Investigacion Agroindustrial

Agron. Sustain. Dev.
(2013) 33:671–693
DOI 10.1007/s13593-013-0147-8
REVIEW ARTICLE
Agrobiodiversity for food security, health and income

Rémi Kahane & Toby Hodgkin & Hannah Jaenicke &
Coosje Hoogendoorn & Michael Hermann &
J. D. H. (Dyno) Keatinge & Jacqueline d’Arros Hughes &
Stefano Padulosi & Norman Looney
Accepted: 22 March 2013 / Published online: 18 April 2013

# INRA and Springer-Verlag France 2013
Abstract By the year 2050, agriculture will have to provide challenges and where agriculture is practiced primarily by
the food and nutrition requirements of some 9 billion peo- small-scale farmers. Within this context, we here review
ple. Moreover, to maintain that level of productivity indef- science-based evidence arguing that diversification with
initely it must do so using environmentally sustainable greater use of highly valuable but presently under-
production systems. This task will be profoundly compli- valorised crops and species should be an essential element
cated by the effects of climate change, increasing compe- of any model for sustainable smallholder agriculture. The
tition for water resources and loss of productive lands. major points of these development opportunity crops are
Agricultural production methods will also need to recog- presented in four sections: agricultural farming systems,
nize and accommodate ongoing rural to urban migration health and nutrition, environmental sustainability and pros-
and address a host of economic, ecological and social perity of the populations. For each section, these crops and
concerns about the ‘high inputs/high outputs’ model of their associated indigenous knowledge are reported to
present-day industrial agriculture. At the same time, there bring benefits and services when integrated with food
is a need to confront the unacceptable levels of continuing systems. In this paper, we conclude that not only a change
food and nutrition insecurity, greatest in the emerging in policy is needed to influence behaviours and practices
economy countries of Africa and Asia where poverty, rapid but also strong leadership able to synergize the various
population growth and climate change present additional initiatives and implement an action plan.
Dedicated to the memory of Dr Lois Englberger, 1949–2011, a

champion of local foods for better nutrition
R. Kahane (*) C. Hoogendoorn
c/o FAO-AGPM, GlobalHort, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, INBAR–International Network for Bamboo and Rattan,
00153 Rome, Italy PO Box 100-102-86, Beijing, China
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Hermann
R. Kahane Crops for the Future, Serdang, Malaysia
J. D. H. (Dyno) Keatinge : J. d’Arros Hughes

