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Meeting the challenges of global rice production

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DOI: 10.1007/s10333-005-0031-5

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Paddy Water Environ (2006) 4: 1–9
DOI 10.1007/s10333-005-0031-5

EDITORIAL

Nguu Van Nguyen · Aldo Ferrero

Meeting the challenges of global rice production

Received: 22 August 2005 / Published online: 9 February 2006

C Springer-Verlag 2005

Nguu Van Nguyen Aldo Ferrero

About the Author. Nguu Van Nguyen earned his PhD in Agron- About the Author. Aldo Ferrero is at present Professor of
omy in 1976 from the University of the Philippines at Los “Weed Science”, “Agronomy” and “Crop Science” and head of
Banos (UPLB). He has been serving for 2 years as Post- the “Department of Agronomy, Forest and Land Management,
Doctoral Fellow, at the International Rice Research Institute University of Turin (Italy). He is coordinator of the rice FAO
and for other two as Assistant Professor at UPLB Univer- network “Medrice”, for Europe, Mediterranean, and Middle
sity. He has been working from 1980 to 1993 as agronomist East countries. He possesses a wide experience in the field of
at IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture) and the weed eco-biology and weed control in rice systems. He
at Philippine Rice Research Institute. In 1991, he began his has been co-ordinator of European research projects funded
professional career at FAO, initially as rice agronomist, in by the European Union. He currently co-ordinates the project
West Africa, then as agricultural officer at Crop and Grass- “EU-India Rice districts network promotion through agro-
land Service. Since 2004 he is serving as Executive Secretary, economical, cross cultural, and technical actions” (RICE-
International Rice Commission. NET) aimed at studying agro-economical, cultural, and his-
torical traits of the rice cultivation in the European and Indian
rice districts, in order to improve socio-economical relation-
ships between the two geographical areas. He is referee and
N. Van Nguyen member of the editorial board of several international journals.
Crop and Grassland Service, FAO, Viale delle Terme di
Caracalla, 00100 Roma,
Italy Abstract Rice is the second most widely grown cereal
crop and the staple food for more than half the world’s
A. Ferrero (
) population. More than 3 billion people consume more than
Dipartimento di Agronomia, Selvicoltura e Gestione del 100 kg of rice per year. Rice is cultivated on 155.5 million
Territorio Università di Torino,
via Leonardo da Vinci, ha with an average growth rate of 0.39% a year, in the last
44 10095 Grugliasco, Italy 30 years. In the near future, the possibility for expanding
e-mail: [email protected] areas under rice-based systems will remain very limited
because of the scarcity of global water resources for agri-
2

