
details of how to support and optimize breastfeeding are very limited. This makes prior specialist skills
necessary to be able to implement and build on guidelines. Existing materials on breastfeeding support
are rarely referenced.
All guidelines imply that infants <6m admitted to treatment would need at least short term supplemental
feeds, with the exception of IFE Module 2 that gives the option of breastfeeding/expressed breastmilk
alone where an infant is suckling and breastmilk supply is adequate. Diluted F100 was the most
frequently recommended supplemental milk. Some guidelines mention F75 for infants with oedema. IFE
Module 2 includes commercial infant formula as an option and advises against home prepared F75 in this
age-group.
The supplementary suckling (SS) technique as a means of supplemental feeding is widely referenced and
thoroughly described in guidelines, including with pictures and diagrams in many137. Using SS, weight
gain criteria (20g per day cited by many guidelines) are used to signify that breastmilk production is
improving. After a few days with good weight gain, the volume of supplemental milk is reduced. If weight
gain continues, supplemental milk is stopped entirely and the infant is monitored to see whether he/she
continues to gain weight on exclusive breastfeeding alone.
A minimum admission length is sometimes specified (e.g. nine to 11 days minimum, which includes two
to three days each for phase one and two, plus five days for exclusive breastfeeding). Other guidelines
urge a short as possible admission, depending on weight gain. All emphasise a need to ensure the infant
is gaining adequate weight and is clinically well on exclusive breastfeeding alone, prior to discharge.
Non-breastfed infants
Possible reasons for not breastfeeding are not generally listed, with the exception of IFE Module 2. Though
rare, none of the guidelines reviewed mention medical contra-indications to breastfeeding 138. The
same supplemental milk recommended for breastfed infants is often recommended for this group: diluted
F100 or sometimes F75 for infants with oedema, fed by cup. Only a small number of guidelines explicitly
warn of the hygiene risks of bottle/teat feeding.
The major difference for non-breastfed infants <6m arises in the rehabilitation phase of treatment. Here,
volume of supplemental milk doubles to enable catch-up growth. Non-breastfed infants may also require
transition to an appropriate breastmilk substitute, e.g. transition from diluted F100 to a commercial infant
76
formula. Rather than an adequate weight gain discharge criterion, the non-breastfed infant is typically
expected to reach the same anthropometric targets as older children prior to discharge (>80% or >85%
weight-for-length).
Very few guidelines go into details about the challenges of long term use of infant formula, follow-up
needs and resources required, and how to source supplies. Likewise, few note alternatives, such as wet
nursing or modified animal milks. No guideline suggests that complementary foods or RUTF be started
before six months.
77
78
>6month
but <4kg
infants are
separate
yes
yes
Assessment &
Treat-ment of
Malnutrition in
Emergency
Situations 2002
Nutrition
Guidelines (1st
edition) 1995
Nutrition
Guidelines
2006
ACF
MSF
MSF
Every 3 hours
Every 2 hours for
<1.5kg more often
if infant wants
In order of
preference:
1) BM alone
2) Infant
formula
3) F100 dilute
Reconstituted
enriched
formula milk
(recipie given)
"should be
BMS AFTER
promoted and
each session on
continued during the the breast
whole of treatment"
Every 3 hours
Pocket book of
Hospital care for
children 2005
WHO
no
not noted
WHO
n/a
WHO
Management of
severe
malnutrition,
1999
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
105
kcal/kg/day
n/a
n/a
n/a
small spoon or
syringe
supplemental
suckling
(described)
not specified
(SS described
in different
chapter)
n/a
n/a
n/a
start Transition on
day 10 (max d.15).
When BM
output increases,
weight increasing,
decrease STDM by
50%. If still gaining
weight by 5g/kg/day,
stop SDTM
no specific details
~ if weight
increasing for 15 days
then half amount
F100dil ~ stop SS
after further 3 days
phase 1
10-15 days
then
according
to progress
not
specified
minimum
stay would
be 15 + 3
+ 5 = 23
days
not
specified
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Once gaining
weight for 5
days without
SS
not specified
Once gaining
weight for 5
days without
SS
not specified
n/a
n/a
n/a
duration Discharge
of phases (BF infant)
(BF infant)
n/a
n/a
WHO
"should be
continued"
Division
Breast feeding
into 'breastfed' and
'non-BF'
International guidelines
Country or Guideline
Organization
SDTM
(therapeutic
milk)
Enriched
formula milk
(recipe given)
Diluted F100*
(protocol for
>6month but
<4kg infants)
expressed
breastmilk (if
available);
formula milk or
infant formula;
modified
animal milk
n/a
n/a
n/a
No maternal
breast
feeding
available
Infant Feeding in
Emergencies IFE
Module 2, version
1.1 2007
Nutrition Manual
for Humanitarian
Action 2008
UNHCR
UNHCR
IFE Core
Group
ICRC
Every 3
hours
yes
Ethiopia
Every 3
hours
n/a
yes
n/a
yes
n/a
n/s
n/a
F100dil
(F75 if
oedema)
n/a
n/s
n/a
n/a
n/s
n/a
~ BF for at least 20
mins
~ BF more often if
infant wants
~ Give BMS 30 to
60min after BF
~ BF for 20 mins
~ Give BMS one
hour after BF
n/a
supplemental
suckling
(described)
n/a
supplemental
F100 dilute
or commercial suckling
(described)
formula
(F75 for infants
with oedema)
F100 dilute
n/a
n/a
n/a
volume per kg
varies
according to
weight
(tables given)
n/a
n/s
n/a
n/a
if gaining
weight, each
reduction of
BMS volume
by 1/3
occurs every
2-3 days
n/a
n/s
n/a
n/a
Once gaining
weight for 5
days on BF
alone
n/a
n/s
n/a
n/a
F75 (preferred
option)
F100dil or formula
also OK
n/a
n/s
n/a
No maternal
breastfeeding
available
decrease to 50% of
maintenance once
baby gaining 20g/
day, stop completely
once gaining
>10g/day
"as short as
possible"
Once gaining
weight on BM
alone
F100 dilute
(F75 for infants
with oedema)
n/a
if infant gaining
weight for 2-3days, at
least 20g/ day then
reduce SS by 1/3 and
feed for further 2-3
days. Continue to
reduce volumes if
infant gaining weight.
n/a
n/s
n/a
duration of Discharge
phases
(BF infant)
(BF infant)
according to
decrease to 50% of
progress
maintenance once
baby gaining 20g/day
stop completely once
gaining >10g/day
discussed n/a
in annex
"treatment should
include support for
BF
n/a
n/a
Burundi
National guidelines
Handbook for
n/a
Emergencies(third
edition) 2007
Valid
Breastfeeding
(details)
Every 3
hours
more
often if
infant
wants
recognised yes
but not
described in
detail
Protocol Infants
yes
less than 6 months
old (Benson) MSF OCBA 2007
Division
Breast
into'breast- feeding
fed' and
'non-BF'
MSF
International guidelines
Country or
Guideline
Organization
Table 9 contd
79
80
Breast
feeding
n/a
not
specified
Integrated
n/a
Management of
Acute Malnutrition
2006
Integrated
not specified
Management of
Acute Malnutrition
2009
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
not specified
not
specified
"assist to
breastfeed
or express
breastmilk"
Management of
Acute Malnutrition
NATIONAL
Guidelines 2008
Tanzania
no
Relactation of
other female
carer (e.g aunt)
recommended)
Every 3
hours
yes
Mozambique Manual de
Orientacao para
Tratamento da
Desnutricao Aguda
Grave 2008
Malawi
Every 3
hours
Division
into'breastfed' and
'non-BF'
yes
Madagascar
International guidelines
Country or
Guideline
Organization
not specified
not specified
not specified
not specified
not specified
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
F100 dilute
supplementary 8 times per day 130ml/kg/day
(F75 for infants suckling
(=100kcal/kg/
with oedema) (described)
day)
F100 dilute
F100 dilute
~ "as short
as possible"
~ 2-3 days
for each
reduction of
1/3
F100dilute
maintenance
not specified
not specified
n/a
Relactation of
other female carer
(e.g aunt)
recommended)
n/a
not specified
not specified
n/a
Once
F100 dilute
gaining
(F75 for infants
weight for 5 with oedema)
days
without SS
Once
F75
gaining
weight for 5
days
without SS
n/a
decrease to 50% of
not specified
maintenance once
baby gaining 20g/day
stop completely once
gaining >10g/day
Once
gaining
weight for 5
days
without SS
decrease to 50% of
not specified
maintenance once
baby gaining 20g/day
stop completely once
gaining >10g/day
not specified
n/a
~ BF for 20 mins
~ BF more often if
infant wants
~ Give
supplemental feed
one hour after BF
~ BF for 20 mins
~ BF more often if
infant wants
~ Give BMS one
hour after BF
~ BF for 20 mins
~ Give BMS one
hour after BF
Breastfeeding
(details)
Table 9 contd
yes
no
Botswana
Cote D'Ivoire
National
yes
Integrated Manual
on the
Management of
Severe Acute
Malnutrition
in health facilities
and at community
level 2008
Sudan
(North)
Every 3
hours
Every 3
hours
as often
as
possible /
frequently
Every 3
hours
Every 3
hours
Sudan
(Southern)
yes
Every 3
hours
Division
Breast
into'breast- feeding
fed' and
'non-BF'
DRC
International guidelines
Country or
Guideline
Organization
F100 dilute
"Educate and
demonstrate
proper BF
technique"
duration of Discharge
phases
(BF infant)
(BF infant)
supplemental
suckling
(described)
supplemental
suckling
(described)
F100 dilute
(F75 for infants
with oedema)
F100 dilute
(F75 for infants
with oedema)
F100 dilute
(F75 for infants
with oedema)
No maternal
breastfeeding
available
F100 dilute
(F75 for infants
with oedema)
not specified
10-15 days
intial phase
2 days rehab
phase
Minimum 4
days final
phase
70 ml/kg/day
supplementary 8 times per day 130ml/kg/day decrease to 50% not specified Once gaining weight on
suckling
EBF alone
(=100kcal/kg/ of maintenance
(described)
once baby
day)
gaining 20g/day
stop completely
once gaining
>10g/day
Table 9 contd
81
82
Every 3 hours
n/a
n/a
Management of Severe
Acute Undernutrition:
Manual for Health Workers
in Sri Lanka 2007
Senegal
no
Afghanistan Community-based
Management of Acute
Malnutrition programme in
Aqcha and Mardyan District
of Jawzjan Province Northern
Afghanistan (Stabilization
Centre Guidelines) 2008
Indian Academy of
n/a
Paediatrics guidelines on
hospital based management
of Severely Malnourished
Children 2006
Niger
India
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
no
n/a
n/a
n/a
~ for at least
20mins
~ more often if
child wants
supplemental
suckling
(described)
n/a
n/a
not specified.
By implication,
infant U6 will
be treated with
F75
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
130ml/kd/day
(100kcal/kg/
day) (amount
NOT increased
as infant gains
weight)
n/a
n/a
n/a
decrease to 50%
of maintenance
once baby gaining
20g/day
n/a
n/a
n/a
if weight
gain
maintained,
then stop SS
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
F100 dilute
When
(F75 for infants
gaining
weight on with oedema)
EBF alone
(no matter
what weight
or WFL)
Once
not detailed
gaining
weight for 5
days
without SS
as short as
possible to
minimise
risk of
nosocomial
infection
F100 dilute
Once
(F75 for infants
gaining
weight for a with oedema)
few days
without SS
n/a
n/a
F100 dilute
(F75 for infants
with oedema)
Once
F100 dilute
gaining
weight for 5
days
without SS
Once
gaining
weight on
EBF alone
n/a
n/a
n/a
F100 dilute
Supplementary 8 x per day
(F75 for infants suckling
(0.5 to 1 hr
with oedema)
after BF)
F100 dilute
supplemental
suckling
(described)
supplemental
suckling
(described)
supplemental
suckling
(described)
Every 3 hours
Protocole National de la
prise en charge de la
malnutrition aigue 2007
Mali
yes
Division
Breast feeding Breastfeeding Supplemental Supplemental Supplemental Supplemental rehab phase
into'breastmilk route
(details)
milks
milk feed
feed amount (BF infant)
fed' and
(BF inf.ant)
(BF infant)
frequency
(BF infant)
'non-BF'
(BF infant)
Guinea
National guidelines
Country or Guideline
Organization
Table 9 contd
Maternal diet
Many guidelines recommend that lactating mothers receive increased food rations to give a total intake of
2500kcal/day, and increased fluid intake to >2 litres/day. Vitamin A for the mother is recommended by
many guidelines as a single large dose if the infant is <2 months old. Mothers of older infants may be
pregnant so either it is withheld or a course of low dose Vitamin A is given. A small number of guidelines
mention that general maternal micronutrient stores should be replenished though a high quality diet
during breastfeeding.
Psychosocial care
Play therapy and psychosocial support of the malnourished child is one of WHOs essential ten treatment
steps. It is still recognized in many guidelines, often in dedicated sections, but none focus specifically on
infants <6m.
The impact of severe infant malnutrition on feeding-associated interactions and feeding cues between a
mother and her infant <6m, e.g. reduced demands for breastfeeding, and how to manage these are not
generally addressed. IFE Module 2 does include content on this in the section concerned with
breastfeeding support in malnourished infants but not specifically in the SAM chapter.
Specific psychosocial care for the mother/carergiver of either infants <6m or children, including
assessment and treatment, is not included in the guidelines apart from general statements about being
supportive, explaining treatments and avoiding blame for the infants malnutrition. The exception is IFE
Module 2 that gives a more practical description of assessment and care for mothers. Given the relevance
of psychosocial aspects of care to MAMI, Chapter 8 of this report undertakes a detailed review.
83
84
Maternal diet
not specified
not specified
n/a
Pocket book of
Hospital care for
children 2005
Handbook IMCI
Integrated
Management of
Childhood Illness
2005
Assessment &
Treatment of
Malnutrition in
Emergency
Situations 2002
WHO
WHO
WHO
ACF
~ Drink 2l water
per day
~ Eat ~
2600kcal/day
~ Supplement with
vitamins & minerals
(ensure type 1
nutrient stores
adequate)
not specified
WHO
not specified
Management of
severe
malnutrition: a
manual for
physicians & other
senior health
workers 1999
WHO
International Guidelines
Country or Guideline
Organization
To support BF:
1) Listen to any
problems
2) Assess BF
3) Help during BF
n/a
importance of
psychological factors
noted
not specified
not specified
Preparation
for discharge
(general)
n/a
n/a
not specified
not
Ensure child fully immunized
specified Ensure mother or carer:
~ able to feed child
appropriately
~ able to make appropriate
toys & play with child
~ knows how to give home
treatment & recognise signs
to seek medical assistance
Maternal
Other
(caregiver) psychosocial issues
n/a
Yes
Separate chapter of
book details HIV issues
other chapter or
manual is devoted to
HIV
Yes:
"recovery may take
longer & treatment
failure is more
common
~treatment same as
for HIV neg. child
Yes:
~ should not be done
routinely; ~ HIV status
has no role in
management;
~ result should be
confidential, not
revealed to staff
HIV noted
not noted
Extra home
food ration?
yes, to
~ weigh infant,
~ provide
supplementary
food to mother
n/a
yes
1 week,
2 weeks, 1
month, then
monthly for
6months
not specified
detailed section on
infant feeding
weekly
(1500kcal/day)
1st month;
fortnight
(700kcal/day)
2nd month;
monthly
(350kcal/day) 36months
breastfeeding and
young child feeding
described
~ WHO IYCF
document not
referenced
None
none
Referral to SFP
(but evidence of
effectiveness
discussed)
not described
not described
not described
not described
not described
n/a
not noted
not specified
Yes
not noted
"regular followup checks"
advised
Yes
1 week,
2 weeks, 1
month, 3
months & 6
months after
discharge
Follow up
visits
Maternal diet
noted in other
chapters, but
not in section on
malnourished
infant
SFP if
available
targeted SFP if
MUAC<22cm;
blanket SFP
otherwise
Many chapters of
manual focus on
good IYCF practices
reference to other
guidelines given
SFP if
available
at least
SFP if
weekly for available
a
miniumum
of 3 month
n/a
IFE Core
Group
yes
~ discussed in
detail in annex,
including issues
of BF & HIV
Tnotes that
mothers/carers
may need help and
encouragement
Additional supplementary
ration (not specified)
suggested
The
management of
Nutrition in
Major
Emergencies
2000
UNHCR
n/s
n/s
n/s
Handbook for
Emergencies
(third edition)
2007
UNHCR
not
specified
yes
section in
"future
developments"
chapter
discusses HIV
SFP if:
~ MUAC <210mm
& pregnant (3rd
trimester)
~ MUAC <210mm
& infant <6m
SFP or TFP or
supportive feeding
(according to
situation)
SFP
(in particular cases
of food insecurity)
Feeds for
pregnant &
lactating
women
not described
part of infant
chapter describes
support for BF +
alternatives to BF
infants are
None
eligbile for
SFP after TFP
care
1) Section on
HIV/AIDs,
focuses on
nutrition;
2) Described in
infant feeding &
HIV section
n/a
not specified in
this chapter
Follow
up visits
not
yes
~ noted that this specified
does not alter
the treatment
strategy
HIV noted
Protocol Infants
less than 6
months old
(Benson) MSF OCBA 2007
MSF
~ stimulate
emotional and
physical
development
~ prepare patient
for notmal
feeding practices
Protocol notes:
~ need for
psychosocial
stimulation
Preparation
for discharge
(general)
Valid
Communitynotes need for nutritional
International based
care of mothers (details not
Therapeutic
specified)
Care (CTC), A field
manual (first
edition) 2006
notes
psychological
support and
encouragement to
mothers; also the
need for privacy
and rest
Nutrition
Guidelines
2006
MSF
States "stress is
important factor
reducing the
quantity of breast
milk;
Other
Nutrition
Guidelines (1st
edition) 1995
Maternal
(caregiver)
psycho-social
issues
MSF
International Guidelines
Country or
Guideline
Organization
Table 10 contd
85
86
Maternal diet
Nutrition Manual
for Humanitarian
Action 2008
Mozambique Manual de
Orientacao para
Tratamento da
Desnutricao
Aguda Grave
2008
Malawi
Madagascar
not specified
~ Explain aim of
treatment/what is
expected; reassure
SS works; be
attentive to mother
& introduce her to
other mothers
~ need to engage
mother with
treatment
programme
described
~ need to reassure &
support mother
described
Section on
psychological
support focuses on
child rather than
carer
If EBF not
possible,
alternatives
listed include:
- modified cow
or goat milk
- infant formula
importance of
good ward
environment
described
Maternal
Other
(caregiver) psychosocial issues
Ethiopia
Protocole
National de
Nutrition
2002
Burundi
National Guidelines
ICRC
International Guidelines
Country or
Guideline
Organization
noted in list of
causes of failure
to respond to
treatment
no
yes. Details
include:
1)Need for
testing;
2)TB co-infection
3)ARV & start of
ARV
no
yes
HIV noted
no specific details
~ immunizations up
to date
Preparation
for discharge
(general)
for 3
months
after
discharge
referral for
growth
monitoring
noted
specific
infant
follow-up
not noted
Annex 12 gives 9
key BF messages;
Annex 13 gives 7
key messages on
nutrition & growth
Chapter is devoted
to feeding infants
and small children
SFP for:
~ pregnant &
lactating women, up
to 6 months after
birth, with MUAC
<210mm
SFP for:
~ pregnant (3rd
trimester) & lactating
women with MUAC
<210mm
not described
SF for:
pregnant woman in
3rd trimester if MUAC
<210mm; also
women with infant
<6m if MUAC
<210mm
according to
nutritional state
Referral to SFP
recommended
for all
discharged SAM
patients
at least 3
months
follow-up
at health
centre level
Table 10 contd
not specified
need to reassure
and support
mother stated
not specified
Guidelines
for the
Management
of Severe
Acute
Malnutrition
through CTC
2008
Protocol
National de
Prise en
Charge de la
Malnutrition
Aigue 2008
Guidelines
for the
Management
of Severe
Acute
Malnutrition
2008
Zimbabwe
DRC
Sudan
(Southern)
~ Drink 2l water
per day
~ Eat ~
2500kcal/day
~ Supplement with
micronutrients
~ Vit A 200,000IU if
infant <2 months
paragraph on
supportive care
for mothers
mentions mental
and emotional
support for
trauma /
depression
not specified
not specified
Integrated
Management
of Acute
Malnutrition
2009
Zambia
~ Eat ~
2500kcal/day
~ Vit A: 200,000 IU
(single dose) if
infant <2months
not specified
Integrated
not specified
Management
of Acute
Malnutrition
2006
Uganda
not specified
Maternal
(caregiver)
psycho-social
issues
Maternal diet
Tanzania
National Guidelines
Country or Guideline
Organization
not specified
Other
yes
Protocol describes: no
~ Health and
nutrition education
~ Play therapy &
psychosocial
support
Extra home
food ration?
Referral to SFP
recommended
for all
discharged
SAM patients.
not specified
None
None
SFP for:
~ mothers of infants
with MAM
~ lactating women
with MUAC <210mm
SFP for:
~ All pregnant (3rd
trimester) & lactating
women (with infant
<6m & children on
PMTCT coming from food
insecure households
~ MUAC <225mm
SFP referral
not described
yes
Referral to SFP IYCF noted, but reader not described
"At regular intervals recommended referred elsewhere for
following discharg for all
details
discharged
SAM patients.
Specific infant
follow-up not
detailed
n/s
not specified
Referral to SFP
recommended
for all
discharged
SAM patients
Follow up visits
yes, Whole
not specified
chapter devoted
to HIV issues,
with separate
guidelines for
HIV+ patients.
(NB focused at
>6month olds)
mentioned in
history; HIV
screening is
"necessary
laboratory
investigation"
HIV noted
~ Health &
yes
nutrition education details given
~ Links with
institutions,
organizations &
support groups
(e.g. social welfare,
home based care)
Protocol notes:~
basic health
education
messages
Protocol focuses on
RUTF-related
messages for older
children
Protocol describes:
~ Ensure
immunizations
done
~ Play therapy &
sensory stimulation
Preparation
for discharge
(general)
Table 10 contd
87
88
Botswana
Burkina
Faso
~ Eat ~ 2500kcal/day
~ Vit A: 200,000 IU
(single dose) if infant
<2months
Protocole
National de Prise
en Charge de la
Malnutrition
Aigue 2005
Guinea
~ Drink at least 2l
water per day
~ Rat ~ 2500kcal/day
~ Mother should be
adequately
supplemented with
vitamins & minerals
(type 1 nutrient stores
adequate) - Vit A
200,000IU
National
Integrated
Manual on the
Management of
Severe Acute
Malnutrition
in health facilities
and at community
level 2008
Maternal diet
Sudan
(North)
National Guidelines
Country or Guideline
Organization
no
noted in
list of 6
causes of
poor
weight
gain
noted in
list of
multiple
causes of
treatment
failure
Protocol describes: no
~ Health and
nutrition education
~ Play therapy &
psychosocial
support
Extra home
food ration?
Referral to SFP
None
recommended for
all discharged
SAM patients.
~after 1 week, 2
Referral to SFP
None
weeks, 1 month, 3
recommended for
months and 6months all discharged
SAM patients.
(SFP for mother in
case of infant
<6m)
Protocol mentions:
~ Childcare
practices
~ Parenting
capacity
~ Play therapy
~ counselling and
heath education
completed
~ immunization
up-to-date
~ arrangements
made for follow-up
~ ensure child is
fully re-integrated
in family &
community
~ fully immunized
~ health and
nutrition education
Other Preparation
for discharge
(general)
SFP for:
~ mothers of infants
with MAM
~ lactating women
with MUAC <210mm
not described
not described
not described
Table 10 contd
Senegal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Mother should be
adequately supplemented
with vitamins & minerals
(type 1 nutrient stores
adequate)
India
Afghanistan Community-based
Management of Acute
Malnutrition programme in
Aqcha and Mardyan District
of Jawzjan Province Northern
Afghanistan (Stabilization
Centre Guidelines) 2008
~ need to
engage mother
with treatment
programme
described
~ need to
reassure &
support mother
described
Niger
not specified
not specified
not specified
not specified
has paragraph
on psychosocial
environment
Maternal
(caregiver)
psycho-social
issues
Maternal diet
Mali
National Guidelines
Country or Guideline
Organization
yes
~ Details of HIV and
related issues
discussed
Protocol mentions:
~ completing
immunizations
~ sensitizing carers to
home care
~ play therapy
Protocol describes:
~ Health and nutrition
education
~ Play therapy &
psychosocial support
not specified
no
yes:
~ noted that "recovery
may take longer and
treatment failure is
more common
~ treatment should be
same as for HIV
no
no
yes
~ weekly for 1
month
~ fortnightly for 2
months
~ monthly for 3
months
Specific infant
follow-up not
detailed
not specified
None
guide to family
None
foods for children
aged 1 to 5 years
given in annex
not specified
not described
SFP for
pregnant and
lactating
women (with
infant <6m) if
MUAC <210mm
SFP for
pregnant and
lactating
women (with
infant <6m) if
MUAC <210mm
not described
not described
None
not specified
Feeds for
pregnant &
lactating
women
Details of any
IYCF guidance
Referral to SFP
None
recommended for
all discharged
SAM patients.
Referral to SFP
recommended for
all discharged
SAM patients.
yes
~ A chapter is
devoted to HIV &
related issues
HIV noted
Protocol mentions:
~ play therapy
~ health and nutrition
education
Protocol mentions:
~ play therapy
~ health and nutrition
education
Other Preparation
for discharge
(general)
Table 10 contd
89
Guideline objectives to address child malnutrition are generally well stated. Titles alone are often enough
to determine whether all types of acute malnutrition or only SAM is the focus.
Guidelines are generally much poorer at explicitly stating the needs of infants <6m. Infant <6m MAM is
almost universally neglected (except by Burkina Faso guideline and IFE Module 2). In some guidelines
infants <6m are only indirectly addressed, including in the WHO 1999 and 2003 guidelines. Some
guidelines usefully state the objective of infant treatment (e.g. to restore exclusive breastfeeding). As
infant <6m management is different from that of older infants and children it seems sensible that future
guidelines deal with it specifically.
b) Stakeholder involvement
4.
The guideline development group should include individuals from all the relevant
professional groups.
It is not possible to say which professional groups had inputs into guideline writing without detailed
probing with guideline sources. Many current guidelines have minimal detail of how to clinically assess
infants <6m and focus heavily on supplemental feeds as the core treatment option. This possibly reflects
predominantly nutrition-focused writing groups. Other professionals that may be relevant in the writing
of future guidelines on infants <6m include dieticians, paediatricians, obstetricians, nurses, midwives,
speech & language therapists, HIV specialists, lactation specialists, psychologists and community health
workers.
5.
IYCF is a family affair and a severely malnourished infant <6m needs involvement of not just the mother or
primary caregiver, but the father, family and community to support treatment. It is clearly difficult for
international guidelines to include users, however, this should certainly be a feature of national guidelines.
Some CMAM guidelines note the importance of community engagement as an essential element of
SAM/MAM management. This should be encouraged and made universal. Even basic understanding of
local context factors influencing malnutrition may make big differences to acceptance and acceptability of
treatments.
6.
Target users are often not clear in guidelines reviewed. Many guidelines, for example, combine details of
clinical management with details of programme management, which can confuse content. Future authors
should consider and ideally research the pros and cons of a comprehensive vs. targeted approach. For
example, small, clinically focused case management pocket size handbooks are often liked by front line
clinical staff. Managers, meanwhile, might appreciate a large file with step-by-step instructions about
troubleshooting programme databases.