UR Hortsys, CIRAD, 34398 Montpellier, France
e-mail: [email protected]
AVRDC–The World Vegetable Center, Shanhua,
Tainan, Taiwan
T. Hodgkin
Platform for Agrobiodiversity Research, c/o Bioversity S. Padulosi
International, via dei Tre Denari 472a, Bioversity International, via dei Tre Denari 472a,
00057 Maccarese, Italy 00057 Maccarese, Italy
H. Jaenicke N. Looney
Burghof 26, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food
53501 Grafschaft, Germany Canada, Summerland, BC V0H 1Z0, Canada
672 R. Kahane et al.
Keywords Environmental services . Family farming system . higher inputs. While these technologies increased yields of the
Neglected and underutilized species . Development key staple crops (rice, maize and wheat) needed to avoid
opportunity crops . Secondary crops widespread famines, the costs have included inappropriate
and excessive use of agrochemicals, wasteful use of water in
Contents inappropriate and often unsustainable irrigation schemes, loss
of beneficial biodiversity (pollinators, soil fauna, etc.) and
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 significantly reduced crop and varietal diversity.
2. Capitalizing on agrobiodiversity to improve The focus of agricultural improvement on achieving ca-
food security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 loric sufficiency has left many hundreds of millions of
3. Diet diversification to improve nutrition and health. .7 people still suffering from deficiencies in essential vitamins
4. Environmental services and resilience and micronutrients in their diet (FAO 2010a). The Food and
of farming systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has
5. Source of income and risk management tools calculated that in 1990 the global loss of productivity
for smallholders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 through hunger and malnutrition was 46 million person
6. An initiative for coordinating advocacy years (FAO 2001). The World Health Organization (WHO
of development opportunity crops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2008) estimates that over 1.62 billion people—of whom 600
7. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 million are children—suffer from anaemia, caused in over
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 half of the cases by deficiencies in essential minerals and
micronutrients. While the introduction of fortified food
products and increased consumption of fish and animal
1 Introduction products have proved effective means of addressing some
nutrient deficiencies, these products are often out of reach
By the year 2050, the world population is projected to reach for the poorest in society. Alternative strategies based on
over 9 billion. In a world where more than 900 million diverse local food crops can provide a valuable and sustain-
(some 16 % of the world population) are already malnour- able complement to other means of tackling malnutrition
ished, this continuing growth presents a major challenge to (Frison et al. 2011; Keatinge et al. 2011).
achieving food and nutrition security. Meeting the needs of Many small-scale farmers still make extensive use of the
this increasing population, overcoming shortfalls in food plant diversity present in their surroundings. They depend
production, and ensuring that available produce reaches on the provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural
people in need are major challenges to global agriculture ecosystem services that biodiversity brings (Millennium
(FAO 2010a). These challenges must be met in ways that are Ecosystem Assessment 2005) as part of their livelihood
sustainable and ensure the availability of resources for fu- strategies. This includes use for home consumption, as
ture generations. At the same time, agriculture needs to dietary sources during crises, provision of medicines, pro-
confront the effects of climate change, increasing competi- viding additional sources of income through e.g. road side
tion for water, loss of productive land and competition for and local market sales, and in landscape management.
available land, continued migration from rural to urban However, these traditional plants, crops and crop varieties
areas and the growing social concerns about the nature of and their use have often been the victims of progress. They
the food production system. are deemed to be old fashioned and unattractive in compar-
In light of these multiple challenges to food security, ison to modern, exportable crops produced in much simpler
achieving greater diversity within agricultural systems is in- (and potentially more vulnerable) production systems. All
creasingly recognized as an important pillar of sustainable too often, such valuable genetic resources can be lost before
development (IAASTD 2008; Royal Society 2009; FAO they can be fully characterized and effectively used (Bhag
2011b) and an outcome that will be difficult to achieve over Mal 2007; Jaenicke 2009).
the next 40 years (Pardey and Pingali 2010). Relying on only The harvest failures and other factors that led to the dra-
82 crop species to provide 90 % of the energy consumed by matic rice and wheat price increases in 2008 revealed the
humans (Prescott-Allen and Prescott-Allen 1990) is probably continuing fragility of the agriculture and food economy in
unwise, and certainly unnecessary given that the world has at many developing countries. Providing long-term food and
least 12,650 edible plant species (Kunkel 1984) and about nutritional security should be an objective with the highest
7,000 species that have been used to a significant extent by priority. This can be achieved with an enhanced local produc-
humans at some point in time (Hammer 1998; Fig. 1). tivity and yield stability strategy that fully embraces the ben-
Furthermore, agricultural production must embrace strate- efits of both between- and within-crop diversification. While
gies beyond exploiting the ‘Green Revolution’ technologies the bulk of the calories in the global diet will continue to come
of the last half-century based on genetic improvement and from a limited (but preferably increasing) number of staple
Agrobiodiversity for food security, health and income 673
Fig. 1 Tropical fruit diversity in Costa Rica promoted at the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in a research program closed at
the end of 2012 (Photo courtesy of Alonso Gonzalez)
grains and oilseeds, other food sources—which range from internal and external market disruptions, better ecosystem
minor grains and pulses, root and tuber crops and fruits and function, and hence sustainability (Keatinge et al. 2010).
vegetables to non-timber forest products—should be used to a Enhancing diversity through the use of these alternative food
much larger extent to provide a balanced diet, protection from and forage crops will not only diversify agro-ecosystems and
rotations, it is also likely to improve adaptability to extreme ownership changes and resource (esp. water and soil)
climatic conditions, provide resilience to biotic and abiotic degradation.
stresses and produce harvestable yields where major crops “Agricultural development and biodiversity conservation
may fail (Padulosi et al. 2002). are sometimes perceived as opposing interests. But in many
This paper argues that these neglected and under- cases, such conflicts do not exist and they are certainly not
valorised crops and species, what we prefer to call develop- inevitable. In fact, evidence shows that integrating biodiver-
ment opportunity crops (DOCs), have great untapped po- sity and agriculture is beneficial for food production, eco-
tential to support smallholder farmers and rural communities system health, and for economically and ecologically
by improving their incomes and food and nutritional secu- sustainable growth” (Thrupp 1998). Better utilization of
rity while also sustaining the genetic resources needed to local and often only locally known plant species in diversi-
address present and future environmental challenges. fied cropping systems can be an important first step toward
Through selected examples and analyses, we illustrate the secure food provision in times of uncertainty. It is also likely
ways in which these crops are benefiting smallholder to contribute to the resilience of rural communities and to
farmers and the potential that exists for them to play a ‘sustainagility’—the capability for dynamic and intelligent
greater role in future agricultural development. The follow- responses to future unpredictable events (van Noordwijk
ing sections provide evidence of the benefits of increasing 2010; Jackson et al. 2010). Such local crops are directly
agrobiodiversity through the use of these DOCs and the consumed as staple foods, can provide valuable nutrients as
potential that exists in four key realms for international part of a healthier diet, are sometimes also used as fodder
development: food security, human health, environmental and thus can be converted into meat, milk or eggs, and can
sustainability and economic prosperity. The strong desire for be processed into other products and sold to increase income
collaborative and coordinated action in and across regions to and thus provide greater flexibility to producers and con-
achieve development impact at scale and the steps taken to sumers (Yenagi et al. 2010; Padulosi 2011). These crops are
achieve this are also described. also important components of diversified cropping systems
where they help spread the risks inherent in agricultural
production. While the value of the DOCs is often accrued
2 Capitalizing on agrobiodiversity to improve food security at local, traditional and small-scale enterprise, and thus
constitutes a sensible insurance or provision (future option
Numerous papers in the past two decades have highlighted value), it is in practice usually difficult if not impossible to
the role of agrobiodiversity within the context of sustainable value this in classic economic terms (Jaenicke 2009).
production (e.g. Cleveland et al. 1994; Thrupp 1998; Altieri The approach of the Green Revolution, successful in Asia
2002; Bhag Mal 1994, 2007; FAO/PAR 2010), providing and Latin America but much less so in Africa, focussed on
enhanced nutrition (Beaglehole and Yach 2003; Yenagi et al. increased production of maize, wheat and rice in favoured
2010), environmental benefits (Perrings et al. 2006; Jackson environments such as India’s Punjab. The production in-
et al. 2007), improved livelihoods of small-scale farmers crease was attributable to higher yields coming from the
(Keatinge et al. 2009; Jackson et al. 2010) and increased deployment of new varieties with more efficient light inter-
resilience to climate change (Padulosi et al. 2011; Ortiz ception and higher harvest indices combined with a substan-
2011a; Guarino and Lobell 2011). Diversification of crops tial increase in the use of external inputs—water, fertilizers
and crop varieties plays an essential part in delivering the and pesticides. As noted above, this increased production
benefits of agrobiodiversity. However, research and devel- was associated with a number of negative environmental
opment funding for agriculture—in itself already being only and social effects (Matson et al. 1997). While food produc-
a fraction of overall research and development spending tion kept pace with rising populations and many areas in
(Pardey and Pingali 2010)—is largely targeting the already Asia and Latin America benefitted significantly, the overall
well-researched world staple crops and cereal-based numbers of malnourished people in the world remained
cropping systems (Ortiz 2011b). Whilst the 1990s and early stubbornly high reflecting the fact that food security de-
2000s saw a relative increase in attention to crop diversifi- pends not only on production but also on the accessibility
cation and sustaining agrobiodiversity, one of the results of and availability of food to the rural and urban poor (De Bon
the 2008 food crises was a call for greater focus on the key et al. 2009; FAO 2011a).
staple crops (Renkow and Byerlee 2010; Lenné and Wood The Green Revolution provided lessons on the need to
2011). Even if valid in the short term, such an emphasis is develop rather different approaches in more diverse and less
likely to be dangerous to long-term food security and sta- favoured agricultural environments (Holt-Gimenez et al.
bility (Pardey and Pingali 2010) and risks limiting the ca- 2006). Thus sub-Saharan Africa, which benefitted little from
pacity of agriculture to respond to increased climate Green Revolution technologies, contains a great heteroge-
variability, social insecurity, urbanisation, land use and neity of agro-ecosystems with abrupt changes over small
distances and almost all agriculture is rain-fed (Parr et al. adaptation and mitigation measures that seek to further
1990). While the Green Revolution showed how much address problems like water deficiencies or excesses, poor