culture, the expansion of urban and industrial sectors in ogy transfer, which promise to enhance the productivity
Asia where land is already limited and the high costs of and efficiency of rice-based systems to safeguard food se-
developing new lands that are suited for rice production curity and reduce rural poverty. The implementation of
in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. The average the International Year of Rice provides an opportunity for
growth rate of rice yield was 3.68% per year in the early all concerned stakeholders to meet the challenges of rice
1980s, but it has decreased to 0.74% per year in the late production.
1990s. Several factors may contribute to the decline of the
area under cultivation and in yield growth. The most impor-
tant of these factors are: limited returns as we approach the Major challenges of rice production
yield potential of the high yielding varieties, declining pro-
ductivity in intensive rice production systems, pressures Global rice production, so far, has been able to meet
from abiotic and biotic stresses, low returns in develop- population demands. However, its ability to continue
ing countries, increasing production costs in industrialized this performance is in question unless appropriate ac-
countries, and increasing public concern for the protec- tion is taken in the near future. In the immediate fu-
tion of environmental resources. One of the most effective ture, the main challenges for rice production include in-
means of addressing the issues in rice cultivation and rais- creasing demand for rice from population growth, the
ing the average yields at the farm level is through research limited possibility for expanding harvested area, de-
and subsequent dissemination of the resulting data. Rice clining rice yield growth, and low returns from rice
science has made considerable progress. In the area of rice production.
varietal improvement, recent advances in hybrid rice and
the new rice for Africa (NERICA) are just two examples of
The increasing demand for rice
the successful contributions of science to the development
of rice. Research could also help reduce the gap between the
In 2001, the world’s population consumed more rice than
potential yield obtained on experimental stations and the
wheat and/or maize, the other two major cereals. In the
actual yield obtained in the fields. This could be possible
same year, more than 3.1 billion people consumed 100 kg
by developing and promoting rice integrated crop manage-
of rice or more (Table 1). Worldwide, rice provides 27%
ment (RICM) systems for improving productivity and re-
of dietary energy supply and 20% of dietary protein. Rice
ducing the production cost per unit of output. The need for
production nearly doubled during the period from 1970
a sustainable increase in rice production affects everyone.
(316 M tonnes) to 2001 (592.8 M tonnes). The average
The International Year of Rice provide us with a chance to
growth rate of rice production during this period was 2.29%
improve food security, alleviate poverty and preserve the
per year (Table 2). However, since 2000, the world’s rice
environment for the billions of people for whom Rice is Life.
growth rate has declined and it has been less than the world
Keywords Rice yield . Rice constraints . Hybrid rice . rice consumption (Fig. 1). Against this background, the
Ricecheck system . Med-rice world’s population was projected to increase from 6.13
billion in 2001 to 8.27 billion in 2030. Rice demand is
projected to increase from 571.9 M tonnes in 2001 to
Introduction 771.1 M tonnes in 2030. The food security of the grow-

In December 2002, the General Assembly of the United Table 1 Maize, rice and wheat: production, consumption as food
Nations declared 2004 the International Year of Rice. The and number of people with more than 100 kg supply in 2001
dedication of an International Year after a single crop is Maize Rice, paddy Wheat
unprecedented in the history of the United Nations. It re- Food (Mt) 112,573,807 517,969,638 419,090,760
flects the fact that rice is not only the primary food source Population with >100 kg 185,895 3,143,875 991,557
for over 3 billion people, but also a focus within complex supply/Cap/(1000)
rice-based production ecosystems that influences issues of
global concern, such as food security, poverty alleviation, Source of data: FAOSTAT
preservation of cultural heritage, and sustainable develop-
ment. The declaration of the International Year of Rice Table 2 Population and rice production, harvested area, and yield
was also a recognition of the serious constraints that the during 1970–2001
rice-based systems are facing today and the need for con- Growth rate
certed efforts to overcome them. The world’s population 1970 2001 (%/year)
is still growing, many rice farmers and their families are Population 3.69 billion 6.13 billion 1.66
still living in poverty and there are still about 800 million Rice production 316.3 M tonnes 592.8 M tonnes 2.29
people in the world today who are suffering from malnu- Rice harvested 133 Million ha 155.5 Million ha 0.39
trition, while rice growth rates are declining in yield, soil area
fertility depletion, negative environmental effects, falling Rice yield 2,377 kg/ha 3,912 kg/ha 1.90
rice prices, and increased production costs. Fortunately,
there are emerging innovations in the field of technol- Source of data: FAOSTAT
 3

Fig. 1 World’s rice production Milled rice production and consumption, 1993-2004
and consumption, 1993 to 2003 430.0
(Source of data: Calpe,
420.0
personnal communication)
410.0

400.0

Million tons of milled rice

390.0

380.0 Production

370.0 Consumption

360.0

350.0

340.0

330.0

320.0
1993- 1994- 1995- 1996- 1997- 1998- 1999- 2000- 2001- 2002- 2003-
94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04

ing population in the next 30 years requires a reversion of 4

the decline in the growth of the production of rice that was 3.5
observed since 2000. 3

Growth rate (%/year)

