applied

sciences
Article
Energy-Saving Performance and Production Accuracy
of the Direct-Pressure Tire Curing Technology with an
Expandable Steel Internal Mold
Jinyun Zhang 1 , Bogang Wang 2 , Xiaoying Liu 2 , Lisheng Cheng 1 , Hua Yan 1 , Quanyong Ding 2 ,
Jing Tan 1 and Weimin Yang 1, *
1 College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029,
China; [email protected] (J.Z.); [email protected] (L.C.); [email protected] (H.Y.);
[email protected] (J.T.)
2 Triangle Tyre Co., Ltd., Weihai 264200, China; [email protected] (B.W.);
[email protected] (X.L.); [email protected] (Q.D.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]




Received: 5 November 2019; Accepted: 17 December 2019; Published: 20 December 2019


Abstract: Due to the low thermal conductivity and low rigidity of the rubber bladder, the traditional
tire curing process faces problems such as low efficiency, high energy consumption, and low production
accuracy. To eliminate defects, this work presents a novel direct-pressure curing technology (DPCT)
with a steel internal mold heated by electromagnetic induction. Special equipment featuring this
novel technology was developed and used for trial-production of tire with a specific size. The energy
consumption of sample tires was measured for comparison between the new technology and the
traditional one. Nonuniformity and unbalance of tires are tested, meanwhile, physical properties
of tread and sidewall parts of cured tires are tested. Furthermore, a finite element analysis (FEA) is
carried out to investigate the heating rate of the new curing technology and to optimize the curing
process. According to the results, with the new curing technology, the energy consumption per cure
cycle is cut down by about 86%, while the curing efficiency and the tensile strength of sidewall part
of the cured tire are improved by 22.5% and increased by 13.9%, respectively. In addition, the radial
force variation (RFV), couple unbalance mass and curing temperature difference are also reduced
by 16.8%, 37%, and 8 ◦ C, respectively. These results suggest that DPCT has excellent energy-saving
performance and production accuracy.

Keywords: curing; internal mold; energy consumption; electromagnetic induction heating;

production accuracy

1. Introduction
As the final key process in tire production, vulcanization not only determines the manufacturing
accuracy of the tire but also consumes the greatest amount of heat energy in the entire process of
production. As shown in Figure 1, in the traditional curing process of tires, the uncured tire is heated
by the saturated steam through the steel external mold and the rubber bladder, and a large amount of
steam is dissipated in the pipelines from the boiler to the vulcanizer. In particular, after the steam is
transferred to the vulcanizer, the green tire needs to obtain heat from the bladder. The low thermal
conductivity of the bladder has significant impacts on curing efficiency. In addition, since the saturated
steam pressure is interlocked with the temperature, the curing internal temperature is not freely
adjustable, leading to a long curing cycle.

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 79; doi:10.3390/app10010079 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 79 2 of 15
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 17

external mold
the press

cured tire

bladder

(a)

(b)

Figure 1. (a) Traditional curing technology during unloading tire and (b) the schematic of steam
Figure 1. (a) Traditional curing technology during unloading tire and (b) the schematic of steam
accumulation in the cavity of the bladder.
accumulation in the cavity of the bladder.
Many studies have been carried out to solve this problem. Guo et al. [1] presented a collaborative
Many studies have been carried out to solve this problem. Guo et al. [1] presented a collaborative
detection method with an artificial immune algorithm in which internal leakage of the steam trap was
detection method with an artificial immune algorithm in which internal leakage of the steam trap
defined as non-self-antigens and the steam pressure differences between the steam pipe and steam
was defined as non-self-antigens and the steam pressure differences between the steam pipe and
rooms (or bladders) were extracted as epitopes of antigens and reduced steam waste. Wang et al. [2]
steam rooms (or bladders) were extracted as epitopes of antigens and reduced steam waste. Wang et
presented finite element analysis (FEA) to evaluate the giant radial tire’s state of cure (SOC) and found
al. [2] presented finite element analysis (FEA) to evaluate the giant radial tire’s state of cure (SOC)
the shortest time that there was no under-cured region and optimized the temperature to reduce the
and found the shortest time that there was no under-cured region and optimized the temperature to
difference of SOC of tire constituents. As a result, the cure time changed from 9780s to 7680s. Gough [3]
reduce the difference of SOC of tire constituents. As a result, the cure time changed from 9780s to
used FEA software MSC.Marc in conjunction with Python scripts to calculate the press times meeting
7680s. Gough [3] used FEA software MSC.Marc in conjunction with Python scripts to calculate the
criteria for adequate cure for a wide range of thicknesses of rubber pads, and simple equations were
press times meeting criteria for adequate cure for a wide range of thicknesses of rubber pads, and
provided to estimate the cure time at any cure temperature. To minimize the temperature difference
simple equations were provided to estimate the cure time at any cure temperature. To minimize the
between the top and bottom points of the bladder and to find out the delay time in the tire curing
temperature difference between the top and bottom points of the bladder and to find out the delay
process, Pandya et al. [4] carried out fluid flow analysis inside the bladder. Reduction of delay time
time in the tire curing process, Pandya et al. [4] carried out fluid flow analysis inside the bladder.
and minimization of temperature difference can improve product quality and reduce utility costs.
Reduction of delay time and minimization of temperature difference can improve product quality
Su et al. [5] provided a combination method, in which the temperature history of surface points are
and reduce utility costs. Su et al. [5] provided a combination method, in which the temperature
obtained by thermocouples and inner points are predicted by the FEA method. The method was
history of surface points are obtained by thermocouples and inner points are predicted by the FEA
proved to be accurate and effective by the fact that maximum temperature error was not greater than
method. The method was proved to be accurate and effective by the fact that maximum temperature
3 ◦ C and the maximum SOC error was 5%. To cut the pressing time, radiation [6] and microwave
error was not greater than 3 °C and the maximum SOC error was 5%. To cut the pressing time,
technologies [7–9] were applied in the pre-curing of rubber components or green tire and to provide
radiation [6] and microwave technologies [7–9] were applied in the pre-curing of rubber components
assistant heat, electromagnetic induction technology was tried to be applied in the tire curing process.
or green tire and to provide assistant heat, electromagnetic induction technology was tried to be
Mitamura et al. [10] from Kobe Steel, Ltd. invented an apparatus comprising a heating coil and a
applied in the tire curing process. Mitamura et al. [10] from Kobe Steel, Ltd. invented an apparatus
high-frequency power supply. The apparatus is installed inside the bladder and generated heat to the
comprising a heating coil and a high-frequency power supply. The apparatus is installed inside the
steel cord and bead embedded in the deep position of the green tire. Okada et al. [11] invented a tire
bladder and generated heat to the steel cord and bead embedded in the deep position of the green
vulcanizer including mold, an induction heating unit, and a medium channel, which was connected to
tire. Okada et al. [11] invented a tire vulcanizer including mold, an induction heating unit, and a
medium channel, which was connected to the inner space of the bladder. The heating unit heated the
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 79 3 of 15