progress could be made in improving plant productivity soil fertility and increasing salt levels, and crop intolerances
and how improving plant type can boost area productivity, to wind and high temperature. Given the uncertainty about
the focus on a few crops led to the neglect of a large number the possible effects of climate change, this assessment
of others that are likely to be needed in marginal and more suggested embedding agriculture into an “ecosystem ap-
heterogeneous environments (Altieri 2002; FAO 2011b). proach” (IAASTD 2008). Within such an approach, tech-
External drivers, such as world financial markets and the niques such as participatory variety selection (Witcombe et
use of agricultural land for biofuel production, have become al. 1996) and client-oriented breeding (Witcombe et al.
powerful determinants of food commodity prices. In turn, 2005) would be ideally suited to DOCs for farmers in
the unrest in several Asian and African countries in 2008 marginal areas. These have already been used with success
was believed to be directly linked to rising staple food in, for example, Horse gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum) (Virk
prices. The drivers for the food price increases in the period et al. 2006), rapidly identifying varieties that are adapted to
up to 2008 were a complex mix of increased demand, poor local environments and possess farmer-preferred traits.
harvests—through a combination of climatic effects and Tester and Langridge (2010) note the increased use of crop
reduced produce available due to increased land use for wild relatives and landraces in staple crop breeding, and
biofuel production—export bans, high energy prices and state that “developing countries critically need support for
speculation on the commodity markets. It is to be expected the development of crops, for which there has been little
that these determinants and issues will persist and even in- interest from the developed world and, consequently, little
crease in importance in coming years (McKay 2009). There investment”. In many areas, these crops are already of
will be an increasing need to develop approaches that can critical importance for achieving food security.
improve market stability in the face of continuing or even A large number of studies and field experiments have
increasingly fluctuating production and other related shocks also been reported describing the agronomic value of mixed
affecting dramatically the livelihood of millions of people. cropping, crop rotation, or intercropping using minor crops.
With the demand for food certain to increase over the In such cropping systems, legumes are most generally used
next 40 years and with nearly all the agriculturally suitable to improve soil nutrition or break disease cycles (Schulz et
land under cultivation, sustainable intensification of crop al. 2001). These systems provide openings for alternative
production on the current land base is the only practical crops that might also improve the diet and health of the
solution. While further conversion of forests and other wil- farmer, generate income and create value-added opportuni-
derness areas into agricultural lands can contribute to the ties. Traditional and diverse farming systems have also
required increase in food production, this approach risks attracted interest for the environmental services offered such
damaging the earth’s ecosystems and biodiversity beyond as weed or pest and disease management (Altieri 2004).
repair (Royal Society 2009; Rockström et al. 2009). Many crops have been identified where there is potential
One key component of sustainable intensification will be for achieving significant increases in productivity and thus
improving yields through plant breeding using both conven-
tional and molecular approaches; a number of lines of evi-
dence suggest that this is eminently possible. Unfortunately,
few underutilized crops have yet to benefit from sustained
breeding efforts at the scale required to make significant
advances. However, they are often related to crops that have
been the subject of intense molecular genetics research and
can therefore benefit from second-generation molecular ap-
proaches. There are also important genetic resources present
in the traditional varieties and wild relatives of many DOCs
available for use in crop breeding programmes. These crops
also represent a pool of resiliency ready to be deployed in
areas where other commodity crops cannot grow, a valuable
resource when there is hardly any additional land left that is
suitable for highly mechanized and high input agriculture.
The complexity of the issue demands more than just one
Fig. 2 Mrs. Adelaja, a champion custodian of quinoa, maintains 125
approach. The International Assessment of Agricultural accessions in her farm in Puno, Peru. Hundreds of local varieties are
Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development put underutilized as markets focus predominantly on Quinoa Real types
forward a new agricultural framework which incorporates (Photograph: 2009, Stefano Padulosi)
improvements in food security at local and regional levels. contribute significantly to food security and nutrition.
These include cereals such as tef (Eragrostis tef) and fonio Grivetti and Ogle (2000) mention up to 800 plant species used
(Digitaria exilis); non-cereal grains such as amaranth in the Sahel region, while Bharucha and Pretty (2010), study-
(Amaranthus caudatus), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa; ing wild food systems (including fish and animal sources) of
Fig. 2) and the ‘minor millets’ (Eleusine coracana, Setaria indigenous communities, report an average of 120 wild spe-
italica, Paspalum scrobiculatum, Panicum miliaceum, cies per community in both industrialized and developing
Panicum sumatrense, Echinocha utilis); pulses such as len- countries. These numbers indicate the continuing importance
tils (Lens culinaris) or the different Vigna species (e.g. of local crops and species. Crop and dietary diversity has been
mungbean (Vigna radiata), adzuki bean (Vigna angularis) closely linked to food security in Bangladesh, Egypt, Ghana,
and ricebean (Vigna umbellata)); oilseeds such as noug India, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Mexico, Mozambique and the
(Guizotia abyssinica); roots and tubers such as cassava, Philippines (Hoddinott and Yohannes 2002) where the authors
yams (Dioscorea spp.), yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius) report that a 1 % increase in dietary diversity was linked to a
or ulluco (Ullucus tuberosus); fruits such as breadfruit 0.65 to 1.11 % increase in household per capita consumption,
(Artocarpus altilis), plantain and cooking bananas, baobab a 0.37 to 0.73 % increase in household per capita caloric
(Adansonia digitata) or jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana); various availability, a 0.31 to 0.76 % increase in caloric availability
edible seeds such as Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) from staples and a 1.17 to 1.57 % increase in caloric
or Malabar chestnut (Pachira aquatica); and vegetables such availability from non-staples.
as African eggplant (Solanum aethiopicum), leaf amaranth Minor crops and species, many indigenous to the region,
(Amaranthus spp.), the greens from Brassica rapa varieties have provided enhanced food security during periods of stress
or the sprouts of various seeds (wild mustard, mung and following disasters and other emergencies. Examples in-
bean, etc.; see Chadha et al. 2007). clude recovery after a drought in Papua New Guinea (Mogina
The potential for gains in the production of a wider range of 1999) and Kenya (Simitu et al. 2009) and recovery after the
crops is illustrated in South Asia. In this region, the production 2004 tsunami in Sri Lanka (Harvey 2006). Traditional varieties
of most of the important groups of food plants, except pulses, of local crops are also important to food security during war
has increased at a comparable or even higher rate during the and civil strife (Richards and Ruivenkamp 1997).
past 40 years to that of the three key staple crops. However,
except in the case of root and tuber crops, increases in produc-
tivity have in most cases been substantially below that 3 Diet diversification to improve nutrition and health
achieved for cereals. The increased production reported largely
reflected increases in the area devoted to these crops (Table 1). Large parts of the world’s population, especially in South Asia
The importance of local food production has also been and Sub-Saharan Africa, suffer from nutrient deficiencies,
highlighted by the UN Standing Committee for Nutrition in often termed ‘hidden hunger’ because the affected people
its sixth report on world nutrition (UNSCN 2010). In Africa, receive enough calories but have an insufficient intake of
where the topography calls for more localised approaches, vitamins and minerals. Of the world’s estimated 7 billion
local food crops still play a relatively large role in many people, half a billion still suffer from protein-energy malnu-
societies and ‘wild’ or marginally developed plant species trition but over 1.6 billion suffer from iron deficiency, over
200 million from vitamin A insufficiency (WHO 2008, 2009),
Table 1 Changes over time in area, yield and production by type of and it has been estimated that over 400,000 children die each
food crop in South Asia in early 1960s and early twenty-first century year from the effects directly related to zinc deficiency
from FAO data
(Megha Das and Ratnesh Das 2012).
Group Aggregate 40-year change (% over 1960) It is widely accepted (see Desjardins 2007) that increased
consumption of fruits and vegetables can positively influence
Area Yield Production nutrition status and thus increase human productivity.
However, fruit and vegetables are difficult to find and afford
Cereals 10.0 143.8 168.2
for many people in developing countries (Ruel et al. 2005), and
Pulses −8.1 19.6 10.0
many of the locally available fruit and vegetable species have
Oilseeds 40.9 75.5 148.1
not yet been adequately researched, marketed or improved by
Vegetables and melons 129.8 76.0 303.7
plant breeding. Furthermore, many traditional and locally
Fruits 128.5 45.4 232.4
adapted food crops with high nutritive value are slowly but
Roots and tubers 129.3 146.4 464.4
surely disappearing. For example, local grain crops with a
Nuts 254.1 26.0 346.2
proven high mineral content, such as Digitaria exilis (fonio)
Countries included are Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, or Panicum miliaceum (proso millet), are not effectively
Pakistan and Sri Lanka (from Jat et al. 2006) marketed and are being replaced by modern high-yielding
crops such as maize and wheat (Adoukonou-Sagbadja et al. Numerous reports have provided evidence of the nutri-
2006). Increased mechanisation and market demands lead tional benefits of a diversified diet including fruits and
farmers to concentrate on fewer and fewer crops. The result is vegetables, epitomized by the WHO’s “Five-a-Day” cam-
a steady loss of biodiversity (Smale et al. 2009) often associated paign to indicate the desired daily intake of approximately
with a loss of traditional knowledge (Padulosi et al. 2002). 400 g of fruits and vegetables for a healthy diet (Block et al.
The neo-tropical peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) is an ex- 1992; Van’t Veer et al. 1999). Whilst originally focussing on
ample of a DOC that combines nutritional excellence with the populations of the developed world, this message is now
robustness. In conditions of poor soil fertility and excessive repeated in the developing countries, for two reasons:
rainfall, this species can yield large amounts of starchy fruits,
which have notable concentrations of protein, mono- 1. The incidence of “Western style” non-communicable
unsaturated oleic acids, carotenoids, vitamin E and potassium diseases has been rising significantly in developing
(Graefe et al. 2012). Furthermore, in pure stands or as an countries due to a dietary transition (Drewnowski and
agroforestry species, peach palm has significant potential to Popkin 1997; Popkin 2003);
serve as a carbon sink owing to the species’ abundant biomass 2. Despite an increasingly improved supply of nutrient-
production (Schroth et al. 2002). Traditionally grown by dense staple crops at a global level, malnutrition-related
Amazonian Amerindians for subsistence and as animal feed, mineral and vitamin insufficiencies are still widespread
cooked peach palm fruits have for many years also been amongst large parts of the population in developing
available as a street food in Colombia (see Fig. 3). Although countries (Table 2, Gopalan 1996).
there is no international demand for the fruits or its derivatives
(Graefe et al. 2012), peach palm which grows fast and has the Two interrelated strategies emerge; the first is to promote