2.5

The limited growth in rice harvested area 2

1.5
During the 1970–2001 period, the harvested rice area grew 1
only about 0.39% per year, which resulted in an increase
0.5
from 133 million ha in 1970 to 155.5 million ha in 2001
0
(Table 2). This increase in harvested area was mainly due to
19 8 1 - 8 5 1986-90 1991-95 1996-2000
an increase in cropping intensification. In tropical climate
areas with favorable temperature regimes, two or more rice Fig. 2 Average growth rate of rice yield, 1980–2000 (Source of
data: FAOSTAT)
crops can be grown on the same land in a year. Rice-rice and
rice-other crop-rice systems are very popular with farmers
in Bangladesh, southern China, southern India, Indonesia, • The promotion of crop diversification of the mono-
Myanmar, Philippines, and Vietnam. A rice-rice system intensive rice production systems by rice farmers for
is also widely practiced in many irrigated lands in sub- higher incomes.
Saharan Africa.
In the near future, the possibility for expanding the area
under rice-based systems will remain very limited as the The declining yield growth
competition for land in major rice producing countries in
Asia has been very intensive due to the expansion of ur- The average growth rate of rice yield during the last 3
ban and industrial sectors. In a number of countries in decades was 1.9% per year, which is about five times the
Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America, there are still con- growth rate of the harvested area (Table 2). Therefore, much
siderable land areas that are suited for rice production. The of the past increase was due to yield growth. However, a
high cost of developing this land, however, is the major close examination of the growth rate in rice yield shows
constraint. that yield growth rate has declined rapidly since the early
The expansion of total rice harvested area through rice- 1980s. The average growth rate of rice yield was 3.68% per
cropping intensification may also be limited in the future year in 1981–85, 2.28% per year in 1986–90, 0.91% per
due to, at least, the following factors: year in 1991–95, and only 0.74% per year in 1996–2000
(Fig. 2).
• The scarcity of water resources due to competition from Several factors may have contributed to the rapid decline
urban and industrial sectors, especially in Asia. In- in yield growth since the early 1980s; among them the
adequate water supply in Spain, Portugal, Egypt and following factors are important:
Australia. In fact, the Egyptian government has a plan to
limit the area under rice production due to limited water
supply. Closing in on the yielding potential of high yielding
• A reduction in investments on the development of ir- varieties
rigation infrastructures. For example, there has been a
decline of about 60% in investments in irrigation in Asia Several hundred high yielding varieties have been released
since the 1960s. for cultivation by international and national agricultural
4