the inner space of the bladder. The heating unit heated the channel through electromagnetic induction
so as to heat the medium flowing through the channel to cure the raw tire. Although the above studies
can promote efficiency and reduce the energy cost of the curing process, the traditional heating mode of
tire curing has not been changed, where heat was supplied by steam for the raw tire through medium
channel and the heat conductivity of the bladder is poor.
On the other hand, the traditional tire curing technology has the defect that accuracy of the
produced tire is low. Firstly, variations in geometry and material often occur during components
preparation and the raw tire building. When raw tire is moved to the curing process, due to a lack of
sufficient rigidity, it is difficult for the high-elastic bladder that expands relying on steam to correct
the uneven raw tire. What is more, the bladder itself is often asymmetric because of incomplete
expansion, aging, adhesion, or unreasonable design, aggravating the problem. These situations would
result in the unbalance and non-uniformity of the tire, which seriously affect its operation and driving
safety [12–14]. Secondly, when the nitrogen gas with a pressure of 2.4–2.6 MPa is injected into the
bladder through the inlet following the steam, the saturated steam with a pressure of about 1.8 MPa
would naturally accumulate in the upper part of the bladder, because it has a lower density than the
nitrogen. This accumulation of steam would consequently result in temperature difference between
the top and bottom parts of the bladder. Due to heat exchange, the temperature difference increases as
the condensate water deposited at the bottom of the bladder increases, leading to the inconsistency of
SOC of the left and right sidewall, which affects the tire quality.
Facing the drawback of the traditional curing method, this work presents a novel direct-pressure
curing technology (DPCT) [15,16] and develops a set of special equipment utilizing a radially expandable
steel internal mold to replace the bladder. The internal mold generates heat through electromagnetic
induction in conjunction with the external mold instead of steam and pipelines. Sample tires were
trial-produced with the DPCT equipment. The energy-saving performance and high-precision
characteristics of the new technology are also discussed.

2. Development of Direct-Pressure Vulcanization Equipment

2.1. Steel Internal Mold

The internal mold is a primary part of direct-pressure curing equipment. Since it has higher
roundness and rigidity than the elastic bladder, geometry and material distribution of the cured tire
is more symmetric and more even, thereby improving balance and uniformity of the tire. The main
design difficulty of the internal mold is that a large expansion ratio λ should be obtained, in order to
meet the motion of the tire shaping and unloading, the expansion is defined as:

λ = d/d’, (1)

where d is the diameter of the cured tire cavity, d’ is the diameter of the bead toe of the cured tire.
As shown in Figure 2, the physical prototype of the internal mold for a selected size of tire is
composed of seven groups each of large- and small-segment radially driving mechanisms. When fully
expanded, the mold has an outer shape according to the surface of the finished tire cavity, and the gap
between adjacent segments should be small enough to prevent the rubber compound from leaking
during curing. The finite element method was applied to optimize the design of the internal mold, and
the strength of the mold was checked to ensure that the mold structure could remain stable without
deformation under high curing temperatures and pressures. Furthermore, to enable the mold’s easy
separation from the cured tire, the surface roughness of the segment should not be too low and the
venting lines should be opened on the surface of the segment.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 79 4 of 15
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17

wedge-shapped block

segment carrier

large segment
small segment

(b)
(a)
Figure2.2. The
Figure The schematic
schematicofofthe
theworking
workingprinciple
principleof
ofinternal
internalmold:
mold:design
designof
ofthe
themold
moldin
in(a)
(a)contraction
contraction
and (b) expansion states.
and (b) expansion states.