90
7.
There is a clear evolution of guidelines, which suggests a process of testing and refining. However, results
of piloting and testing are not clearly stated in any of the guidelines reviewed. This would be helpful for
users and could be housed in a, probably web-based, repository of guidelines and evaluations for others
to learn from.
c) Rigour of Development
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Guidelines reviewed are end-products. Separate documents outlining the guideline development process
and articulating the underlying evidence base behind individual recommendations were not available. A
2004 WHO consultation to Review the literature on Severe Malnutrition139 is probably reflective of most
current approaches to malnutrition guideline development. Expert consultations and critical reviews are
used to identify, interpret and translate available research into policy. Guidelines for the development of
guidelines (e.g. GRADE140 and SIGN141) could be used in future.
In considering health benefits, side effects and risks, it is important to consider the implications of
therapeutic treatment of infants <6m amongst the wider infant population. For example, are there risks
that supplemental feeding of malnourished breastfed infants <6m will carry mixed messages to the
caregiver and community regarding causes of malnutrition and benefits of exclusive breastfeeding? And,
if so, how should these risks be managed? None of the guidelines reviewed address these broader issues
of spillover and population impact. Locating strategies to treat SAM and MAM in infants <6m within a
broader infant and young child feeding framework (see Chapter 2) can help to identify wider risks and
inform risk management.
14.
No guideline noted its expiry date. This probably reflects the short term and uncertain nature of funding
in international nutrition. However, for optimal future impact, regular guideline updates are needed and
processes for this should be clearly stated.
There were considerable variations in how easy guidelines were to follow and how much detail they
contained. Varying formats made guideline comparisons difficult, with some recommendations often hard
to find. Management of infants <6m was sometimes explicitly stated, (e.g. antibiotic choice), other times
not, e.g. diagnosis of fluid overload. This issue needs to be addressed in future guidelines by stating
explicitly when and how infants <6m should be treated differently throughout and when treatment is the
same.
91
18.
A key strength of WHO 1999 and its wide acceptance and use is that it was accompanied by a training
programme to aid implementation. Limited information was available as to whether reviewed guidelines
were actively promoted to target audiences and if tools were given to aid rollout.
Chapter 8 of IFE Module 2 is actually a training resource that has become a guidance material, due to the
gap in formal guidance. An evaluation of IFE Module 2 amongst users (2006) found that content on SAM
<6m was typically used as reference material for programmes more than a training content142.
e) Applicability
19.
20.
These were not directly addressed in the majority of guidelines reviewed. This is most probably because
all guidelines identified were primarily targeted at front-line field staff rather than policy-makers deciding
on whether or not they wanted to implement the programme in the first place.
21.
The guideline should presents key review criteria for monitoring and audit purposes
A few recent guidelines (e.g. Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe) include a checklist to help programme
managers to ensure that all factors relevant to high quality care were being considered. There is some
evidence that checklist strategies can have a positive impact on patient outcomes143, so this might be
useful for other guidelines to replicate in future. Ideally research should be done to develop an evidencebased checklist for infant <6m malnutrition, as well as for child malnutrition.
f) Editorial Independence
22.
23.
Organizations like WHO and UNICEF often play dual roles as both funders of guideline development and
technical experts advising on guideline details. UNICEF also contributes funds and resources to inpatient
programmes in some settings. Any risk of conflicts of interest can be minimized by having independent
individuals on the guideline writing team. This is currently the case for many national guidelines, which
have a variety of authors involved. It would be good practice for future guidelines to name all contributing
individuals and organizations.
Future guidelines would be improved by aiming towards AGREE standards at the time of writing. This will
require more person-time resources for writing / guideline development but may have positive impacts in
terms of individual outcomes.
92
MUAC is frequently used in the guidelines as an independent admission criterion, though in no guidelines
is it recommended for use in infants <6m.
There is wide variation in how current guidelines address acute malnutrition in infants <6m and some only
implicitly recognise the problem.
There is inconsistency in age, weight and length cut-offs used to identify infants <6m for admission and
their subsequent treatment.
All guidelines recommend inpatient care for SAM in infants <6m and focus on nutritional treatments with
the aim of restoring exclusive breastfeeding. Very few guidelines give details of the MAM in infants <6m.
Few guidelines include details of IYCF/breastfeeding support. MSF guidelines 2006, ACF Assessment and
Treatment of Malnutrition, 2002 and IFE Module 2 are important exceptions.
Summary recommendations
Future guidelines and guideline updates should build on and expand MAMI guidance, both SAM and
MAM, and should give more details on IYCF/ breastfeeding support.
The following three guidelines could be considered a good reference/ template for future MAMI
guidelines: MSF guidelines 2006, ACF Assessment and Treatment of Malnutrition, 2002 and IFE Module 2
Strategies with potential to improve outcomes of infant <6m SAM include implementation of routine
kangaroo care144 for inpatient complicated cases of SAM.
MAMI strategies should be located within a framework of safe and appropriate IYCF; synergies in
programming between <6m and 6 to 24m age groups must be better reflected in the guidelines.
In the context of international rollout of CMAM programmes, it is noteworthy that MAMI is predominantly
inpatient-focused. Options for outpatient based care in infants <6m should be considered in future
guidelines.
Greater clarity is needed on anthropometric criteria, measurement cut-offs and age assessment for SAM &
MAM infants <6m.
More resources should be devoted to future guideline development. Tools such as GRADE and AGREE
should be used to better enhance the quality of future guidelines. An open access online guideline library
might facilitate development of future documents.
Endnotes
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
http://www.gradeworkinggroup.org/
WHO (1999) Management of severe malnutrition: a manual for physicians and other senior health workers. World Health Organisation.
Geneva: World Health Organisation.
Valid International (2006) Community-based Therapeutic Care (CTC). A Field Manual. Oxford: Valid International.
WHO & UNICEF (2009) WHO child growth standards and the identification of severe acute malnutrition in infants and children. A joint
statement by the World Health Organization and the United Nations Children's Fund. May 2009.
Angood, C. (2006) Weighing scales for young infants: a survey of relief workers. Field Exchange. 2006(29):11-2.
IFE Core Group (2007) Chapter 5. Section 5.3 Babies who are visibly thin or underweight. IFE Module 2. Oxford: Emergency Nutrition
Network.
IFE Core Group (2007) Chapter 5. IFE Module 2. Oxford: Emergency Nutrition Network.
SS involves an initial attempt at normal BF. 30 to 60 minutes later the infant tries suckling again. But the breast this time has a small
nasogastric tube taped near to the nipple. The idea is that the process of suckling helps stimulate progressively increasing breastmilk
production. Acknowledging that this takes time - but that infantU6m nutritional needs are urgent - BMS provides maintenance nutrients
at 100kcal/kg/day.
WHO (2009) Acceptable medical reasons for use of breast-milk substitutes. WHO/NMH/NDH/09.01. Available via
http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/infantfeeding/WHO_NMH_NHD_09.01_eng.pdf
WHO. (2004) Severe malnutrition: Report of a consultation to review current literature. Geneva, Switzerland, 06 - 07 September, 2004.
Jaeschke, R., Guyatt, G.H., Dellinger, P., Schunemann, H., Levy, M.M., Kunz, R., et al. (2008) Use of GRADE grid to reach decisions on
clinical practice guidelines when consensus is elusive. BMJ. 2008;337:a744.
SIGN. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. Available from: http://www.sign.ac.uk/.
IFE Core Group (2007) Chapter 5. IFE Module 2. Oxford: Emergency Nutrition Network.
Haynes, A.B., Weiser, T.G., Berry, W.R., Lipsitz, S.R., Breizat, A-H.S., Dellinger, E.P., et al. (2009) A Surgical Safety Checklist to Reduce
Morbidity and Mortality in a Global Population. N Engl J Med. 2009 January 29, 2009;360(5):491-9.
Kangaroo care consists of skin-to skin contact between mother and infant. Key features are continuous and prolonged skin-to-skin contact
between the mother and baby, accomplished by the baby being firmly attached to the mother chest both day and night, allowing frequent
and exclusive breastfeeding (or breastmilk substitute if required).
93
Chapter 5
Review of field treatment
94
5.2 Aims
To analyse available TFP and SFP databases to determine:
% of current feeding programme admissions that are infants <6m
anthropometric and clinical profile of malnourished infants <6m
outcomes from current programmes, that use current management guidelines, for infants <6m.
5.3 Methods
5.3.1 Identifying field data
An open invitation was given to share databases of programmes targeting acute malnutrition in infants
<6m and contacts were actively pursued from May 2008 to December 2008. This generated two types of
database:
a) Raw databases with individual-level data on each patient admitted for treatment
A total of 33 datasets with information on individual children and infants <6m were obtained. These were
mostly from Action Contre la Faim (ACF), from 12 countries, with a total of 118,180 individuals aged 0 to 59
months. Data was available in Excel format which had been previously entered in the field, and further
sorted and cleaned at organizational headquarter level. For 11 countries, a detailed description of the
datasets received, grouped by country of origin, was provided. The number of individuals aged 0- 59m
included in each dataset ranged from 59 to 22,473 with an average of 3,812 per dataset. This data is the
main focus of the chapter.
b) Summary databases reporting overall programme outcomes by age category
Two different sources of compiled data were made available to the MAMI Project. First, routine databases
compiled by MSF of various non-contiguous dates, spanning between July 2003 and December 2008, of
seven programmes located in Sierra Leone (two programmes), Niger (four programmes) and Somalia (one
programme). Secondly, a dataset of compiled data from 15 programmes in Burundi from various
organizations, covering the period September 2001 to December 2002. These compiled data were used to
assess the difference in mortality as an outcome between infants <6m and children.
95
5.3 Methods
All variables at admission and discharge were cleaned and coded for analysis. Data were checked for
errors which may have occurred during data entry or database merging. Data cleaning was done twice by
the same person, each at different times. Agreement in data cleaning results was assessed and when
differences arose, corrected. Data were recoded to simplify the large number of initial outcomes
described by field programmes.
Table 11: Description of the raw databases of children 0-59m received for analysis by
country
Country
Organisation
Year
Sites
Type of care
Afghanistan
ACF
2002-04
Kabul
TFC, DC, SC
1,096
Burundi
ACF
2006-07
Buye
Gikomero
Kabarore
Kayanza
Kinini
Matongo
Mubuga
Muhanga
Musema
Ngozi
Rukago
Ruyigi
CJ, PTA
5,481
Ethiopia
MSF
2006-08
Kuyera
SC
59
Kenya
ACF
2005-07
Banisa
Malkamari
Mandera
Takaba
TFC, OTP,
SFC
8,466
Liberia
ACF
2006-08
Monrovia
TFC
2,797
Myanmar
ACF
2006-08
Buthidaung
Moungdaw
2,011
Niger
ACF
2006-08
Abalak
Keita
Mayahi
CRENAS,
CRENI
7,110
DRC
ACF
2005-07
Baraka
Buta
Baraka
Dubie
Kilembwe
Malemba
Mitwaba
Sampwe
Uvira
CNT, CNS, HT
24,155
Somalia
ACF
2005-07
Baraka
Buta
Baraka
Dubie
Kilembwe
Malemba
Mitwaba
Sampwe
Uvira
CNT, CNS, HT
24,155
Somalia
ACF
2005-08
Mogadishu
Wajid
TFC, OTP, SC
8,355
Sudan
ACF
2005-08
Nyala
El Fasher
Kalma
Bentiu
TFC, OTP, SC
8,355
Tajikistan
ACF
2005-06
Kulyab
Kurgan Tyube
SFC, TFC
9,329
Uganda
ACF
2005-07
Amuru
Apac
Gulu
Lira
Oyam
SFC, TFC,
TFP, CBC
45,591
118,180
33
Total
96
CRENAS: Centre de
Rcupration Nutritionnelle
Ambulatoire pour Svres;
CRENI: Centre de Rcupration
Nutritionnelle en Interne;
DC: Day Centre;
HT: Home treatment;
No. of datasets
5.3 Methods
Deleted
Corrected*
Missing values
1,389
19
128
93
Admission weight
57
1,606
608
Admission height
160
1,047
874
Admission MUAC
2,067
13,001
1,919
Discharge weight
40
1,421
3,029
Discharge height
94
919
3,855
413
2,010
12,223
2,181
9,200
35,602
Discharge date
Discharge MUAC
Total
* See the body of the text for an explanation of the types of errors corrected.
Data cleaning
Table 12 details the distribution of errors in all variables and whether the error was deleted or corrected.
From a total of 118,180, 1,389 (1.2%) individuals were found duplicated in the datasets and eliminated. All
duplicates came from the same dataset. A total of 11,381 errors were found that were either corrected
(80.8%) or deleted (19.2%). The large majority of errors were clustered around anthropometric
measurements (9,834 or 86.4%), MUAC data being the most predominant source of error (35.8%).
Common errors were incorrect use of punctuation (e.g.: 12...5, 12:5, etc.) or the combination of text and
number (e.g.: 4mo, 2y4m, etc.). Additionally, missing values in the dataset (usually anthropometric
measurements) were more common at discharge than at admission. MUAC at admission and discharge
accounted for the greatest proportion of missing values (70.8%). These missing MUAC measurement
reflect two issues:
MUAC is not currently recommended for infants <6m so was less commonly measured in this age
group
MUAC has only been gaining widespread acceptance in the last few years; at the time these datasets
were collected the main focus / admission criterion was weight-for-height.
Data coding
Three variables were coded to reduce variability and cluster similar groups, and so facilitate analysis:
a) Programme type
The type of programme was indicated in the dataset by either a separate variable or as the title of the
dataset. Table 13 provides detail of the original coding provided for each programme and the new code
for MAMI Project analysis. Re-coding reduced the number of categories from 14 to seven. The number of
individuals included in each category is detailed in Table 13. The majority of individuals (62.9%) were
admitted in Supplementary Feeding Centres (SFC), followed by Therapeutic Feeding Centres (TFC) and
Out-Patient Therapy Programmes (OTP). We could not determine the type of programme for 1,020 (0.9%)
enrolled individuals.
b) Age group
Individuals were classified according to their age in six categories based on the criteria defined in Table 15.
Of the total of 116,791, 0.1% had missing data on age and 12.9% were classified as having an age at
admission greater than 60 months. Since there was evidence of rounding up of age to 60 months, children
at 60 months (n=2712) were included in some of the analysis as a separate group.
c) Discharge outcome
A total of 101 different codes were used to classify the discharge outcome. Of these 101 codes, only 31
were used in more than one country (Table 43 in Appendix C). Cured, defaulter, admission mistake, death
and transfer were the outcomes more commonly used. Overall, countries varied widely in the number of
discharge outcome codes used, ranging from six to 48 different codes.
97
5.3 Methods
The original discharge outcomes codes were grouped into Sphere-compatible discharge codes as
detailed in Table 13. Where the final outcome was unclear and coded only as end of follow-up discharge
codes were re-coded as cured if their WHM was 80% or as non-recovery if it was < 80%.145
Meaning
New
Meaning
CBC
Community-based Care
CBC
Community-based Care
CJ
Centre du Jour
DC
Day Centre
DC
Day Centre
DC
Day Centre
HT
Home treatment
HT
Home Treatment
CRENAS
Out-Patient Therapy
CS
Out-Patient Therapy
OTP
Out-Patient Therapy
OTP
Out-Patient Therapy
PTA
OTP
Out-Patient Therapy
SC
SC & HT
Stabilisation centre
Stabilisation centre - Home treatment
SC
SC
Stabilisation centre
Stabilisation centre
CNS
SFC
SFC
SFC
CI
TFC
CNT
TFC
CRENI
TFC
TFC
TFC/DC/HT
TFC-HT
TFP
TFC
TFC
TFC
TFP
CBC
1,091
0.93
DC
HT
3,365
1,311
2.88
1.12
11,916
10.20
505
74,342
23,241
1,020
116,791
0.43
63.65
19.90
0.87
OTP
SC
SFC
TFC
Missing
Total*
CBC: Community-based Care;
DC: Day Centre;
HT: Home treatment;
*1,389 records were excluded as duplicates
98
Centre;
TFC: Therapeutic Feeding Centre.
5.3 Methods
N %
112
5,033
93,929
2,712
7,720
7,285
116,791
Definition
0.10 Age data at admission missing
4.31 Age at admission <6 months
80.42 Age at admission 6 months but <60 months
2.32 Age at admission = 60 months
6.61 A combination of at least two values. Age at admission
>60 months, weight at admission >33 kg and height at
admission >130 cm
6.24 Age at admission >60 months
* An individual with and age value <60 months but with a combination of weight and height at admission greater that 33 kg and 130 cm
respectively was considered as older than 60 months. These values correspond to approximately 6 and 4.4 z-scores for weight and height
for age respectively for a 60 months old male and 5.5 and 4.9 z-scores for a 60 months old female.
99
5.3 Methods
Admission New
error
Defaulter
Died
Cured
Nonrecovery
End of TFC
90
2,090
End of follow up
711
End of transit
2,660
902
Cured
50,483
End OTP
End of CBC
Guri
23,921
Total
86
Dead
294
Death
691
Dcd
35
Died
14
Dcs
710
13
Autres
72
C.N.R
276
CNR
613
Critres non-atteints
163
D/Regestration
DNG
45
Inconnu
44
Medical referal
Medical transfer
201
NR
51
Non guri
47
Non rpondant
1,645
Non respond
Non respondant
362
Non respondant
9,355
Non response
317
OTP transfer
Other
545
Others
15
R,Creni
10
R,Transfert
68
Refus Creni
Refus de transfert
Refus transfert
Refused to go TFC
SFC transfer
43
T, Creni
21
TFC
20
To other OTP
Transfer
863
12
100
Missing
23
5.3 Methods
Table 16 contd
Original discharge
code*
Admission New
error
Defaulter
Missing
Total
Transfer HP
139
Transfer SFC
46
Transfer TFC
26
Transfer other
Transfer others
Transfer to CBC
101
Transfer to CTC
32
Transfer to Health Ce
Transfer to OPT
Transfer to OTP
59
414
Transfer to SFC
249
Transfer to TFC
786
965
Transfert
584
Transfert CNS
1,494
Transfert CNT
619
Transfert CS
Transfert Centre de S
Transfert H
Transfert hpital
161
Transfert medical
33
31
Transfr
31
Transit
Unknown
Wrong discharge
31
non responder
136
Abandon
2,061
104
Def
Default
76
8,531
Defaulter
AM
Admission error
Admission mistake
449
CH
45
Cheating
36
Erreur admission
Erreur d'admission
283
Error
Mistake
Mistake admission
Mistake of admission
Wrong admission
Wrong child
14
Missing value
Total
+
862
10,773
1,757
80,174
21,614
1,611
1,611
116,791
* As originally appear in the databases. End of follow-up were classified as either cured if weight for height at discharge was at least 80%,
or non-recovery if it was less than 80%
101
5.4 Analysis
5.4 Analysis
5.4.1 Data selection for analysis
From an original dataset of 118,180 individuals, we excluded all duplicate records, individuals >60m or
with either age or sex missing (Figure 19) leaving a sample of 100,688 individuals aged >0 to 60 months.
The distribution of infants <6m, children 6 to 59m and 60m for each programme type are described in
Table 17. As expected, programmes providing CBC, OTP and SFC care have none or very few infants in
their datasets (0, 0.21 and 1.52% respectively). Data from these three groups were excluded from the
analysis of infant acute malnutrition (Figure 18). DC, HT, SC and TFC care presented 24.67%, 9.97%, 23.91%
and 14.78% of infants <6m respectively. The final sample for analysis of acute malnutrition was 25,195
children aged 0 to 60 months.
<6 months
6 to 59 months
60 months
Total*
1,071
99.63
0.37
1,075
100
2,992
738
2,053
201
24.67
68.62
6.72
100
114
1,009
20
1,143
9.97
88.28
1.75
100
24
11,047
116
11,187
0.21
98.75
1.04
100
99
306
414
23.91
73.91
2.17
100
963
60,213
2,055
63,231
1.52
95.23
3.25
100
3,051
17,299
296
20,646
14.78
83.79
1.43
100
4,989
92,998
2,701
100,688
4.95
92.36
2.68
100
* As originally appear in the databases. End of follow-up were classified as either cured if weight for height at discharge was at least 80%,
or non-recovery if it was less than 80%
n = 100,688
Exclusion if children in SFC (63,231)
Exclusion if children in OTP (11,187)
Exclusion if children in CBC (1,075)
102
5.5 Results
5.5 Results
5.5.1 Country and programme distribution
A total of 25,195 children, of whom 4,002 were infants <6m, were included in the MAMI Project analysis.
The distribution of infants <6m and children according to the type of programme and country of origin
are detailed in Table 18. The contribution to our final 0 to 60 month sample ranged, by country, from 57
(0.2%) from Ethiopia to 6,229 (24.7%) from DRC. Most of this sample of children were managed in TFCs (n
= 20,646, 81.9%), and a minority in SCs (n = 414, 1.6%). A similar distribution pattern was observed for
infants <6m
Table 18: Programme and country distribution of the final sample included for analysis* and
the sub-sample of infants <6m
0 to 60 months
Type of programme
Country
DC
Afghanistan
HT
SC
TFC
633
Burundi
Total
460
1,093
539
539
2,436
2,436
2,359
Ethiopia
57
57
Kenya
Liberia
Myanmar
1,143
248
1,391
Niger
1,108
1,108
DRC
6,229
6,229
Somalia
2,997
2,997
5,218
5,327
Sudan
109
Tajikistan
Uganda
Total
0 to 60 months
2,992
1,143
414
373
373
1,286
1,286
20,646
25,195
Type of programme
Country
DC
HT
Afghanistan
592
Burundi
146
SC
TFC
Total
438
146
Ethiopia
33
Kenya
Liberia
Myanmar
1,030
114
33
37
37
167
167
66
180
Niger
145
145
DRC
1,400
1,400
Somalia
402
402
Sudan
360
360
Tajikistan
86
86
Uganda
16
16
3,051
4,002
Total
738
114
99
103
5.5 Results
Table 19: Burden of disease. Age distribution by country and by programme, of the sample
of children selected for analysis*
Age group
Country
Afghanistan
Burundi
Ethiopia
Kenya
Liberia
Myanmar
Niger
DRC
Somalia
Sudan
Tajikistan
Uganda
Total
<6 months
6 to 59 months
60 months
Total
1,030
63
94.2
5.8
1,093
146
2,012
201
2,359
6.2
85.3
8.5
100.0
n
%
33
57.9
24
42.1
100.0
57
100.0
37
494
539
6.9
91.7
1.5
100.0
n
%
167
6.9
2,249
92.3
20
0.8
2,436
100.0
180
1,189
22
1,391
12.9
85.5
1.6
100.0
145
963
1,108
13.1
86.9
100.0
1,400
4,634
195
6,229
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
22.5
402
13.4
360
6.8
86
23.1
16
1.2
4,002
74.4
2,563
85.5
4,928
92.5
287
76.9
1,261
98.1
20,667
3.1
32
1.1
39
0.7
9
0.7
526
100.0
2,997
100.0
5,327
100.0
373
100.0
1,286
100.0
25,195
15.9
82.0
2.1
100.0
Age group
Country
DC
HT
SC
TFC
Total
<6 months
6 to 59 months
Total
738
24.7
114
10.0
99
23.9
3,051
14.8
4,002
2,053
68.6
1,009
88.3
306
73.9
17,299
83.8
20,667
201
6.7
20
1.8
9
2.2
296
1.4
526
2,992
100.0
1,143
100.0
414
100.0
20,646
100.0
25,195
15.9
82.0
2.1
100.0
104
60 months
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
5.5 Results
a)
Frequency (%)
15
10
b)
12
18
24
12
18
24
30
36
Age (months)
42
48
54
60
42
48
54
60
Frequency (%)
15
10
0
30
36
Age (months)
Infants <6m were grouped by age as <2 months, 2 to 3.9 months and 4 to 5.9 months and the distribution
was analysed by country and by programme type provided (Table 20). Overall infant malnutrition is evenly
distributed across the age range in infants, between 36% (< 2 months) and 31% (4.5.9 months). However,
there is great variation across countries and programmes. No clear or consistent pattern was evident.