research institutions since the introduction of IR8 in 1966. by the fungus Pyricularia oryzae, and bacterial blight
However, the yield per season has never been better than caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae are the two
IR8, although yield per day may be increased with the of the most serious and widespread diseases in rice
development of early maturing varieties. production.
• Heavy weed competition may lead to total crop failure.
Declining productivity in intensive rice production Barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli) is the dominant
systems weed in lowland rice production. With the increased
adoption of direct seeding methods, weedy rice (Oryza
Reports emerged in the early 1980s showed a yield de- sp.) has become another major weed in rice production
cline in the intensively cultivated rice plots within research (Català 1995; Pulver and Nguyen 1999; Ferrero
stations in the Philippines. Subsequent studies in several 2003).
other countries also reported yield declines. More recent
analyses support the earlier reports of declining yields from
The low return from rice production
research trials but could not ascertain the extent of the de-
cline in other areas of Asia, due to year to year variation in
Rice production activities provide main employment and
yields. There are other observations indicating that continu-
income to a majority of people in rural areas in develop-
ous cultivation of irrigated rice, where the soil is maintained
ing countries. For example, on the average, rice production
in anaerobic conditions for prolonged periods, does result
activities employ 243 person-days/ha in Bangladesh, 195
in disorders that limit yield (Pulver and Nguyen 1999).
person-days/ha in India, 156 person-days/ha in Indonesia
and 60–80 person-days/ha in the more mechanized pro-
Pressures from abiotic stresses such as salinity, duction systems of the Philippines and Thailand (Pingali
low temperature, and drought et al. 1997). Initially, the increase in rice yield raised the
return from rice production and incomes of farmers. How-
• Increased salinity resulting from long-term rice produc- ever, since 1995 international rice prices have declined
tion in irrigated areas worldwide was reported by Pingali markedly (Calpe 2003), while prices of production in-
and Rosegrant (1996) and in Australia by McDonald puts such as fertilizers, other agro-chemicals, labor, fuel,
(1994). Low rice yields due to salinity have also been and rice machinery and equipment either increased or at
reported in southern Spain (Aguilar et al. 1997). In the best remained unchanged. These factors have led to an
delta of the Kuban River in Krasnodar (Russia Federa- increase in production costs and subsequently a sharp re-
tion), there are about 110,000 ha of saline soils and many duction in the return from rice production. This has been
of them have been grown with rice (Zelensky, personal one of the major causes of poverty and hardship for many
communication). small farmers in developing countries. The low return-
• Rice production in temperate and subtropical climate poverty cycle, in the long run, may affect the capacity
zones is limited by low temperature. Rice yields in of farmers to invest in production inputs, which would
Aomori Prefecture in Japan in 1980 dropped to about eventually lead to lower yield in a number of developing
3 tonnes/ha from 6 tonnes/ha due to cool summer damage countries.
(Kushibuchi 1997). In 1993, the average night temper- In industrialized countries the increase in production
ature went down to 11◦ C in summer, causing a high rate costs for rice-based farming activities has decreased
of grain sterility in northern Italy, Japan and Korea (Tran competitiveness. The production costs in Europe, USA,
1994). Low temperature during reproductive stage was Brazil and Japan are very high (Sanint and Zeigler
also reported to be a major constraint to rice production 1994; Chataigner and Salmon 1996; Romero 1996).
in California, USA (McKenzie et al. 1994), Australia Traditionally, rice production in industrialized countries is
(McDonald 1994), Southern Brazil (Terres et al. 1994). highly subsidized. However, under the pressures from the
• Yield of rice planted under rainfed conditions and in World Trade Organization, the subsidies in rice production
some cases under irrigated conditions is limited by may be substantially reduced. Therefore, rice production
drought stress due to variation in rainfall and its dis- in industrialized countries could rapidly decline unless
tribution. significant progress is made in technology which could
greatly reduce the production costs. For example, both
Pressures from biotic stresses rice production and harvested area in Japan have steadily
declined since 1985, although rice is an important food
Full yield potential of modern rice varieties is not real- crop of the population (Fig. 3).
ized because of the toll taken by the attack of diseases
and insects, while weed limits rice through competition for Other socio-economic factors
sunlight, water, and nutrients.
• It is estimated that diseases and insects cause yield losses Some socio-economic aspects may have an important im-
of up to 25% annually. Stem borers are most destruc- pact on rice development; most of them are related to rice
tive and common rice insects, while rice blast caused quality traits and health and environmental concerns.
 5

Fig. 3 Rice harvested area and 3,500,000 18,000,000

production in Japan, 1970–2003
3,000,000 16,000,000
(Source of data: FAOSTAT)

Harvested Area (ha)

14,000,000

Production (tons)
2,500,000
12,000,000
2,000,000 10,000,000
1,500,000 8,000,000
6,000,000
1,000,000
4,000,000
500,000 2,000,000
0 0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003

Harvested Area (ha) Production (tons)