ability to form basal offshoots has become a significant source a general increase in fruit and vegetable consumption; the
for palm hearts in Brazil, Costa Roca and other countries second is to promote an intelligent diversification of the diet
(Mora-Urpí et al. 1997), vastly exceeding the market value (Keatinge et al. 2010; Lutaladio et al. 2010). Indeed, a recent
of the fruits. publication claiming that a biodiversity rich environment is
not directly correlated to a better diet (Termote et al. 2012)
highlights the role of awareness raising and nutritional edu-
cation for alerting populations about the benefits that come
from agrobiodiversity and the increased use of nutrient-rich
crops. The potential synergy between these strategies needs
to be directly addressed by both scientists and policy makers
(Toledo and Burlingame 2006).
An important element in the use of agrobiodiversity and
DOCs in particular to address micronutrient/vitamin deficien-
cy will be the availability and use of local products (see
Fig. 4). The crops themselves may not always be of local
origin. Local availability may be more important than the
historic geographical origin of a crop, although this latter
aspect can play an important role as a cultural value as
exemplified by the ‘Go Local’ campaign in Micronesia (e.g.
Englberger and Lorens 2009). A practical approach is needed
that recognizes the values inherent in the diversity of these
plants. Many DOCs possess high genetic variability, and there
is great potential for exploring this and comparing local and
exotic crops in ways that include ranges of cultivars or land-
races rather than just averages or a limited number of random
selections (Bioversity International 2011).
Consuming fruits and vegetables has different status across
cultures. In Southeast Asian diets, green vegetables and fresh
fruits play a rather prominent role, whereas this is less so in
most African countries where fruits are often considered ‘for
the women and children’ only (Ruel et al. 2005; Bharucha and
Fig. 3 Cooked fruits of peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) on sale at the Pretty 2010). Whilst it is accepted that women and children
airport of Cali, Colombia (Photograph: 2004, Michael Hermann) are the most vulnerable groups, micronutrient deficiencies are
Table 2 Key nutrient deficiencies (Sources: FAO 2001; WHO 2008, 2009; UNSCN 2010; ACC/SCN 1997)
Vitamin/mineral/nutrient Symptoms of severe Number of people suffering Crops that can contribute Issues
deficiency deficiency worldwide to alleviate deficiency
Iron Weak immune system, 1,600 million Green leafy vegetables, Bioavailability low from
impaired mental pulses, small grains and a number of green leafy
development pseudo grains vegetables due to interaction
with phytates and tannins
Protein-energy Weak immune system, 500 million Nuts, pulses, soy, algae
stunting
Vitamin A/pro-vitamin Vision impairment 100–140 million Yellow and orange Bioavailability low from
A carotenoids fleshed fruits; green a number of green leafy
leafy vegetables vegetables due to interaction
with phytates
Vitamin C Weak immune system Fresh fruits Needs to be consumed
frequently as body doesn’t
build up a store
Zinc Weak immune system, 1/3 of world population lives Mostly animal sources; Bioavailability low from
stunting in high-risk areas but also some protein-rich most staple grains; phytate
grains, especially pulses, can reduce bioavailability
sesame, pumpkin, nuts,
some wheat varieties
Vitamin B complex Neurological disorders, Highly prevalent where diets Pulses, green leafy Needs to be consumed
weak immune system are low in animal products, vegetables, unprocessed frequently as body doesn’t
fruits and vegetables, and cereal grains build up a store. Vitamin
where cereals are milled B12 does not occur in
prior to consumption plant-based foods
also widespread amongst the male population. It is therefore Bharucha and Pretty 2010). Studies abound that report analy-
important to stimulate consumption, based on factual infor- ses of the nutrient content of locally important plant species.
mation about the health and nutrition benefits of local crops They can be found for nearly every country, for example
(Robson 1976). This is an area where substantial further Botswana (Legwaila et al. 2011) on a range of traditional food
research is needed for many DOCs. plants, India on bitter gourd in connection with mildew resis-
Despite the above caveats, a number of studies have shown tance (Yadav et al. 2009) and on minor millets (Yenagi et al.
the importance of locally available indigenous or traditional 2010), Micronesia (Englberger et al. 2006, 2008) on local
fruits, vegetables, grains, and roots and tubers to nutrition and bananas and swamp taro, respectively, Nigeria on medicinal
health of rural and indigenous communities (Grivetti and Ogle plants (Ekpa 1996), leafy vegetables (Aletor et al. 2002) and
2000; Flyman and Afolayan 2006; van Rensburg et al. 2004; amaranth (Akubugwo et al. 2007), Papua New Guinea on the
mineral composition of a range of locally available plants
(Hongo et al. 1989), South Africa (Flyman and Afolayan
2006; Odhav et al. 2007) on wild and leafy vegetables, respec-
tively, Tanzania on iron, zinc and β-carotene content of indig-
enous vegetables (Msuya et al. 2009) and Zimbabwe on
amaranth (Makobo et al. 2010).
On the other hand, relatively little information is available
about possible anti-nutritional factors or detrimental nutrient
interactions which could inhibit the bio-availability of nutri-
ents (ACC/SCN 1997; Sandberg 2002; Gupta et al. 2005;
Gibson et al. 2010). In the case of pulse crops, the content of
anti-nutrients such as phytic acid, trypsin inhibitor and tannins
is relatively well documented (Akroyd and Doughty 1982),
and a range of toxic substances such as cyanogenic glycosides
and lectins, in addition to flatulence producing substances,
have been described. However, studies on varietal variation in
Fig. 4 Rural children in the Peruvian Amazon gathering fruits of a content of undesired components, as a basis for breeding
wild Physalis species (Photograph: 2005, Michael Hermann) programmes, are often lacking.
Realizing the nutritional and health benefits of DOCs will should take and the scale where diversity is most important
require an integrated approach that goes beyond simple anal- are subjects of debate (see e.g. Harlan 1975; Wood and
yses of nutritional content as a basis for their possible promo- Lenné 1999; Frison et al. 2011; Lenné and Wood 2011).
tion. This has been shown to be possible and to deliver Mono-cropping systems are widely used in industrialised
benefits. Thus, AVRDC–The World Vegetable Centre has countries to increase productivity and consolidation of farms
worked on vegetables such as amaranth, African eggplant into ever larger holdings facilitates mechanization and re-
and a few other African indigenous vegetables (Weinberger duces labour costs (Azam-Ali 2003). This strategy requires
and Msuya 2004), mungbean (Chadha 2010) and Asian green relatively uniform soil types, stable markets and policy
vegetables (Hughes 2009), combining genetics and germ- support through subsidies and insurance against crop loss.
plasm collection, cropping systems with a focus on soil fertil- Breeding and selection have led to uniformity of plant type,
ity and water management, and nutrition also related to socio- irrespective of species, towards a modern ‘ideotype’ which
economics (Keatinge et al. 2011). A successful taro project includes common characteristics such as semi-dwarf, re-
has been spearheaded by the Papua New Guinea National stricted branching, short duration, angular leaved and high
Agricultural Research Institute (Yalu et al. 2009), the harvest index varieties (Donald 1968; Azam-Ali and Squire
DADOBAT project (Domestication and development of bao- 2002). It is becoming increasingly apparent that this unifor-
bab and tamarind: http://www.dadobat.soton.ac.uk/English/ mity at intra- and inter-specific levels may actually weaken
flash/default.aspx) is spearheading work on Adansonia agro-ecosystem resilience because it makes the systems
digitata and Tamarindus indica, and the FOSRIN project more susceptible to external shocks (pest and disease out-
(Food security through ricebean research in India and Nepal: breaks, droughts, etc.). In pure mono-cropping systems,
http://www.ricebean.org) pioneered a holistic approach in intensive external inputs are commonly used to counterbal-
ricebean (Khanal et al. 2007; Hollington et al. 2010). ance this weakness (Frison et al. 2011). In small-scale farm-
The relationships between and among crop diversity, die- ing (as well as in more intensive) systems, integrated land
tary diversity, nutrition and health remain complex and have management, the existence of complex mosaics and the use
been the subject of many, apparently often conflicting studies of multiple crop livestock and variety management strate-
(see for example studies by Englberger et al. 2009; Keding gies may lead to the maintenance of high levels of
2010; Hatløy et al. 2000; de Pee and West 1996). However, agrobiodiversity despite the replacement of landraces with
the benefits of increasing consumption of fruit and vegetables modern varieties (Steele et al. 2009; FAO 2010b).
continue to be favoured. As a recent report from the British Agrobiodiversity contributes to provisioning, regulating
Royal Society stated, “The preferred strategy to eliminate and supporting cultural ecosystem services (Millennium
hidden hunger will always involve strategies to increase the Ecosystem Assessment 2005), and in many developing
diversity of diet with increased access to fruit and vegetables” countries, small-scale farmers use diversity as an integral
(Royal Society 2009). DOCs, especially those which are part of their livelihood strategies. Jarvis et al. (2011)
locally available and culturally acceptable, would seem to be reviewed the evidence on the use of within crop diversity
ideally placed to play a much greater role in contributing to and list adaptation to marginal ecosystems and heteroge-
improved nutrition and health. neous environments, insurance against environmental and
other risks, pest and disease management, yield stability,
socio-economic factors such as labour availability and in-
4 Environmental services and resilience of farming come generation as reasons for the maintenance of high
systems levels of traditional varietal diversity.
Complex agroecosystems exhibit great variation in times
The erosion of agricultural genetic diversity across farm- of crop maturity, resource capture and resistance to external
lands throughout the world and accompanying loss of resil- influences, especially where they contain underutilised and
ience to climatic, economic or societal extreme events has under-researched species (Perrings et al. 2006). They are
been the topic of numerous publications and debates over difficult to manage, mechanize and manipulate, and the
several decades. There are a number of cases where lack of performance of the constituent species is difficult to predict.
within crop diversity has resulted in substantial production Despite this, they often continue to be favoured by farmers
losses such as maize in the USA (leaf blight sensitivity of for the reasons noted above for varietal diversity. Where
hybrids due to the unique Texas cytoplasmic male sterility farmers have been able to counter negative external influ-
gene in the 1970s), taro in Samoa (leaf blight fungus dam- ences by choosing the best locations (soils and climates)
aged all taro crops in 1993, Lebot et al. 2001) and coffee in and/or adding inputs to more favoured crops, crop yield has
Sri Lanka (due to rust fungus in 1875). There is clearly a usually taken precedence and negative consequences (re-
need to have production systems that maintain both within duced system resilience) have been able to be ignored.
and between crop diversity, although the form that this This is especially true where national economic policies
create artificial pricing which does not include the negative increased number of crops and the strategic use DOCs.
externalities of damage to the environment and loss of Kumaraswamy (2012) has argued that the farm needs to be
diversity for future use. The dominant priority has been seen as an ecologically sustainable unit, and De Schutter
the harvesting of specific crop products (usually grain) (2010) has reviewed recent evidence to argue the importance
rather than production of overall biomass. In many indus- of agroecological approaches and of ensuring improved avail-
trialized countries, by-products such as straw have been ability of a much wider range of agrobiodiversity as part of
viewed as an inconvenience rather than a useful resource. ensuring food security through more resilient agroecosystems.
Given their managerial difficulties, and the limited pub- Analyses of the mutual benefits of crop and associated non-
lished evidence on the economic benefits of complex crop biodiversity have also been undertaken, but to a more