105
5.5 Results
Table 20: Age distribution by country and by programme type of the sample of infant
selected for analysis*
Age group
Country
Afghanistan
Burundi
Ethiopia
Kenya
Liberia
Myanmar
Niger
DRC
Somalia
Sudan
Tajikistan
Uganda
Total
< 2 months
2 to 3.9 months
4 to 5.9 months
Total
126
495
409
1,030
12.2
48.1
39.7
100.0
50
57
39
146
34.3
39.0
26.7
100.0
n
%
4
12.1
17
51.5
12
36.4
33
100.0
19
15
37
8.1
51.4
40.5
100.0
n
%
49
29.3
64
38.3
54
32.3
167
100.0
91
73
16
180
50.6
40.6
8.9
100.0
71
41
33
145
49.0
28.3
22.8
100.0
832
305
263
1,400
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
59.4
5
1.2
189
52.5
9
10.5
2
12.5
1,431
21.8
121
30.1
93
25.8
29
33.7
10
62.5
1,324
18.8
276
68.7
78
21.7
48
55.8
4
25.0
1,247
100.0
402
100.0
360
100.0
86
100.0
16
100.0
4,002
35.8
33.1
31.2
100.0
Age group
Programme type
DC
HT
SC
TFC
Total
< 2 months
2 to 3.9 months
Total
138
18.7
65
57.0
30
30.3
1198
39.3
1,431
338
45.8
42
36.8
48
48.5
896
29.4
1,324
262
35.5
7
6.1
21
21.2
957
31.4
1,247
738
100.0
114
100.0
99
100.0
3051
100.0
4,002
35.8
33.1
31.2
100.0
106
4 to 5.9 months
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
5.5 Results
Table 21: Male to female ratio by age group, by country and by programme type
Age groups
<6 months
Country
Afghanistan
6 to 59 months
M:F
60 months
M:F
466
564
1.2
27
36
1.3
Burundi
79
67
0.8
933
1,079
1.2
Ethiopia
18
15
0.8
18
0.3
Kenya
17
20
1.2
218
276
Liberia
76
91
1.2
1,131
1,118
Myanmar
97
83
0.9
765
M:F
94
107
1.1
1.3
0.6
1.0
11
0.8
424
0.6
11
11
1.0
Niger
71
74
1.0
448
515
1.1
DRC
720
680
0.9
2,234
2,400
1.1
88
107
1.2
Somalia
191
211
1.1
1,229
1,334
1.1
16
16
1.0
Sudan
160
200
1.3
2,458
2,470
1.0
23
16
0.7
42
44
1.0
150
137
0.9
1.0
605
656
1.1
1.25
1,945
2,057
1.1
10,216
10,451
1.0
252
274
1.1
Tajikistan
Uganda
Total
Age groups
<6 months
Programme type
6 to 59 months
M:F
60 months
M:F
M:F
DC
356
382
1.1
950
1,103
1.2
94
107
1.1
HT
58
56
1.0
648
361
0.6
11
0.8
SC
57
42
0.7
196
110
0.6
1.3
TFC
1,474
1,577
1.1
8,422
8,877
1.1
143
153
1.1
Total
1,945
2,057
1.1
10,216
10,451
1.0
252
274
1.1
M: Male
F: Female
M:F: Male to Female ratio
107
5.5 Results
Table 22: Male to female ratio by age group, by country and by programme type for infants
aged <6 months
Age groups
< 2 months
Country
2 to 3.9 months
M:F
4 to 5.9 months
M:F
M:F
Afghanistan
52
74
1.4
221
274
1.2
193
216
1.1
Burundi
23
27
1.2
36
21
0.6
20
19
1.0
Ethiopia
0.3
1.1
0.7
Kenya
0.5
12
1.7
0.9
Liberia
21
28
1.3
34
30
0.9
21
33
1.6
Myanmar
49
42
0.9
44
29
0.7
12
3.0
Niger
35
36
1.0
20
21
1.1
16
17
1.1
DRC
447
385
0.9
148
157
1.1
125
138
1.1
1.5
60
61
1.0
129
147
1.1
Somalia
Sudan
84
105
1.3
44
49
1.1
32
46
1.4
Tajikistan
1.3
18
11
0.6
20
28
1.4
Uganda
0.0
1.0
3.0
724
707
1.0
645
679
1.1
576
671
1.2
Total
Age groups
< 2 months
Programme type
2 to 3.9 months
M:F
4 to 5.9 months
M:F
M:F
DC
61
77
1.3
167
171
1.0
128
134
1.0
HT
33
32
1.0
23
19
0.8
2.5
SC
19
11
0.6
29
19
0.7
12
1.3
TFC
611
587
1.0
426
470
1.1
437
520
1.2
Total
724
707
1.0
645
679
1.1
576
671
1.2
M: Male
F: Female
M:F: Male to Female ratio
Table 23: Oedema frequency distribution among different age groups and programme
types provided for the sample included for SAM analysis
Oedema
Age group
<6 months
6 to 59 months
60 months
Total
108
No oedema
%
Missing values
%
140
3.5%
3,812
95.3%
50
1.2%
7,261
35.1%
13,077
63.3%
329
1.6%
317
60.3%
205
39.0%
0.8%
7718
30.6%
17,094
67.8%
383
1.5%
5.5 Results
109
5.5 Results
Figure 20: Forest plots of the risk ratio of presenting oedema for infants <6m compared
to children aged 6 to 59 months by country and by programme type
a) Country
Study
Risk ratio
(95%CI)
Afghanistan
0.73 (0.10,5.56)
Burundi
0.01 (0.00,0.08)
8.1
DRC
0.13 (0.10,0.15)
70.7
Kenya
0.23 (0.03,1.64)
0.4
Liberia
0.03 (0.00,0.18)
3.7
Myanmar
0.29 (0.12,0.70)
1.5
Niger
0.04 (0.01,0.26)
2.3
Somalia
0.01 (0.00,0.12)
7.1
Sudan
0.03 (0.01,0.12)
6.1
Overall (95%CI)
0.10 (0.08,012)
.001
% Weight
0.1
10
Risk ratio
a) Programme type
Risk ratio
(95%CI)
DC
0.00 (0.00,0.02)
26.0
HT
0.36 (0.12,1.14)
0.6
SC
0.14 (0.04,0.58)
0.9
TFC
0.13 (0.11,0.15)
72.5
Overall (95%CI)
0.13 (0.11,0.15)
.001
110
% Weight
Study
10
Risk ratio
5.5 Results
Table 24: Frequency and percentage of missing values of anthropometry by age group
Variable/Indicator missing at admission
Age group
Weight
Length/
Height
< 6 months
n
%
n
%
n
%
15 0.4% 227 5.7% 2,486 62.1%
6 to 59 months
60 months
MUAC
WAZ
n
19
HAZ
WHZ
WHM
Total
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
0.5% 233 5.8% 1,607 40.2% 1,605 40.1% 4,002
0.7% 149 0.7%
0.0%
2 0.4%
198 1.0%
3 0.6%
Table 25: Frequency and percentage of missing values of anthropometry by country and
programme type in infants <6m
Variable/Indicator missing at admission
Country
Weight
Length/
Height
%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
%
n
%
0.1% 1,030 100.0%
2.7% 143 97.9%
12.1%
4 12.1%
16.2%
25 67.6%
3.6% 163 97.6%
Afghanistan
Burundi
Ethiopia
Kenya
Liberia
0
0
0
0
0
Myanmar
Niger
DRC
1
4
4
6
6
MUAC
WAZ
n
180 100.0%
HAZ
0
0
0
0
0
%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
15 10.3%
0 0.0%
n
3
4
4
7
6
WHZ
%
0.3%
2.7%
12.1%
18.9%
3.6%
n
252
72
11
7
40
%
24.5%
49.3%
33.3%
18.9%
24.0%
WHM
n
252
72
11
7
40
Total
%
n
24.5% 1,030
49.3% 146
33.3%
33
18.9%
37
24.0% 167
147 81.7%
147 81.7%
180
32 22.1%
2 0.1%
72 49.7%
811 57.9%
72 49.7% 145
809 57.8% 1,400
15 10.3%
0 0.0%
31 21.4%
2 0.1%
145 100.0%
27 1.9%
Somalia
Sudan
Tajikistan
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
22 5.5%
40 11.1%
0 0.0%
378 94.0%
352 97.8%
34 39.5%
0
0
0
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
22 5.5%
41 11.4%
0 0.0%
23 5.7%
156 43.3%
8 9.3%
23 5.7%
156 43.3%
8 9.3%
402
360
86
Uganda
0 0.0%
1 6.3%
5 31.3%
0.0%
1 6.3%
8 50.0%
8 50.0%
16
WHZ
WHM
Weight
n
DC
HT
SC
TFC
Total
0
0
0
15
15
Length/
Height
MUAC
%
n
%
n
%
0.0%
5 0.7% 735 99.6%
0.0% 51 44.7% 114 100.0%
0.0% 63 63.6%
70 70.7%
0.5% 108 3.5% 1,567 51.4%
0.4% 227 5.7% 2,486 62.1%
WAZ
n
0
2
0
17
19
HAZ
Total
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
0.0%
6 0.8% 235 31.8% 235 31.8% 738
1.8% 52 45.6%
87 76.3%
87 76.3% 114
0.0% 63 63.6%
71 71.7%
71 71.7%
99
0.6% 112 3.7% 1,214 39.8% 1,212 39.7% 3,051
0.5% 233 5.8% 1,607 40.2% 1,605 40.1% 4,002
* The percentages in this table are based on the total sample of 4002 infants <6m and 20,667 children aged 6 to 59 months.
111
5.5 Results
Table 26: Frequency of flagged values using Epi-info criteria by age group
Flag criteria
Age group
Flag 1
n
< 6 months
6 to 59 months
60 months
Flag 2
Flag 3
Flag 4
%
0.1%
n
95
%
2.4%
62
%
1.5%
392
2
1.9%
0.4%
626
42
3.0%
8.0%
1803
23
8.7%
4.4%
Any flag
Total
%
0.0%
n
159
%
4.0%
n
4,002
3
0
0.0%
0.0%
2548
64
12.3%
12.2%
20,667
526
* The percentages in this table are based on the total sample of 4002 infants <6m and 20,667 children aged 6 to 59 months.
Density
0
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
WHZ at admission (NCHS)
Density
4
3
2
1
0
-8
112
-6
-4
-2
0
WHZ at admission (NCHS)
6.3%
25
19
155
43
13
Kenya
Liberia
Myanmar
Niger
Somalia
Sudan
Tajikistan
Uganda
401
524 13.1%
SC
TFC
Total
16
26.6%
76.3%
67.5%
52.6%
43.0%
213
19.6%
45.2%
54.2%
31.2%
7.1%
7.0%
28.9%
1,181 29.5%
953
51.8%
31.3%
27.9%
<6 months
24
17.8%
75.9%
305
64
24.1%
5.6%
33.5%
43.2%
15.2%
35
10
49.6%
16
5
56
8,909 43.1%
7,817
166
523
403
19.2%
20.9%
28
293
33.0%
340
<6 months
45.4%
62.3%
16.7%
20.2%
19.5%
25.4%
6 to 59 months
336
219
3,326
1,347
414
590
1,020
308
936
393
6 to 59 months
25
23.2%
82.6%
65.4%
56.5%
44.7%
47.4%
38.8%
45.0%
49.3%
49.1%
17.2%
8,785 42.5%
7,785
151
495
354
6 to 59 months
292
237
3,225
1,449
430
563
872
58.5%
16.7%
4
289
22.8%
16.9%
39.7%
1,058
341
6 to 59 months
<70% WHM
79.1%
93.9%
93.9%
95.6%
95.3%
3,622 89.1%
2,717
93
109
703
<6 months
16 100.0%
68
88.9%
90.5%
364
320
73.1%
106
96.1%
91.0%
152
173
67.6%
87.9%
89.3%
98.6%
94.7%
25
29
1,250
144
975
<6 months
57
62
1.4%
15.3%
2.7%
8.6%
9.2%
4.9%
2.9%
3.4%
87.5%
5.5%
2.8%
98.4%
33
46
98
1,037
860
5.0%
5.0%
10.8%
4.6%
4.8%
6 to 59 months
18
44
132
220
89
58
65
17
21
254
6 to 59 months
<4 kg weight
58.1%
77.2%
72.6%
69.0%
95.0%
76.6%
54.1%
81.8%
85.8%
96.6%
82.4%
80.3%
90.9%
94.7%
84.8%
3,273 81.8%
2,449
90
108
626
<6 months
16 100.0%
50
278
292
100
171
128
20
27
1,201
141
849
<6 months
39
46
23
26
66
487
372
2.4%
2.2%
7.5%
2.6%
3.2%
* The percentages in this table are based on the total sample of 4002 infants <6m and 20,667 children aged 6 to 59 months.
93.8%
94.2%
87.2%
91.8%
63.4%
37.8%
92.2%
56.8%
84.8%
91.4%
95.9%
98.4%
90.2%
35.4%
53.5%
98.8%
3,576 89.4%
2,751
35
61
729
<6 months
15
81
10.5%
0.5%
314
369
92
68
154
21
28
1,280
140
1,014
62
4.0%
29.3%
9.0%
19.8%
15.4%
8.7%
11.4%
7.5%
87.5%
9.9%
5.1%
98.4%
11.6%
13.1%
8.5%
7.0%
2,278 11.0%
2,008
40
86
144
6 to 59 months
50
84
444
508
148
104
256
37
21
461
103
6 to 59 months
<65 cm height
<6 months
1.0%
2.8%
5.6%
2.8%
1.0%
1.8%
66.7%
2.4%
1.9%
73.0%
6 to 59 months
30
49
73
54
33
23
16
109
6 to 59 months
<3.5 kg weight
DRC: Democratic Republic of the Congo; DC: Day Centre; HT: Home treatment; SC: Stabilisation centre; TFC: Therapeutic Feeding Centre.WHZ: Weight-for-height z-score;
WHM: Weight-for-height percentage of the median.
13.1%
4.0%
0.9%
HT
16.0%
118
<6 months
11.9%
38.6%
13.1%
1.1%
15.0%
18.9%
9.1%
DC
Programme
15.1%
Ethiopia
5.9%
9.6%
14
82
DRC
15.5%
160
Afghanistan
Burundi
<6 months
Country
<-3 WHZ
Variable / Indicator
Table 27: Frequency table for different admission criteria, comparing infants <6m and children 6 to 59 months of age*
5.5 Results
113
5.5 Results
114
5.5 Results
Country
Cured
n
Afghanistan
Burundi
Ethiopia
Kenya
Liberia
Myanmar
Niger
DRC
Somalia
Sudan
Tajikistan
Uganda
Total
5 to 59 months
Country
108
21
17
117
135
101
1,099
327
245
68
8
3,015
74.0%
63.6%
45.9%
70.1%
75.0%
69.7%
78.5%
81.3%
68.1%
79.1%
50.0%
75.3%
%
4.8%
17
7
9
5
5
11
50
5
26
0
6
190
11.6%
21.2%
24.3%
3.0%
2.8%
7.6%
3.6%
1.2%
7.2%
0.0%
37.5%
4.7%
Cured
32
1,710
22
295
1,827
821
555
3,752
2,000
3,329
141
836
15,320
%
50.8%
85.0%
91.7%
59.7%
81.2%
69.0%
57.6%
81.0%
78.0%
67.6%
49.1%
66.3%
74.1%
Excluded
49
769 74.7%
n
Afghanistan
Burundi
Ethiopia
Kenya
Liberia
Myanmar
Niger
DRC
Somalia
Sudan
Tajikistan
Uganda
Total
Died
Died
n
4
38
1
58
15
11
116
183
42
222
4
137
831
%
6.3%
1.9%
4.2%
11.7%
0.7%
0.9%
12.0%
3.9%
1.6%
4.5%
1.4%
10.9%
4.0%
%
0
0.0%
Non-recovery
n
96
Defaulter
9.3%
115 11.2%
0.7%
8 5.5%
4 2.7%
0.0%
1 3.0%
0 0.0%
0.0%
6 16.2%
5 13.5%
0.0%
33 19.8%
12 7.2%
1.1%
7 3.9%
22 12.2%
2.8%
1 0.7%
13 9.0%
0.2%
202 14.4%
46 3.3%
0.0%
4 1.0%
40 10.0%
0.3%
33 9.2%
34 9.4%
0.0%
7 8.1%
11 12.8%
0.0%
0 0.0%
2 12.5%
0.3%
398 9.9%
304 7.6%
Sphere discharge outcomes
Excluded
Non-recovery
Defaulter
n
%
n
%
n
%
0 0.0%
11 17.5%
15 23.8%
7 0.3%
30 1.5%
61 3.0%
0 0.0%
1 4.2%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
43 8.7%
98 19.8%
2 0.1%
213 9.5%
192 8.5%
46 3.9%
172 14.5%
95 8.0%
6 0.6%
90 9.3%
77 8.0%
23 0.5%
497 10.7%
179 3.9%
6 0.2%
142 5.5%
222 8.7%
11 0.2%
678 13.8%
498 10.1%
0 0.0%
79 27.5%
63 22.0%
4 0.3%
151 12.0%
133 10.5%
105 0.5% 2,107 10.2% 1,633 7.9%
1
0
0
0
2
4
3
0
1
0
0
11
Missing
n
Total
%
1
0.1%
1,030
8 5.5%
4 12.1%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
9 5.0%
15 10.3%
0 0.0%
26 6.5%
21 5.8%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
84 2.1%
146
33
37
167
180
145
1,400
402
360
86
16
4,002
Missing
n
%
1 1.6%
166 8.3%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
44 3.7%
119 12.4%
0 0.0%
151 5.9%
190 3.9%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
671 3.2%
Total
63
2,012
24
494
2,249
1,189
963
4,634
2,563
4,928
287
1,261
20,667
115
5.5 Results
Programme
Cured
n
DC
HT
SC
TFC
Total
6 to 59 months
Programme
DC
HT
SC
TFC
Total
Died
%
605 82.0%
89
67
2,254
3,015
78.1%
67.7%
73.9%
75.3%
%
84.5%
71.4%
62.4%
73.3%
74.1%
%
17
2.3%
4
8
161
190
3.5%
8.1%
5.3%
4.7%
Cured
n
1,735
720
191
12,674
15,320
Excluded
Died
n
38
7
6
780
831
%
1.9%
0.7%
2.0%
4.5%
4.0%
%
1
0.1%
Non-recovery
n
%
39
5.3%
Defaulter
n
%
68
9.2%
1.8%
6 5.3%
13 11.4%
0.0%
2 2.0%
9 9.1%
0.3%
351 11.5%
214 7.0%
0.3%
398 9.9%
304 7.6%
Sphere discharge outcomes
Excluded
Non-recovery
Defaulter
n
%
n
%
n
%
7 0.3%
35 1.7%
72 3.5%
44 4.4%
161 16.0%
77 7.6%
2 0.7%
32 10.5%
30 9.8%
52 0.3% 1,879 10.9% 1,454 8.4%
105 0.5% 2,107 10.2% 1,633 7.9%
2
0
8
11
Missing
n
Total
%
8
1.1%
738
0 0.0%
13 13.1%
63 2.1%
84 2.1%
114
99
3,051
4,002
Missing
n
%
166 8.1%
0 0.0%
45 14.7%
460 2.7%
671 3.2%
Total
2,053
1,009
306
17,299
20,667
DC: Day Centre; HT: Home Treatment; SC: Stabilization Centre; TFC: Therapeutic Feeding Centre
* Sphere standard exit indicators are cure, death, defaulter and transfer. For the purpose of this analysis, excluded, non-recovery and
missing are also reported (MAMI Indicator).
116
5.5 Results
Figure 22: Forest plots of the risk ratio of dying for infants <6m compared to children aged 6
to 59 months by country and by programme type using data from the raw datasets
a) Country
Study
Risk ratio
(95%CI)
Afghanistan
Burundi
Ethiopia
Kenya
Liberia
Myanmar
Niger
DRC
Somalia
Sudan
Tajikistan
Uganda
0.75 (0.28,2.01)
6.17 (3.57,10.65)
5.09 (0.67,38.69)
2.07 (1.12,3.84)
4.49 (1.65,12.20)
3.00 (1.06,8.54)
0.63 (0.35,1.14)
0.90 (0.67,1.23)
0.79 (0.30,1.91)
1.60 (1.08,2,37)
0.37 (0.02,6.76)
3.45 (1.80,6.63)
Overall (95%CI)
1.29 (1.08,1.53)
.01
Risk ratio
% Weight
4.0
2.7
0.6
4.3
1.1
16.0
1.5
44.9
6.0
16.0
1.1
1.8
50
a) Programme type
Study
Risk ratio
(95%CI)
DC
1.24 (0.71,2.19)
7.8
HT
5.06 (1.50,17.01)
0.6
SC
4.12 (1.47,11.59)
1.1
TFC
1.17 (0.99,1.38)
90.5
% Weight
Overall (95%CI)
.1
Risk ratio
18
117
5.5 Results
Figure 23: Forest plots of the risk ratio of dying for infants <6m compared to children aged 6
to 59 months in Burundi by different TFC centres and by different programmes,
using compiled data from various agencies
Risk ratio
(95%CI)
Bubanza
Cankuza
Cibitoke
Gatumba
Gitega
Kabezi
Kayanza
Kirundo
Mabayi
Muramvya
Mutoyi
Muyinga
Ngozi
Nkuba
Rutana
0.57 (0.08,2.16)
3.07 (0.47,20.24)
1.45 (0.09,24.57)
1.16 (0.45,3.04)
2.10 (0.96,4.59)
8.21 (2.12,31.84)
1.18 (0.38,3.70)
1.94 (0.32,16.59)
2.32 (0.32,16.59)
1.89 (0.26,13.85)
2.76 (0.24,32.41)
5.38 (3.04,9.51)
0.71 (0.04,11.25)
4.68 (0.67,3.96)
1.74 (0.67,3.96)
Overall (95%CI)
1.29 (1.08,1.53)
.01
Risk ratio
% Weight
7.0
1.4
1.4
15.5
12.8
2.6
10.3
14.5
1.8
2.2
0.8
12.7
2.9
0.4
13.8
90
a) by different programmes
Study
Risk ratio
(95%CI)
Niger
1.33 (0.84,2.09)
30.5
Niger Multiple
0.96 (0.31,2.99)
7.3
Niger SC-1
1.63 (0.13,20.64)
0.8
Niger SC-2
0.25 (0.07,0.92)
17.5
Sierra Leone SC
1.21 (0.41,3.61)
6.3
1.30 (0.85,1.35)
36.7
Somalia
1.33 (0.10,18.35)
0.9
Overall (95%CI)
1.10 (0.83,1.45
.048455
20.6376
Risk ratio
118
% Weight
5.6 Discussion
5.6 Discussion
5.6.1Key findings
In our analysis of data from 33 datasets from 12 countries we showed that an approximate 16% of
admissions for severe malnutrition care are infants <6m ranging from 10% in Home Treatment (HT) to 25%
Day Centre (DC) programmes. This range of variability was greater when analysed by country. We also
showed that the burden of malnutrition in infants <6m forms part of the distribution of malnutrition in
children less than 60 months old, starting immediately after birth, which seems to peak between the ages
of six to 24 months and presents a significant decline after 36 months of age. In addition, the proportion
of severely malnourished males is greater in infants <6m than that in their older counterparts.
One significant and consistent difference found was that infants <6m are less likely to present oedema.
The risk ratio for presenting oedema in infants <6m was 0.1 (ranging from 0.08 0.12, p<0.01) when
compared to children aged six to 59 months. This risk varied widely by country and programme type, but
was consistently lower in infants <6m.
Operationally, we showed that even within one agency, there is a significant variation in the way data is
recorded, structured, entered and coded. This makes data cleaning, analysis and interpretation resource
intensive and challenging, highlighting the importance for the development and implementation of
minimum reporting standards. Within this variation patterns emerged. Infants <6m in general, showed
more missing variables/indicators at admission, height being the most commonly missed, clustered
mostly in HT and Stabilisation Centre (SC) programme types. Weight-for-height % median (WHM) was also
difficult to calculate in this group mostly due to a significant proportion having lengths of <49cm.
As expected, infants <6m presented higher rates of mortality with a risk ratio of 1.29 (ranging from 1.081.53, p<0.01). This increased rate was also observed in compiled data from different Therapeutic Feeding
Centres (TFCs) in Burundi but was not observed in MSF complied data from various sources. It is not
known how much of this difference in mortality is to be expected, due to the greater background
vulnerability of this age group. It is also important to note that the lack of contextual and survey data on
infants <6m meant it was not possible to compare inpatient mortality with mortality amongst infants <6m
in the general population.
Few countries met all Sphere exit indicators for therapeutic care of severely malnourished infants <6m
(Correction of Malnutrition Standard 2). Variations in outcome between different programmes need
exploration to find out how much this reflects programme/ guidelines performance and how much
patient clinical profile on admission. Current indicators to achieve Sphere Standards (2004) to correct
malnutrition have their limitations with regard to infants <6m. It is not clear whether Sphere exit
indicators for children under five years include infants< 6m. While a Sphere indicator is included on the
importance of breastfeeding and psychosocial support in SAM treatment, there is no clear guidance on
how to measure this. The staff: patient ratio (1:10) recommended may also not be applicable, given the
level of support warranted for infants <6m. A process of quality improvement in programming will help
inform development of Sphere Standards for infants <6m.
There is an absence of standard infant feeding indicators in programme data such as breastfeeding status
on admission and on discharge. Exclusive breastfeeding has been identified as a main treatment outcome
in infants <6m (Chapter 5). Continued breastfeeding to two years and beyond significantly contributes to
infant and young child food security. Sub-optimal feeding practices may contribute to acute malnutrition.
Therefore standardised feeding status data is needed to both inform treatment and audit.
119
5.6 Discussion
Need for intensive data cleaning with time & resource limitations: Databases required intensive
processing before analysis, which required months of dedicated person-time. This is possible within a
research setting, but difficult within a field-focused organization where the time delay would limit the
application of learning.
Validity and reliability issues: Given the extent of cleaning and processing that were needed to
harmonize the field databases, it is likely that field practices also varied significantly between sites and
programmes. In an ideal analysis, quality and validity of the whole data flow system, from patient to
final database, would be verified.
Coverage data: There was no available data on programme coverage. This makes it impossible to assess
population impact, i.e. a hypothetical programme with 100% coverage but 50% death rate makes a
greater impact than a programme with 50% coverage but 10% deaths.
Interpretation of outcome data given limited variables: Many programmes did not reach Sphere
standards to correct severe malnutrition. However, given lack of even basic context data on clinical
condition of children presenting to care, it is not possible to say how much of that shortfall represents
suboptimal programme effectiveness and how much reflects a high risk patient caseload. This is
presented visually in Figures 25-28.
TFP/SFP outcome = programme effectiveness x 1/risk of death at admission
(i.e. good outcome = highly effective programme x low risk patient)
120
5.6 Discussion
Figure 24: Hypothetical population showing the relationship between different types of
acute malnutrition.
Normal
MAM
SAM (uncomplicated)
SAM (complicated)
Treatable SAM
Terminal
Normal
MAM
SAM
SAM
Normal
MAM
SAM
MAM
SAM
121
Summary recommendations
Attention and resources should be diverted to MAMI in feeding programmes and a process of quality
improvement should be implemented to help programmes to reach Sphere Standards for infants <6m
and to reduce the proportion of deaths in this age group.
122
Staff training and appropriate equipment are needed to improve the quality of anthropometric
assessment of infants <6m.
Feeding programme data should be disaggregated by age, to enable closer analysis. Routine indicators of
feeding status on entry and exit to programmes are necessary.
Standardisation in reporting is needed, including database structure, case definitions, outcome coding
and variable formatting, to facilitate future research and routine audit. Significant work is needed to
harmonize and improve the quality of field databases. There are lessons to learn from the SFP Minimum
reporting Standards Package under development and an update in the SFP reporting package to include
infants <6m is warranted.
Few countries met all Sphere exit indicators for therapeutic care of infants <6m (Correction of
Malnutrition Standard 2). Current Sphere indicators to correct malnutrition have their limitations with
regard to infants <6m. The MAMI report findings should inform Sphere Standards update. A process of
quality improvement should be implemented to help programmes to reach Sphere Standards for infants
<6m.
Endnotes
145
146
None of these recoded cases where WHM <80% reached the final analysis.
Minimum Reporting Standards for SFP project. http://www.ennonline.net/research/sfp.aspx
123
Chapter 6
Key informant
interviews
124
6.2 Methodology
6.2.1 Design
There were three distinct parts to the field experiences review:
a) A steering group meeting of key experts and representatives of partner organizations, where key
MAMI issues were identified and discussed.
b) A series of semi-structured key informant interviews by telephone on themes identified in a).
c) Two field visits to clinical settings (Kenya & Malawi).
6.2.2 Participants
Contributions were sought via:
a) Individual and organizational contacts identified by ENN, UCL CIHD and ACF, and further contacts on
the advice of these.
b) Information on MAMI and a call to collaborate was posted on the following websites:
The UN Interagency Standing Committee Global Nutrition Cluster147
UCL Centre for International Health & Development148
ENN (Emergency Nutrition Network)149
c) Information was posted to E-lists and e-discussion groups including:
Child 2015150
Pronut Nutrition and HIV/AIDS (ProNut-HIV).151
Method of approach
Contacts were followed up by telephone and email. Information about the MAMI Project and key themes
to be discussed was sent in advance of an interview (see appendix C).
Sample size
The steering group meeting was of all those able to attend. Key informant interviews continued until
saturation, when themes were consistently repeated and no new issues emerged. Every attempt was
made to hear from a range of different staff working in different organizations.
Non-participation
Nobody approached for key informant interview declined to participate. However, not all potential
interviews took place, principally due to overseas travel commitments.
Aside from the Kenya & Malawi field trips, most key informant interviews were conducted by telephone by
MK lead MAMI researcher (London, UK).
125
6.2 Methodology
6.2.5 Limitations
It is important to note that the sample of key informants is purposive and not necessarily representative.
The possibility of bias cannot therefore be excluded. Given this, quantitative analysis of interview
responses was not undertaken.
6.3 Results
6.3.1 Participant profiles
(a) Steering group meeting
A meeting of key agencies involved in MAMI in emergencies took place in London on 28th May 2007. A
total of 23 participants representing 16 different organizations attended. A summary of this meeting
along with participants is included in appendix C.
(b) Key informant interviews and (c) field visit observations
A total of 33 key informants were interviewed (see Acknowledgements). Key characteristics (country
location of programme described; interviewee position; type of organization/programme) are detailed in
Table 45, appendix C. Some participants described issues in multiple settings, so that the number of
countries and projects represented in the table is greater than the number of individuals interviewed.