Quality traits Technical options for meeting the challenges

Taste, texture, color, and stickiness of rice varieties all in- Science provides the basis for improving the productivity
fluence consumer preferences. Consumers in South Asia and efficiency of rice-based systems. During past decades
and the Middle East prefer dry flaky rice, while in Japan, increasing demand for rice has been met mainly through
Taiwan, Korea, Egypt, and north China moist, sticky rice is yield-enhancing measures of the “Green Revolution” in
preferred; in parts of southern India, red rice is preferred. the 1970s, which introduced improved rice varieties and
Fragrant rices, such as Basmati are highly prized during production technologies. Hybrid rice and the New Rice for
festivals and special occasions (Kennedy et al. 2003). In Africa (NERICA) are two additional important advances in
the recent past the tendency to prefer long grain, soft and the field of rice varietal development for achieving higher
aromatic rice has become more prevalent among rice con- or more stable productivity in different ecological zones.
sumers around the globe. The demand for long grain or The successful mapping of the rice genome in 2002 has
“indica” type has gradually increased in Europe (Ferrero further increased the potential contribution of rice science
and Nguyen 2004). Yield of high quality rice varieties, es- to sustainable increase in rice production.
pecially the aromatic ones, however, is generally still low. Most existing high-yielding and hybrid varieties have
a potential yield that exceeds actual yield obtained by
Health and environmental concerns farmers. The gap between the potential yield and the actual
yield was due to the deficiencies in crop management.
The spread of malaria, due to mosquitoes, was a ma- There are fortunately a number of improved crop man-
jor reason causing the restriction in rice production in agement techniques that are ready for wide introduction
the past in some European countries, but the growth of for enhancing the productivity of rice-based systems in a
mosquitoes is even now an important concern of popula- sustainable manner. In addition, rice integrated crop man-
tions all over the world. Concerns on negative effects of agement (RICM) systems have recently been developed
rice production on the environment have been remarkably for efficient transfer of the crop management technologies.
increasing especially over the last years. Most of these is-
sues are related to the emission of methane gases which
Hybrid rice for irrigated rice production
cause global warming and the harmful effects of pesti-
cide application to water, air, and bio-diversity of the rice-
The application of heterosis in rice production in China in
based production systems (Ferrero et al. 2001, 2002). These
1974 was a major step in raising the yield potential. The
new concerns may gradually lead to further restrictions in
first generation of hybrid rice varieties (mostly three-line
rice production in several rice cultivation areas. Integrated
hybrid) have a yielding advantage of 15–20% over high-
management systems, developed through agronomical re-
yielding varieties and its commercial production started in
search and supported by modelling of environmental ef-
1976. The two-line hybrid rice varieties, which have 5–10%
fect of input (mainly water and pesticides) utilization, will
higher yield than that of three-line hybrid rice varieties,
be in the short run a valuable solution to most of these
were successfully commercialized in 1995. Several super
constraints.
hybrids with a yield advantage of around 20% over current
Environmental resource protection is of increasing
three-line hybrids were recently developed. In recent years,
public concern and has been reflected in a growing number
hybrid rice covered as much as 50% or 15 million ha of the
of international agreements such as the Convention on
total rice area in China. The nationwide average yield of
Biological Diversity and the Framework Convention on
hybrid rice was 7 tonnes/ha, which is about 1.4 tonnes/ha
Climate Change.
higher than that of inbred varieties (Yuan 2004). The adop-
6