agroecosystems (Wojtkowski 2008), it is not surprising that limited extent. Looking into the effects of increased manage-
the economic, management and research support for mono- ment and crop yield on biodiversity levels of companion
culture systems remains strong. species in smallholder cocoa agroforestry settings in
Nonetheless, recognition of the need to maintain ecosys- Indonesia, Clough et al. (2011) found that different types of
tem services and increase resilience in agro-ecosystems is species (trees, rats, birds, insects, fungi, etc.) were unaffected
now encouraging a reconsideration of complex systems and by the different management and yield levels, suggesting that
what they have to offer (Perrings et al. 2006). Jackson et al. moderate crop management and biodiversity conservation can
(2010) provide an overview of the interrelationship of be combined. Maikhuri et al. (1996) studied grain and by-
agrobiodiversity and improved resilience and argue that product yield in traditional systems in the Central Himalaya
recognition should be given to the importance of what they and found that the yield efficiency between staple crops and
describe as the “sustainagility” of an ecosystem. The key to traditional crops varied by season. Generally, traditional crops
developing such an agile, flexible system is to build and were more eco-efficient, had higher energy efficiency rates
maintain assets that keep multiple options open for and a higher nutritive value than the staples.
responding to unknown future influences. However, the It is often said that local crops are ‘better adapted to climate
quantitative examination and improvement of complex sys- change’. However, only a few research studies between local
tems is daunting because field experiments are more diffi- species and comparable improved crops seem to have been
cult to construct, analyse and interpret on complex agro- carried out to compare their resilience to various climatic
ecosystems than on monocultures. A few studies on more or extremes (drought, floods, peak temperatures, etc.) or gradual
less complex mixed cropping systems have been conducted, changes of environmental conditions. More often, we find
and several are described in Wojtkowski (2008). comparisons between related subspecies of commercial crops,
While evidence of benefits from within and between crop for example Condori et al. (2010) who compared native potato
diversity is substantial (Jarvis et al. 2011; Frison et al. 2011), cultivars (Solanum tuberosum ssp. andigenum) with modern
there is much less clarity about the form this diversity should S. tuberosum in the Andes. Other studies have shown a
take and the ways in which the optimum benefits can be relative ruggedness of unimproved species to climatic ex-
achieved. For example, the economic benefits of genetic tremes, but these are often reported without comparable yield
diversity were studied by Smale et al. (1998) who found that data. Padulosi et al. (2009) reported that minor millets in India
genealogical distance and increased number of varieties are having short biological cycle and an efficient root system have
associated with higher mean yield of wheat in the Punjab, but a comparative advantage for successful cultivation under
just how much diversity is desirable is less clear. Di Falco and scarce water/low rainfall conditions. Their ability to offer a
Perrings (2005) found a positive relationship between inter- modest yield under marginal/poor soils with low inputs has
specific crop biodiversity and agricultural production in a case made them prominent in mountain, tribal and hill agriculture.
study on cereal production in southern Italy. Importantly, these This adaptive feature is more pronounced in barnyard millet
studies did not consider ‘resilience’ as one of the side effects (Echinochloa colona L.) which is the fastest growing, very
of increased agro-biodiversity. A later study by Di Falco and early maturing and most resilient species among millets, pro-
Chavas (2008) considered the dynamic effects of changing viding food, feed and fodder under harsh growing conditions.
external events (in this case, rainfall) and crop biodiversity on There is also evidence that agrobiodiversity rich ap-
productivity. The authors could show that increasing biodi- proaches can provide adaptation to climate change. Under
versity by 3 % allowed a rain-fed system to recover beyond the ‘Akdi’ system in some parts of Karnataka State, minor
the original yield within 3–4 years of the rainfall decline. millets are mixed with maize, sorghum, chickpea, pigeon pea,
Other important analyses of the economic and social benefits lablab bean, mustard and niger (Guizotia abyssinica) to pro-
of within crop diversity include those by Smale (2006) and vide a buffer against the failure of major crops due to erratic
Brush and Meng (1996). rainfall, pests or diseases. A similar system called ‘Barahnaja’
Overall resilience and ecosystem functionality is also (literally, a dozen crops or grains) is still prevalent among the
favoured by agricultural practices based on the use of an farmers in the Himalayan region in Uttarakhand State
(Padulosi et al. 2009). Diversity in traditional varieties of role of NTFP in providing marginalised communities with
sorghum and pearl millet appears to have been an important supplementary food and nutrition from harvest of fruits,
component of survival strategies of poor farmers over the 20- leafy vegetables, mushrooms, edible shoots like bamboo
year period of drought in Niger and Mali (from the mid- and rattan (and other products, such as bush meat) has been
1980s). The total diversity was maintained, and plant mate- confirmed (Wollenberg and Belcher 2001; Sheil and
rials became adapted to the changing environmental condi- Wunder 2002). However, whether forest biodiversity is be-
tions with an increase in early maturing types. ing conserved through use of NTFPs is still under debate
For the improvement of minor crops and their increased (Shanley et al. 2002; Marshall et al. 2003).
use to provide resilience, the availability of genetic variability The realization of the full potential of DOCs for provid-
within the species will be essential. Such variability is often ing improved resilience and ecosystem services will require
very high as these species have not been subject to plant recognition of the economic value of these benefits to soci-
breeding, except possibly for a few specific traits—this re- ety at large as well as to farmers and rural communities.
inforces the importance of well-stocked and well-managed Investment in biodiversity—both natural and agricultural—
gene banks for a wide range of DOCs. An assessment of can be enhanced through policy interventions and by pro-
existing intra-specific variation is required, especially for wild viding incentives. Payment schemes for environmental ser-
or only partially domesticated species, in order to understand vices have been suggested, and various schemes have been
the width of environmental adaptation or production potential tested, with generally positive though often localised results
(in terms of nutrients or marketable characteristics) of the (see Engel et al. 2008; Wunder et al. 2008). More recently,
crop. This has been done for a few DOCs including V. payment for agrobiodiversity conservation services1 is being
subterranea, Amaranthus sp., Abelmoschus sp., Xanthosoma tested by Bioversity International.
sp. and Colocasia esculenta in the context of breeding An important dilemma that will need to be confronted is
programmes (see IAEA 2004) and for some tree crops, where exemplified by the finding of Baumgärtner and Quaas
especially the groups around Roger Leakey have carried out (2010). They looked into the effects of agri-environmental
extensive assessments of individual trees, e.g. for Dacryodes policies and insurances in such situations where risk-averse
edulis (Waruhiu et al. 2004), Irvingia gabonensis (Leakey et farmers invest in on-farm biodiversity and found that in-
al. 2005a), Sclerocarya birrea (Leakey et al. 2005b) and surances can be detrimental to efforts to increase biodiver-
Canarium indicum (Leakey et al. 2008) with the aim of sity. In other words, farmers chose either a financial
identifying preferred ideotypes for the selection and further insurance, or, in the absence of such a mechanism, chose
propagation of high-yielding (for various traits) clones. Whilst to diversify their farming activities, in the process providing
these researchers assessed fruit tree accessions for their com- a public good, namely biodiversity.
mercial suitability, for example on dietary oil content, similar DOCs have played an important role in improving pest
within-species diversity can be expected in traits associated and disease resistance. In the first instance, a number of such
with suitability to soil or climate conditions. Comparisons crops have provided useful resistance genes for more
with appropriate benchmark species however are largely miss- established crops. For example, ricebean (V. umbellata)
ing; this is mainly due to the fact that few DOCs are repre- has been found to be resistant to bruchid beetle
sented in ex situ collections, and hence, such studies will be (Callosobruchus spp.) which is a major pest of mung bean
very hard to carry out (Padulosi et al. 2002). Padulosi et al. (V. radiate; Tomooka et al. 2000). Ricebean also carries
(2012) are convinced that the future of conservation of many genes for resistance to mung bean yellow mosaic virus,
DOCs and their associated indigenous knowledge lies within and has been successfully crossed with mung bean to intro-
in situ or on farm conservation where adaptation to biotic and duce these genes (Singh et al. 2006).
abiotic stresses in a continuous evolution is also ensured. However, they are also likely to be an increasingly impor-
Forests and their biodiversity contribute to environmental tant element in any strategy to limit damage by pests and
resources, such as clean water and carbon sequestration. The diseases. Firstly, increasing crop diversification can reduce
use of non-timber forest products (NTFP) is often men- the frequency and severity of epidemics (Krupinsky et al.
tioned as a means to maintain forest biodiversity. NTFPs 2002; Ratnadass et al. 2011). Secondly, specific DOCs may
have been defined as encompassing ‘all the biological ma- be used in more complex disease control strategies. The
terial (other than industrial round wood and derived sawn International Center for Insect Physiology and Ecology has
timber, wood chips, wood-based panels and pulp) that may developed the concept of push–pull technology, or attractant-
be extracted from natural ecosystems, managed plantations, diversionary strategies, using minor crops or plant species to
etc., and be utilised within the household, be marketed, or attract or repel a pest and decrease damage on a major crop
have social, cultural or religious significance’ (Wickens (Herren and Löhr 2001). Applications to control cereal
1991). NTFPs are seen as contributing to poverty alleviation
1
and income generation for forest margin communities. The http://www.syngentafoundation.org/index.cfm?pageID=712
stemborers with Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) or Development of markets or stimulation of demand at
Sudan grass (Sorghum sudanense) as trap crops together with local, national and international level is a precondition for
a repellent crop like Desmodium spp. or Melinus minutifolia farmers to derive income from DOCs (Markelova et al.
were found to be efficient in Kenya (Khan and Pickett 2004). 2009). Demand-driven development interventions are more
Of course, any newly introduced crop, despite its poten- likely to be successful than attempts to push the supply
tial, may prove dangerous, and those involved in introduc- alone. Giuliani (2007) assessed the emerging markets for
ing non-indigenous species and crops will need to take the six minor plant species in Syria, and Will (2008) collected
necessary precautions. Many plant species mentioned in the and analysed eight further case studies for value chain
lists of potential DOCs are also on the lists of invasive development of neglected crops and their products. The rise
species and as such can have a significant negative impact of Kenyan supermarkets in the vegetable retailing system
on rural livelihoods, albeit unintentionally. It is often stated was reported to offer opportunities to small-scale farmers
that introduced crops do not bring their normal array of pests around cities (Reardon and Neven 2004). It becomes appar-
and diseases to their new environments and may be more ent that there are almost as many approaches as there are
resistant to local pests and diseases, thus forming a useful products. As far as indigenous vegetables are concerned,
barrier resulting in increased system productivity (Lenné AVRDC considers them rather more undervalued than