2.2.
2.2. Electromagnetic
ElectromagneticInduction
InductionHeating
HeatingSystem
System
The
Theinduction
inductionheating
heatingsystem
systemisisanother
anotherkey keypart
partof ofthe
theDPCT
DPCTequipment.
equipment.The Thehigh-frequency
high-frequency
current
current flowing into the coil winding generates a high-frequency alternating magneticfield,
flowing into the coil winding generates a high-frequency alternating magnetic field,and
andthe
the
magnetic
magnetic line of force passes through the metal mold to form a closed-loop circuit, causing aneddy
line of force passes through the metal mold to form a closed-loop circuit, causing an eddy
current
currenton on the
the mold
mold surface.
surface. DueDue to to the
thethermal
thermaleffect
effectof ofthe
theeddy
eddycurrent,
current,the themold
moldcan canemit
emitheat
heatat
at
high speed, thereby improving energy utilization efficiency and reducing energy consumption in
high speed, thereby improving energy utilization efficiency and reducing energy consumption in
vulcanization.
vulcanization.To Tonote
notethat thatsince
sincethethepolymer
polymermatrix
matrixisisin inaasolid
solidstate,
state,the
thefillers
fillersininthe
therubber
rubberare arenot
not
likely
likelytotoorient
orientwithwiththethemagnetic
magneticfield.field.
The
Thedesign
design of of the
the induction heating system
induction heating systemof ofthe
theinternal
internalmoldmoldisismore
morechallenging
challengingthan than that
that of
of the external mold. The internal mold is made of metal and composed
the external mold. The internal mold is made of metal and composed of irregularly shaped segments, of irregularly shaped
segments,
making itmaking
difficultitto difficult
achievetoaachieve
uniform a uniform
temperature temperature
of a single of asegment
single segment
and of all andsegments.
of all segments.
Figure
Figure
3 shows the design scheme adopted in this study. Each internal mold segment is independently
3 shows the design scheme adopted in this study. Each internal mold segment is independently
configured
configured withwith oneone induction
inductionheating
heatingunit.unit.ToTomake makethethe temperature
temperature uniform
uniform in each
in each segment,
segment, each
each
winding contains two series-coils symmetrically arranged on the two sides of the carrier. The
winding contains two series-coils symmetrically arranged on the two sides of the carrier. The
magnetizer controls the direction of the magnetic flux so that the temperature
magnetizer controls the direction of the magnetic flux so that the temperature at the end of the at the end of the segment
rises rapidly,
segment risesthereby
rapidly,ensuring that the temperature
thereby ensuring of each segment
that the temperature in the axial
of each segment in the direction of the
axial direction
segment rises synchronously, so that the tire can be uniformly vulcanized.
of the segment rises synchronously, so that the tire can be uniformly vulcanized. Moreover, the Moreover, the magnetizer
can shield parts
magnetizer excluding
can shield partssegments
excludingtosegments
prevent their beingtheir
to prevent heatedbeingthrough
heatedthe magnetic
through the flux that
magnetic
escapes from the magnetic field, which not only increases energy consumption
flux that escapes from the magnetic field, which not only increases energy consumption but may also but may also hinder
the part’s
hinder thenormal operation
part’s normal due to lengthy
operation overheating.
due to lengthy Table 1Table
overheating. shows1 theshowsmain theparameters
main parametersof the
electromagnetic
of the electromagneticinduction heating heating
induction system. system.
The controller in the electromagnetic
The controller inductioninduction
in the electromagnetic heating
system can use half-bridge or full-bridge modes. The full-bridge mode
heating system can use half-bridge or full-bridge modes. The full-bridge mode has greater circuit has greater circuit efficiency
than the half-bridge
efficiency one in general.
than the half-bridge one inAccording to the datatolisted
general. According in Table
the data listed1,inthe half-bridge
Table mode is
1, the half-bridge
adequate for the low
mode is adequate forpower
the low and the small
power and theinductance, and full-bridge
small inductance, mode is adequate
and full-bridge for the high
mode is adequate for
power and the big inductance.
the high power and the big inductance.

Table 1. Parameters of induction heating system.

External Mold
Internal Mold
Top Heating Plate Bottom Heating Plate Container
AC Power supply 380 V/50 Hz 380 V/50 Hz 380 V/50 Hz 380 V/50 Hz
Max. Power of
3 15 15 15
Controller (KW)
Number of Controllers 7 1 1 2
Resonance Mode Half-bridge Full-bridge Full-bridge Full-bridge
Inductance (µH) 90 150 150 150
Frequency (KHz) 18–22 18–22 18–22 18–22
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 79 5 of 15
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17

segment

magnetizer

magnetic line

coils

segment carrier

Figure
Figure 3. The heating
3. The heating unit
unit of
of the
the segment.
segment.

2.3. Process Validation

Table 1. Parameters of induction heating system.
Krupp 48” hydraulic Bag-o-Matic curing press was selected to be configured with the internal
External Mold
mold and induction heating system for process validation. More than 200 sample tires were prepared
Internal Mold Top Heating
both by using the DPC and traditional technologies with the outer Bottom
and inner temperatures
Container fixed at
◦ ◦ Plate Heating Plate
178 C and 185 C, respectively. The curing energy consumption of two batches of samples tires was
measured AC byPower supply meter
a watt-hour 380 and
V/50flow
Hz meter, 380respectively.
V/50 Hz 380investigate
To V/50 Hz production
380 V/50 accuracy
Hz of
Max. Power of
the DPCT, all sample tires were tested for non-uniformity and unbalance by the dynamic
3 15 15 15 balancing
machine, Controller
and physical(KW) properties of tread and sidewall parts of cured tires are also tested.
Number of
7 1 1 2
Controllers
3. Finite Element Analysis of the Process
Resonance Mode Half-bridge Full-bridge Full-bridge Full-bridge
The study of simulation in determining the optimal condition of the tire curing process is
Inductance (uH) 90 150 150 150
systematical and deep now, which shows significant advantages in reducing the development cost and
Frequency (KHz) 18–22 18–22 18–22 18–22
shortening the development period. A comparison of efficiency between traditional curing and DPCT
at the same temperature was made in this article. Cure pressure and temperature are interlocked
2.3. Process Validation
tightly in the traditional curing; on the contrary, DPCT temperature can be regulated freely. On this
basis,Krupp 48” hydraulic
cure times under six Bag-o-Matic curing press
different temperatures were was selected
worded outtoandbe the
configured with temperature
optimal cure the internal
molddetermined.
was and induction Forheating
the finitesystem
elementfor(FE)
process validation.
model, More than 200 sample
the temperature-varying tires wereproperties
thermophysical prepared
both
of raw byrubber
using components,
the DPC andthe traditional
anisotropy technologies with properties
of heat transfer the outer and inner temperatures
of composite fixed
materials, the at
heat
178 °C and 185 °C, respectively. The curing energy consumption of two batches
generation were taken into account, in addition, a tire model with not only longitudinal grooves butof samples tires was
measured
also by a watt-hour
transversal, meter and
sloping grooves wasflow meter,
created. respectively.
These settings ofTo
theinvestigate
simulationproduction
were derivedaccuracy
from theof
the DPCT,
actual curingallprocess.
sample tires were tested for non-uniformity and unbalance by the dynamic balancing
machine, and physical properties of tread and sidewall parts of cured tires are also tested.
3.1. Material Characterization
3. Finite
The Element Analysis
heat transfer of the Process
mechanisms and curing reaction kinetics provide a theoretical basis and
foundation in theoftire-curing
The study process
simulation [17]. Heat transfer
in determining of tire condition
the optimal curing can of
be the
described by theprocess
tire curing following
is
second-order
systematical and parabolic partial
deep now, differential
which showsequation:
significant advantages in reducing the development cost
and shortening the development period. A comparison of efficiency between traditional curing and
DPCT at the same temperature ∂2 T made ∂2 T in this
∂2 Tarticle.
. ∂T
k1 was + k2 + k3 + q = Cure
ρc ,pressure and temperature are (2)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
interlocked tightly in the traditional curing; on the contrary, DPCT ∂τ temperature can be regulated
freely. On this basis, cure times under six different temperatures were worded out and . the optimal
where k1 , k2 , and k3 are thermal conductivities in the x, y, and z directions, respectively, q, is the rate of
cure temperature was determined. For the finite element (FE) model, the temperature-varying
heat generation, “ρ” is the material density, and “c” is the specific heat capacity [18].
thermophysical properties of raw rubber components, the anisotropy of heat transfer properties of
composite materials, the heat generation were taken into account, in addition, a tire model with not
 ∂x ∂y ∂z ,