tion of hybrid rice in China has enabled a steady increase in ing rice yield, resistance to biotic and abiotic stress and con-
rice production allowing at the same time, to save several sumer quality. Following are the promising developments:
million hectares of rice land for crop diversification.
• C4 plants such as maize and sorghum are more produc-
The adoption of hybrid rice technology outside of China
tive as compared to C3 rice and wheat because C4 plants
has taken place since 1990 and in 2003 about 800,000 ha
are 30–35% more efficient in photosynthesis. Matsuoka
planted to hybrid rice in countries such as Vietnam, India,
el al. (2001) are trying to alter the photosynthesis of rice
Philippines, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Myanmar. The ar-
from C3 to C4 pathway by introducing cloned genes
eas under hybrid rice production in many Asian countries
from maize into rice. If successful, the yield potential of
outside of China, however, are only a small fraction of their
rice may increase by 30–35%.
irrigated rice areas, suggesting the potential for hybrid rice
• Bt genes have been introduced into rice for resistance
to increase rice yield and production in the next decade. The
to yellow stem borer, a widespread rice insect in Asia
wide adoption of hybrid rice, however, still needs technolo-
(Datta et al. 1997). Xu et al. (1996) reported transgenic
gies to increase the yield of F1 seed production, to lower
rice carrying cowpea trypsin inhibitor (Cpti) gene with
the prices of F1 seed. Improved crop management could in-
enhanced resistance against striped stem borer and pink
crease yield of F1 seed production, but the development of
stem borer.
CMS lines with stable sterility, higher outcrossing rates and
• Genes for resistance to blast and bacterial blight have
good grain quality will be the vital step for promoting wide
been transferred from O. minuta to improved rice
adoption of hybrid rice in the near future (Nguyen 2000).
germplasm (Brar and Khush 1997).
• ots A and ots B genes for trehalose biosynthesis from
NERICA rice for upland areas in west Africa Escherichia coli were introduced into rice and transgenic
rice lines had increased tolerance for abiotic stresses such
Upland rice yield is still generally low due to a number as drought and salinity (Garg et al. 2002).
of reasons. During the last decade, WARDA has devoted • Potrykus (2003) reported the successful development
efforts to develop new rice varieties for upland rice pro- of a genetically modified rice that contains more pro-
duction in West Africa by crossing O. sativa L. with O. vitamin A—commonly called “golden rice”—using
glaberrima Steud; they are called NERICA or new rice agrobacterium-mediated transformation techniques to
for Africa. Initial field tests showed that under low-input- transfer genes from the daffodil (Narcissus pseudonar-
management systems in the region, NERICA rice vari- cissus) and a bacterium (Erwina uredovora) to rice. Also,
eties produced higher yield than the currently used vari- the soybean ferritin gene was transferred into rice to in-
eties (WARDA 2000). In general, NERICA rice varieties crease the iron content (Goto et al. 1999).
have shorter growth durations than the existing varieties. • Reviewing the 307 rice biotechnology patents filed from
The shorter growth duration could help the rice crop to 404 organizations, Brookes and Barfoot (2003) reported
escape the adverse effect of drought stresses on yield. It that transgenic technologies under development in rice
also would facilitate the practice of diversified rice-based can be included into four categories: (1) herbicide toler-
cropping systems such as rice-leguminous crop, rice-cover ance (2) biotic stress resistance, (3) abiotic stress resis-
crop, and other similar systems in order to maintain soil tance, and (4) nutritional traits. According to them, thus
fertility and thus yield of upland rice (Nguyen 2003). far no commercial release of Transgenic or Genetically
Modified rice has occurred.
Other advances in rice breeding
Narrowing the yield gap in irrigated systems with rice
In order to increase the yield potential of rice further, a new integrated crop management systems
plant type (NPT) was conceptualized by scientists at the
International Rice Research Institute in 1988. Three NPT Irrigated rice is cultivated on about half of the total area
lines with 15–20% higher yield than the existing high- planted to rice, but it contributes to approximately 75%
yielding varieties have been released in China and one in of total rice production. The yielding potential of high-
Indonesia (Khush 2004). yielding and hybrid rice varieties released for irrigated rice
Crop gene pools are widened through hybridization of production in tropical climates (10 tonnes/ha or more) is
crop cultivars with wild species, weedy races as well as much higher than yields that were obtained by best farmers
intra-subspecific crosses in order to increase the yield po- (7 or 8 tonnes/ha), while on the average, yields of irrigated
tential of rice. Xiao et al. (1996) reported that some back- rice in many cases are still only 4 to 5 tonnes/ha. This shows
crosses, which resulted from a cross between an Oryza a large yield gap in irrigated rice production and the closing
rufipogon accession from Malaysia and cultivated rice, out of this gap could substantially increase rice production. In
yielded the recurrent parent by as much as 18%. September 2000, FAO organized the Expert Consultation
Rice is the first food crop for which the complete genome on the Yield Gap and Productivity Decline in Rice Produc-
sequence is available. This offers an unprecedented oppor- tion. During the Expert Consultation, a number of recently
tunity to identify, and functionally, characterize the genes developed rice integrated crop management (RICM) sys-
and biochemical pathways that are responsible for increas- tems were found promising for yield gap closing. They are:
 7