and Wood 2011). However, it is also possible that these underutilized (Weinberger and Lumpkin 2007).
new introductions can ‘escape’ and become invasive weeds The gap between success (i.e. income generation, biodi-
that are difficult to control and can have extremely negative versity conservation) and failure (i.e. market distortion,
effects on rural people. crowding-out of species) is narrow, and it is recommended
that professional assistance is sought when developing value
chains for new crops and their products. Whilst the potential
5 Source of income and risk management tools for developing new markets may be large, Will (2008)
for smallholders suggested that this potential is often untapped for the fol-
lowing key reasons:
Poor and marginal farmers from East and South Asia depend
on secondary crops (such as finger millet, green gram, Job’s & Low competitiveness of actors along the entire value
tears (Coix lacryma-jobi L.), lentils, mungbean, sesame, local chain
soybean, sweet potato, yam, etc.) in particular as their main & Limited knowledge of appropriate technology packages
source of income as well as staple foods (Bourgeois 2006). to promote the crops and their products
Increased income to small-scale farmers and entrepreneurs is & Inappropriate rural development policies and programmes
often quoted as one of the additional benefits of increased focussing on a limited number of commodities
production of ‘orphan’ or ‘underutilised’ crops, specifically & Widespread mistrust amongst value chain operators and
local fruits and vegetables (Chadha and Hasan Mndiga 2007; between private and public stakeholders
Hermann and Bernet 2009). Income generation is rarely the
only benefit of increased utilization of such crops. Value In addition, there is a lack of reliable or stable sources of
addition can enhance food and nutritional security as well as quality seed for many DOCs (Adebooye et al. 2005), although
income of the rural poor. In India, the ethnic millet papad, with sufficient training, particularly in marketing and mana-
chakli, fermented breakfast food paddu, novel foods like gerial skills as well as in the technology of seed production,
biscuits, laddu, all prepared with minor millets proved to have farmers’ groups can successfully provide sustainable supplies
a good scope for enhancing nutrition security and income of quality seed (Witcombe et al. 2010; Rojas et al. 2009).
generation of community members, particularly women Despite these constraints, there are important opportuni-
(Yenagi et al. 2010). Value addition also proved to be a highly ties for markets for minor crops and their products to devel-
strategic intervention in popularizing nutritionally rich local op, for example by capitalizing on the development and
crops which are currently largely neglected and underutilized. growing wealth of the middle classes in many societies.
For example, the malt produced from little millet (Panicum These consumers are increasingly interested in sustainable,
sumaterense) has been found to be highly marketable (Bala heritage and healthy or ‘functional’ food options (WBCSD
Ravi et al. 2010). Little millet is the second best grain for 2008). There are also opportunities to find novel uses for
malting after barley, and this malt is a traditional weaning food plants, for example by exploiting particular traits that may
for children from 6 months age onwards in view of its high not have been used so far. A case in point is edible canna
digestibility. This further processing of little millet enhanced (Canna edulis), quite an insignificant crop in its native
the income of farmers threefold, generated additional employ- Andean range because of demand and use limitations, partic-
ment in the villages, particularly for women, and enhanced ularly inconvenient use, and the competition from more at-
their social status and self-esteem (Vijayalakshmi et al. 2010). tractive substitutes (Hermann et al. 1999). However, because
of specific functional starch properties and its ability to yield the rural poor who are reliant on the extraction of NTFP have
well on marginal land, canna has replaced mungbean as the benefitted from little formal education, have scant market
raw material for some transparent noodles in parts of Asia. expertise and cannot afford to bear additional risk. Chronic
In a similar vein, the discovery of commercially relevant transportation difficulties, perishable products, high variabili-
nutritional and health-promoting properties (Kang et al. ty in fruit and medicinal oil production and declining abun-
2011, Pacheco-Palencia et al. 2008) has been behind the dance of non-timber forest resources due to logging fire and
rise of the Amazonian fruit acai (Euterpe oleracea) from a overharvesting are a growing reality for many forest dwellers.
minor regional fruit to a fashion food on the booming More positively, Marshall et al. (2006) have identified 45
market for ‘nutraceuticals” (Brondizio 2004; Fig. 5). factors that contribute to successful commercialisation of
Brondizio et al. (2002) review the role of small producers NTFP in Bolivia.
in the recent expansion of acai production, the benefits that A key issue to be considered when aiming to develop
have accrued to local economies and the emergence of acai markets for NTFP is that extraction of NTFP in many countries
“as a symbol of cultural identity and regional pride for is illegal, mainly to stem poaching and the extraction of
estuarine people” in Brazil as a consequence of this fruit’s protected species. In Nepal, the collection of the ‘Himalayan
growing popularity in national and export markets. viagra’ Yarsagumba (Cordyceps sinensis) was banned during
The marketing of non-timber forest products (NTFP) re- the Maoist insurgency since its premium market value made it
ceived considerable attention during the 1990s as a possible a major source of revenue for the guerrillas (Peter Andersen,
means to alleviate poverty of forest margin or forest dwelling personal communication). Close collaboration with the author-
communities (for example see Leakey et al. 1996; Neumann ities is therefore necessary to develop mutually beneficial legal
and Hirsch 2000). Recent research has however shown that frameworks. Because the majority of NTFP have relatively
these claims may have been oversimplistic and that a chain of low cash values and are used by communities for consumption
factors is necessary to arrive at economic success (Wollenberg rather than for sale, their more fundamental development value
and Belcher 2001; Marshall et al. 2003, 2006). Shanley et al. is to serve as important safety nets by providing food, dietary
(2002), describing NTFP markets in the Brazilian Amazon, supplements or income in times of shortage.
caution about overly optimistic plans to link forest dwellers to A small number of NTFP already have high commercial
more profitable distant markets, primarily because many of value and can contribute significantly to rural incomes and act
as entry points to rural development strategies (Wollenberg
and Belcher 2001). These include rattan and bamboo species
(Zhu at al. personal communication), resins (de Foresta et al.
2004), various fruits and nuts (Ramadani 2002; Leakey et al.
2005c) and medicinal plants (Nagpal and Karki 2004). The
county of Lin’an in the Zhejiang province of China provides a
good example of successful development with NTFP. Around
1980, Lin’an had 450,000 inhabitants, 64 % forest land and
60 % of the population living below the poverty line. The
people and government of Lin’an County realized that their
timber-dependent economy was deteriorating because of de-
forestation and land degradation. Therefore, they began to
look at NTFP, and in particular at bamboo and hickory nuts
as alternative sources of livelihoods. By 2009, Lin’an had
become a prosperous place, with almost nobody living in
poverty. While in 1990 NTFP counted for only 20 % of the
earnings of rural people, in 2009 this had gone up to 47 %,
with bamboo as a main contributor (60 %; Li and Xu 2009).
Dawson et al. (2007) have provided a good overview on
issues relating to the marketing of DOCs and the impact on
biodiversity (Table 3). Whilst experience shows that im-
proved market access can lead to diversity loss, this does
not always have to be the case. Tools have been developed
to improve the alignment of market, societal and conserva-
tion goals in product value chains (Smale et al. 2002; Hellin
Fig. 5 Small-scale processing unit of acai in a traditional market place and Higman 2005). The key factors are the speed and size of
of Belem, Pará, Brazil (Photograph: 2004, Decio Horita Yokota) the development of a particular market, whether suitable
Table 3 Different markets with some of the possible advantages and disadvantages of each for promoting livelihoods and biodiversity (adapted
from Dawson et al. 2007)
Market Local National International
Possible •Traditional use and acceptance of •Some traditional use and acceptance •For specialised market niches
advantages products mean a ready market, of products, possible access to higher (e.g. DO, Fair Trade), products
with local use helping to maintain value ‘internal’ markets than those may be of high value and bring
the identity of societies and available locally. considerable economic benefits
reinforcing conservation. to communities.
•No or minimal regulatory requirements •Although some regulatory/certification •Specialised markets not only
in bringing products to market. barriers, likely to be lower than for support diversity locally but also
international markets. educate and interest the global
community in the value and
promotion of diversity.
•Generally, the value chain from •Provides good opportunities for ‘value •Specialised value chains are
producers to consumers is short, addition’ through processing (e.g. to generally built around ‘best
meaning farmers should benefit improve longevity, spread the period practice’ that ensures ‘fair play’
more. of sale, facilitate transport). between producers and consumers.
•Direct farmer consumption is possible
in the absence of a market.
Possible •Farmers may not receive the same •An absence of proper certification •Barriers to trade may be high,
disadvantages premium for their crops as in other may make producers vulnerable to due, e.g. to regulations for
markets, especially with unscrupulous practice (e.g. market entry (e.g. the EU NFR),
‘gluts’ and low value during ‘misnaming’ of lower quality and/or certification costs
peak production. product by large suppliers). (to certify product is sustainably
produced, of a particular
variety/origin, etc.).
•Longer value chains than for local •International markets may be
markets may decrease the benefits very sensitive to health scares
for farmers. (stringent health and safety
regulations may come into
operation if, e.g. disease or
pollution problems).
•Generally, markets at this level are •Generally, entry into more
more ‘industrial’, requiring more ‘industrial’ (not niche) markets
uniform product. requires more uniform product.
Key ways •Develop local networks that support •Increase consumer interest in products •Lower barriers to markets (reduce
to promote exchange and innovative practice through the media and links with key costs and speed up processes) by
diversity for germplasm and knowledge at commercial outlets (e.g. supermarkets). developing simpler certification
a local community level (collective procedures and through relaxation
action). of existing regulatory frameworks
to food entry.
•Training in value chain development
(e.g. processing, packaging, book-
keeping, accessing market information,
dealing with different actors).
•Provision of credit to producers and
micro-processors.
Effectiveness •May work best for promoting relatively •May work best for those crops that •May currently work best for a
for diversity modest increases in use in a wide range have some history of use at a national relatively limited number of high
of species, in a manner that balances level and are not yet internationally value species, especially when
diversity in farming systems (no one traded. Probably effective for only promoting varieties of products
crop comes to dominate through a relatively small number of species, that are already exposed to the
displacement). though more than for international international market. ‘Major’ crop
markets. examples are cocoa and coffee
(e.g. DO, Fair Trade).
interventions to support diversification are possible in a Nill and Böhnert (2006) and Giuliani (2007) assessed the
given situation and how fragile the wider biodiversity within development opportunities and biodiversity implications of
current farm ecosystems may be to displacement by newly several different value chains. They showed that the way in
marketed crops (Shackleton et al. 2009). which product value chains can support diversity depends
on the level of operation of various markets, and the access