where k1, k2, and k3 are thermal conductivities in the x, y, and z directions, respectively, qሶ , is the rate
of heat generation, “ρ” is the material density, and “c” is the specific heat capacity [18].
The curing process needs to be discretized into several isothermal steps because of its
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 79 6 of 15
temperature-varying nature. The Arrhenius law [19] is used to calculate the optimum cure time τ at
the selected temperature T:
The curing process needs to be discretized into 1 several  isothermal steps because of its
temperature-varying nature. The Arrhenius law [19]  used
E is
− to 
1 calculate the optimum cure time τ at
the selected temperature T: R  T T  (3)

τ = τ × e RE ( T1 − T1 )
0
τ = 0τ0 × e 0 ,
, (3)
whereττ00 is a measured cure time at temperature T00, E is
where is the
the activation
activation energy,
energy, and R is a gas constant.
Accordingly,the
Accordingly, thestate
stateofofcure
curecan
canbe
beobtained
obtainedduring
duringthe thenon-isothermal
non-isothermalcuring
curingprocess
processas:as:
 
Zt E  1 − 1 
E (1 − 1 ) 
D = t eRR TT T0 dt/τ T 0. (4) (4)
D = 0 e  0  dt/τ
0
0 .
The
The influence of reaction heat on vulcanization technology cannot be
influence of reaction heat on vulcanization technology cannot be neglected.
neglected. In In this
this study,
study,
the thermal flow-time curve was measured using the differential scanning calorimeter
the thermal flow-time curve was measured using the differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) thermal (DSC) thermal
analysis
analysismethod,
method,andandthen the the
then heat heat
flow-temperature
flow-temperaturecurve wascurveobtained and linearly
was obtained andfitted according
linearly fitted
to the temperature-time
according curve. Thecurve.
to the temperature-time fittingThe
results
fittingwere substituted
results in the computational
were substituted model by
in the computational
means
model ofbythe ABAQUS
means of the user subroutine
ABAQUS written in Fortran.
user subroutine written in Fortran.
3.1.1. Thermal Conductivity Test
3.1.1. Thermal Conductivity Test
The thermal conductivity of rubber changes with temperature during vulcanization. The
The thermal conductivity of rubber changes with temperature during vulcanization. The
thermal diffusivity and specific heat capacity of the rubber compound of each component at different
thermal diffusivity and specific heat capacity of the rubber compound of each component at different
temperatures were measured by an LFA447 laser flashing thermal conductivity meter to obtain the
temperatures were measured by an LFA447 laser flashing thermal conductivity meter to obtain the
thermal conductivity-temperature curve. Taking the tread component as an example, the thermal
thermal conductivity-temperature curve. Taking the tread component as an example, the thermal
diffusivity and specific heat capacity are shown in Figure 4.

(a) (b)

Figure 4. Relations of (a) thermal diffusivity versus temperature and (b) specific heat capacity
versus temperature.

3.1.2. Thermal Conductivity of Core-Rubber Composite Material

The orthotropic core-rubber composite belt layer, as well as ply, overlay, and chipper, are shown
in Figure 5a, where e is the distance between two cords; 1-direction, along the cords; 2-direction,
transverse to the cords; and 3-direction, transverse to the layer. The thermal conductivity of composite
material depends on the directions above. The blackened area is shown in Figure 5a is a representative
volume element as shown in Figure 5b, where h denotes ply thickness and a is the effective length of
cord circle. Thermal conduction in the material is closely correlated with the current flow conduction
in the circuitry, so the thermal resistance is represented by electric resistance. In addition, thermal
conduction in rubber and steel/fiber cord are completely independent, so in the 1-direction, the effective
composite conductivity is represented by the rule of mixtures as [19]

a2 × kc (h/4e) × kr
K 1 = K c × Vc + K r × Vr = 2
+ 2 , (5)
a + h/4e a + h/4e
 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 79 7 of 15

Appl. Sci. 2020,

where 10, x FOR
k and PEER
k are theREVIEW
thermal conductivity of cord and rubber, respectively. 8 of 17
c r

3
1/2e
2
1

h/2
3 a
e
2

(a) (b)

Rr1
Rr2
RC

(c) (d)
Figure
Figure A typical
5. A5.typical cord-rubber
cord-rubber composite
composite lamina.
lamina. (a) Natural
(a) Natural coordinates.
coordinates. (b) Equivalent
(b) Equivalent volume
volume cell.cell.
(c) (c) Equivalent
Equivalent thermal
thermal resistance
resistance model.
model. (d)(d) Local
Local discrete
discrete coordinate
coordinate system.
system.