• The Australian RiceCheck system: From 1973 to 1985, should have 700–1100 shoots/m2 and a leaf nitrogen con-
rice yield in Australia stagnated at around 6 tonnes/ha. tent (NIR) of 1.2–2.2% N; whilst the Pelde, Doongara,
The RiceCheck system was developed and transferred Goolarah, YRF9, and YRL34 (rice varieties) should have
in 1986. Australian average yield increased rapidly 500–900 shoots/m2 and a NIR 1.2–2.0%.
and steadily to 9.65 tonnes/ha in 2000. Half of the
Another innovative aspect of the Ricecheck system is the
observed yield increase since 1986 can be attributed to
use of an Action Framework, which has the following step:
the adoption of new rice varieties and another half to the
adoption of RiceCheck system (Clampett et al. 2003). • To understand the purpose of crop management
• The Egyptian “Markbouk” system: It was developed • To manage the crop using the recommended actions.
and disseminated for rice production in 1985 (Balal • To observe the performance of the application of the rec-
1996) and has been modified considerably with time. ommended actions. This requires farmers to get “inside”
Rice yield in Egypt has steadily increased from the crop and inspect and observe.
about 5.5 tonnes/ha in 1985 to above 9 tonnes/ha in • Observations must be supported by a measure of what is
2002. actually occurring; observations must be objective.
• The “P-7” or package of technologies for 7 tonnes/ha • The measurements must be recorded.
of irrigated rice in Burkina Faso (Nguyen et al. 1994). • At the end of the season, crop performance and man-
From its initial test site in the Kou Valley in Burkina Faso, agement results can be compared with KeyChecks or
the P-7 was widely adopted by the Special Programme Expected Outputs (e.g. yield, quality, and environmen-
for Food Security in Burkina Faso and in Senegal. The tal outcomes) and interpreted. The successes (what went
adoption of the P-7 for irrigated rice has significantly according to plan) and the problems (what went wrong)
contributed to sustaining the productivity of rice produc- can be identified and judgements made about how to
tion systems in these two countries. In the Delta of the make improvements in the future.
Senegal River, not only yield increased, but also produc- • The farmer can learn from these experiences and take
tion costs decreased as a result of the spread of the P-7 action to correct management weaknesses in the future.
system through the Farmer Field School approach.
The FAO International Rice Commission, in collabora-
• The WARDA’s Rice-ICM system for irrigated rice in the
tion with research and extension programmes in member
Sahel zone of West Africa: It was developed and trans-
countries have conducted the modification and test of the
ferred since 1995. Results of trials conducted in the 1998
performance of the Australian’s RiceCheck system in rice
and 1999 seasons showed that the application of Rice-
production under the conditions in developing countries.
ICM system increased rice yield by 1.7 to 1.8 tonnes/ha.
Following are the initial results:
The economic analysis of the application of Rice-ICM
system showed that the net benefit of rice production • Indonesia: farmers achieving all of the (five) target
in Senegal also increased by 184 Euro/ha and that in “Check values” had a yield increase of 23% and a gross-
Mauritania by 241 Euro/ha, although the production margins increase of 165% compared to those farmers
costs with Rice-ICM system increased slightly. WARDA achieving none of the targets.
concluded that through the RICM system farmers were • Thailand: Thai RiceCheck system with 10 target checks
able to increase rice productivity, while maintaining or increased rice yield and reduced production cost. The
even enhancing the quality of the natural resource base test results from the application of the Thai RiceCheck
(Wopereis et al. 2001). system in 2002 and 2003 have led the governors of
10 rice-producing provinces in the country (Ayuthaya,
Among the above RICM systems, the RiceCheck is the
Suphanburi, Ratchaburi, Pathumtani, Chainat,
only system that provides, for each crop management area,
Chiengmai, Prachinburi, Nakhonratchasrima, Surin,
the following guidance: (1) the reason why the recommen-
Lopburi) to adopt the system.
dations should be followed, (2) the recommended actions or
• Vietnam: The application of the Vietnamese RiceCheck
management practices, and (3) the expected outputs of the
system helped farmers to save 50% of the seeds used
correct application of the recommended actions or manage-
in direct rice seeding crops in the Delta of the Mekong
ment practices. For example, for crop nutrition the system
River. The results also showed that the use of the Leaf
provides the following:
Colour Chart in the application of nitrogen fertilizer at
• Reason: Split Nitrogen Strategy – two steps which are the panicle initiation stage increased rice yield, while
important to high yields. reduced the application rate by 20%.
• Recommended Actions: Apply sufficient pre-flood ni- • Brazil and Venezuela: the application of the RiceCheck
trogen to achieve optimum growth at panicle initiation, system increased rice yield by about 30%.
apply phosphorus if a deficiency is indicated by paddock
and/or soil test, and topdress nitrogen at panicle initia-
tion based on shoot counts and NIR analysis using the Meeting the challenges of rice production through
Rice NIR Tissue Test. implementation of the international year of rice
• KeyCheck or Expected Outputs: At panicle initiation
the Amaroo, Bogan, Illabong, and Jarrah (rice varieties) FAO has always believed that rice is one of its major con-
cerns. The FAO International Rice Commission (IRC) was
8