6.3.2 Themes
Key feedback, emerging policy implications and research questions from key informant interviews and
field visits are summarised in Tables 30-35:
More detailed feedback for each is included in Appendices D.5-D.10. Two case studies describe interesting
innovations: a study on supplementary suckling in Liberia (Box 6) and pilot experiences in including
disaggregated data on children less than two years in the UNHCR health information system in Dadaab,
Kenya (Box 7).
126
6.3 Results
Programme details
Programme guidelines are not consistent and need harmonisation, allowing for local variations.
Nutritional and psychosocial care for mothers/ caregivers is important and should be included in
guidelines. This should include guidance on good communication between staff and caregivers and
clarity of expectations.
Opinion is divided about the effectiveness of supplementary suckling (SS) and on which therapeutic milk
to use for infants <6m. Clarity is needed on both. Inadequate staff time and skills to support breastfeeding
in infants <6m was as one of the perceived key limiting factors in MAMI. Managing orphans and nonbreastfed infants was identified as a major challenge, both in treatment and longer term follow-up.
Challenges in MAMI
Links to other clinical services need to be improved. MAMI should be seen as a cross-cutting issue.
Community-based care for infants <6m, for MAM cases and those too sick to attend inpatient facilities, is
poor. Guidance on CMAM for infants <6m is needed. SFP is often not available for pregnant and lactating
mothers.
Some programmes reported introduction of complementary foods or RUTF in infants <6m, where there
was felt to be no other option. Clarity is needed on optimal feeding where BF is not possible.
Cost data
No documented evidence were offered on the time or cost implications associated with providing skilled
inpatient or outpatient breastfeeding support in inpatient or outpatient feeding programmes.
Documented experiences have tended to focus on the technical aspects and challenges.
127
6.3 Results
Ways forward
Interviewees identified ways forward that centred on admission criteria, guidance and tools
development, linking with other services and building staff capacity (see Table 35).
Synopsis of feedback
Population
Information often lacking on
surveys focusing
community prevalence of acute
on infants <6m
malnutrition in infants <6m
Technical guidance on including
infants < 6m in surveys is lacking
Assumptions are sometimes
made on the basis of admissions
Infant <6m
factors
underlying
malnutrition
Maternal factors
underlying
malnutrition
Family factors
underlying
malnutrition
HIV
Health services
Societal and
cultural factors
underlying
malnutrition
128
6.3 Results
129
Sub-theme
Synopsis of feedback
Case finding in
the community
Growth Charts
Assessment
logistics and
practicalities
Many current guidelines not clear on infantspecific issues to look for, so child criteria are
used, often supported by clinical judgement
(this often includes assessment of mother)
Several centres found pre-admission
assessments useful (e.g. admit first to
breastfeeding corner prior to full admission)
Anthropometry,
measuring
Reasons for
presentation to
feeding
programme
Ward layout/
assessment
environment
6.3 Results
Synopsis of feedback
Caregiver
expectations
Guidelines
Staff time
Programmes need to budget and plan for infantspecific staff (~1 full time support staff per 5-10
nursing mothers)
Staff
supervision
Medical
treatments
Maternal
issues
Feeding
methods
Type of milk
used for
therapy
Lots of confusion regarding best therapeutic Randomised controlled trials needed to explore
milk for various phases (F100 dilute, F75
which milk is best
most common used). Modified animal milks Need better systems to manage infant formula
rarely used.
supplies when needed as last resort
Major challenge is longer term feeding for
orphans and others not breastfed
Physical
space on
ward
Length of
stay
Follow-up
130
6.3 Results
Synopsis of feedback
Community
care
SFP
Nonadmissions
Unsolicited
donations
Treating
infants <6m
as if older
Reporting
issues, Audit
Synopsis of feedback
Formal training
Induction courses
Field visits by
supervisor or other
expert (on-the job
vs. workshop type
training)
Useful materials
131
6.3 Results
Synopsis of feedback
Identification
of infants
<6m for
admission to
TFP/ SFP
Guidelines
Links with
other
services
Need to create more opportunities to link Ensure coordination and dialogue between different
with related services which would both
programme coordinators at field level
enhance treatment of established
Set common targets
malnutrition and play a role in primary
prevention of malnutrition
Staff
132
6.3 Results
Results
Of the 25 patients admitted one was excluded from the study as the mother was dead while three others were
subsequently excluded due to insufficient data as they had been admitted late in the study. During the study a
total of 16 infants were discharged exclusively breastfeeding and gaining weight while five were transferred to
the local hospital.
With the combined supplemental milk and breastmilk the mean of all the infants maximum daily weight gain
was 17.9g/kg/day. Normal weight gain for this age group would be 2g/kg/day while 5g/kg/day would be the
minimum weight gain for catch up growth for malnourished infants with 10g/kg/day being the target to aim for.
The mean weight gain for the period when the infants were receiving both supplemental feeding and
breastfeeding was 14.7g/kg, while the mean weight gain for the period on exclusive breastfeeding was
9.4g/kg/day. This suggests that the weight gain although reduced on exclusive breastfeeding was still
adequate for maintenance and catch-up growth. The mean breastmilk output on exclusive breastfeeding
reached 204ml/kg (sd 31) with the volume ranging from 390ml to 1131mls but this considerable difference was
due to differences in weights of the infants. The mean number of days on supplemental feeding was 13 days.
a
133
Corbett M. Severe Malnutrition in the Infant less than 6 months: Use of Supplemental Suckling Technique. Department of Medicine &
Therapeutics. Fosterhill, Aberdeen.
6.3 Results
Box 6 contd
Tips
Supplemental Suckling Technique
The cup is kept at least 20-30cms below the level of the baby's mouth so that the baby can
control the flow of milk from the tube. If the presence of the tube is discouraging the baby from
attaching: slip the tube into the mouth once the infant is suckling.
Be patient: it may take one to two days for the mother and baby to adapt to this technique.
Feeding Practices
Mothers should offer breastfeeds to babies at least three hourly.
Make sure that baby is attached correctly and mother is comfortable.
Baby should empty one breast before the second is offered so that both the fore and hind milk is
removed. (Emptying the breast stimulates the production of more milk thus improving breastmilk output.)
Mothers should offer alternate breasts at the start of each feed. (This ensures both breasts are
emptied at each alternative feed).
Monitor breastfeeds encouraging and supporting mothers and checking the babies' position and
attachment.
Give first time mothers extra support to build up their confidence in their ability to breastfeed
Confidence building
Explain the benefits of breastfeeding to the mother. Spend time with the mother encouraging and
answering questions.
Explain to the mother the principle of breastmilk quantity being determined by the demand/supply
mechanism.
Reassure mothers, informing them that most mothers in fact can produce adequate milk supply
(more than 99%), even if underweight.
Other mothers in the TFP using this supplemental suckling technique are of great support and
encouragement to new admissions.
Encourage women to talk about experiences.
Regularly update mothers on their infant's progress in the programme.
Ensure all health staff working in the centre are well informed of the principles and techniques of
breastfeeding and supportive to the mothers. Regular training and support for staff is essential
134
6.3 Results
Box 7: Case history: Using dedicated infant <6m data to support an innovative IYCF
programme
Synergies between information & action: UNHCR Health Information System (HIS) &
Infant and Young Child Feeding
HIS is a multi country reporting package which is currently being rolled out by UNHCR. The package consists
of training materials; standardized data & tally sheets; a system of monthly data entry; standardized indicators
and reporting / recording requirements; a central database at central HQ with data across 16 different
countries. A key feature of this HIS tool is collecting age disaggregated data on infants <6m. This provides
invaluable data because:
1) Infant <6m mortality is likely high, as is infant acute malnutrition prevalence (see MAMI Chapter 3). So
monitoring is justifiable in public health terms.
2) Reducing infant mortality is a key part of making progress towards MDGs.
3) In terms of normal physiology, nutritional needs and common pathologies, there is large variation in the 0
to 59m age group. Therefore, grouped data can easily be confounded by age profile and is not nearly as
informative as age-specific data.
4) Acute malnutrition prevalence will increase with new WHO-GS - with unknown effects on what both carers
and health workers do in response , so now is more important than ever to keep on top of infant <6m
admissions and outcomes.
5) BF status (whether EBF or not) will have the greatest impact for outcomes for <6m infants. Improving
% EBF is itself very important, but in high mortality settings, it matters most in this youngest age group,
and it is important to see whether BF promotion and support programmes are having this intended end
effect
6) In terms of nutrition, infants are managed very differently from older children in nutrition guidelines, so
again, to assess the effect of this separate management you really need to disaggregate.
7) The age disaggregated database allows indirect audit of a groundbreaking programme improving infant
and young child feeding through a multifaceted intervention. This CARE-USA led initiative includes
community support groups; training health workers and community health volunteers. It provides the critical
link between preventing acute infant malnutrition and a community-based support network to which
malnourished infants <6m who need support but not necessarily admission can be referred:
Though there is large monthly variation, monitoring overall admission patterns of infants to therapeutic
feeding gives some indication of the overall impact of the IYCF programme. Because numbers of infants
are low, it can be particularly important and informative to audit individual cases and reflect on whether
might have been prevented, or whether future treatments can be further improved.
Admissions to therapeutic feeding centres, Daddab camp, Kenya
Age Group
<6m
6 to <60m
% <6m
August 07
34
17.6%
September 07
20.0%
October 07
52
15.4%
November 07
25
4.0%
December 07
32
25.0%
January 08
24
12.5%
February 08
79
5.1%
March 08
17
5.9%
April 08
14
0.0%
May 08
17
0.0%
June 08
15
26.7%
July 08
14
7.1%
August 08
0.0%
October 08
19
0.0%
37
353
10.5%
135
136
6.5
Summary recommendations
The identification of infants <6m for admission must be improved. Technical guidance for the inclusion of
infants <6m in nutritional surveys is needed. Better assessment tools for the mother-child pair are also
needed. Guidance and better equipment will enable anthropometric assessment of infants <6m e.g.
better weighing scales. Growth monitoring tools could be harmonised with entry criteria to feeding
programmes.
Strategies with potential to improve SAM assessment and management in infants <6m include
breastfeeding corners/ separate mother and baby areas where skilled breastfeeding support is available
and peer-to-peer support is facilitated.
Guidelines for MAMI must be improved that include guidance on specific problem areas and make links
with relevant initiatives.
MAMI training should be integrated into formal courses and on the job training and support provided to
field staff with simple tools and materials.
Further research is needed to determine the efficacy of supplementary suckling, the best therapeutic
milks to use, and the efficacy of community-based models of care for infants <6m.
The cost and resource implications of interventions should be included as a key element of investigations
into expanded models of inpatient and outpatient care.
Endnotes
147
148
149
150
151
152
137
http://www.humanitarianreform.org/humanitarianreform/Default.aspx?tabid=74
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/cihd/research/nutrition/mami
http://www.ennonline.net/research/mami.aspx
Child 2015 is an independent forum to stimulate debate and propose pragmatic solutions for improving child healthcare worldwide
http://www.dgroups.org/groups/ child2015/
Pronut Nutrition and HIV/AIDS (ProNut-HIV) is an electronic forum which aims to share up-to-date information, knowledge and
experiences on nutrition and HIV/AIDS. http://www.pronutrition.org/discgroups-hiv.php
Mary Corbett (2000). Infant feeding in a TFP. Field Exchange, 9, p7. http://fex.ennonline.net/9/tfp.aspx
Chapter 7
Review of breastfeeding
assessment tools
138
iii
139
This review was carried out as an additional activity beyond the scope of the original MAMI Project, undertaken by Jenny Saxton and
supported by the MAMI Research Team. We acknowledge valuable feedback from Felicity Savage and Ann Ashworth on content, to inform
this and future write-up of this work.
Table 36: Importance gradient of key properties of breastfeeding assessment tools from
community to clinical contexts
Context (score)a
Tool Property
Case
Diagnosis
finding in clinical
in clinical contexts
contexts
Acceptability (by 3
mothers)
Cost/Time
Objectivity
Quantitativeness 1
Precision
(reliability)
Accuracy
(Validity)
Sensitivity
(Identifying true
cases)
Specificity
(identifying true
negatives)
Predictive value 1
Simplicity (for
CHWsb &
doctors)
a
b
c
Community
screening/
case
detection
140
7.3 Methods
7.3 Methods
7.3.1 Literature search strategy
Pubmed was systematically searched for articles with no date parameters set using AND/OR combinations
of the following key words and MeSH (medical subject headings) terms:
Breastfeeding, breastfeeding problems, breastfeeding technique, breastfeeding performance assessment,
breastfeeding skill, breastfeeding ability, breastfeeding assessment tool, breast milk, human, actual or
perceived milk insufficiency, insufficient milk supply, latch, root, suck, swallow, position, milk transfer.
Needs assessment, risk assessment, nutrition assessment, psychometrics, nursing diagnosis, index,
checklist, questionnaire, diagnostic tools, guidelines.
Infant nutrition disorders, infant nutritional physiological phenomena, infant very low or low birth
weight, infant welfare, infant behaviour, infant premature, infant postmature, infant newborn, infant
small for gestational age, infant diseases, infant care, infant growth, developing countries.
Reference lists of breastfeeding assessment tools fitting the inclusion criteria were searched for further
relevant tools. Due to the small number of tools identified that were designed for use in developing
countries and emergency contexts, a purposive search of WHO/UNICEF and initiatives on infant and
young child feeding in emergencies (IFE) in the emergency nutrition sector was conducted. A secondary
search was conducted to identify any studies attempting to validate or examine the underlying properties
and predictive value of these tools.
141
The majority of tools (9/15) have not been tested against short or long-term nutritional or breastfeeding
outcomes and it is therefore difficult to make recommendations for their use. Five were developed purely
from existing literature and clinical experience, whilst a further three have been internally assessed for
inter-rate consistency and test re-test reliability with results ranging from poor to excellent (Table 37).
Overall, just three tools were designed for use by CHWs in developing settings and the majority were
developed for North American neonatal populations for use by highly trained health professionals (e.g.
NOMAS), although some were also used by mothers (e.g. LATCH). None of the tools was developed for or
tested on acutely malnourished infants.
Compared %
readmissions
w/ BF
problems of
women
receiving home
visits vs not.
Readmission
rate higher
if no home
visit was
made.
Systematic
Assessment of
the Infant at the
Breast (SAIB)
Readmission
rate w/ BF
problems.
Mulford,
1992163
8 sub-scales: Feedings,
positioning, latch, suck, milk flow,
intake, output, weight gain.
Not
stated
Mother-Baby
Assessment
(MBA)f
A BF Evaluation Tobin,
& Education
1996162
Tool (BEET)
n=981;
not
stated
Johnson
et al,
1999161
Mother-infant
BF assessment
tool
USA,
home
visit
IFE Core
Group
(2004)d
Results
Summary
BF Tool*
Tool tracks
BF in hospital
triage/referral
or research
Tool is a
useful guide
for novice
nurses.
Field workers
should
systematically
record &
identify most
effective
methods.
Author
Comments
/notes
Requires module 1
training (1-3 hours) &
module 2 (5 hours).
Developed for CHWse
in emergency/
developing country
settings.
Our comments
142
143
8 items observe:
responsiveness to feeding
cues; timing of feeds;
nutritive suckling;
positioning/latching factors;
nipple trauma, infant
behaviour state & mother/
parent response to infant.
Mother-Infant
Breastfeeding
Progress Tool
(MIBPT)
BF Support
UNICEF,
guidelines for a 2006168
Baby- Friendly
Hospital: BF
Observation
Aid
Sample
size &
participants
Statistical
Infant Infant/
maternal Analysis
age
(mean, outcomes
sd)
Material
field tested
in
Zimbabwe
Sweden,
hospital
USA,
hospital
Not stated
n/a
2 hours n/a
to 5
days
old
n=24;
Not
Full/preterm stated
infants in
neonatal
intensive
care,
transitional/
maternity
units.
n=62;
Healthy
mother
&baby; 3542 weeks
GA7.
Inter-rater reliability
of observers, &
observers/
mothers. Unclear
analysis testing
tool ability to detect
different
GA/maturity of
infant BF.
% agreement
between raters
Results
Summary
Good inter-rater
reliability for
observers
(0.64-1.00), but
poor for
observers vs
mothers (0.270.86). Poorer
items revised.
Inter-rater
agreement 7995%.
Country,
setting
* Includes tools developed on the basis of expert opinion and literature searching; tools may have been internally validated
Johnson
et al,
2007166
BF Tool*
None stated
Caution if
relying upon
single scores
because
mother/infant
progress with
BF over time.
None stated
Author
Comments
/notes
Tool is revised
UNICEF
checklist.
Piloting in
Sierra Leone
early 2009.
Rationale for
items discussed
but not tested
against
nutritional/BF
outcomes.
Tool covers
wide range of
BF domains,
but no evidence
of development/
validation
against external
outcomes.
Our
comments
Table 37 contd
Hall et al,
2002169
BFa
Assessment
Score (BAS)
Italy,
hospital
Furman,
2006172
Evaluation of VLBWj:
can we use the IBFAT?
USA,
hospital
Infant
Matthews, 6 items measure 4
Canada,
infant behaviours:
Breastfeeding 1988171
hospital
readiness to feed,
Assessment
rooting, fixing & sucking.
Tool (IBFAT)
Two non-scoring items:
infant state & maternal
satisfaction w/ BF.
Gianni et Usefulness of an
al, 2006170 assessment score to
predict early EBFf
cessation.
Not
reported.
Mean
hospital
stay 2.2
days
Early
n=60;
Spontaneous neonatal
period'
delivery.
APGARi score
8 after 5 mins;
appropriate
weight for GA.
n=175;
Mothers of
healthy EBF
infants. Birth
weight
2500g, GAg
37-42 weeks.
Milk intake
(testweighing)
Correlation of IBFAT
scores w/ milk intake,
compared with association
of a feeding observation
form designed to assess
efficiency of BF vs bottle
feeding.
IBFAT positively
correlated w/ feeding
observation & milk
intake; IBFAT sucking
score sig correlated w/ %
time sucking/suck bursts.
10.5% of mothers
reported cessation of BF;
All BAS items sige
predicted BF cessation.
Results Summary
Statistical Analysis
BF
cessation,
introduction
of complementary
feeding,
continued
EBF at 1
month
BF
cessation
rate 7-10
days after
birth
n=1108; No
Mean 40
information on hours
maternal or
(sd=13)
infant health
indicators.
Risk of BF cessation
USA,
(first 7-10 days). 5 items: hospital
mothers age, previous
BF experience, latching
problems, BF interval,
formula bottles. 2 extra
items: breast surgery,
hypertension, vacuum
vaginal delivery.
BF Tool*
Table 38: Breastfeeding assessment tools validated against maternal and infant outcomes
Author
Comments
/notes
144
145
Maternal &
professional
assessment of BF
Adams,
1997178
First 2
weeks
postpartum
USA,
LATCH scoring
system & prediction of hospital
BF duration.
Kumar,
2006177
n=35; First
time BF
mothers
USA,
hospital
Results Summary
n/a
Maintenance of BF
at 4 days &
6 weeks
Not BF at 8
weeks (no
BF in past
24 hours)
Inter-rater reliability of
lactation consultants using
LATCH & correlation w/
mothers LATCH scores.
85-100% agreement of
lactation consultants.
Correlation w/ maternal
reports very low-moderate
This instrument was based on scientific understanding of lactation & clinical experience. It was not
psychometrically tested or validated against any maternal or infant nutritional or BF outcomes,
although it has since been tested.
Riordan,
20011176
LATCHk
Jensen et 5 items: Latch; Audible USA
Assessment al, 1994175 swallowing; Type of
nipple; Comfort of
mother's breasts/
nipples; Help needed
to hold baby to breast.
Riordan,
1997174
n=30; First
time BF
mothers of
term infants
BF Tool*
Mothers
evaluate BF
experience
somatically,
not by
observation.
Audible
swallowing
not a viable
variable until
day 4.
Methodological issues
using taped
BF sessions.
Author
Comments
/notes
Table 38 contd
Psychometric
characteristics of
NOMAS in healthy preterm infants
BF = Breastfeeding;
OR = Odds Ratio;
RR = Relative Risk;
ROC = Receiver Operating Characteristic;
8 guidelines to guide
UK,
n=395;
mothers in 'hands off'
hospital Mothers were
way to position & attach
BF on
baby. Includes leaflet
discharge.
w/ pictures &
explanationse about
BF.
Sig = Statistical
significance (p<0.05);
Ingram,
2002183
Hands off
technique
(HOT)
BF rate &
Group comparisons (Chi2 or
pacifier use
Fisher's exact test) of BF
(hours/day) at technique & duration.
2 weeks, 1, 2,
3 & 4 months
Reliability of
normal/disorganised scales
& correlation w/ infant
feeding skills. NOMAS ability
to detect change in feeding
skills over time (SRMSm) &
sig of change scores.
% percentage agreement of
3 coders
Statistical Analysis
Test-retest of NOMAS
with 4
raters=moderate-near
perfect (0.33-0.94)
Acceptable reliability of
normal category (32-35
PMA) & disorganised
category (32 weeks
PMA). All categories
moderately correlated
w/ transitional milk rate.
Inter-rater reliability:
80% agreement.
Results Summary
Incorrect sucking
technique may
not be corrected
if pacifiers used.
Adjust tool to
improve reliability
& incorporate
new knowledge
of infant
suck/swallow
Moderate
convergent
validity for
normal &
disorganised
categories.
Author
Comments
/notes
BF (any
BF/EBF) 2 &
6 weeks post
partum
Not
reported
n=82; EBF
4-5 days
mothers w/
postpartum
intention to BF
6 months.
Healthy
mothers
/infants, normal
delivery/birth
weights.
Inter-rater
agreement.
n=75; Healthy
& VLBW
infants. Some
risk of other
health
problems
26-36
PMA.
Infant feeding
performance:
transitional
rate & volume
of milk
consumed
from bottle.
35-49
n/a
weeks
PMAl; term
& preterm
n=147;
32-36
mothers of pre- weeks
term, but
PMA
otherwise
healthy infants
Righard,
1997182
Holland,
not
stated
USA,
medical
centre
Checklist
from paper:
'BF & the
use of
pacifiers'
Howe,
2007180
n=35; Infants
35-49 weeks
GA, 1900g.
28 items: nutritive/
USA,
non-nutritive sucking.
hospital
Outcomes: normal,
disorganised or
dysfunctional. Latter two
graded by severity
(mild, moderate, severe)
Neonatal
Palmer et
Oral-Motor
al, 1993179
Assessment
Scale
(NOMAS)
BF Tool*
Table 38 contd
146
Six tools have been validated against a range of outcomes, although none of these include infant
nutritional status (Table 38). Outcomes include immediate assessment of milk transfer through testweighing, cessation of breastfeeding from the first days of life up to four months, introduction of
complementary feeding, maternally reported breastfeeding satisfaction and problems. On the basis of
consistency and volume of existing evidence, the NOMAS and BAS emerge as the strongest tools. NOMAS
categories have been associated with transitional rate of milk, and its key properties (Table 37) are
adequate. In two studies, BAS scores predicted early breastfeeding cessation in newborns. However, these
tools include the least comprehensive coverage of breastfeeding domains and the NOMAS is arguably the
most complex and least user-friendly tool overall. The Hands-off technique checklist technique score was
associated with breastfeeding at six weeks, therefore this may be a good way to teach newly delivered
mothers good breastfeeding technique. Interventions from this checklist are also more empowering to
the mother as she corrects her own technique and there are pictures to help identify problematic aspects
of the feed.
The LATCH should be considered a weaker tool because of contradictory findings and questionable
reliability and validity. Similarly, the IBFAT (Infant Breastfeeding Assessment Tool) lacks predictive validity
for a range of outcomes and is unable to adequately discriminate between sufficient and insufficient milk
intake. Righards assessment184 of correct vs incorrect sucking was associated with breastfeeding status at
four months if pacifiers were used, but not in the non-pacifier group.
147
Checklist from
paper: 'BF &
the use of
pacifiers'
Neonatal Oral
Motor
Assessment
Scale (NOMAS)
Mother-infant
BF
assessment
tool
LATCH
Assessment
Infant BF
Assessment
Tool (IBFAT)
BF
Assessment
Score (BAS)
BFc Tool
previous
BF
experience,
supportive
partner
previous
BF
experience
Effective Health
Health Mother's Number, other
Feeding of Breast of Baby Experience timing or
duration
of feed
of feeds
Baby
Mother
Position AttachBehaviour Behaviour
ment
Domains covereda
Table 39: Tool coverage of breastfeeding domains and value of use in different contexts
148
149
UNICEF B-R-EA-S-T
observational
checklist
Systematic
Assessment of
Infant at
Breast (SAIB)
Mother-Baby
Assessment
(MBA)
A BF
Evaluation &
Education Tool
(BEET)
IFE - Simple,
rapid & full BF
assessment
Checklist from
paper: 'BF &
the use of
pacifiers'
BFc Tool
Baby
Mother
Position AttachBehaviour Behaviour
ment
Domains covereda
signs of
milk
transfer
in mother
signs of
milk
transfer
in mother
Mixed
feeding,
feed end,
pacifier
use
Effective Health
Health Mother's Number, other
Feeding of Breast of Baby Experience timing or
of feed
duration
of feeds
Extra domains that may be Contexts in which BF assessment tools may be appliedb
important
Table 39 contd
Baby
Mother
Position AttachBehaviour Behaviour
ment
Effective Health
Health Mother's Number, other
Feeding of Breast of Baby Experience timing or
of feed
duration
of feeds
Hands off
technique
(HOT
UNICEF 2006:
BF
Observation
Aid
Pre-term
Infant BF
Behaviour
Scale (PIBBS)
Mother-Infant
BF Progress
Tool (MIBPT)
BFc Tool
Domains covereda
Table 39 contd
150
a) Community-based care
Community-based management of acute malnutrition (CMAM) is increasingly the approach of choice for
the management of SAM in children six to 59 months with no co-existing medical complications. If such a
model of care was extended to infants <6m, breastfeeding assessment tools to help CHWs identify, resolve
and refer breastfeeding problems would be needed. Such tools should also benefit children to two years
or beyond, to support sustained and continued breastfeeding.
Eight of the tools are either not relevant to a community setting or would require adaptation for use by a
CHW. Many items also involve complex medical terminology, so some adaptation or the provision of clear
definitions would be of benefit. Training lasting several days would be necessary for some of the tools,
which is a time and financial cost that may not be feasible in an emergency setting. However one tool, the
BAS, could be a useful basis to help CHWs to decide on referral to a facility. A study to test the BAS tool in a
community based setting for managing acute malnutrition would be valuable.
b) Hospital-based care
Eight of the tools appear to be useful in a clinical context. One tool, the BAS, was considered to be of
limited use in a hospital setting as it would not provide extra information about specific elements of the
breastfeed to diagnose specific problems. Currently most cases of SAM in infants <6m are managed in
inpatient settings. We suggest a study to evaluate a tool(s) for breastfeeding assessment and problem
identification in a clinical setting where MAMI takes place.
The recent implementation of a checklist to ensure simple guidelines were followed during surgery
resulted in significant reduction of patient mortality and morbidity.186 We believe a breastfeeding
checklist as part of admission assessment could operate in a similar way by highlighting simple problems
that could be easily overlooked.
Overall, few of the tools were sufficiently versatile to be used across community and hospital contexts
without substantial modification.
7.5 Limitations
151
This review was systematically conducted, but it was not exhaustive due to time and resource constraints.