of communities to these markets. Markets locally, nationally
and globally will generally only be effective in supporting
diversity if emphasis is placed on educating consumers
about diversity, enough consumers are willing to pay pre-
mium prices for products that support diversity and attention
is given to higher-value niche market development. Product
markets at all scales often lack transparency, with premiums
paid for particular crops, varieties and products frequently
not filtering down to farmers. Farmers could diversify to
produce higher value crops if market opportunities were
evident to them. Increasing transparency and awareness
are thus important considerations at all levels.
Some of the issues that are particularly important for pro- Fig. 6 Training session in a rural village of India to make people
moting diversity in different types of markets are summarised aware of the plant diversity surrounding them, let recognize the species
in Table 3. Whilst many interventions are of general impor- and share knowledge about their requirements and uses (Photo FAO)
tance, at a local level, particular emphasis may be placed on
supporting collective action that facilitates exchange of com- and provide livelihood opportunities for smallholder pro-
munity knowledge and innovations. At a national level, there ducers. The key is to have consumers become more interested
may be a particular focus on the promotion of a more diverse in the plants, land, supply chains and farming communities that
range of attractively presented and/or processed products produce and deliver what they eat.
through radio and other media, and through strategic place- Equally important is to reduce constraints to market entry,
ments in large commercial outlets, such as supermarkets for example by lowering the costs involved in ‘process’ and
catering to urban populations and the developing middle ‘product’ certification. Buckingham et al. (2009), for example,
classes (Moustier et al. 2010). Training in value chain devel- describe how at present certification of bamboo may not be
opment appears to be important as is increasing the availabil- attractive for smallholder farmers and local forest managers
ity of credit to small producers and micro-processors and due to its high costs, which are not translated into higher prices
training in areas such as processing, packaging, book keeping, at the farm gate. Also needed is modifying restrictive tariff and
reaching economies of scale, accessing market information non-tariff barriers such as the European Union ‘Novel Food
(e.g. through channels such as text messaging on mobile Regulation’, which restricts the access of ‘new’ foods into
phones) and negotiating with different actors and on how to member states (Hermann 2009). This regulation results in
respond to market changes. Such capacity building efforts high premiums paid for niche products by consumers in order
have been undertaken (see Fig. 6) such as the ACP- to cover the technically complex, time-consuming and finan-
European Union-funded project led by RUFORUM2 which cially burdensome nature of certification procedures. Less
trains young African scientists specifically on inter- costly schemes are required if major benefits through DO
disciplinary research on DOCs (see http://www.acp-st. and other niche market initiatives are to be realised for liveli-
eu/content/building-human-and-institutional-capacity- hoods and biodiversity. One option is to more directly link
enhancing-conservation-and-use-neglected-and-under). farm communities with consumers in order to guarantee prod-
Internationally, there is rising interest in new foods and uct quality and origin; another is joint certification serving
other products that can contribute in novel ways to improving more than one market niche. Other regulations, such as phyto-
human health and nutrition. This interest can be exploited to sanitary control measures and the FAO/WHO Codex
develop markets for non-staple crops from which poor com- Alimentarius (http://www.codexalimentarius.net/web/index_
munities can benefit if the right approaches to promotion are en.jsp), aim at protecting consumers but may have unwanted
applied. Particular emphasis may be placed on promoting side effects through restricting market access for minor crops.
niche market arrangements through Denomination of Origin,
Eco-labelling, Fair Trade, Organic and Slow Food initiatives.
Van de Kop et al. (2006) provide several examples for existing 6 An initiative for coordinating advocacy of development
value chains using Denomination of Origin, Trademark or Fair opportunity crops
Trade labelling in Latin America, Europe and Africa. In dif-
ferent ways, all of these initiatives can support agrobiodiversity DOCs must be recognized as an essential resource for sustain-
able global development. However, without increased research
2
Regional Universities Forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture to support the development of integrated and diversified sys-
(http://www.ruforum.org/) tems for the local production of locally consumed products, the
target of an adequate and sustainable global supply of safe and initiatives, including the latest one, is that most of the
nutritious food in 2050 will be unreachable. Given the situation partners are coming from the ‘advocacy’ sector with very
of diverse and insufficiently connected research and develop- few actually contributing to enhancing the current knowl-
ment projects, widely dispersed publications and a relative edge base—although it is appreciated that successful
isolation of the actors—even those working on the same spe- advocacy requires a solid foundation based on evidence
cies or production systems, greater synergy and more collec- coming from research.
tive actions are required. This is not the first time that The multiple stakeholders of the Global Forum on
programmes and strategies for collective action have been Agricultural Research (GFAR) have prioritized the issue of
formulated (e.g. Jaenicke and Höschle-Zeledon 2006; sustaining a rich agrobiodiversity as one of prime global
Jaenicke 2010; APAARI 2010), and there are numerous ongo- importance. This position is supported by the Council of the
ing activities, for example the Platform for Agrobiodiversity International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food
Research (PAR),3 the Agricultural Biodiversity Initiative for and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) that also champions the impor-
Africa (ABIA),4 the NTFP Global Partnership Programme,5 tance of agricultural research on crop diversity and contains
agroBIODIVERSITY,6 the IFAD-CCAFS-UE-supported special provisions for the exchange of information, transfer
Project on Neglected and Underutilized Species,7 etc. of technology and capacity building related to plant genetic
Regional initiatives and multi-partner international ac- resources. Both organisations have identified as priorities
tions, recently those related to the International Year of the need to expand varietal conservation, exchange and use,
Biodiversity 2010, have highlighted the links between and the fair sharing of benefits derived from commercial
sustainable development and the use of agricultural di- exploitation of plant agricultural biodiversity, to include a
versity, especially the need to broaden the genetic base wide range of species that have huge local significance and
and to capture the traditional knowledge for crop pro- in many cases global market potential. Furthermore, both
ductivity. FAO and Bioversity International organized in organizations have used the term ‘development opportunity
2010 a joint scientific symposium to raise awareness of crops’ when referring to this valuable pool of under-
policy makers and research donors on the strong linkages valorised plant genetic resources.
between biodiversity, nutrition and environmental sus- An overview of the policy frameworks already in place
tainability (Burlingame and Dernini 2012). The top man- for the preservation of DOCs is available since 2008. It
agement of FAO gave a significant contribution to the clearly shows that broad-based recommendations, including
agrobiodiversity discussion during the high level policy ways to enlarge Annex I of the International Treaty to
makers and multi-stakeholders international conference include many of these crops and species, are not sufficient
on neglected and underutilized species in Cordoba, to influence decision makers in agriculture, biodiversity,
Spain 2012 (http://www.cultivosparaelsigloxxi.com/en/ education, health or trade sectors (Chishakwe 2008).
inicio.html). But it seems that the turnover of staff in Therefore, both GFAR and ITPGRFA wish to facilitate
the organisations partnering in these and other initiatives greater collaboration 8 and synergies among the many
and their often relatively short-term ‘project’ approach is programmes and initiatives addressing this need. This view
counterproductive to sustainable, long-term collaborative has been put forward in discussion with many other organi-
efforts. The other characteristic of most of these zations concerned about food security and sustainable agri-
culture in the future, and embedded in the final Cordoba
3
www.agrobiodiversityplatform.org. PAR’s goal is: “to enhance the Declaration9 on promising crops for the XXI Century, to be
sustainable management and use of agrobiodiversity by improving
presented at the United Nations’ Assembly in June 2013 as a
knowledge of all its different aspects. It seeks to promote research
and integrate, mobilize and share research findings on the sustainable key message behind the international year of quinoa. The
management of agrobiodiversity” key priorities of this Declaration, all focussing on neglected
4
This is an initiative by FARA, launched on 20 July 2010. ABIA and underutilized species but apply equally to DOCs, are as
supports efforts of SROs, NARS and Partners in R&D on agricultural
follows:
biodiversity in Africa; it will build partnerships for action, seek re-
sources and commission research; it will engage in advocacy for right
policies and for R&D in agricultural biodiversity – Raising awareness of these crops and their strategic
5
A global partnership programme supported by GFAR: http:// roles
ntfp.inbar.int/wiki/index.php/Main_Page
6 – Conserving genetic and cultural diversity
www.agrobiodiversity-diversitas.org. The agrobiodiversity cross-
cutting network of DIVERSITAS (www.diversitas-international.org) – Promoting their use in small–scale family farming to
aims to inspire and facilitate interdisciplinary research for understand- improve rural livelihoods
ing the role of biological diversity in agricultural landscapes. The
activities span the continuum from basic to applied research across
8
eight benchmark sites worldwide and include adaptive land manage- http://www.egfar.org/content/itpgrfa-gfar-collaboration
9
ment in collaboration with local stakeholders http://www.planttreaty.org/sites/default/files/Cordoba%20NUS%
7
http://bit.ly/QBvmuI 20Declaration%202012%20FINAL.pdf
– Developing value chains from production to consump- 7 Conclusions