established in 1949 to promote cooperative action in mat- rural diets and incomes. Rice is therefore on the frontline in
ters related to the production, conservation, distribution, the fight against world hunger and poverty. While the Green
and consumption of rice. The Secretariat of the IRC was Revolution of the 1970s greatly alleviated the global burden
established in the Crop and Grassland Service of AGP of hunger in some parts of the world, these benefits have
to assist in the promotion of cooperative action on rice been overcome by continuing growth in population. Today
within FAO and between FAO and external institutions there are still 840 million people suffering from chronic
and Member Countries. In order to promote harmoniza- hunger, over 50% of whom live in areas dependent on rice
tion of global action on rice development and production, production for food, income, and employment.
the IRC Secretariat has worked in partnership with na- Fortunately rice science has continued to advance
tional systems and external institutions through four ma- through improved rice varieties and crop management prac-
jor networks, which are: the Inter-Regional Collaborative tices to enhance the sustainability of rice-based systems.
Research Network on Rice in the Mediterranean Climate Harnessing the improved rice technologies for increasing
Areas (MED-RICE), the Wetland Development and Man- the productivity of rice is too large for any single country,
agement Network/Inland Valley Swamps (WEDEM/IVS) institution or organization. The International Year of Rice
in Sub-Saharan Africa, the International Task-Force for presents a unique opportunity for farmers, consumers, en-
Hybrid Rice (INTAFOHR), and the Working Group on Ad- vironmentalists, government ministries, international agen-
vance Rice Breeding in Latin America (GRUMEGA). The cies and stakeholders from civil society to work together
FAO International Rice Commission, IRRI and their mem- for a shared goal. The need for a sustainable increase in rice
ber countries started the initiative for establishing an IYR production affects everyone. The International Year of Rice
in 1999, which led to the declaration of the International provide us with a chance to improve food security, allevi-
Year of Rice by the United Nations General Assembly in ate poverty and preserve the environment for the billions
2002. of people for whom Rice is Life.
As requested by the UN General Assembly, FAO has
facilitated the implementation of the International Year of
Rice—2004 through a partnership under the guidance of References
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