Formal grading of each of the breastfeeding assessment tools was not possible due to a lack of appropriately
designed study, and no gold standard for treatment of SAM in the <6m age group. The review is therefore
more subjective than ideal, which limits any strong recommendations about which tools perform best in
each context.
7.5 Limitations
7.6 Conclusions
This review highlights the need for simple, accurate and valid assessment tools predictive of breastfeeding
and infant nutritional outcomes. Different tools, or different versions of the same tool, are necessary for
several related but separate purposes:
A short, sensitive and quick version to identify breastfeeding problems and actions at community level.
A more specific, detailed tool to aid diagnosis and appropriate treatment in an inpatient/clinical context
A tool with intermediate balance of sensitivity and specificity for use in diagnosis and management for
outpatient primary healthcare services
At present, there is no single tool or set of tools that meets these ideals. Many existing tools are too narrow
in scope or have not been robustly validated, especially in nutritionally vulnerable developing country /
emergency settings. This is an important gap that warrants future research.
In the interim, UNICEF b-r-e-a-s-t, the UNICEF 2006 BF observation aid and the aids described in IFE
Module 2 offer the most promise for field use in programmes managing infants <6m. Operational research
could be useful in confirming their utility as best currently available tools. They could also form the basis
of future tools optimised to meet the needs of malnourished infants <6m. There is a need to identify the
most appropriate outcome(s) for validating new tools (e.g. rate of weight gain after stabilisation).
Summary recommendations
There is a need for simple, accurate and valid assessment tools that are predictive of breastfeeding and
infant nutritional outcomes. Such tools could also have wider application for children up to two years.
Quality research studies to test the validity of existing breastfeeding assessment tools are needed. For
example, the Breastfeeding Assessment Tool (BAS)188 could be tested for its suitability to community
settings (e.g. use by community health workers for case finding and assessment). Half of the tools
reviewed could be useful for inpatient assessment.
New tools should be developed, possibly based on existing tools, to meet the needs of malnourished
infants <6m, suitable for use in case finding in the community, inpatient settings and outpatient primary
healthcare programmes.
The success of a breastfeeding assessment tool and how it relates to nutritional/morbidity outcomes is
dependent on the interventions available to address problems identified. The lack of a gold standard
treatment for infants <6m is a limiting factor in this regard.
Severe maternal wasting and maternal and infant HIV status are important considerations in assessing
breastfeeding effectiveness.
152
Endnotes
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
153
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Midwifery. 2000 Dec;16(4):260-8.
Myatt M, Khara T, Collins S. A review of methods to detect cases of severely malnourished children in the community for their admission
into community-based therapeutic care programs. Food Nutr Bull. 2006 Sep;27(3 Suppl):S7-23.
Moran VH, Dinwoodie K, Bramwell R, Dykes F. A critical analysis of the content of the tools that measure breast-feeding interaction.
Midwifery. 2000 Dec;16(4):260-8.
Myatt M, Khara T, Collins S. A review of methods to detect cases of severely malnourished children in the community for their admission
into community-based therapeutic care programs. Food Nutr Bull. 2006 Sep;27(3 Suppl):S7-23.
Brahmbhatt, Heena PhD; Kigozi, Godfrey MD; Wabwire-Mangen, Fred PhD; Serwadda, David MD; Lutalo, Tom MSc; Nalugoda, Fred MD;
Sewankambo, Nelson MD; Kiduggavu, Mohamed MD; Wawer, Maria MD; Gray, Ronald MD (2006). Epidemiology and Social Science
Mortality in HIV-Infected and Uninfected Children of HIV-Infected and Uninfected Mothers in Rural Uganda. JAIDS: 1 April 2006 - Volume
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Myatt M, Khara T, Collins S. A review of methods to detect cases of severely malnourished children in the community for their admission
into community-based therapeutic care programs. Food Nutr Bull. 2006 Sep;27(3 Suppl):S7-23.
Mizuno K, Aizawa M, Saito S, Kani K, Tanaka S, Kawamura H, et al. (2006)Analysis of feeding behavior with direct linear transformation.
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Tobin, D.L. (1996) A breastfeeding evaluation and education tool. J Hum Lact. 1996 Mar;12(1):47-9.
Mulford, C. (1992) The Mother-Baby Assessment (MBA): an "Apgar score" for breastfeeding. J Hum Lact. 1992 Jun;8(2):79-82.
Shrago, L. & Bocar, D. (1990) The infant's contribution to breastfeeding. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 1990 May-Jun;19(3):209-15.
WHO/UNICEF, 1993. Breastfeeding counselling a training course. Participants Manual. P21. 1993. WHO/CDR/93.5 UNICEF/NUT/93.3
Johnson, T.S., Mulder, P.J., Strube, K. (2007) Mother-Infant Breastfeeding Progress Tool: a guide for education and support of the
breastfeeding dyad. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 2007 Jul-Aug;36(4):319-27.
Nyqvist, K.H., Rubertsson, C., Ewald, U., Sjoden, P.O. (1996) Development of the Preterm Infant Breastfeeding Behavior Scale (PIBBS): a
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Hall, R.T., Mercer, A.M., Teasley, S.L., McPherson, D.M., Simon, S.D., Santos, S.R., et al. (2002) A breast-feeding assessment score to
evaluate the risk for cessation of breast-feeding by 7 to 10 days of age. The Journal of Pediatrics. 2002;141(5):659-64.
Gianni, M.L., Vegni, C., Ferraris, G., Mosca, F. (2006) Usefulness of an assessment score to predict early stopping of exclusive breastfeeding. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2006 Mar;42(3):329-30.
Matthews, M.K. (1988) Developing an instrument to assess infant breastfeeding behaviour in the early neonatal period. Midwifery. 1988
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Pediatr 2002;141:659-64
Chapter 8
Psychosocial aspects of
malnutrition management
154
155
156
Box 8: Case history: Integrating mental health and care practices in Afghanistan
157
Box 8 contd
Many children that were malnourished had been low-birth weight babies according to their mothers or
presented handicaps. These points might directly affect their capacity of suckling, but also their capacity to
attract their caregiver. The child might as well not correspond to the wishes of the parents, who might,
consciously or not, neglect him.
Finally, the criteria that distinguished the groups from each other the most was level of family support (through
the organisation of the workload at home, the support provided to the mothers for her to be able to take care
of the baby and to breastfeed), family violence and the family conflict and maternal depression, all of which
were interconnected.
Programme changes on the basis of research
At the national level, a close collaboration with the Nutrition Department of the Ministry of Public Health and
UNICEF was established. A training of trainers of the WHO Breastfeeding Counselling Course was organised
and trainers disseminated new knowledge to medical teams. Breastfeeding campaigns were carried out using
very specific messages regarding milk production and mother milk insufficiency.
In the feeding centres, psychosocial workers were recruited to complete the medico-nutrition team. Their
activities were:
Systematic use of the suckling technique.
Psychological assessment for all women and children admitted
Permanent support to mothers and psychological follow-up when needed
Support for breastfeeding and during feeding time
Family interviews to reduce risk of defaulting, to explaining the treatment to the fathers and to the rest of
the families, in case of family conflict. These interviews were also very important to help the families find
solutions for organising their stay in the centre with the malnourished child and taking care of the rest of
the family at home in the same time
Relaxation sessions for women
Stimulation of the babies through massages and play sessions that reinforce the mother-child bond
These interventions were combined with a reinforcement of the training of the medical staff, a closer
collaboration with the hospitals and the Ministry of Health, a constant reflection and adjustments of the
guideline, and the progressive development of home-treatment.
Results
At the national level, psychosocial aspects of malnutrition were recognized as important by the different
partners and the Department of Nutrition in the Ministry of Public Health. The breastfeeding counselling
course has been disseminated to more than 100 professional staff.
In nutrition centres, most of the fathers and the families invited came to the centres. They become partners in
the treatment of their children. This partnership greatly reduced defaulting and helped families find solutions
for treating the malnourished child without creating risk for the rest of the family.
Women used the opportunity to talk and to share their daily life and problems with the psychosocial workers
and amongst themselves. Very good results were observed in terms of maternal mental health and mother
and child relationships, even if it is very difficult to attribute this improvement to the child recovery and/or to
the psychosocial support.
The impact of these interventions was also clearly observed in the nutrition indicators:
The proportion of cured beneficiaries increased from 74% between April to August 2004 to 95% between
September 2004 and March 2005.
Percentage of defaulters has decreased from 19% to 3.8% in the equivalent periods.
The death rate has decreased from 8% to 1.3% in the equivalent periods.
To assess the longer term impact of the treatment on the children, the team searched for 100 children that
were severely malnourished when <6m and cured one year before. 75 families were found. Amongst them, 11
children were dead, four moderately malnourished and one severely malnourished. As the study was
retrospective, it was not possible to establish clearly the reasons of the death of the children. These findings
have to be put in perspective with the infant mortality rate in Afghanistan; they question the mid-term impact of
treatment for severely malnourished children on survival (even without taking onto consideration the
consequences on child development). The recommendation is to develop and ensure an adequate follow-up
of the children <6m and their mothers after the discharge of the nutrition centres, focusing on lactation support
and other-child bonding.
Source: C.Bizouerne, ACF France
158
8.1
159
malnourished children not receiving stimulation, even if development levels remain low. These results
correlate with those of the more numerous studies conducted with chronically malnourished children.
Studies conducted by Pelto, Dickin et al198 Engle, Black et al199 consistently demonstrate that the most
effective programs are those that combine nutritional supplements with psychosocial activities, that treat
children early, that are based on several types of interventions, and integrate children-led activities with a
parental guidance component.
There are sufficient data to confirm the necessity of incorporating stimulation interventions into mediconutritional programs in order to reduce the risk of developmental delay of severely malnourished
children. The intervention must not be limited to the duration of the medico-nutritional treatment and
must include parents in the activities. More study is needed to gain a better understanding what are the
best stimulation and support activities, the length of the intervention, the factors at play, how long the
developmental changes last, and what aspects of development are most affected, etc.
To assess the impact on the social and emotional development of the child we need to look at more
qualitative and empirical data based on observations. Geber200 insists on the different levels of recovery of
the children, whether they are nutritional or emotional recovery: The improvement in behaviour does
not correspond exactly to the physical or biochemical improvement. Some children who are hospitalized
for severe malnutrition remain sad and woeful despite their physical improvement. Others exhibit normal
behaviour in spite of the fact that there is no physical improvement. They interact well with others and are
able to feed themselves without difficulty. Nevertheless, it is important to keep monitoring the
appetite of these children (p. 19).
The quality of the mother-child relationship at the time of first testing is a prognostic indicator of
nutritional recovery and development into the adolescence stage of seven children with kwashiorkor in
South Africa.201
These differences alert us to a too simplistic understanding of the links between malnutrition and child
development for a more complex comprehension where the severe malnutrition appears in a broader
context of social, emotional and material deprivation.
If it is necessary to integrate stimulation within the treatment of severely malnourished children, it is
urgent that research be conducted on the effect it has on mental, emotional and social development, on
more holistic approaches to strengthen mother-child bonding, on parental skills and/or attachment
and/or the capacity to care for the childs immediate surroundings.
Better parental understanding of malnutrition, how to prevent its recurrence, and how to
prepare for discharge and return home.
No studies have been found that evaluate whether or not the development support activities
recommended by WHO actually improve families understanding of the causes of malnutrition, which
would prevent recurrence and prepare for the return home. Grantham-McGregor202 demonstrate that
in spite of including mothers in stimulation programs, the latter give little stimulation or objects to play
with. Children who had received a stimulation program attended school earlier than the group of children
who had no stimulation. The programs resulted in significant improvement in the mental performance
of 0previously malnourished children but without any real changes in the maternal behaviour.
Studies that measure the impact of nutritional programs on the medium and long term nutritional status
of the child are rare. There are two possible methodologies:
1) Do a follow-up of a cohort after treatment for a given period of time, or search after a few months or
years for children who were previously treated for an episode of severe malnutrition,
2) Keep track of children who have a recurrence and who need to be treated again for an episode of
severe malnutrition. This approach involves children returning to the same centre where they had
been admitted previously.
There is no explicit mention in the previously cited studies of differences in recurrences between children
who had received stimulation or not. Nahar203 indicates only that many children remained severely
malnourished six months after hospital discharge.
A study was conducted in Afghanistan on the outcome of a psychosocial approach in combination with
medico-nutritional treatment given to severely malnourished children under six months of age.204
Seventy-five out of 100 families included in the sample were located six to 12 months after the end of the
160
treatment (children who had recovered by the time they left hospital). Among them, 11 children had died,
representing 14% of the total sample, four children were moderately malnourished, and one was severely
malnourished.
In the Sudan,205 21.5 % of families with children admitted to the nutritional centre for severe malnutrition
already had the same child or another sibling admitted before for severe malnutrition, even though health
education sessions were suggested daily during the childs treatment. Recurrences correlated with the
quality of the mother-child relationship at admission and with the presence of family conflict.
There are almost no data on whether or not mothers change their practices at home in order to prevent
recurrences of malnutrition after receiving advice during the course of treatment. Very often, the advice
consists of basic standard health messages given to groups. To what extent this transmission of
information promotes changes in the home and prevents recurrences, remains an area to be explored.
161
8.1.5 Conclusions
WHO recommends including stimulation and support activities for the care of the severely malnourished
child. The expected effects of stimulation and support are numerous, including accelerated growth during
the recovery phase, reduced risk of mental retardation and irreversible affective disorders, and
encouraging development of the childs motor skills. They teach parents how to anticipate a relapse and
avoid recurrences by better understanding of the causes of malnutrition, and prepare for discharge and
return to the family.
Review of literature has revealed the virtual absence of scientific data to confirm whether stimulation and
support activities enable set objectives to be achieved. Only two studies have been considered. These two
studies have focused on limited stimulation activities, without developing all activities recommended by
the WHO and have assessed the effect on infant development (particularly intellectual). Both of them
demonstrate that children receiving stimulation have significantly superior intellectual development than
children who have not received any stimulation. These results are sufficiently significant to recommend
the routine inclusion of stimulation in the care of the severely malnourished children during and after
162
medico-nutritional treatment. A large number of studies are still to be carried out to find out which
activities are the most effective, when should they be started, the minimum duration of intervention, the
impact on social and emotional development of the child and/or on the mother-child relationship, and
how to adapt these activities to the community care of malnutrition.
We have not found any studies confirming or invalidating the other anticipated effects from stimulation
and support programmes recommended by the WHO but empirical experiments and more qualitative
studies215, 216 describe the feasibility. However, these are scarce and are rarely published.
Stimulation and support can be adapted to suit infants <6m by focusing on strengthening the quality of
the family-infant relationship and breast-feeding support when mothers wish to breast-feed. Specific and
comparative studies on more holistic approaches of malnutrition in infants <6m are required to confirm
their effect on growth, survival and infant development, on milk produced and on the mother-child
relationship.
There are few examples of psychosocial support integrated into SAM treatment programmes. Some
activities are relatively easy to establish in hospital settings and are likely to bring improved well-being to
severely malnourished children. Their adaptation to community-based treatment is more complex but
different strategies can be considered, such as including stimulation activities during clinic visits or home
visits and setting up patient group sessions.
163
Child survival
Health
Care practices
Food security
in the home
Caregiver resources
Knowledge, beliefs
State of health and nutrition
Mental health, stress
Control of resources, autonomy
Workload and time constraints
Social supports
Health resources
Water supply
Sanitation equipment
Availability of health
services
Security of the home and
surroundings
CULTURAL, POLITICAL,
SOCIAL CONTEXT
urban / rural environment
Source: Martin-Prvel Y, 2002219
164
Isolation of
mother/caregiver
Other causes:
- Death of a loved one
- Family conflict
- Poverty as a
predisposing factor
.
Traumatized parents
Absence of
support group
Maternal
depression
Dysfunctional
mother/child
relationship
Emotionally distance:
changes in eating habits,
less physical contact
with the mother.
Malnutrition
in the child
Separated from
the mother
Depressed or
traumatized children
Deterioration of the
childs health
165
166
167
Risk factors for malnutrition identified in Mali 239 were an unwanted child born in an unhappy marriage
serious economic crisis, moving death of a close parent, and the number of hardships since the childs
conception.
Studies of medical records of malnourished children in Senegal240 showed that kwashiorkor can result
from changes in the social, familial, and cultural environment that occur when having to adapt to
urban surroundings following recent migration from rural communities. Similarly a study from Burkina
Faso241 showed that amongst people who migrate to urban settings, for those who are not adapted to
modern life, the loss of traditional family life can lead to poverty and depression for the mother and
child malnutrition.
Mothers with a malnourished child in the Ivory Coast242 were either very young and rejected by their
family due to early pregnancy, had had to leave their mother abruptly without severing emotional ties,
were mature with many children and pregnant again, or abandoned, divorced or in the midst of family
conflicts. All did not have the usual extended family support. This is reinforced by research in the
Congo on reasons why mothers are not properly bonded with their children.243
So what appears to be irresponsible or negligent behavior on the part of the mother, may actually reflect
her suffering experienced in a social situation that has become unbearable.
8.2.7 Conclusions
Current humanitarian programs should incorporate child care practices and psychosocial causes of
malnutrition in their knowledge base and intervention plans.
168
8.3.1 Methodology
A Medline search was carried out using the following criteria of inclusion: articles published in French or
English between 1993 and 2009. The keywords and number of articles referenced are shown in Table 40.
Number of articles
10
218
186
28
The titles and summaries are graded first. A small number of articles corresponded to our research theme.
As many articles as possible were included despite the methodological differences and variations in the
definition of maternal mental health and malnutrition. Although the MAMI project mainly focuses on
acute malnutrition as determined by anthropometric assessment, research studies using malnutrition
indicators other than weight/height were kept. Similarly, we have broadened the review of the literature
to include research on infants over six months. Lastly, the mothers mental health has generally been
based on scales of maternal depression but research that has used more general scales of psychological
distress have also been retained. The authors concentrate mainly on maternal depression because
depressive symptoms are the most common on the international level and a number of studies have
highlighted that they constituted a major risk factor in child development252, 253 These differences
necessitate a certain amount of prudence in the analysis of the results and the recommendations.
In all, 11 research items were included in this review of the literature; the indicator and target populations
are listed in Appendix F (Table 41).
8.3.2 Results
Two types of approach are implemented in the studies on maternal depression and child growth:
In cross-sectional studies, the children are recruited (in general in primary health care centres) and
classified according to their nutritional state (malnourished v not malnourished). In the majority of
studies, a certain number of variables are checked: the age, gender of the child and socio-economic
level. Then the prevalence of maternal depression is assessed and compared between both groups.
This type of methodology does not enable identification of causes of maternal depression. For
example, maternal depression could result in child malnutrition or indeed malnutrition and maternal
depression may be the result of a third variable not assessed in the study (poverty, family isolation,
family conflicts, etc.).
Longitudinal studies try to avoid this bias by recruiting mothers during pregnancy or in the first
months following the birth of the infant. The prevalence of maternal depression is assessed and
compared to different periods of growth of breastfed infants of both depressed and non-depressed
mothers.
The results of the different studies are presented in Tables 47 and 48 (see Appendix E, for detailed analysis
of this data, refer to Stewart 254). In South Asia, research has shown correlations between perinatal mental
disorders and child malnutrition, including after allowing for confounding factors, particularly birth
weight. A single prospective study in Pakistan 255 specifically took ante-natal depression into
consideration. Children of mothers who were depressed during pregnancy were four times more at risk of
being underweight (CI: 2.1-7.7) and 4.4 times more at risk of being stunted at six months of age (1.7-11.4).
This risk was increased when the mothers were depressed at each assessment (chronic depression).
169
The results are less congruent in studies carried out in other continents. A cross-study in several
countries256 did not find significant correlations between psychological distress of mothers and
malnutrition of their children between six and 18 months of age, in Peru and in Ethiopia. If a correlation
was observed between maternal depression and malnutrition in Jamaica257 it was diminished after taking
into account unanticipated factors revealing poverty as a risk factor. In Brazil258 30% of children with
depressive mothers were stunted compared to 18% of children of non-depressed mothers but no
significant association was observed between maternal depression and child growth. The longitudinal
study conducted in South Africa259 also highlights that post-natal or present depression was not
correlated significantly at two months, once the variable birth weight was accounted for, nor at 18
months. The sample from this study is relatively small, which limits its impact. On the other hand, De
Miranda260 found more depressive mothers in the group of malnourished children than in the children in
the control group, a difference which persisted after taking into account the confounding factors. A
longitudinal study in Nigeria261 found that children of depressed mothers at six weeks post-partum had
breastfed infants more underweight and stunted at three and six months of age. In Malawi,262 the heightfor-age Z-score of the child and the presence of current maternal mental problems correlated
significantly, including after adjustment of confounding factors. The average weight-for-age of children of
mothers experiencing mental health problems was smaller than that of children whose mothers were not
experiencing mental health problems, but this difference was not significant.
8.3.3 Discussion
While the impact of maternal depression on child development is well established, especially in
developed countries, the number of studies published on the impact of maternal depression on physical
development and child growth remains low. However there is increasing interest in this problem. Research
in South Asia strongly correlates maternal depression and infant malnutrition. The results are less clear in
other continents and require more research. The heterogeneous nature of the results may be explained by
methodological differences, factors linked to local specificities of malnutrition and to cultural data,263 and
on interpretation of the links between maternal depression and malnutrition.
There were methodological differences between the studies, for example indicators of malnutrition. The
majority of studies rely on the weight-for-age ratio but some also take into account height-for-age or even
weight-height ratios. The thresholds separating children in good health from malnourished children also
vary between studies. Similarly, mental health of mothers sometimes refers to pre- or post-natal or chronic
maternal depression and sometimes to common mental problems. Finally, the age of the child, method of
assessment of the mental health of the mother and the cofounding factors retained also differ widely.
Associations between maternal depression and malnutrition may be explained by three different
mechanisms:
1. Contextual factors
Poverty undoubtedly plays an important role since it leads both to an increase in depressive symptoms
and is a risk factor for infant malnutrition. Other variables such as endemic infections or, for example,
certain deficiencies in micronutrients could cause psychological distress and child growth delays. More
contextual factors also contribute. For example, mothers recently arrived in urban environments may
be unaccustomed to one-to-one contact with their baby without extended family support. Isolation
may have a negative psychosocial impact and may also lead to resource constraints.264
2. Maternal depression as a direct and indirect cause of malnutrition
Maternal depression is a risk factor for child malnutrition. The depressed mother stimulates her child
less, has more difficulty quickly and adequately meeting his needs and seeks less help from health
services. More indirectly, depressed mothers have more risk of having babies of low birth weight or
babies which are premature, who for their part may have suckling problems, making breastfeeding
more difficult and a tendency for the mother to wean their child earlier.
3. Low birth weight as a cause of maternal depression
The child with a low birth weight, or with difficulties sucking or who cries a lot, presents certain risk
factors which can lead to and/or contribute to maternal depression.265
This method of exploring the links between maternal depression and child malnutrition risks implies a
linear causality. However malnutrition and psychological problems in the mother are explained much
170
better by circular causalities. We can envisage, for example, a child experiencing a period of partial
anorexia at the time of the introduction of additional food. The mother then feels a little depressed and
does not manage to adequately respond to her childs difficulties. The latter then starts to refuse more
foods, the mother worries and her depression increases in the face of her childs refusal to eat. This
concept of circular causalities may help us to better understand differences observed between different
countries and regions and may help to pinpoint appropriate interventions.
171
172
173
Postnatal depression has a negative impact on child development and an association between maternal
depression and infant malnutrition can be inferred.
Summary recommendations
Psychosocial support for mothers and infants should be routinely included in both inpatient and
outpatient programmes on the treatment of SAM.
Projects should be developed and tested to assess appropriate methods of providing social support and
stimulation in community-based management of acute malnutrition programmes.
Existing emergency programmes that incorporate psychosocial elements should be described and
assessed for effectiveness.
A large number of studies are needed to explore which psychosocial support activities are the most
effective, when should they be started, the minimum duration of intervention, the impact on social and
emotional development of the child and/or on the mother-child relationship, how to adapt these
activities to the community care of malnutrition.
Studies are also required on the nature and impact of treatment of maternal depression on infant
malnutrition.
174
Endnotes
Endnotes
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
175
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Medicine and Child Neurology. 1975;17:605-13; Grantham-McGregor, S., Powell, C., Walker, S., Chang, S., Fletcher, P. (1994) The long
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severely malnourished children: an interim report. Pediatrics. 1983;72(2):239-43; Grantham-McGregor, S., Schofield, W., Powell, C.
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Schofield, W.N. (1982) Longitudinal study of growth and development of young Jamaican children recovering from severe protein-energy
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development of severely malnourished children in a nutrition unit in Bangladesh. European journal of clinical nutrition. 2008 Sep 3.
Nahar, B., Hamadani, J.D., Ahmed, T., Tofail, F., Rahman, A., Huda, S.N., et al. (2008) Effects of psychosocial stimulation on growth and
development of severely malnourished children in a nutrition unit in Bangladesh. European journal of clinical nutrition. 2008 Sep 3.
Grantham-McGregor, S., Schofield, W., Powell, C. (1987) Development of severely malnourished children who received psychosocial
stimulation: six-year follow-up. Pediatrics. 1987 Feb;79(2):247-54.
Grantham-McGregor, S. (1995) A review of studies of the effect of severe malnutrition on mental development. The Journal of nutrition.
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Thompson, A.M. (1986)Adam: a severely-deprived Colombian orphan - A case study. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry and allied
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Geber, M. (1991) Le devenir des enfants atteints de kwashiorkor. 1991;3(1):36-54.
Grantham-McGregor, S., Powell, C., Walker, S., Chang, S., Fletcher, P. (1994) The long-term follow-up of severely malnourished children
who participated in an intervention program. Child development. 1994;65(2 Spec No):428-39.
Nahar, B., Hamadani, J.D., Ahmed, T., Tofail, F., Rahman, A., Huda, S.N., et al. (2008) Effects of psychosocial stimulation on growth and
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Specific humanitarian psychiatric programmes that treat people who have been traumatized are increasing in number, but unfortunately
there is a lack of coordination and collaboration with other disciplines (medical, nutritional, etc.). The head and the body are treated, but
there is still little interest in treating the individual as a whole (body, spirit, as member of a family, cultural, social, religion, etc.).
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Endnotes
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239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
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271
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Psychopathologie africaine. 1992;XXIV(2):205-28.
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de pdiatrie de l'hpital universitaire de Dakar. Bulletin socio-mdicale d'Afrique Noire en langue franaise. 1969 1969;XIV, 4:809-20.
Roger-Petitjean, M. (1999) Soins et nutrition des enfants en milieu urbain africain : paroles de mres. Paris ; Montral: d. l'Harmattan
1999.
Dubois le Bronnec. (1986) Dimension psycho-affective et culturelle de la malnutrition en Cte d'ivoire. Lieux de l'Enfance. 1986
1986;n6/7:193-204.
De Suremain, C-E. (2000) Dynamiques de l'alimentation et socialisation du jeune enfant Brazzaville (Congo). Autrepart. 2000;15:73-91.
Martin-Prvel, Y. (2002) "Soins" et nutrition publique. Cahiers Sant. 2002;12(1):86-93.
Kwashiorkor is frequently thought to be a result of a sexual deviancy. Partners must abstain while the mother is breastfeeding. Not
abstaining, it is believed, can lead to kwashiorkor.