tion and to gastronomy
– Changing incorrect perceptions and developing the ev- It is well documented that the present world food supply is
idence base highly dependent on a few key staple crops. In industrialized
– Enhancing research and capacities for promotion countries, these crops are grown on large farms using so-
– Building inter-sectoral and interdisciplinary collaboration phisticated equipment and high inputs of fertilizer and pest
– Creating a conducive policy environment control chemicals; a very small proportion of the population
– Establishing an Ombudsman for the future generations is engaged directly with agriculture, yet food is plentiful and
relatively affordable. Across much of the developing world,
To promote greater international synergy around this cru- there is a comparable dependence on a limited number of
cial agenda, the secretariats of GFAR and ITPGRFA are staple crops, but they are produced by smallholders who
spearheading the Diversity for Development (DforD) consume much of what they produce. Here, a large propor-
Alliance with the goal of “collaborative action to strengthen tion of the population is engaged directly or indirectly with
the role and value of agro-biodiversity and its sustainable use agriculture, yet hunger and malnutrition are commonplace.
in contributing to development aims”. The applied objective Within both global realms, there is great potential to
of this action is advocacy for research on the contribution that achieve productivity and long-term sustainability gains
DOC-based agrobiodiversity can play towards environment through crop diversification to include a much broader
smart and small-scale adapted global food production, and in array of crops and species.
particular on how to mobilize the contribution of minor and Through the four sections of this presentation, agricultur-
local crops or species to sustainable development. The DforD al farming systems, health and nutrition, environmental
Alliance brings together United Nations’ organizations, inter- sustainability and prosperity of the populations, the devel-
national research networks and institutions as well as civil opment opportunity crops bring benefits and services when
society, all concerned with generating, accessing and using well integrated in the food systems. All reported studies
knowledge of these crops and with promoting their sustain- emphasizing the roles of these crops also acknowledge the
able use and their value in development. This Alliance targets strategic synergy with major staple crops in feeding human-
three key development objectives: kind sustainably. There are thousands of minor crops, many
of which have yet to be improved by breeding or otherwise
1. Improving food security, nutrition and health—through studied in depth, with demonstrated potential to improve the
production of crops that provide household/community livelihoods of farmers while also providing options for both
food security and a diverse diet naturally rich in enterprise and diet diversification. Greater use of these de-
micronutrients; velopment opportunity crops can contribute importantly to
2. Enhancing resilience of farming systems and environ- the enhancement of global agrobiodiversity with all of its
mental services at field or landscape level (e.g. to man- biological, ecological, economic and societal benefits.
age pests and diseases or maintain soil fertility); and Prominent amongst these crops are a host of minor grains
3. Improving incomes for resource-poor smallholders by and pulses, edible roots and tubers, leafy vegetables, vege-
offering new marketing and value-added opportunities. table fruits, and perennial trees and bushes producing edible
fruits. There are little known forage species, medicinal
The initial focus of this initiative is on the opportunities plants, beverage crops and many minor herbs and spices.
for development that can be provided by recognizing and All have the potential to contribute important traits through
exploiting a much wider array of plants and crops in the hybridization or molecular genetics. None should be lost
environmentally smart and economically sustainable farm- before they can be studied and safely conserved.
ing and sustainable forest management systems that will be Incorporating them into profitable and sustainable farming
needed for the future. Too little attention is given to the systems is one way to ensure their preservation.
mostly marginal populations to whom these opportunity Increasing agrobiodiversity must be recognized as a pillar
crops contribute, both in terms of food security and occa- for building the robust, resilient and sustainable food pro-
sionally cash (Bourgeois 2006). Key to the approach of the duction capacity the world will need to feed 9 billion people
Alliance is raising the awareness and commitment of scien- in 2050. This goal can be achieved by devoting a much
tists and policy makers on the importance of increasing greater portion of the global agricultural research effort to
agrobiodiversity in the food systems of the future. The discovering and developing crops that are richer in essential
potential benefits of the DOCs within the context of sustain- nutrients, offer resilience to the host of production hazards
able and productive development have now been scientifi- that will come with climate change and are ultimately
cally documented and shall be used for policy, research and deemed attractive to both producers and consumers.
development proposals at a global scale. Fortunately, the plant genetic resources and the indigenous
knowledge needed to kick-start this research can be found APAARI (2010) The Suwon Agrobiodiversity Framework. The way
forward for managing agrobiodiversity for sustainable agriculture
throughout the developing world.
in the Asia-Pacific region. Rural Development Administration,
However, the ultimate food and agriculture development Republic of Korea, 13–15 October 2010. Asia Pacific Association
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tural Research (GFAR) is gratefully acknowledged for enabling collective
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Alliance among all those involved here. A grant from GFAR to
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GlobalHort Secretariat enabled the engagement of Dr. Hannah Jaenicke
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The authors wish to express their deep appreciation to Mark Holderness
food and nutrition systems: analyzing the role of agricultural
and Harry Palmier, GFAR Secretariat, for their leadership and much
biodiversity in enhancing human nutrition and health. Bioversity
needed support. The contribution of Ms. Anne Vogelsang in the literature
International, Maccarese
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Investigacion Agroindustrial

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Agron. Sustain. Dev.

Agrobiodiversity for food security, health and income

Accepted: 22 March 2013 / Published online: 18 April 2013

Dedicated to the memory of Dr Lois Englberger, 1949–2011, a

J. D. H. (Dyno) Keatinge : J. d’Arros Hughes

Market Local National International

on the level of operation of various markets, and the access

– Developing value chains from production to consump- 7 Conclusions

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