The
3.2. Finite thermal
Element resistance model in the 3-direction is shown in Figure 5c, and the thermal resistance
Model
in general is
The FE model was built according to a commercially available high-performance passenger car
Rth = L/(A × k), (6)
tire (PCR): 255/30R22 TB596 with the following procedures: First, create a 2D mesh of smooth tire,
where
shown inLFigure
is the 6a.length of the
Second, heat aflow,
create A is the
3D mesh cross-sectional
of tread area, and
pattern, shown k is the
in Figure 6b.thermal conductivity.
Third, combine a
3DThus,
meshthe effectivetire
of smooth conductivity
spanning fromin thethe
3-direction
2D meshiswith the 3D mesh of pattern and we get the 3D
hexahedral tire, shown in Figure 6c.  
1
− a × Kr model.
! !
The scale is reduced L 1 by about 1 82%
1 compared
1 to a2etetrahedral eh It h/2 − a far fewer
requires
K3 = × = × + = + 1/ + , (7)
iterations and far lessACPU R time,eh andRresults
r2 in+
Rr1 greatly
Rc eh2 /2 accuracy.KFurther
improved c development
aehk r of
the software HYPERMESH based on TCL is made to mesh efficiently, accurately and automatically.
where Rc , Rthe
Accordingly, r1 , Rtime
r2 arewas
thermal resistances
reduced from 120 of three
min to parts shown
10 min in Figure
to mesh the 5b.
2D R c is the tire
smooth thermal
section resistance
and
of the square shadow cord region, R r1 is the thermal resistance of the up rectangle
the half-pitch hexahedral pattern model can automatically expand, pitch by pitch, to obtain a finite rubber region, and
Rr2 is the
element (FE)thermal
modelresistance
of the wholeof thepatterned
right rectangle rubber
tire. The mainregion. Rr1 andofRr2this
originality aremodel
differentis because
as follows: of the
firstly, 3D pattern model consists of the longitudinal, transversal even sloping grooves,can
width and length differences of the two rubber regions. The effective conductivity in the 2-direction
be calculated 2D
comparatively, as well.
or 3DAfter determining the effective
longitudinal-grooved model conductivities,
were used in the theprevious
heating rate can be
studies; calculated
secondly,
based on Equation (2) in the tire-curing process. The discrete local CS of
hexahedra rather than tetrahedral pattern was used in this article; thirdly, we got a 2D smooth mesh every element in belt 1 is
shown in Figure 5d. Effective conductivities
(Figure 6a) and pattern pitch (Figure 6b) array1 automatically k , k2 , and k3 are assigned to each element
with an important programming in the three
directions ofModel
development. the discrete local CS.
structure detail and sophisticated element make it of supreme accuracy.
Element type selection significantly reduced the element number and this brought about far fewer
3.2. Finite Element Model
iterations and far less CPU time. We proposed an efficient modeling tool up to the mustard of
industry The FE modelby
application was built development.
further according to a commercially available high-performance passenger car
tire (PCR): 255/30R22 TB596 with the following procedures: First, create a 2D mesh of smooth tire,
shown in Figure 6a. Second, create a 3D mesh of tread pattern, shown in Figure 6b. Third, combine a
3D mesh of smooth tire spanning from the 2D mesh with the 3D mesh of pattern and we get the 3D
hexahedral tire, shown in Figure 6c.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 79 8 of 15
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 6. Finite
Figure element
6. Finite (FE)
element models:
(FE) models:(a)(a)2D
2Dsmooth
smoothmodel,
model, (b)
(b) half pitch
pitch of
ofpattern,
pattern,and
and(c)(c)3D
3D
patterned tire. patterned tire.

The scale
3.3 Model is reduced by about 82% compared to a tetrahedral model. It requires far fewer iterations
Verification
and far less CPU time, and results in greatly improved accuracy. Further development of the software
To obtainbased
HYPERMESH temperature
on TCL isversus
made time
to meshandefficiently,
SOC versus time curves,
accurately we selected eleven
and automatically. points
Accordingly,
(Nodes 2, 5, and 7–11) for our numerical validation as shown in Figure 7.
the time was reduced from 120 min to 10 min to mesh the 2D smooth tire section and the half-pitch In the experiments, the
hexahedral pattern model can automatically expand, pitch by pitch, to obtain a finite element (FE)8,
temperatures of these points were measured with a thermocouple embedded in the tire. Nodes 2,
and 10ofwere
model the the
wholecritical points, tire.
patterned whichThewere usedoriginality
main to monitorofwhether the press
this model is as time was adequate
follows: firstly, 3Dto
meet cure criteria and to verify the accuracy of the FEA model. The temperature
pattern model consists of the longitudinal, transversal even sloping grooves, comparatively, of Nodes 1, 3,2D
4, and
or
3D longitudinal-grooved model were used in the previous studies; secondly, hexahedra rather thanas
6 on the surface of the tire also needed to be measured by the thermocouple since they were taken
the boundary
tetrahedral conditions
pattern was used of the FE article;
in this model. thirdly,
Since thewethermocouples
got a 2D smooth embedded in the6a)
mesh (Figure inner
andpositions
pattern
of the tire are difficult to be pinpointed and it is inevitable to introduce
pitch (Figure 6b) array automatically with an important programming development. Model structure artifacts. However, such
artifacts
detail andshould be ignorable.
sophisticated element make it of supreme accuracy. Element type selection significantly
reduced the elementFigure
As shown in number 8, the
andsimulated
this brought data was far
about in good
feweragreement withfar
iterations and the test
less CPUdata, andWe
time. the
maximum error in the initial stage of vulcanization was caused by the simulated temperature
proposed an efficient modeling tool up to the mustard of industry application by further development.
boundary error. Conventionally, SOC at the critical point required as high as 50% when the tire was
removed
3.3. from being pressed and this period was called t50 of the critical point or the curing time in
Model Verification
mold. Table 2 compares the simulated and test values of Node 2, 8 and 10 in terms of temperature
To obtain temperature versus time and SOC versus time curves, we selected eleven points (Nodes 2,
and t50 differences. Results show that the maximum errors of the three points were all less than 5%,
5, and 7–11) for our numerical validation as shown in Figure 7. In the experiments, the temperatures of
indicating the reliability of the simulation model. The effectiveness of this method was proved not
these points were measured with a thermocouple embedded in the tire. Nodes 2, 8, and 10 were the
only on the passenger car tire but also on the off-the-road-tire (OTR) 27R49_TB526.
critical points, which were used to monitor whether the press time was adequate to meet cure criteria
and to verify the accuracy of the FEA model. The temperature of Nodes 1, 3, 4, and 6 on the surface
of the tire also needed to be measured 11 by the thermocouple since they 10 were taken as the boundary
conditions of the FE model. Since the thermocouples embedded in the inner positions of the tire are
difficult to be pinpointed and it is inevitable to introduce 8 artifacts. However, such artifacts should
9 7
be ignorable.
6 4 3 1
5 2
boundary error. Conventionally, SOC at the critical point required as high as 50% when the tire was
removed from being pressed and this period was called t50 of the critical point or the curing time in
mold. Table 2 compares the simulated and test values of Node 2, 8 and 10 in terms of temperature
and t50 differences. Results show that the maximum errors of the three points were all less than 5%,
indicating the reliability of the simulation model. The effectiveness of this method was proved
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 79
not
9 of 15
only on the passenger car tire but also on the off-the-road-tire (OTR) 27R49_TB526.