Bonnet, D. (2001) Malnutrition : a subject-matter for anthropology. In: children II-ISt, editor. Promoting growth and development of
under fives; 2001 28-29-30 novembre 2001; Antwerp, Belgique; 2001. p. 14-5.
Jaffr, Y. (1996) Dissonances entre les reprsentations sociales et mdicales de la malnutrition dans un service de pdiatrie au Niger.
Sciences Sociales et Sant. 1996;14 n1:41-69.
Longhurst, R., Tomkins, A. (1995) The role of care in nutrition - a neglected essential ingredient. SCN News. 1995;12:1-5.
Prince, M., Patel, V., et al. (2007). "No health without mental health." The Lancet 370(9590): 859-877.
Walker, S. P., Wachs, T. D., et al. (2007). "Child development: risk factors for adverse outcomes in developing countries." Lancet
369(9556): 145-57.
Stewart, R. C. (2007). "Maternal depression and infant growth: a review of recent evidence." Matern Child Nutr 3(2): 94-107.
Murray, L., Cooper, P. J. (1997). "Effects of postnatal depression on infant development." Arch Dis Child 77(2): 99-101.
Murray, L. (1998a). L'impact de la dpression du post-partum sur le dveloppement de l'enfant. In Mazet, P. and Lebovici, S. Psychiatrie
prinatale. Paris, PUF: 287-298.
For a detailed analysis of this data, refer to Stewart.
Rahman, A., Iqbal, Z., et al. (2004). "Impact of maternal depression on infant nutritional status and illness: a cohort study." Arch Gen
Psychiatry 61(9): 946-52.
Harpham, T., Huttly, S., et al. (2005). "Maternal mental health and child nutritional status in four developing countries." J Epidemiol
Community Health 59(12): 1060-4.
Baker-Henningham, H., Powell, C., et al. (2003). "Mothers of undernourished Jamaican children have poorer psychosocial functioning and
this is associated with stimulation provided in the home." Eur J Clin Nutr 57(6): 786-92.
Surkan, P. J., Kawachi, I., et al. (2008). "Maternal depressive symptoms, parenting self-efficacy, and child growth." Am J Public Health
98(1): 125-32.
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Epidemiology 25(1): 128-33.
Adewuya, A. O., Ola, B. O., et al. (2008). "Impact of postnatal depression on infants' growth in Nigeria." J Affect Disord 108(1-2): 191-3.
Stewart, R. C., Umar, E., et al. (2008). "Maternal common mental disorder and infant growth--a cross-sectional study from Malawi."
Matern Child Nutr 4(3): 209-19.
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Grace, S.L., Wallington, T. Postpartum depression: literature review of risk factors and interventions.
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Grace, S.L., Wallington, T. Postpartum depression: literature review of risk factors and interventions.
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africaine XXIV(2): 205-228.
176
Chapter 9
MAMI Considerations
177
178
Clinical
status
Nutritional
status
well
Moderately impaired
physiology
increased
disease vulnerability
( appetite OK )
Severe impaired
physiology
high risk of disease
normally
nourished
mild/moderate
malnutrition
Severe malnutrition
Risk of death
Death
The arrow indicates the progressive nature of the risks. The boxes indicate that for practical programme use, categories are necessary, yet
they do not truly reflect the continuum.
Admission criteria are best seen as screening tools to identify patients whose death will be averted by
particular therapeutic interventions. This is different to a prognostic tool that simply identifies patients at
high risk of death. In the former, the characteristics of treatment are also critical in determining optimal
approach. To illustrate, if a treatment is associated with very high risks compared to the potential benefits,
then specificity of admission criteria should be prioritized. Though some cases may be missed, it
important not to wrongly expose a patient to treatment they do not need. In contrast, treatments with
low risks compared to benefits can prioritise sensitivity. It does not matter so much if some wrongly
receive treatment they do not need. It is more important to ensure that nobody misses out on a
treatment.
The many possible clinical symptoms and signs and combinations of anthropometric indicator, cut-off and
growth norm should thus be judged against screening strategy criteria (see Box 9).281
179
Assessing current criteria against this framework reveals important issues for future discussion and research:
1) Is there randomized trial evidence that earlier intervention works?
This is a biologically plausible assumption, based on increased mortality risk with declining nutritional
status in -all known observational studies.282, 283, 284 The nature of the increased risk, whether it is linear or
whether there is an important mortality threshold effect, can still be debated. A randomized trial to
firmly settle the issue would be unethical to do since it would not be possible to withhold treatment.
However, as a next best proxy, trials could potentially be done whilst, for example, rolling out the 2006
WHO-GS, which are more inclusive than NHCS.
2) Were the data identified, selected and combined in an unbiased fashion?
This would be important to verify. The problem with some studies on anthropometry and risk is that
they are based on samples of children already admitted to a nutrition programme.285, 286 Declining
anthropometry measures that predict death for these children are different from the question of which
indicator and cut-off would best select children for admission/non-admission to programme.
3) What are the benefits?
TFP / SFP admission has an implicit objective of reducing the mortality risk through restoring normal
nutritional status. This is plausible for both infants <6m and children. However, since there has been
less research on infants <6m, the benefits for this group of current interventions on offer are less
certain than for older children, for whom well delivered treatment programmes (both inpatient ten
steps287 and outpatient CMAM288) have been shown to be consistent with good final outcomes.
4) What are the harms?
The risks of outpatient care for children >6m are minimal. In contrast, inpatient admissions (as currently
recommended for all infants <6m with SAM) are potentially serious. Infants treated as inpatients are
exposed to risks of nosocomial infection and carers have to spend precious time away from home. In
addition, introduction of therapeutic feeds as routine treatment for all infants <6m introduces potential
risks (e.g. mixed feeding increases risk of HIV transmission) but may not always be warranted (e.g. a
mother presenting with reported milk insufficiency that may need skilled breastfeeding support
alone). Defining potential harms is a key step in reviewing current and possible interventions.
5) How do these compare in different people and with different screening strategies?
It might be possible to look at historical data to see how outcomes varied prior to use of current
weight-for-height criteria. Given the current homogeneity of anthropometric criteria it is not possible
to compare different screening strategies. Future, prospective work would be needed.
6) What is the impact of peoples values & preferences?
Key informants and experience from CMAM generally indicate that carers prefer outpatient treatment
(or at very least, short inpatient treatment). With this move towards community-based models of care,
criteria aimed at selecting infants <6m for inpatient admission are likely to be different to those aimed
at selection for admission to a community based approach.
7) What is the impact of uncertainty?
Given the need to rely on observational evidence rather than that from intervention studies, there is
considerable uncertainty about ideal admission criteria.
8) What is the cost-effectiveness?
To our knowledge, this has not been formally evaluated for the treatment of infant<6m malnutrition.
9.2.2 Anthropometry
Are current anthropometric criteria a good screening tool for admission to TFP care?
It is beyond the scope of the MAMI Project to address this question in detail, however it is a question that
needs to be formally reviewed.
There are practical advantages in using the same criteria across all age ranges. However, there are pathophysiological arguments for believing that equivalent weight-for-heights do not reflect the same
mortality risk across all age ranges. Similar confounding may occur with different heights-for-age or
weights-for-age. Historically such complex, combined risk indices would not have been practical for field
use, especially in a resource poor and busy emergency settings. However, this may be changing with the
increasing use of electronic data capture devices. Perhaps there is future potential for more sophisticated,
specific admission indicators.
180
Treatment capacity allowing, a move towards managing more complicated v uncomplicated model of
care would facilitate a more conservative inpatient admission threshold where the focus is on
complicated cases to admit.
Better nesting of infants <6m treatment within overall CMAM model of acute malnutrition care
Greater programme coverage for infants <6m
More sensitive case detection/screening tools to be used in the community
Earlier detection and diagnosis of acute malnutrition, ideally before onset of complications, and
therefore raised probability of successful outcomes.
A review of the evidence of effectiveness of community-based breastfeeding support follows, to assess its
viability as a treatment option in this context.
181
Intervention
90
Control
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Month 1
Month 2
Month 3
Month 4
Month 5
Source: Haider et al, Lancet, 2000
Other studies have demonstrated similar effects, such as one from Ghana.294 This used two intervention
groups where Group 1 (IG1) received exclusive breastfeeding support pre-, peri-, and postnatally (n = 43)
and Group 2 (IG2) received EBF support only peri- and postnatally (n = 44). Both groups had an equal
amount of contact with breastfeeding counsellors. A control group (C) received health educational
support only (n = 49). Two educational sessions were provided prenatally, and nine home follow-up visits
were provided in the six month postpartum period. Infant feeding data were collected monthly at the
participant's home. The three groups did not differ in socio-demographic characteristics. At six months
postpartum, 90.0% in IG1 and 74.4% in IG2 had exclusively breast-fed during the previous month. By
contrast, only 47.7% in C had (P = 0.008). Similarly, the percentage of EBF during the six months was
significantly higher (P = 0.02) among IG1 and IG2 (39.5%) than among C (19.6%).
Work in the area of infant feeding and HIV has also yielded evidence of increasing exclusive breastfeeding
rates through community support. For example, in South Africa, intensive support was given to mothers
of infants <6m in the community (with the aim of improving exclusive breastfeeding rates in HIV-infected
women who chose to breastfeed, and in HIV uninfected women). High rates of exclusive breastfeeding
were achieved. Of 1034 mothers who initiated breastfeeding, 82% initiated exclusive breastfeeding at
birth, 67% exclusively breastfed for at least three months and 40% for six months. One of the conclusions
was that optimal feeding practices were achievable with good support.295
There is limited data on increasing exclusive breastfeeding rates in emergency contexts. One example
does come from Indonesia post earthquake, amongst non-malnourished infants <6m. Here a cascade
method of breastfeeding support was developed by UNICEF/MOH to minimise the risks of untargeted
distribution of breastmilk substitutes in the emergency response. Trainers were located in the community
182
to train counsellors who, in turn trained mothers as peer educators. The training was modelled on the
WHO four hour breastfeeding counselling course. Follow up of fifty-four mothers who gave birth after the
earthquake and who received the counselling revealed that almost all of these mothers initiated
breastfeeding in the first hour after birth and 63% were exclusively breastfeeding regardless of access to
free BMS. In November 2006, 247 mothers with babies born after the earthquake (all infants under six
months of age) were assessed on their breastfeeding practices. Amongst the mothers surveyed, the rate of
exclusive breastfeeding rate was 49.8%., higher than pre-earthquake rates in the population296.
183
It is plausible that skilled breastfeeding counselling and support would also be effective for malnourished
infants, though this needs to be tested. It is essential that cost data are gathered. Several key informants
(Chapter 6) noted that time and staff skills were sometimes limited. Breastfeeding support was implicitly
seen as a non-core activity that could be dropped when resources and time were tight. This also suggests
that the resource implications were not considered in programme planning. Budgeting for extra staff with
sufficient time and skills to provide breastfeeding support as a core resource is needed, but there is a
currently a gap in knowledge of what are the costs to factor in.
184
Box 11: Triage system for children with severe malnutrition to improve
identification of high risk groups
Immediate risk of early death and greatest requirement for close observation and monitoring
Depressed conscious state
- Prostration (inability to sit up) or
- Coma (inability to localize a painful stimulus)
Bradycardia (heart rate 80 beats per minute)
Evidence of shock with or without dehydration (see below)
- Capillary refill time _ 2 s or
- Temperature gradient
- Weak pulse volume
Hypoglycaemia, 3 mmol/l
Moderate Risk - Need for close supervision
Deep acidotic breathing
Signs of dehydration (plus diarrhoea: 3 watery motions /24 h)
- Sunken eyes or
- Decreased skin turgor
Lethargy
Hyponatraemia (sodium, 125 mmol/l)
Hypokalaemia (potassium, 2.5 mmol/l)
Low Risk - Limited requirement for close supervision
None of the above
Note: In-hospital mortality in the three groups at Kilifi, where this study was set, were:
high-risk group
34%
moderate-risk
23%
low-risk
7%
Matiland et al, PLoS 2006.
Review methodology
MEDLINE & Embase were searched for all studies reporting on the prevalence of bacterial infection in
malnourished infants <6m. Differentiating urinary tract infections (UTI), pneumonia and septicaemia, we
examined all available data on causative organisms and antibiotic sensitivity patterns. Initial results were
presented at the CAPGAN meeting (Commonwealth Association of Paediatric Gastroenterology and
Nutrition), Malawi, 2009.302 A full report will be released separately and is available from the MAMI group.
Key findings
Most studies identified were old and few focused exclusively on malnutrition.
Only one study reported on infants <6m; the rest presented aggregate data on infants and children
of varying ages and varying nutritional status.
Prevalence of UTI in 14 studies ranged from 3.3-38%. Of 197 positive cultures, 51.8% were E.coli and
17.3% Klebsiella sp.Gram negative bacteria accounted for 92.4% of isolates.
Prevalence of pneumonia in ten studies ranged from 11-63%. Of 167 isolates, 61.1% were Gram
negative bacteria. Staphylococcus aureus made up the majority of Gram positive isolates (21.6%)
185
Prevalence of bacteraemia ranged from 5.5-36%. Commonest organisms were Salmonella sp.(20.3%),
Staphylococcus aureus (12.6%), Klebsiella sp.(12.3%), E.coli (12.1%) and Streptococcus pneumoniae
(10.5%).
Outcomes in malnourished children with bacteraemia were poor, with CFR(cumulative fraction of
response) ranges reported as 13-78% and 22-31% compared to 5-11% in non-bacteraemic children.
Younger children were more at risk of bacteraemia in one study, children <1 year having a relative risk
of 1.77(95% CI 1.43-2.18) of bacteraemia compared to older children.
Of the studies reviewed, median in vitro sensitivity of isolates was 24% for amoxicillin, 25% for ampicillin.
Key conclusions
The evidence base on antimicrobial treatment must be urgently updated. The evidence base on antimicrobial treatment for infants <6m is lacking. The evidence base on antimicrobial treatment for
malnourished children is also limited. It is concerning that even in these old studies, sensitivity to
amoxicillin, which is the commonest currently recommended antibiotic, is low. New trials are needed
which use current case definitions of acute malnutrition rather than the heterogeneous mix of definitions
noted in this review. New evidence is especially vital in settings where HIV is now prevalent.
There is a paucity of and a need for intervention studies. Whilst observational work is useful to guide and
plan an intervention and to monitor microbial resistance trends, the strength of evidence is not the same
from the two types of study design. In-vitro antibiotic sensitivities are not always the same as in-vivo
effects. Randomised control trials (RCTs) would offer the strongest evidence for informing future
guidelines and intervention strategies.
There are likely to be geographical variations. International guidelines on antibiotic use are likely to
benefit from local adaptations considering local pathogen prevalence and sensitivity patterns.
Box 12: Estimated potential renal solute loads (PRSL) of human milk and infant
formulas
Type of milk Estimated PRSL (mOsmol/L)
Human milk
Milk-based infant formulas
F75
F100
Diluted F100
93
135-177
154
360
238
Source: WHO (2004)285
The lower the renal solute load (RSL) the better, to lesson the risk of hypernatreamic dehydration.
However, this must be balanced against the need for adequate protein for growth; it is the protein
metabolite, urea, which contributes most to RSL. Whilst therapeutic milk like F100 may be best for growth,
it is also the riskiest in terms of hypernatraemic dehydration. Many programmes use F100-dilute, perhaps
as a compromise between growth and RSL. More evidence is needed.
At a 2004 WHO consultation on management of SAM,303 more research on optimal milk was
recommended. Data are so far limited. To our knowledge, only one RCT has been done: a Comparative
study of the effectiveness of infant formula and diluted F100 therapeutic milk products in the treatment of
severe acute malnutrition in infants under six months of age.304 Though a very well designed study, the
final sample size ended up markedly underpowered. Group sizes of 74 and 72 children were well below
the 150 per group originally planned. No significant differences in weight gain (g/kg/day) or length of stay
were observed, but a false negative effect cannot be ruled out.
In the absence of new evidence, the conclusions of WHO 2004 should still stand and are repeated
verbatim here for the purpose of informing future guideline development (see Box 13).
186
9.8 HIV
Box 13: WHO consensus on milks for therapeutic feeding in infants <6m
Stabilization phase. The Consultation proposed that until definitive data are forthcoming, the guidelines set
out for stabilization with F75 should be followed for infants under six months of age. Diluted F100 was
considered inappropriate because its PRSL is marginal and its higher protein, sodium and lactose content is
disadvantageous. Where available, expressed breastmilk was seen as a possible alternative to F75.
Rehabilitation phase. The actual renal solute load is related to the rate of weight gain. The PRSL is high for
F100 and some members of the Consultation felt it should not be used, as its PRSL exceeds the upper limit
recommended by LSRO. Some felt that F100 should not be used for infants < 4 months of age. Expressed
breastmilk, infant formula or diluted F100 were seen as possible alternatives. Others considered that F100
may be appropriate if weight gain is rapid. The results of comparative randomized trials will guide future
decisions about appropriate formulations for feeding infants under six months of age.
Breastfeeding. The Consultation agreed that human milk is the preferred food for young infants, although in
HIV-affected populations decisions about breastfeeding are complex. The Consultation agreed that in infants
with severe malnutrition, who are acutely and severely ill, resuscitation and stabilization with therapeutic milk
take precedence over breastfeeding. Participants reported that in Bangladesh and Sierra Leone, exclusive
breastfeeding in managing severe malnutrition had been unsuccessful, resulting in the deaths of infants.
Experience has also shown that when no effort is made to re-establish successful lactation, infants often end
fully weaned, which can compromise their longer-term survival. Therapeutic feeding combined, where
appropriate, with supportive care to re-establish successful lactation, is recommended. Supportive care is
described in IMCI.
Low-birth-weight infants. The Consultation clarified that low birth- weight infants who are not severely
wasted or oedematous should be managed according to guidelines provided by WHO specifically for such
infants: Management of the child with a serious infection or severe malnutrition: guidelines for care at the
first- referral level in developing countries (99104).
Source: WHO (2004)
The MAMI Project found that diluted F100 is most commonly used by operational agencies in stabilization
of infants<6m. During rehabilitation, options used include breastmilk, infant formula, and diluted F100.
IFE Module 2 includes breastfeeding and expressed breastmilk as therapeutic milk options, in addition to
infant formula, F75 and F100-dilute. The option of breastfeeding as a first line nutritional treatment in IFE
Module 2 reflects consideration of uncomplicated cases admitted to feeding programmes; the WHO
guidelines may be more tailored to treatment for complicated SAM infants <6m.
9.8 HIV
Guidelines for the management of acute malnutrition, reviewed in Chapter 4, vary in their coverage of HIV.
This may in part reflect different prevalence in different countries. The influence of infant feeding practices
and use of anti-retroviral treatment (ARV) are key determinants of HIV-free child survival. Feeding
practices and HIV status of infants and mothers are key considerations in HIV prevalent populations where
infants <6m present acutely malnourished. Strategies to treat infant malnutrition in the context of HIV
should not only consider interventions that seek to avoid HIV transmission, but also those that support
maternal and child survival.
187
9.8 HIV
188
9.8 HIV
Box 15: Summary of WHO Recommendations on infant feeding and HIV (2007)
HIV status of the mother is unknown or she is known to be HIV-negative:
Exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life. At six months, introduce nutritionally adequate
and safe complementary foods while breastfeeding continues for up to two years of age or beyond.
For a HIV-infected woman:
Exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life unless replacement feeding* is acceptable, feasible,
affordable, sustainable and safe (AFASS) for a woman and her infant before that time.
At six months, if replacement feeding is still not acceptable, feasible, affordable, sustainable and safe,
continuation of breastfeeding with additional complementary foods, while the mother and baby continue to
be regularly assessed.
When replacement feeding is acceptable, feasible, affordable, sustainable and safe, avoidance of all
breastfeeding by HIV-infected women is recommended.
The most appropriate infant feeding option for a HIV-infected mother should continue to depend on her
individual circumstances, including her health status and the local situation, but should take greater
consideration of the health services available and the counselling and support she is likely to receive.
Whatever the feeding decision, health services should follow-up all HIV-exposed infants, and continue to
offer infant feeding counselling and support, particularly at key points when feeding decisions may be
reconsidered, such as the time of early infant diagnosis and at six months of age.
Breastfeeding mothers of infants and young children who are known to be HIV-infected should be strongly
encouraged to continue breastfeeding.
189
9.8 HIV
190
9.8 HIV
The contribution of HIV-infected infants and mothers to the burden of nutrition and medical care in
feeding programmes is significant in areas of high HIV prevalence. In a hospital-based HIV prevalence
study in Southern Malawi, for example, 40% of the malnourished children were HIV infected and HIV
infection contributed to over 40% of all paediatric deaths.319 HIV infection may contribute to malnutrition
in an infant <6m either directly through the HIV infection of the infant and associated morbidities,
through associated risky feeding practices, e.g. replacement feeding where AFASS is not in place, and/or
by HIV infection compromising the mothers capacity to feed and care for her infant.
Where malnourished infants <6m present to programmes, it is therefore important to investigate whether
HIV-associated feeding practices (e.g. replacement feeding) are a contributing factor. The current absence
of breastfeeding status as a standard indicator in treatment programmes, highlighted in Chapter 5, makes
it difficult to determine the contribution of replacement fed infants to admissions.
191
192
The evidence base for current guidelines on antibiotic treatment in infants <6m with SAM is largely absent
and for malnourished children is lacking. Resistance to amoxicillin is of concern.
There is uncertainty and varying practice in which therapeutic milk to use in the infant <6m age group.
Research is so far limited.
The contribution of HIV-infected infants and mothers to the burden of nutrition and medical care in
feeding programmes is significant in areas of high HIV prevalence. Access to ARVs for HIV-exposed
mothers and infants and safer infant feeding practices are key determinants of HIV-free child survival.
Where malnourished infants <6m present to programmes, risky feeding practices (e.g. replacement
feeding where AFASSiv conditions are not in place) may be a contributing factor.
Current optimal infant feeding recommendations reflect practices that maximize population benefits and
risks; they inform but should not limit individual management. It is important to consider that
individualized feeding practice could send out mixed messages to the wider community on optimal
feeding practices.
Summary recommendations
Key areas of research include:
Systematic review of studies of different anthropometric indicators suitable for use in the
community in infants <6m, including a review of the suitability of MUAC for this age group.
Investigate the nature and effectiveness of skilled breastfeeding counseling and support in
inpatient treatment of severely malnourished infants <6m.
Review of the effectiveness and costs of community-based breastfeeding support, to assess its
viability as a treatment option for uncomplicated cases of SAM in infants <6m.
Review the effectiveness of breastfeeding assessment tools for use in the community to identify
uncomplicated and complicated cases of SAM in infants <6m.
Develop a triage tool based on a set of clinical signs for complicated cases, to identify those with
urgent need.
Update the evidence base on antimicrobials through randomised controlled trials to update
guidelines.
Research the choice of therapeutic milk for infants <6m.
An alternative to the appetite test used in CMAM is needed for the <6m age group; validated
breastfeeding assessment tools could enable this.
Access to HIV counselling and testing and early ARV treatment for mothers and infants is a priority in HIV
prevalent areas. Cotrimoxazole should be used when ARVs are not available.
To keep abreast of the latest recommendations on HIV, guidelines should direct to key sources.
Infant feeding counselling in the context of HIV needs to be consistent with current WHO
recommendations.330 Strategies to treat infant malnutrition in the context of HIV should not only consider
interventions that seek to avoid HIV transmission, but also those that support maternal and child survival.
Trials of programme interventions need to include and report on costs, staff time and skill sets to inform
programme planning. This is especially important in considering the cost-benefits and viability of scale-up
of interventions.
iv
193
Endnotes
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
194
Prudhon, C., Briend, A., Laurier, D., Golden, M.H.N., Mary, J.Y. (1996) Comparison of Weight- and Height-based Indices for Assessing the
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Endnotes
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
WHO, 2007. HIV and Infant Feeding: Update based on the Technical Consultation held on behalf of the Inter-agency Task Team (IATT) on
Prevention of HIV Infection in Pregnant Women, Mothers and their Infants Geneva, 2527 October 2006
K, Sadler. et al. (2008). Operational study on SAM management in high HIV prevalence area. Field Exchange, Issue No 34, October 2008.
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WHO currently recommends that mothers should receive zidovudine (AZT) from 28 weeks of pregnancy (or as soon as possible
thereafter); single dose nevirapine and AZT/3TC during labour, and AZT/3TC for seven days after delivery, while infants should receive
single dose nevirapine and AZT for one week after birth.
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41 - Issue 4 - pp 504-508
2008 Report of the WHO Technical Reference Group, Paediatric HIV/ART Care Guideline Group Meeting,
http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/paediatric/WHO_Paediatric_ART_guideline_rev_mreport_2008.pdf,
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Zachariah, R., Harries, A.D., Luo, C., Bachman, G., Graham, S.M. (2007) Scaling-up co-trimoxazole prophylaxis in HIV-exposed and HIVinfected children in high HIV-prevalence countries. Lancet Infect Dis. 2007 Oct;7(10):686-93.
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and their Infants 2007, World Health Organization: Geneva.
195
Chapter 10
The way forward
196
197
Assessing programme performance treating infant <6m malnutrition needs to be strengthened. Critically,
performance should not be judged solely on core outcomes (e.g. death rate, nutritional cure rate) but
needs to:
Capture the clinical, psychosocial and contextual complexity of infants treated
Ensure robustness of data, audit and management systems to identify problems that may occur, and
Establish programme population coverage of SAM. MAM in infants <6m.
Key initiatives that may provide lessons in taking initiatives forward include the SFP minimum reporting
standards project (MRP), the Vermont-Oxford Network to improve neonatal care,331 and experiences
from the rollout of the 1999 WHO guidelines.
The MRP is an ENN-led interagency initiative that involves developing and implementing a
standardised Minimum Reporting Package on SFPs, including data collection tools, training and multiagency data collection.332
The mission of the Vermont-Oxford Network333 is to improve the quality and safety of medical care
for newborn infants and their families through a coordinated programme of research, education and
quality improvement projects. (see Box 17)
Long-term follow up of hospitals involved in the 1999 WHO guideline piloting showed marked
discrepancies in outcomes.334 Systems, staff and leadership were key influences on the effective
implementation of the guidelines. This need to address systems factors came out strongly in MAMI key
informant interviews. Tools supporting management quality would benefit not only malnourished
infants <6m, but all patient groups.
The lack of an evidence base to formulate MAMI guidelines remains a big gap. Key research questions
include medium and long-term survival of the treated infants, effectiveness of different feeding regimens
and impact of psychosocial and community interventions. A combination of systematic reviews (e.g. of
current guidelines), high quality RCT-type studies (e.g. on antibiotic choice; what type of breastfeeding
support programme has maximal impact) and operational research is needed to strengthen guidelines.
More resources should be devoted to future guideline development and tools such as GRADE and AGREE
used to better enhance their quality.
Our review suggests that formal frameworks might usefully guide which policies and research projects
should strongly (and more urgently) be recommended, and which might be less critical. With this in mind,
two frameworks GRADE (introduced in Chapter 4) and Child Health and Nutrition Research Initiative
(CHNRI)335 may be of particular use (see Box 18).
198
To enable continued inter-agency dialogue, data sharing and partnership is needed. In particular:
Focused prospective audits are needed interpreting retrospective data is challenging and yields
relatively limited information.
Age-disaggregated data collection on infant <6m, currently implemented in the minority of cases,
should be rolled out and continue.
Harmonised databases and coding systems would enable easier audit. In this regard, an update in the
MRP to include infants <6m in SFP reporting is recommended.