11 10

8
9 7
6 4 3 1
5 2
Figure 7. Locations of the selected points for results collection. Nodes 1 and 6: chafer end on the
internal profile, Nodes 3 and 4: chafer end on the external profile, Nodes 2 and 5: center of the apex,
Nodes 7 and 9: center of shoulder, Nodes 10 and 11: the second belt end, and Node 8: center of tread.

As shown in Figure 8, the simulated data was in good agreement with the test data, and the
maximum error in the initial stage of vulcanization was caused by the simulated temperature boundary
error. Conventionally, SOC at the critical point required as high as 50% when the tire was removed
fromSci.being
Appl. pressed
2020, 10, and REVIEW
x FOR PEER this period was called t50 of the critical point or the curing time in10mold. of 17
Table 2 compares the simulated and test values of Node 2, 8 and 10 in terms of temperature and t50
Figure 7.Results
differences. Locationsshowof the
thatselected points for
the maximum results
errors collection.
of the Nodeswere
three points 1 andall6:less
chafer
thanend5%,onindicating
the
internal profile, Nodes 3 and 4: chafer end on the external profile, Nodes 2 and 5: center
the reliability of the simulation model. The effectiveness of this method was proved not only on the of the apex,
Nodes car
passenger 7 and 9: but
tire center of on
also shoulder, Nodes 10 and 11:
the off-the-road-tire the second
(OTR) belt end, and Node 8: center of tread.
27R49_TB526.

(a) (b)
Relationof
Figure8.8.Relation
Figure of(a)
(a)temperature
temperatureversus
versustime
timeand
and(b)
(b)state
stateof
ofcure
cure(SOC)
(SOC)versus
versustime
time at
at Node
Node 10.
10.

Table 2. Differences between the simulation and experimental results.

Table 2. Differences between the simulation and experimental results.
Maximum Difference Maximum Error
Location Maximum Difference Maximum Error
Location
Temperature
Temperature t50t50 Temperature t50
Temperature t50
◦
Node 2 Node2 7 C 7 °C 2323
s s 3.78% 3.58%
3.78% 3.58%
Node 8 Node 8 5 ◦ C 5 °C 1717
s s 2.70%
2.70% 2.64% 2.64%
Node 10 6 ◦C 36 s 3.24% 5.55%
Node10 6 °C 36 s 3.24% 5.55%

4.Characteristics
4. Characteristicsof
ofDirect-Pressure
Direct-PressureVulcanization
Vulcanization Technology
Technology

4.1. Energy-Saving Performance

4.1. Energy-Saving Performance
4.1.1. Vulcanization Efficiency
4.1.1. Vulcanization Efficiency
The thermal resistance had a significant influence on curing efficiency. In the conventional process,
The thermal
the thermal resistance
conductivity hadbladder
of the a significant influence
was about on curing
0.09 w/mk and theefficiency.
thickness In the conventional
of heat transmission
process, the thermal conductivity of the bladder was about 0.09 w/mk and
was generally 5 mm. The thermal conductivity of the internal mold made up by steel was the thickness ofabout
heat
transmission was generally 5 mm. The thermal conductivity of the internal mold made
46 w/mk. The skin effect of electromagnetic induction could cause a rapid increase in the surface up by steel
was about 46 of
temperature w/mk. The skinmold,
the internal effectsoofthickness
electromagnetic induction could
of heat transmission causetoabe
tended rapid
zero,increase in the
therefore, the
surface temperature of the internal mold, so thickness of heat transmission tended to be zero,
therefore, the internal mold had essentially no thermal resistance. Accordingly the thermal resistance
of the bladder was much higher than one of internal mold. Furthermore, the process steps differed
between the new and traditional technologies. As shown in Figure 9a, in the traditional process, the
bladder was first injected with 0.03–0.08 MPa of nitrogen for shaping tire before closing the mold
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 79 10 of 15

internal mold had essentially no thermal resistance. Accordingly the thermal resistance of the bladder
was much higher than one of internal mold. Furthermore, the process steps differed between the new
and traditional technologies. As shown in Figure 9a, in the traditional process, the bladder was first
injected with 0.03–0.08 MPa of nitrogen for shaping tire before closing the mold until raw tire was
expanded to the diameter of D’ (step 1), which satisfies

D-D’ = h, (8)

where h is the pattern depth, and D is the overall diameter of the cured tire. Then the mold was closed
(step 2). Next, the bladder was filled with saturated steam (step 3) and the diameter of the raw tire
continued to expand to D. In another word, once the in-mold vulcanization started, the raw tire had
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17
not immediately contacted the external mold. In addition, the temperature of bladder needs to rise
◦
slowly repeatedly from lower than 80 C at the start of curing cycle since it is vacuumed at the end of
was closed in step 2. Moreover, the internal and external molds were kept at a constant temperature
the previous cycle to unload tire. Therefore the temperature rise of the raw tire would lag behind the
throughout the entire curing cycle. Therefore, when the curing cycle was started, the inner and outer
start of the curing cycle to some extent.
surface of the raw tire was heated without delay.
steel external mold
top heating plate

container

step2 bladder

steel
step3 step2 internal
mold

tire
tread segment
bottom heating plate

(a) (b)
Figure Flowchart
9. 9.
Figure of of
Flowchart closing thethe
closing mold of (a)
mold of traditional curecure
(a) traditional technology and and
technology (b) direct-pressure curing
(b) direct-pressure
technology (DPCT). curing technology (DPCT).