A mechanism for data sharing and lesson learning forums should be established to inform future field
guidance.
MAMI strategies should be located within a framework of safe and appropriate IYCF; programme synergies
between IYCF support of infants <6m and child 6 to 24m must be better reflected in the guidelines.
Locating interventions to treat infant and child malnutrition within global policy frameworks, e.g. the
WHO/UNICEF Global Strategy on IYCF, creates opportunities to coordinate with governments and national
level plans and to synergise interventions that treat malnutrition with those that seek to prevent it. Such
strategic approaches may be possible in many emergency contexts.
Of most immediate concern is the lack of explicit consideration to infants <6m in current guidelines or
their explicit recognition in recent statements on malnutrition treatment336 and 2006 WHO GS rollout.337, 338
This risks the presumption that care for older children can safely be extended to infants <6m and/or
perpetuates the assumption that infants <6m are all well nourished. A valuable contribution to help address
this would be a statement on MAMI that highlighted the concerns, gaps and immediate considerations for this
age-group to guide practice in the immediate term. Such a statement would be well placed as an output of
the Global Nutrition Cluster through engagement of Nutrition Cluster members, the MAMI Project
research team, RAG and IASG members.
In the future, a more radical shift in the model for MAMI is likely needed. A move towards communitybased management of acute malnutrition in infants <6m is an option that should be actively considered.
Further applied and operational research is required to provide the evidence base for such a transition. For
older children, the evolution to community based management of acute malnutrition was driven by a
strong vision, a clear research agenda and well documented field experiences. The challenge now is how
to improve nutritional, clinical and public health outcomes in infants <6m.
199
Endnotes
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
200
http://www.vtoxford.org/home.aspx
See www.ennonline.net/research
http://www.vtoxford.org/home.aspx
Puoane et al, 2008. Why do some hospitals achieve better care of severely malnourished children than others? Five-year follow-up of rural
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Community-based management of severe acute malnutrition A Joint Statement by WHO, WFP, the UNSCN and UNICEF.
http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/statement_commbased_malnutrition/en/index.html
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Appendices
201
Appendix A
202
ACF Assessment and Treatment of Malnutrition in Emergency Situations, Claudine Prudhon, 2000 (Book
available for purchase via http://www.aahuk.org/publications.htm)
IFE Core Group (2009) Infant Feeding in Emergencies Orientation Package (Module 1), updated 2009.
(Download free from http://www.ennonline.net/resources/view.aspx?resid=1)
IFE Core Group (2007) Infant feeding in emergencies. Module 2. Version 1.1 Developed through
collaboration of ENN, IBFAN-GIFA, Fondation Terre des hommes, UNICEF, UNHCR, WHO, WFP. Core Manual (for
training, practice and reference). English and French. (Download free
http://www.ennonline.net/resources/view.aspx?resid=4 or in print from ENN, Oxford, UK or UNHCR, Nairobi)
IFE Core Group (2007) Operational Guidance on IFE, version 2.1, May 2007. 11 languages. (Download free
from http://www.ennonline.net/resources/view.aspx?resid=6)
Sphere Humanitarian Charter & Minimum Standards in Disaster Response (2004) http://www.sphereproject.org/
Valid International (2006) International. Community-based Therapeutic Care (CTC). A Field Manual.
Oxford: Valid International. (Available at http://www.fantaproject.org/ctc/manual2006.shtml)
WHO/UNICEF (2003) Global Strategy on Infant and Young Child Feeding. Geneva: World Health
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WHO (2003) Training course on the management of severe malnutrition. Geneva: World Health Organisation.
(Available at http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/severemalnutrition_training_courses/en/index.html)
WHO (2004) Severe malnutrition: report of a consultation to review current literature. Geneva, World Health
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WHO (1999) Management of severe malnutrition: a manual for physicians and other senior health
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Infants Geneva, 2527 October 2006
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large scale
migration
Residence in
overcrowded
settlements
Natural disaster
destruction of
infrastructure
reduced access
to food
Contraindications to
breastfeeding*
War
breakdown
of essential
services
lack of
hygiene,
sanitation
Maternal
Problem with
breastmilk
substitute
(BMS)
Breastfeeding
not possible
social disruption
families split
Infant
loss of property
and business
loss of earnings
and access to
health services
Breastfeeding/potential
to Breastfeed
? True malnutrition
Disease
Triggers
Impact on
population
Impact at
household
& family
level
Immediate
causes
Outcome
Appendix B
Key references:
Breastfeeding and Human Lactation, Riordan & Wambach, 4th Edition, 2010
Behavioural & Metabolic Aspects of Breastfeeding. International trends. Eds Simopoulos, Dutra de Oliveira, Desai, 1995
Fast Facts - Infant Nutrition. Lucas & Zlotkin, 2003
Forfar & Arneil's Textbook of Pediatrics. Sixth Edition
Breastfeeding and Human Lactation, Riordan & Auerbach, 2nd Edition, 1998
Breastfeeding. A guide for the medical profession. Lawrence & Lawrence. 6th ed, 2005
IASC Nutrition cluster Harmonized training package
203
204
Autres
Others
+
+
NR
Non response
non responder
Inconnu
Died
Default
Critres non-atteints
CNR
Non rpondant
Transfert medical
+
+
Erreur d'admission
Guri
Dcs
Abandon
Non respondent
+
+
+
+
Medical transfer
Dead
Other
Transfer
+
+
Death
Admission mistake
Defaulter
Cured
Discharge code*
33
15
51
317
44
136
14
76
163
613
3
3
1,645
72
Countries
using this code
23,921
283
2,090
710
2,061
9,355
201
294
545
863
691
449
1,611
8,531
50,483
Appendix C
End of transit
Error
Erreur admission
End of TFC
End OTP
End of follow up
13
2,660
90
711
3
86
45
9
35
23
104
1
36
45
1
1
5
902
276
Countries
using this code
584
59
786
End of CBC
DNG
Def
Dcd
D/Regestration
D
+
Cheating
CH
C.N.R
+
+
AM
Admission error
Unknown
Transfert
Transfer to TFC
Transfer to OTP
Discharge code*
Appendix C
Table 43 contd
205
206
+
Refus transfert
+
+
+
+
Transfer TFC
Transfer to CBC
Transfer to CTC
Transfer SFC
Transfer others
Transfer other
+
To other OTP
Transfer HP
1
1
1
1
26
101
32
6
46
139
12
20
21
43
1
2
5
1
68
TFC
T, Creni
SFC transfer
Refused to go TFC
10
Refus de transfert
Refus Creni
5
326
R,Transfert
47
+
+
R,Creni
Non respondant
OTP transfer
Non respond
Non guri
Mistake admission
Mistake of admission
Countries
using this code
Mistake
Medical referal
Discharge code*
Appendix C
Table 43 contd
1,096
59
2,797
3,730
8,355
9,329
Transfert CS
Number of outcome
codes used in each
country
Wrong discharge
5,481 24,155
9
13
5
18
8,466
16
25
2,011 5,721
16
48
45,591
Wrong admission
Wrong child
Transit
Transfert hopital
Transfert CNT
Transfert H
1,494
Transfert CNS
116,79
13
7
14
1
2
9
31
161
619
31
1
249
414
Transfert Centre de S
Transfr
965
Transfer to SFC
1
5
Countries
using this code
Transfer to OPT
Transfer to Health Ce
Discharge code*
Appendix C
Table 43 contd
207
Appendix C
< 6 months
Country
Oedema
n
Afghanistan
12
No oedema
n
Missing values
n
Oedema
n
No oedema
n
Missing values
98.8%
0.0%
1.6%
62 98.4%
0.0%
Burundi
0.7%
145
99.3%
0.0%
1,209
60.1%
803 39.9%
0.0%
Ethiopia
0.0%
30
90.9%
9.1%
4.2%
22 91.7%
4.2%
Kenya
2.7%
32
86.5%
10.8%
57
11.5%
377 76.3%
Liberia
0.6%
165
98.8%
0.6%
534
23.7%
1,715 76.3%
0.0%
Myanmar
2.8%
175
97.2%
0.0%
114
9.6%
1,075 90.4%
0.0%
Niger
0.7%
108
74.5%
36
24.8%
178
18.5%
534 55.5%
8.3% 1,284
91.7%
0.0%
3,069
66.2%
1,564 33.8%
0.0%
DRC
116
60 12.1%
251 26.1%
Somalia
0.2%
398
99.0%
0.7%
524
20.4%
2,034 79.4%
0.2%
Sudan
0.6%
358
99.4%
0.0%
905
18.4%
4,020 81.6%
0.1%
Tajikistan
0.0%
83
96.5%
3.5%
1.7%
274 95.5%
2.8%
Uganda
0.0%
16 100.0%
0.0%
664
52.7%
597 47.3%
0.0%
50
1.2%
7,261
329
1.6%
Total
140
3.5% 3,812
95.3%
< 6 months
Programme
Oedema
n
No oedema
n
6 to 59 months
Missing values
n
Oedema
No oedema
n
Missing values
58.9%
844 41.1%
0.0%
DC
0.3%
736
99.7%
0.0%
1,209
HT
2.6%
111
97.4%
0.0%
73
7.2%
936 92.8%
0.0%
SC
2.0%
94
94.9%
3.0%
43
14.1%
262 85.6%
0.3%
TFC
133
4.4% 2,871
94.1%
47
1.5%
5,936
328
1.9%
Total
140
3.5% 3,812
95.3%
50
1.2%
7,261
329
1.6%
* The percentages in this table are based on the total sample of 4002 infants <6m and 20,667 children aged 6 to 59 months.
208
1.2% 1,018
Appendix D
Project MAMI
Management of Acute Malnutrition in Infants
A retrospective review of the current field management of
acutely malnourished infants under six months of age
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/cihd/research/nutrition/mami
Implemented in a collaboration between Emergency Nutrition Network (ENN),
UCL Centre for International Health and Development (CIHD) and Action Contre la Faim
Funded by the UNICEF-led Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) Nutrition Cluster
( http://ocha.unog.ch/humanitarianreform/Default.aspx?tabid=74 )
Report of the 1st Research Advisory Group (RAG) and Interagency Steering Group (ISG) meeting
UCL Centre for International Health and Development, London,
Wednesday 28th May 2008
Presentations
(Copies of PowerPoint slides are available on request [email protected])
209
Appendix D.1
Action
Further feedback/evidence welcome. Will be explored in detail in the MAMI literature review
Age data to be kept as a continuous variable wherever possible to allow flexibility and exploration of
the pros/cons of different cut-off options
b) Defining cases it was ascertained that agencies use many different indicators (anthropometry,
clinical status and feeding adequacy) in the field, with no current consensus on best practice in infants
below six months. The difficulty of distinguishing acute malnutrition from prematurity/LBW, given the
frequent lack of longitudinal patient records in the field, was highlighted. Some agencies, as well as DHS
surveys, ask mothers Was your child small at birth?, though the subjectivity of this method was
acknowledged. The possibility of a pre-admission period of monitoring to ascertain risk and prioritise
admission was suggested.
Action
Pros/cons of various definitions to be explored during analysis of field data and related literature
Action
Individuals & agencies to feed back to Marko all suggestions for evolving the initial draft framework
Action
Marko to liaise with agencies re availability of data on 0 to 5.9m children this will be central to
determining what questions/issues MAMI can and cannot address in the initial project timeframe
1.4. Review of currently available field data Caroline Wilkinson and Cecile
Bizouerne, ACF
This presentation reviewed current field challenges in management of 0 to 5.9m malnourished infants. An
example field database was also shown and discussed to help the group focus on what questions might
be answerable through the review of field data. Key points included an observation that this age group is
often not specifically targeted by feeding programmes and surveys (with infants <6m included in only an
estimated 10% of surveys). There are therefore many unknowns both about the scale of the problem, and
about how best to look after malnourished children who are identified. Adverse implications are likely
210
Appendix D.1
given known higher mortality rates of young infants and the specific resources/skills (e.g. staff training,
time) needed to best care for mothers and infants in this group. It was postulated that the proportion of
malnutrition caseload below six months might increase with the roll-out of CMAM, as more infants are
identified. Lastly, psycho-social and preventative interventions were discussed, and examples reviewed.
Action
Data analysis should be supported by some qualitative work to better understand the nature of that
data and its utility in informing future practice e.g. by interviewing those who collected the data;
Analysis of individual-level, raw data is important wherever possible
Action
Qualitative work & literature review will be important to try to identify key/universal contextual factors
Action
MAMI to be a forum for agencies to meet/ share experiences initial steps towards database
harmonization
1.5. Networking for progress: lessons from the Vermont Oxford Network
Prof Alan Jackson, RAG
Key points included the fact that scientific literature on the feeding of infants below six months is sparse,
and that standardised approaches to the gap such as randomised controlled trials are unlikely to be the
way forward. MAMI needs to ascertain the level of evidence needed to make judgements for better care
standards, and to decide the best way of capturing such data for this purpose. The Vermont Oxford
Network (VON) may be a useful model of how a related discipline has moved forward.
VON is a collaboration of health care professionals dedicated to improving the quality and safety of
medical care for newborn infants and their families through a coordinated programme of research,
education and quality improvement projects. It maintains a database of information about the care and
outcomes of high-risk newborn infants. This can be used by participating units for quality management,
process improvement, internal audit and publication in peer reviewed journals (see www.vtoxford.org).
211
Appendix D.1
Research question
+ why important
Data needed/available
Backround
What is the scale of the problem of 0 to 5.9m malnutrition?
- ? A paradigm shift that malnutrition is a problem in this age group
- Helps determine where on the spectrum of (public health vs individual &
(therapeutic vs preventative) efforts should be mainly (but not exclusively)
focused
Current Guidelines
What do current management protocols recommend for 0 to 5.9m
malnutrition?
- To understand the range and variety of current practices so as to be able to:
- compare & contrast different approaches
- better understand baselines before recommending future work/research
What are constraints to some current programmes admitting/managing
0 to 5.9m olds
Admission Criteria
- Need a criterion that is optimally sensitive & specific against programme
aims (as well as taking into account likely resource constraints)
What is best way of identifying cases (e.g. rapid assessments; surveys;
other)
(How) can LBW/prematurity/post-natal malnutrition be differentiated?
(and is there a weight or other cut-off below which treatment needed
regardless)
What % of cases of malnutrition are 0 to 5.9m (in relation to 6 to 59.9m)
What are the best admission criteria:
- Which indicators (e.g. anthropometric/clinical status/feeding adequacy)?
- WHO growth standards or NHCS growth references?
- Do the criteria reflect risk of mortality? (ideally preventable mortality vs
just mortality alone)
What are technical / practical limitations of different admission criteria
(e.g. age assessment; weight assessment if scales only weigh to nearest
100g)
Literature review
Review of agency data/
agency admission criteria
Estimating expected caseload
from DHS data would allow
some prediction of the effects
of changing admission criteria.
Reference ENNs/University of
Southampton work on field
equipment (weighing scales)
ROC curves constructed using
field data to look at mortality
predictors. (ideally
supplemented by prospective
work in future to look at
clinical/other markers of risk)
Management Protocols
What are the outcomes from 0 to 5.9m malnutrition using current
protocols?
What nutritional treatments are currently recommended/used (& how
effective are they) e.g. breastfeeding support/ re-lactation/ breast-milk
replacements/therapeutic milks
What medical treatments are currently recommended/used (& how
effective are they)
Should (and does) regimes differ for LBW/prematurity/acute
malnutrition?
What is the role of psychosocial support? What is its effectiveness?
212
- Literature review
- Review of agency data
- Studies comparing treatment
regimens (such as ACFs study
comparing F100-diluted and
infant formula).
Appendix D.1
Table contd
Research question
+ why important
Data needed/available
Discharge Criteria
- Need a criterion that is optimally sensitive & specific against programme
aims (as well as taking into account likely resource constraints)
What are the best discharge criteria:
- Which indicators (e.g. anthropometric/clinical status/feeding
adequacy/% weight gain)?
- WHO standards of NCHS norms
- Do the criteria reflect risk of preventable mortality
What length of follow-up is ideal (and what is done in practice)
What are longer term outcomes following an episode of malnutrition
What are current default rates
Literature review
Review of agency data /
agency discharge criteria
Estimating expected caseload
from DHS data would allow
some prediction of the effects
of changing discharge criteria.
Service Organization
What is coverage of present programmes
What is the right balance between facility-based and community based
programmes/interventions
What is right balance btw preventative (e.g. nutritional support of
pregnant & lactating women) vs treatment approaches
Is there a role for active community case-finding in the community?
How would this be carried out?
Is there an essential minimum package of resources/staff to be able to
successfully carry out MAMI-related programmes ~ is it possible to
decentralise this?
How can data collection be improved for future use? How can this data
be shared between key players at country level?
213
Appendix D.2
MAMI Project
Management of Acute Malnutrition in Infants
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/cihd/research/nutrition/mami
(Funded by the UNICEF-led IASC Nutrition Cluster)
Dear Colleague,
To understand the issues and challenges relating to MAMI, Management of Acute Malnutrition in Infants, we are
conducting telephone consultations with a number of key informants and field-based organizations. To make these
focused and time-efficient, we hope it is helpful for you to see this rough agenda of points we would like to hear
about.
A few things:
i) Our interest is not only in how infants 0 to 6m are managed - but also in challenges faced and in understanding
reasons why they may not be currently admitted or actively managed.
ii) Copies of any project proposals/reports etc would be much appreciated would save asking many obvious
questions!
iii) Information you give will be used in MAMI related publications only. You/your organization will have the
opportunity to see and comment on relevant reports before finalisation. You will also have the option of being
named co-authors representing the MAMI Steering group (please see data sharing document)
vi) If part of our interviews includes describing a programme which has contributed past data to MAMI, it would be
helpful to focus on conditions/issues at the time data was collected - as well as any important current/new
issues.
v) Our main aim is to describe details of and outcomes from the wide variety of current patient management
practices. It is not to judge whether different programmes do or do not meet a gold standard (which does not
exist hence the need for MAMI in the first place!)
Capturing actual experiences is critical to helping us understand how we can move forwards. Only in light of
field realities can a sensible field ideal be developed
Many thanks in advance for your great help and support, I look forward to talking soon,
Best wishes,
Marko
MAMI Lead Researcher.
214
Appendix D.3
MAMI Project
Management of Acute Malnutrition in Infants
Field experiences: key informants interviews
Topics to discuss
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/cihd/research/nutrition/mami
(Funded by the UNICEF-led IASC Nutrition Cluster)
N.B
A)
Intro/General:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
B)
What sort of nutrition programme(s) is your organization operating i.e. NRU, CTC/CMAM, SFP, other, etc?
Where (geographically) are the programmes operating?
How do the programmes link with other / local health service structures?
Which kind of staff are involved in your programmes (e.g. expat/local; clinicians/volunteers, etc)?
C)
D)
Programme specifics
i) What are carers/community expectations from an infant SAM/MAM programme? (if able to say)
ii) In brief, how do you currently manage a malnourished infant, & what is the basis of this? For example,
written guideline (e.g. international, national; organizational; local); informal local guideline; case-bycase clinical judgement.
iii) At present, how well do you feel your current protocols / patient management practices meet the
needs of infants with SAM / MAM?
What works well and why? (e.g. which patient groups respond well to treatment?)
Are there any specific situations / patient groups where difficulties occur?
iv) What (if any) are specific challenges relating to medical treatments for infant SAM/MAM?
v) What (if any) are specific challenges relating to nutritional treatments for infant SAM/MAM?
215
Appendix D.3
vi) What (if any) are specific challenges relating to psycho-social and family support?
vii) What are discharge criteria / how do you decide if an infant has been successfully treated
E)
F)
G)
Context
i) Which context factors would make the most difference to infant SAM/MAM if addressed?
ii) Which context factors are most easy / realistic to change (even if public health impact not be great)?
NB context is often key to many questions. Possible factors to consider in this & other context questions
include:
geographical
- is the programme area rural/urban?
- what is access/transport like?
characteristics of the emergency - duration, causes
socio-cultural context (e.g. religious issues, traditional beliefs/customs)
- at country/national level
- at local level
political context (e.g. national leadership;/political will, presence or absence of other related
programmes like baby-friendly hospital initiative)
- international level (e.g. UNICEF, WHO, etc)
- national level
- local level
programme
- nature of the programme (e.g. stand alone integrated into govt system)?
H)
Finally. . . .
i) What do you see as the three biggest challenges in terms of managing malnourished infants in the
field?
ii) What three (realistic) outputs would you like to see from the MAMI Project in order to make the biggest
difference to malnourished infants in the field?
iii) Can you suggest any resources or literature or words of wisdom from your own field experience which
you think would help others in the MAMI network?
Thank you very much for your help & support!!!
216
Appendix D.4
Interviewee position
Type of organization/programme
(at the time of programme being described)
Burundi
Nutritionist
International NGO
International NGO
Ethiopia
Kenya
Project officer
International NGO
Camp Nutritionist
UN refugee camp
UN refugee camp
Nutrition supervisor
UN refugee camp
Nutritionist
UN refugee camp
International NGO
All above programmes were CMAM-based, with
combinations of inpatient & outpatient care
Malawi
Nutritionist
Somalia
NGO
Tanzania
Uganda
Paediatrician in charge
Angola
International NGO
Guinea
Nutritionist
(overseas-based, in charge of several
countries)
International NGO
DRC
Nutritionist (USA-based)
International NGO
NGO
International NGO
International NGO
Nutrition advisor
International NGO
Nutritionist
International NGO
International NGO
Sudan
Lesotho
Swaziland Paediatrician
International NGO
South
Africa
Paediatrician
Government Hospital
Burkina
Faso
International NGO
Gambia
Paediatrician In-charge
217
Appendix D.4
Table 45 contd
Country
Interviewee position
Type of organization/programme
(at the time of programme being described)
Liberia
Nutritionist
International NGO
Mali
International NGO
International NGO
Programmes manager
International NGO
International NGO
Senegal
International NGO
Sierra
Leone
Nutrition advisor
International NGO
Nutritionist
International NGO
Niger
Nutritionist
NGO-led NRU
Myanmar
International NGO
Nepal
Nutritionist
International NGO
Nutritionist
International NGO
Nutritionist (USA-based)
Programme manager
International NGO
Nutritionist
International NGO
Pakistan
218
Appendix D.5
Appendix D.5 Details of key informant interviews Prevalence and Causes of Infant
<6m malnutrition
Subtheme
emerging
Interviewee position
(at the time of programme being described) Quotations/examples
Lack of
population
focusing on
infant <6m to get
true estimate of
the problem
No idea of prevalence of acute malnutrition in infants <6m in the community, some making
assumptions based on admission numbers.
We do see occasional cases, though cannot say what the true extent of the problem is in
the community.
No info on prevalence, though not uncommon on ward (approx four to five infants out of
30 on the ward at a time).
Infant <6m malnutrition not a problem here rare (on basis of cases seen in
programme).
There can be a bit of a mindset that infant <6m malnutrition is not a problem, so surveys
dont include this age group, and we never really know whether or not the assumptions
are valid.
Even if we wanted to include infants in surveys, there are important technical and practical
barriers, like what sample size is needed for a valid result.
Difficult to say whether infant SAM a problem no surveys available. Admissions of
infants <6m were uncommon, perhaps 1-2% of total (Sudan).
Infant <6m admissions not common maybe one per month or 2-3% of admissions
impossible to know how well this reflects community disease burden.
Difficult to get good guidance on how to do surveys focused on <6m infants (e.g. sample
size, measurement techniques)
Infant <6m
factors
underlying
malnutrition
Low birth weight/preterm babies especially those who are too weak or premature to
suckle.
Twins (often because LBW, premature).
Twins, triplets seemed particularly common in some areas (impression from Democratic
Republic of Congo).
Diarrhoea, respiratory disease, other acute child illness.
TB, HIV other chronic infant illness.
Cerebral palsy (including post malaria or post meningitis) or other disability
There were some cases of recurrent malnutrition possibly due to underlying
malabsorbtion
Maternal factors
underlying
malnutrition
Orphan (mother died) so no chance of child being breastfed (orphaning noted by the
majority of respondents as a major challenge)
Early weaning is very common and rates of EBF are very low.
Even mothers who have been taught about the benefits of exclusive breastfeeding in
practice, often introduce other foods well before 6m.
Severe maternal illness (obstetric complications, HIV noted by several respondents)
leading to a prolonged period when mother cannot breastfeed.
Mother is dysfunctional.
Young and inexperienced mothers were found to sometimes struggle with caring for their
infant.
Some mothers just never get breastfeeding well established, and they present for
malnutrition treatment with infant aged one to two months but presumably have had
some inputs (from health centre or other) previously.
Maternal depression (with range from clinical depression to poor coping strategies, to
worries about other children), all contributing to likelihood of introducing complementary
foods early and infant becoming malnourished.
Mothers value their business more than their infant, and even if the infant is with her,
feeds and care get neglected.
If women have the urge and desire, breastfeeding is generally not difficult. Other women
however are lazy and do not look after infants well.
Maternal milk insufficiency though difficult to tell how much of this is real and how
much perceived by mother.
Mother has poor knowledge about infant feeding practice
Mother does not drink enough fluids and so breastmilk production suffers.
219
Appendix D.5
Table contd
Subtheme
emerging
Interviewee position
(at the time of programme being described) Quotations/examples
Health services
Current health services do very little for those infants who genuinely have no access to
breastmilk (e.g. orphans). No formula is available; advice on other alternatives is limited
meaning infants that are already at high risk of malnutrition become even higher risk
because of lack of support.
Other services related to early feeding support are unavailable in the area (e.g. Baby
Friendly Hospital Initiative)
Access to healthcare is difficult (distance too far, transport too expensive so carers either
wait for too long or dont go at all).
People often go to pharmacists or private clinicians first, these prefer to sell drugs which
may not be appropriate rather than to refer.
Family factors
underlying
malnutrition
HIV
National protocols did not allow for testing of under 18 month olds plus did not have
treatment for this age anyway.
There has been a change of policy for infants of HIV infected mothers. Previously the
option to replacement feed with formula was emphasised; currently EBF is the preferred
option for 0 to 6m olds. This change has led to much confusion for both mothers and staff
still perceptions persist that it is best not to breastfeed to prevent HIV transmission.
One key informant reported observing a 2008 programme in Rwanda which was providing
replacement feeds to all infants of HIV infected mothers.
HIV is a sensitive issue both for patients and organizations.
Despite the fact that mothers may die of many different causes, orphaned infants are often
assumed to be AIDS orphans can be cause of stigma.
HIV is major factor that has led to numbers of malnourished infants <6m increasing,
possibly associated with replacement feeding message.
Societal factors
underlying
malnutrition
Poverty and employment mother has to go out for work, and cannot take infant with her,
so breastmilk substitutes given and/or complementary foods started much too early (NB
sometimes infants left with other family, sometime in care centres).
Not sure of scale of problem, but is likely given food price rises, loss of livelihoods and high
chance of mothers becoming malnourished.
Infant formula has strong image of being a modern way of feeding, thus becomes popular
and demanded by mothers.
Mothers work on land during the day, and even though infants are often carried with the
mother, she is often too busy to take time to breastfeed.
Nutritional status has improved since peace agreement signed, roads opened and health
services resumed (including significant NGO services (DRC).
Mothers value their business more than their infant, and even if the infant is with her, feeds
and care gets neglected.
Background conflict, insecurity and poor sanitation.
Grandmothers can provide useful support and care for infants <6m (other respondents
noted that grandmothers sometimes encouraged and perpetuated practices which
adversely influenced exclusive breastfeeding).