With direct-pressure
The changes in thevulcanization technology, asmode
internal heat-conduction shownandin Figure
process9b, when
steps the tire was
directly shaped
affect the
by the internal
temperature mold
field of before closing
the tire. moldshoulder,
The apex, by step 1,and
the diameter of the
tread of the tireraw
aretire directlydifficult
generally expanded to
to be
the maximum diameter D. Then the raw tire immediately contacted the external mold
cured in traditional curing process, as shown in Figure 10a–c, however, these positions are heated up when the mold
was
moreclosed
rapidlyin step
with2.direct-pressure
Moreover, thevulcanization
internal and external molds
technology. were kepttoatTable
According a constant temperature
3, in the condition
throughout the entire curing cycle. Therefore, when the curing cycle was started,
of the same curing temperature, the press time per curing cycle estimated by FEA was 723 s (Nodethe inner and outer
surface of the raw tire was heated without delay.
10) for the traditional process, the press time of DPCT was 643 s and the vulcanization efficiency was
The changes
increased in the
by 11.07% internal
with heat-conduction
the new technology. mode and process steps directly affect the temperature
field of the tire. The apex, shoulder, and tread of the tire are generally difficult to be cured in traditional
curing process, as shown in Figure 10a–c, however, these positions are heated up more rapidly with
direct-pressure vulcanization technology. According to Table 3, in the condition of the same curing
temperature, the press time per curing cycle estimated by FEA was 723 s (Node 10) for the traditional
process, the press time of DPCT was 643 s and the vulcanization efficiency was increased by 11.07%
with the new technology.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10. Relations of temperature evolution at different times at (a) Node 2, (b) Node 8, and (c)
Node 10 obtained by finite element analysis (FEA).

Table 3. Comparison of T50 of different components of the tire calculated by FEA.

Chafer Shoulder Apex Tread Belt Liner

 cured in traditional curing process, as shown in Figure 10a–c, however, these positions are heated up
more rapidly with direct-pressure vulcanization technology. According to Table 3, in the condition
of the same curing temperature, the press time per curing cycle estimated by FEA was 723 s (Node
10) for the traditional process, the press time of DPCT was 643 s and the vulcanization efficiency was
Appl. Sci. 2020,
increased by10, 79
11.07% with the new technology. 11 of 15

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10.
10. Relations
Relations of
oftemperature
temperatureevolution
evolution
at at different
different times
times at Node
at (a) (a) Node
2, (b)2,Node
(b) Node
8, and8,(c)
and (c)
Node
Node
10 10 obtained
obtained byelement
by finite finite element analysis
analysis (FEA).(FEA).

Table 3. Comparison of T50 of different components of the tire calculated by FEA.

Table 3. Comparison of T50 of different components of the tire calculated by FEA.
Chafer Chafer
Shoulder
Shoulder Apex
Apex Tread
Tread BeltBelt Liner Liner
Component
ComponentNode 1 Node 10 Node 2 Node 8 Node 7 Node 3
Node 1 Node 10 Node 2 Node 8 Node 7 Node 3
Traditional cure(s) 388 723 446 604 473 492
Appl. Sci. 2020,Traditional cure(s)
10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 388 723 446 604 473 492 12 of 17
DPCT(s) 315 643 328 615 538 489
DPCT(s) 315 643 328 615 538 489
the proper degree of curing was obtained through prolonging the press time at the lower internal
On the
On
temperature other
thein thehand,
other neither
hand, neither
traditional cancan
the impact
curing. of theofsaturated
the impact steam on
the saturated the cycle
steam timecycle
on the of thetime
traditional
of the
curing process
traditional curingbe ignored.
process beDue to
ignored.the correlation
Due to the of the temperature
correlation of the and pressure
temperature
In the new method, the interlocking relation between the internal temperature and pressure and of the
pressuresaturated
of thewas
steam, the internal
saturated steam,
decoupled, realizing temperature
the their
internal of the bladder
freetemperature
adjustment. cannot
of For
the bladder be set too high,
cannot be set
this characteristic, for the
sixtoo higher
high, for
internal the temperature
the higher the
temperatures were
the greater
temperature the
thepressure.
greater The
the combination
pressure. The of high
combination pressure
of and
high temperature
pressure and will cause
temperature
picked up for FEA, in order to cut down the press time. The certain external temperature of traditional the thermal
will cause
degradation
the thermal of the rubber
degradation ofcompounds
the rubber and damageand
compounds thedamage
crosslinked structure. Therefore,
the crosslinked structure. the proper
Therefore,
curing process was still adopted in consideration of the appearance quality of outer surface of the
degree of curing was obtained through prolonging the press time at the lower internal temperature in
finished tire being sensitive to the high temperature. According to simulation results shown in Figure
the traditional curing.
11, the temperature of rubber compound, which is usually difficult to be cured in the traditional
In the new method, the interlocking relation between the internal temperature and pressure was
curing process, rose more rapidly and higher process temperatures were obtained. As a result, it was
decoupled, realizing their free adjustment. For this characteristic, six internal temperatures were picked
earlier to reach to T50. However, excessive temperature would cause degradation of rubber parts and
up for FEA, in order to cut down the press time. The certain external temperature of traditional curing
appearance
process was defects on the tire,
still adopted such as trapped
in consideration of theair. Thus, the optimized
appearance internal
quality of outer temperature
surface was 205
of the finished
°C. T50 was calculated by FEA for various cure temperatures and is listed in Table 4. The curing cycle
tire being sensitive to the high temperature. According to simulation results shown in Figure 11, the
oftemperature
the proposed technology
of rubber was shortened
compound, by 162.6
which is usually s compared
difficult to be curedwith that
in the of the traditional
traditional curing
curing process,
method.
rose more rapidly and higher process temperatures were obtained. As a result, it was earlier to reach
to T50 . However, excessive temperature would cause degradation of rubber parts and appearance
Table
defects on the4.tire,
T50 calculated by FEAair.
such as trapped at different
Thus, theprocess temperatures
optimized with
internal the new technology.
temperature was 205 ◦ C. T50
was calculated by FEA
Cure for various
temperature cure temperatures
(°C) 185 and is195
190 listed in Table 4.205
200 The curing
210cycle of the
proposed technology was shortened by 162.6 s compared with that of the traditional curing method.
T50 (s) 643 621 600 579 560.4 543.6