Infant feeding bottles/formula milks were available in the local market no mechanism for
monitoring & ensuring compliance with International Code.
220
Appendix D.5
Table contd
Subtheme
emerging
Interviewee position
(at the time of programme being described)Quotations/examples
Cultural practices Strong, deeply engrained traditions, encouraged especially by grandmothers, to introduce
(negative)
complementary feeds (e.g. porridges) at a few weeks of age.
Adverse care practices, including not feeding infants during illness there is a perception
that it is normal for one twin to be less well nourished than the other, so a disparity is
often not noticed or acted on.
Malnutrition is NOT linked to inadequate intake of food (milk in case of infants <6m) but to
breaking of cultural taboos (e.g. sex outside of marriage; sex too soon after childbirth;
being cursed by the evil eye). Thus is difficult to suggest a nutrition-based solution to the
problem.
A senior male relative needs to give consent for a woman to receive support or treatment
this can lead to delays in seeking care, and also can contribute to making it less
effective when give due to late presentation.
An ideal baby is seen as engaged and beginning to acquire adult-like characteristics
hence babies are often given tea, sugar and water, and exclusive breastfeeding is difficult
to promote.
Child illness is not recognised unless there are specific symptoms such as diarrhoea or
vomiting, thus malnutrition alone might not get picked up
Being subdued and quiet is seen as desirable characteristic of an infant and thus an
infant who is subdued due to underlying malnutrition might not be easily identified as
having a problem.
Often treated beforehand by traditional healers with herbs and other local medicines, e.g.
removal of infant teeth; feeding stopped during illness; as soon as mother pregnant again,
stops breastfeeding current infant; mothers encouraged to discard colostrum; mothers
confined to home for 40 days after delivery (though possible to go out for medical advice
if needed).
Mothers perceived that breastfeeding would make their breasts droop and become
unattractive and so breastfeeding is not popular.
Cultural practices - Cows milk often given at home to infants as a supplement, malnutrition seems rarer in
(positive)
these families (NB unknown if modified or unmodified milk likely unmodified).
Community support programmes by local healthcare workers have done much to
increase breastfeeding, so infant malnutrition not a problem here (refugee camp with
active infant feeding support programme).
Breastfeeding was common in the community, and most infants presenting for care were
anyway breastfeeding
Traditional healer, whilst often first attempting to treat infants with malnutrition ( and other
problems) do often refer for further care if their treatments are unsuccessful. Depending
on the individual healer, this may/may not result in delayed presentation.
221
Appendix D.6
Quotations / examples
Case finding in
the community
Community health workers often dont look for the problem of infant <6m malnutrition, so
wont see it even if there (NGO nutritionist).
Infants <6m not a priority group for most nutrition programmes often not the focus of
community screening either.
There was active case finding in the community by community health workers. They used
hanging scales and clinical judgement to idenfity at-risk infants <6m.
No strict guidelines available for identifying infants <6m its a matter of judgement.
Cases normally identified if clinically obvious.
Community health workers are aware of need to consider malnutrition in all under five
year old children, but definityions and criteria for infants <6m are not clear. Therefore rely
a lot on clinical judgement.
Community health workers (CHW) in one place visited noted infant <6m malnutrition not
a problem however, no data, only clinical impressions to back up that statement.
CHWs are already overburdened from other programmes looking for malnourished
infants would further increase existing pressures.
Majority of cases referred in from active screening in community (NGO programme, DRC).
Staff in health centres helped identify and refer vulnerable infants.
Maternity services referred LBW and other vulnerable infants.
Growth charts
Experiences variable, considered valauble but often not acted on, inaccurate measures
and birth weight often not measured or a later weight taken as a proxy for birth weight.
Often filled, but not so often acted on, since infant appears to have been failing to thrive
for some time before arriving at programme. Maybe not understood by community health
workers.
Despite many mothers having growth charts with previous weights, these are often
unreliable (e.g. different, uncalibrated scales; previously weighed with clothes or nappy on).
Growth monitoring is poor and cannot be relied on.
Birth weight often unavailable, so cannot interpret trends.
Birth weight is not always taken at birth, but as soon as possible, in 1st week of life.
Second weight is taken at ~ one month of life, when traditional birth attendant hands over
care to the community outreach team (or taken sooner if infant unwell). This system
seems to work OK (Kenyan refugee camp).
There is mismatch between growth monitoring, which generally looks at weight-for-age,
and TFP/SFP admission which relies on weight-for-height indices.
Growth monitoring does seem to work well and infants are referred to feeding
programmes having been identified through growth monitoring programmes (DRC).
Assessment
logisitics and
practicalities
There were no clear official criteria, so staff had to make their own decisions (response of
staff member working for NGO which did note infants <6m in some of its guidelines,
though maybe not in the version used in this particular country/programme).
Admission is done by nurses in many programmes.
Used to admit infants for assessment (to see if growing fine these were given vit A, folic
acid but only abs if lethargic/any risk signs assessment infants had less strict discharge
criteria.
In absence of other guidelines, infants are assessed using same criteria as older children,
using weight-for-height. Normally not a problem unless height is out of range of chart.
Then go on clinical appearance and history.
Maternal problems (e.g. mastitis) are often assessed at programme admission.
To avoid prolonged admissions for all infants, most are admitted for one to two days
observation to assess directly how breastfeeding is going and avoid having to make a
decision on supplementary feeds based on maternal reports of milk insufficiency only.
Maternal report of difficulty breastfeeding alone is taken as valid reason for admission to
programme. It does not need to be backed up by objective evidence of this fact
(assessment is difficult).
Limited time is available for assessment.
222
Appendix D.6
Table contd
Subtheme
Quotations / examples
Anthropometry,
measuring
Reasons for
presentation to
feeding
programme
Most infants present sick / because of other clinical problems and the malnutrition
identified during clinical assessment - Tanzania, MoH hospital, Kenya MoH, Malawi MoH
hospital, Swaziland MoH hospital
Weight loss combined with adverse clinical picture.
Wanting food (from NGO).
Referred in by community health workers (including from growth monitoring programmes
DRC).
Carers had heard that feeds were available for young infants and came to see if their child
might be eligible (so infants were often NOT sick at presentation) NGO programme.
Often presented at few days/weeks of age with feeding problems had heard of service
and wanted food (NGO programme).
Present with breastfeeding difficulties.
Infant identified in the community on clinical grounds is referred to nutrition centre for
more detailed assessment.
Infants often not admitted unless special cases, since programme focus is on 6 to 59.9m
age group
Can be difficult to distinguish which mothers really have breastmilk insufficiency, and
which are saying so in the hope of getting formula milk or other treatments.
Ward layout /
assessment
environment
Malnutrition unit often next to paeds ward / a side bay of the main paediatric ward.
No set area for observation / assessment.
Assessment area was part of main ward. Infants admitted for assessment were thus also
at risk of nosocomial infection. Deciding whether to admit for assessment was hence very
difficult.
223
Appendix D.7
Quotations / examples
Carer
expectations
Expect food for the infant (but not specific about what food).
Expect infant formula (they heard it was available from the programme).
Expect some form of medication and often unhappy if given nothing except advice.
Cannot say what carers expect, never asked.
Dont expect, and dont like the idea of, a long admission (beyond five to ten days is
unpopular).
Guidelines
Staff time
Time to support BF is a luxury for staff and often not possible (MoH, Tanzania).
Not an issue in our NGO programme, but was an issue with other NGOs who had less /
less experienced staff.
About one member of staff per ten babies worked OK to support the needs and extra
inputs required for infants admitted to programme (one per five to six infants would have
been better).
one carer for five to six mothers worked well.
Field staff often complained of not enough time to look after infants properly / follow
current protocols well.
Staff supervision Staff supervision is lacking but nobody trusts anybody to do a job, so work ineffecitive
(MoH, Tanzania)
Having staff whose sole job it was to monitor feeds (phase supervisors) worked well
(NGO, DRC)
There was a problem of excess deaths at night, possibly due to staff sleeping/being less
proactive at patient management and letting issues like rehydration after diarrhoea slip.
Medical
Giving drugs to small infants is difficult, often no liquid medications (have to divide tables
or capsules).
Can be challenging to adapt drug does to very small infants.
Drug doses seem to be very variable some are consistently under-dosed (e.g.
ceftriaxone), others frequently overdosed.
Choice of antibiotics uncertain for this age group.
No specific challenges most treatment fairly straightforward.
Sometimes there was lack of specific pieces of equipment such as i.v. lines in the few
cases where oral rehydration had failed or resuscitation needed.
Guidelines on which micronutrients to give were not clear.
Maternal issues
Carers sometimes try to make the infant swallow by cupping milk into mouth and blocking
nose.
Culturally difficult for mums to use Kangaroo care since were used to leaving infants by
themselves for periods.
Mums often slept with infants to help keep them warm / encourage breastfeeding where
possible.
Mothers were encouraged to drink at least 2l fluids per day whilst on ward to help with
hydration and milk supply.
Providing supplementary rations to lactating mothers was popular and well received by
patients.
Psychosocial support would have been ideal for women who were in shock (report from
programme based in conflict situation).
Psychological support was provided through role play and group work (conflict situation,
NGO programme).
Specialist staff led a programme of psychosocial support, but all staff were involved.
Same NGO ran a strong mental health programme which helped assess and care for
mothers.
224
Appendix D.7
Table contd
If child too weak to suck, initially used syringe later replaced with cup on advice of visiting expert.
Successfully used supplementary sucking (SS) no difficulties at all. Read about technique in
book, never used before. WHY: success-culturally acceptable (though wet nursing was not the
norm) nurses motivated, had time (healthcare assistants, two per 30 patients; one doctor; one
nurse, one medical officer)
All tried breastfeed first, then top-up with supplementary sucking (SS)/breastmilk substitute (BMS).
Supplementary suckling was not successful but only tried once and that mother was reluctant.
SS sounds good, but too time intensive, difficult and results in milk spillage, much mess.
SS supervision would be a problem, since staff numbers are so low that even existing tasks often
are difficult to do.
SS worked very well, successful in most cases, (but needed time & support) (DRC, NGO
programme; NGO programme, Niger; Tanzania Govnt Hospital)
There were difficulties with implementing the supplementary suckling technique.
Tables in the malnutrition manual were difficult to follow.
SS works reasonably well (~60% success rate in re-establishing full EBF). It is managed by a
in-charge nutritionist.
Achieving weight gain criteria which are part of SS guidelines took long time to achieve.
SS is NOT practical or feasible (often not done despite said that done).
Tried SS and found it did not work; too complex, too much staff time. May be possible in different
context.
Worked extremely well, though not always easy initially. Large part of success was down to a well
motivate and highly skilled midwife who led and supervised the SS programme.
Still not sure about best feeding method cup, spoon, syringe?
One mother had stopped breastfeeding and started infant formula, initially saying the child was
refusing breastfeeds. The baby then developed diarrhoea and had to be admitted to feeding
centre for support. During this time, relactation was successfully started.
It is very difficult to get the balance between adequate, formal supply of infant formula for orphans
and those who cannot breastfeed (with risk of increasing demand for the formula/leakage to
those who could breastfeed) vs. minimizing the availability of formula, but thereby also risking
inadequate supplies for those who do need it.
Sometimes confusing about which milk to use: infant formula, F75 F100 diluted?
Type of
milk used Used diluted F100 worked well.
for
When nurses busy, sometimes used to delegate making up F75 and F100 to mothers this was
therapy
not always supervised and maybe not always done well.
Good to have option to use local foodstuffs (MoH Tanzania infant formula too expensive,
supplies limited).
Occasionally F75 used, occasionally adapted cows milk.
Cost infant formula very high not realistic to start in programme since difficult to maintain longer term.
Leakage of infant formula milk is a huge problem whenever give to targeted population, ends
up in wider use among others in the community.
No problems with treatment whilst on ward (use dilute F100). Problem arises when infant who is
unable to breastfeed (e.g. orphan) goes home. Family cannot afford to buy infant formula;
programme provides only small quantities to small numbers of patients.
One challenge is to provide milk and safe water to those carers who are using infant formula.
Although officially discouraged, sometimes do give mothers a supply of F100 to take home. This
is because breastfeeding is not possible, and infant formula or other milk is not available.
For those who could not breastfeed, a one month supply of infant formula was given on discharge
(these were very small numbers).
Modified animal milks worked well, and were cheap and acceptable.
Physical
space on
ward
Was a problem having the assessment unit as a bay on main paeds ward big danger of cross
infection and dilemma about whether or not to admit. No space available for assessment of
borderline cases.
Having a separate area of the ward for lactating mothers worked well
Separate building away from the main feeding centre worked well
Length of
stay
Average ten days - Mothers often want to, or do, leave if try to keep for much longer.
Infants are kept in until starting to gain weight.
Stayed as inpatients until breastfeeding well and two repeated measures were >70% median (for
SAM) or >80% of median (for MAM).
Follow-up Community health workers follow up discharged infants in the community (stable emergency,
Kenya). Reinforce health education messages
Long term care of orphans difficult go home on infant formula, but have to buy themselves. No
specific follow-up of how successful this is.
225
Appendix D.8
Quotations / examples
Links to other
clinical services
Infants and children often assessed initially in admissions or paediatric ward. Only
referred to nutrition ward if needed. This system worked well in most places described.
If still breastfeeding, referred to paediatric ward rather than managed in nutrition centre.
Community care
Difficult to know what to do / recommend for patients not sick enough to be admitted, but
who appear vulnerable no extra foods (e.g. supplementary feeding) that is easily
available as it is for older children. Mothers feel that no treatment is being given, do not
see advice only as treatment.
SFP
SFP does exist on paper and is recommended in national guidelines for pregnant and
lactating women, but is not active in practice.
Non-admissions
Unsolicited/
poorly
coordinated
donations
A batch of RUTF arrived one day, which nobody seemed to know anything about.
Treating infants
<6m as if they
were >6m
Some respondees were clear that programmes never gave RUTF to infants <6m.
Others occasionally started infants approaching 6m on RUTF if breastfeeding was not
available as an option.
In our NGO programme, infant <6m always treated according to infant <6m guidelines,
but this was not the case for many other NGOs in area.
Sometimes do give RUTF to infant aged > five months only if no other alternative, and no
breastfeeding is possible.
RUTF is used for HIV positive infants from four months of age.
Reporting
issues,
databases &
audit
226
Appendix D.9
Quotations / examples
Formal training
There is very little focus on infants during nutrition related diplomas, degrees (reported by
many respondents).
Infant feeding is a bit of a Cinderella subject in university nutrition courses, not a major
priority within nutrition.
The majority of experience / expertise on infant <6m malnutrition is developed through
field experience, and very little during training prior to going out.
In-hospital training course on WHO guidelines had significant impact on improving
practice.
Refresher training during CMAM rollout was useful and mentioned infants <6m.
Most training is on-the-job rather than formal classroom training. Handovers help
familiarize new staff with key protocols.
Induction
Had brief handover from previous person who set up nutrition unit themselves not very
experienced, so not optimal handover.
NGO induction course focuses on management issues like financial systems, reporting
etc very little focus on patient management of conditions which were new to us (doctor
trained in developing country, going out to emergency setting and treating SAM for the
first time).
There are pre-deployment training courses run by the NGO, but it is not always possible
for staff to attend since they may be required to go to emergency situations at very short
notice.
Field visit by
supervisior or
other expert
Several instances were desribed where a on-site visiting expert has big role in changing
practice.
- e.g. syringe feed to spoon feed to promote more oro-motor skills
- e.g. better phase transition
- very limited experience, helped focus on the issue after visit of consultant who was
assessing the programme.
- visit from an international expert on malnutrition management made a big practical
difference to daily patient care and also helped motivate.
On-job vs
workshop
training
Critical thinking
skills, reflective
learning
Staff need to develop more critical thinking/refletive learning skills, often just ignore rather
than work around challenges.
Useful materials
Most useful materials are those which have been locally adapted (e.g. wall posters in local
language).
WHO 1999 manual.
WHO pocketbook of paeds care (has useful pages on breastfeeding).
Agency protocols were useful (section dedicated to infants <6m).
National guideline followed (by international NGO).
NB No interviewee who was not involved in IYCF policy making (i.e. all the field-based
respondents) had seen or was aware of IFE Module 2 probably the most detailed
manual focused on management of infants <6m available to date.
Not useful
materials
Leaflets often just put up on wall may not be used or appreciated if just gave out, plus
would quickly run out.
Information on infant feeding is limited in current guidelines for managing acute
malnutrition.
227
Appendix D.10
Quotations / examples
Identification
More nutrition suveys need to include infants <6m: this would help both trigger and plan
specific responses.
Need better tools for assessing nutritional status (ideally not needing WH, WA) e.g.
MUAC.
Obvious (and therefore advanced) cases of infant <6m SAM do mostly get picked up, but
would be good to have tools to be more proactive and better identify earlier / less severe
cases.
Need clearer anthropometric guidelines (e.g. what to do about the 65cm rule; how to
measure length in infants <6m) and need to eliminate confusion over weight-for-age
growth monitoring and WH feeding programme admission.
Criteria need to be clearer than at present but also flexible enough to allow for clinical
judgement and occasional case-by-case decisions for particular individuals.
Need better guidance on how to identify who is really malnourished and who has some
other underlying condition (e.g. cleft palate).
Need to link more with other community activities, notably growth monitoring, to ensure
timely and appropriate referrals for malnutrition treatment.
Link with post-natal services (e.g. routine six week post-natal check) would allow infants
with problems to be identified earlier than happens now.
Protocols
Management of
ward and staff
Strong management and supervision would make big difference often little space to take
initiative, becomes undermining.
Staff would have regular mid-term evaluations there was a risk of being fired if
performance were seriously concerning (well performing NGO unit, where supplementary
suckling went well).
Need to find better ways of motivating staff to perform well (NOT workshops, which
distract and take staff away from busy wards, leaving staff levels even lower than before).
Well motivated
staff
Everybody wanted to work for and was proud of being employed by NGO X things
seemed to change after another agency took over (?less staff; less pay).
Also need enough staff to make the project a success.
228
Appendix D.10
Table contd
Subtheme
Quotations / examples
Staff (gereral)
Community health workers responsible for indenitifying infants are overworked and
involved in many different projects.
CHW often prioritize work for which they get incentives and are rewarded for.
Supplementary suckling is time intensive and requires staff with special experience.
Greater staff numbers are needed on nutrition programmes if more infants are to be
admitted; would not be able to cope give n current resources.
Need to be more staff whose role is dedicated to infants <6m; present numbers are
inadequate to start adding extra roles.
Task shifting can be considered use of support workers and other non-specialist staff to
take on particular, closely defined roles and free up time for experienced clinical staff to
concentrate on supervision and overall programme leadership.
Community
support
HIV
Need better and earlier identification and treatment of HIV to prevent malnutrition
developing in the first place.
There is a need to clarify AFFAS criteria as lots of confustion at present.
There are few community support groups for HIV negative patients.
Many mothers have misconceptions about HIV, and stop breastfeeding before six months
despite counselling.
Standard counselling tools are needed to help convey correct messages, especially about
the risks/benefit balance of replacement feeding. Maybe this would also facilitate more
mother to mother communication, reinforcing key messages.
Set of SIMPLE
guidelines/
flow charts
Wall chart & simple flow charts helpful big manuals often not used so much for day-day work
Formulas
Would be important to have options for use when neither breastmilk or infant formula
milks available.
Need to ensure guidelines are locally owned and account for local circumstances often
seem imposed from outside without much understanding of setting and knowledge of
effect on other services.
Consider formulas using local foodstuffs, however supply of minerals for fortification would
be impossible. Infant formula itself is much too expensive for most families.
If formula is used, is big challenge to avoid leakage.
Links to other
service
Need to link better with other services, such as maternity despite having maternity
services in same hospital, current relationship is limited
There are too many new, vertical initiatives. Dont always link well and cause fragmented,
extra work. Need to be more integration and coordination of new initiatives such as MAMI.
Need more links to maternal health programmes tackling issues like low-birth-weight in
order to minimize the number of infants becoming malnourished.
Needs to be a continuum of care, joining up existing services.
Rather than separate mother/baby health patient held health records, baby information
should be recorded on the child health card; this would make birth weight and other early
history more easily accessible.
Need links with growth monitoring programmes (anthropometric indicators need to be
harmonized, since growth monitoring uses weight-for-age whereas feeding programmes
use weight-for-height).
Need closer links with health centres and other local care structures.
Overall
Maybe need to distinguish complicated SAM who need hospital care with uncomplicated
who do not.
Overall management and coordination of infant feeding issues need ownership by a lead
individual or agency. Else everybodys good intentions too easily drift into nobodys
responsibility and the job does not get done.
More advocacy is needed for infants <6m. Having major agencies involved would
strengthen calls for increased attention and increased resources.
Need to ensure that programmes have high coverage.
229
Appendix E
Objectives:
(1) mitigate immediate outcomes,
(2) support livelihoods, and
(3) address underlying causes
1A
Generally
Food
Secure
1B
Generally
Food
Secure
Dietary Diversity
Water Access/Avail.
Hazards
Civil Security
Livelihood
Moderately/
Borderline
Food
Insecure
Acute Food
and
Livelihood
Crisis
230
Appendix E
Table contd
Humanitarian
Emergency
Acute Malnutrition
Disease
Food Access/Availability
Dietary Diversity
Water Access/Avail.
Destitution/Displacement
Civil Security
Coping
Livelihood Assets
Structural
5
Famine /
Humanitarian
Catastrophe
231
232
Crosssectional
BakerHenningham and
al, 2003
2 and 18 months
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Cohort studies
No
De Miranda and
al, 1996
No
No
Nutrition
measurement when
Cohort child under 6 months
Types of research
Cross-sectional studies
Authors
Weight
Weight
for height for age
x
(common
mental
disorder)
x
(psychiatric
morbidity)
General
distress
Major
Height
Weight
Prenatal
Postnatal
for age and length depression depression depression
Types of malnutrition
Appendix F
Author(s)
and Date
Underweight :
66%
Cases: history of
WAZ <-2 and
current WAZ<-1,5
Controls: WAZ>-1,
no history of
malnutrition
[NCHS references]
210 : 139
undernourished
children and 71
adequately
nourished
children
Cases :
18,5 (5,0)
Controls :
19,4 (4,8)
Mother's mental
Rahman and Case
health and infant
al, 2003
-control
growth: a case-control
from Rawalpindi,
Pakistan
CaseJamaica
Mothers of
Bakerundernourished
Henningham control
Jamaican children have and al, 2003 [matched]
poorer psychosocial
functioning and this is
associated with
stimulation provided in
the home
Underweight :
23%
Stunting: 16%
CES-D (modified)
Structured Clinical
Interview for DSM-III R
(SCID, patient edition) for
major depressive episode
(current and recalled
early postpartum)
Revised Bathia's Short
battery of performance
test (for adult IQ)
SRQ Cut-off: 7/8
Maternal mental
health measure
50% amongst
the cases: 65,3%
with grade I
malnutrition,
25% with grade
II malnutrition
and 9,7% with
grade III
malnutrition
Underweight :
45%
Stunting: 27%
% of sample
who were
cases
Underweight:
48%
Weight for age
<3rd centile
Controls: weight for
age>10th centile
1570
Harpham
Community Vietnam
and al, 2005 -based
survey
Underweight
Cases:
weight-for-age
50-80% of
expected
controls:
weight-for-age
>80% of expected
Infant Growth
outcome
measures
12 (range Underweight:
cases: WAZ<-2
6-18)
Stunting: cases:
HAZ<-2 1977
NCHS references
12 (range Underweight:
6-18)
cases: WAZ<-2
Stunting: cases:
HAZ<-2 1977
NCHS references
Cases :
10,5 (1,6)
Controls:
10,6 (1,5)
Infant
age in
months
[mean
(SD)]
1823
Community India
Harpham
and al, 2005 -based
survey
144
CaseIndia
control
(matched)
Study
design
Pakistan
Maternal mental
health and child
nutritional status in
four developing
countries
Maternal mental
health and child
nutritional status in
four developing
countries
ASIA
Survey
3,9 (1,9-7,8)
Underweight: 1,5
(1,2-1,9)
stunting: 1,4 (1,11,7)
Underweight: 1,3
(1,1-1,7)
Stunting: 1,6 (1,31,9)
Current major
depression: 3,2
(1,1 -9,5)
Recalled
postpartum major
depression: 5 (1,024,0)
2,8 (1,2-6,8)
Underweight
1,4 (1,1-1,8)
Stunting: 1,3
(0,9-1,7)
Underweight:
1,1 (0,9-1,4)
Stunting: 1,4
(1,2-1,6)
Current major
depression:
3,1(0,9 -9,7)
Recalled
postpartum
major
depression: 7,4
(1,6-38,5)
Uncorrected
Association
association
corrected for
between infant cofounders
outcome and
maternal
depression
Overall 21%
Prevalence of
maternal mental
health problems
Appendix F
233
234
Community- Ethiopia
based
survey
Case-control Rural
malawi
AFRICA
Community- Peru
based
survey
501 infants
and mothers
1722
595 mothers of
children aged
6 to 24 months
randomly
selected from
9 low-income
communities
representing 4
geographic
areas
1949
139
Underweight: cases:
< 75% expected
weight- for-age
[according to the
Gomez criteria]
9,9
months
Lentgh-for-age
Weight for age in Zscore
Prevalence of weight
for height too low
(0.9% n = 5) short
stature and underweight defined as less
than -2 standard
deviations of the WHO
reference height -forage and
weight-for-age z
scores respectively
Cases :
10,9 (6,9)
Controls :
8,4 (4,8)
Author(s) Study
and Date design
Mental health of
the mothers of
malnourished
children
AMERICAS
Survey
56% of
mothers
scored as high
depressive
symptoms
range (16)
49% fell into
low maternal
self efficacy
Overall 30%
Short
stature:
25% of
the
sample
and 4%
underweight
57%
% of
Maternal mental
sample health measure
who
were
cases
Association
confirmed for
the length for
age
Underweight:
1,1 (0,9-1,4)
Stunting: 0,9
(0,7-1,2)
Relationship
between
maternal
depressive
symptoms and
child short
starure persisted
after controling
of sociodemographic
indicators.
Underweight:
0,8 (0,6-1,2)
Stunting: 1,1
(0,9-1,4)
Association
corrected for
cofounders
Appendix F
Table 46 contd
Appendix F
Study design
Country
Nigeria
India
Country setting
171
Timing of
recruitment
Infant Growth
outcome
measures
Infant age at
follow(up (in
months)
Maternal mental
health measure
EPDS
Cut-off 11/12
Prevalence of
maternal mental
health problems
22% (n=37)
Uncorrected
association
between infant
outcome and
maternal
depression
Association
corrected for
cofounders
235
Appendix F
Table 47 contd
236
Survey
Post-partum depression
and infant growth in a
south african peri-urban
settlement
Study design
Longitudinal case-control
(matched)
Country
South Africa
Country setting
Peri-urban community-based
Timing of
recruitment
2 months postpartum
Infant Growth
outcome
measures
Underweight: WAZ<-2
stunting: HAZ<-2
NCHS references
Infant age at
follow(up (in
months)
2,6, and 12
Due to the small number of children stunted and
underweight at 2 months, this timing has not been
considered in the multiple statistical analysis.
2 and 18
Maternal mental
health measure
Prevalence of
maternal mental
health problems
Uncorrected
association
between infant
outcome and
maternal
depression
Association
corrected for
cofounders