(a) (b)
Figure 11. A comparison of (a) temperature and (b) SOC of point located at Node 10 at
Figure 11. A comparison of (a) temperature and (b) SOC of point located at Node 10 at different
different temperatures.
temperatures.

4.1.2. Energy Consumption

According to previous studies [1,20,21], in the conventional curing process, a vulcanizer with
leakage of steam trap will consume two to three times more steams, the leaked steam reached about
15% of the total consumption every year. In this work, the improvement was only with respect to the
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 79 12 of 15

Table 4. T50 calculated by FEA at different process temperatures with the new technology.

Cure Temperature (◦ C) 185 190 195 200 205 210

T50 (s) 643 621 600 579 560.4 543.6

4.1.2. Energy Consumption

According to previous studies [1,20,21], in the conventional curing process, a vulcanizer with
leakage of steam trap will consume two to three times more steams, the leaked steam reached about
15% of the total consumption every year. In this work, the improvement was only with respect to the
steam heating process. Since different processes and conditions are usually used during the curing
of tire, we did not compare our results with those of other companies or researchers. Instead, we
compared the results with the traditional steam heating process, which is extensively adopted in the
industry. In the new method, no heating mediums and pipelines are needed. The internal and external
mold rapidly heats up by cutting the magnetic line of force, and the generated heat energy is directly
sent to the raw tire.
According to measured results, the average energy cost of each tire with two technologies was
3.72 KWh and 26.5 Kg, respectively. According to The Norm of Energy Consumption for per Unit
Product of Tie (GB29449-2012), two energy types were converted into a standard coal equivalent
calculated in terms of the equal value. As shown in Table 5, it is observed that energy consumption
per cure cycle was cut down by about 86%. Due to the reduced energy consumption, the cost per
tire product with the mold was estimated to be only 50% of that with the bladder according to our
production data.

Table 5. Energy consumption per curing cycle.

Method Internal Heating (Kgce) External Heating (Kgce) Total (Kgce)

Steam 1.36 2.04 3.4
Induction heating 0.184 0.276 0.46

4.2. Production Accuracy

4.2.1. Non-Uniformity and Unbalance

Uneven mass distribution, geometric asymmetry, and variations in rigidity or force of the finished
tire usually come from component preparation or the green tire building process, because component
deformation or wrinkle, and uneven splice distribution often occur in these processes. However,
with the traditional curing technology, the low rigidity of the bladders makes it difficult to eliminate
or improve defects accumulated in the previous processes. Additionally, the bladder itself is often
asymmetric because of incomplete expansion, aging, adhesion or unreasonable design, which would
aggravate the problem of non-uniformity and unbalance.
Table 6 lists the test results of key items for evaluating tire nonuniformity and unbalance. According
to the results, the new technology improved product accuracy significantly. The radial force variation
(RFV) was reduced by 16.8%. The lateral force variation(LFV) and couple unbalance mass was reduced
by 24% and 37%, indicating that the internal mold was more effective in eliminating the defects
caused by the hemispherical or serpentine distortion of the tread, sidewalls, and other components.
Furthermore, the service life of traditional bladder was only 200–250 times in general, and the frequent
replacement made the produced tires of low repeat accuracy. Table 6 compares the nonuniformity and
unbalance of the tire cured with the traditional and proposed solutions. To note that the results listed
in the table were obtained by testing for 200 samples. The relative standard deviation (RSD) of the
items with the DPCT were smaller than that with the traditional technology, indicating that the repeat
accuracy of tires were improved relying on structure stability of the internal mold.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 79 13 of 15

Table 6. Nonuniformity and unbalance of cured tire.

Traditional DCPT
Items
Mean RSD (%) Mean RSD (%)
Nonuniformity
RFV (N) 11.13 22.06 9.26 18.6
LFV (N) 9.05 20.89 6.9 18.04
RFV1H (N) 5.87 22.48 4.66 17.34
Conicity (CON; N) 1.55 18.09 1.48 18.9
Unbalance
Static unbalance value (g cm) 1058.51 21 946.72 17.75
Couple unbalance mass (g) 13.72 23.4 8.64 19.21
Upper side compensating
22.72 25.65 17.33 17.63
unbalance mass (Upper; g)
Lower side compensating
26.25 23.3 22.27 18.32
unbalance mass (Lower; g)
Upper + Lower (g) 48.97 24.39 39.6 18.02

4.2.2. Uniformity of SOC

We conducted thermocouple measurements to obtain temperature versus time curves of the points
located at the inner surface of the sidewalls. As shown in Figure 12, temperature difference existed
at the very beginning of the traditional cure process due to the adiabatic compression of saturated
steam.
Appl. Sci.With thex passage
2020, 10, FOR PEERof vulcanization time, more and more condensed water was deposited15atofthe
REVIEW 17
bottom of the bladder due to heat exchange, and the temperature difference continued to increase,
aroundeventually
which the two ends of the
reached to segment
about 11 was the same,
◦ C, leading which ensures
to serious the consistency
uneven degree of curing of the degree
between of
the left
curing
and right of the left and right sidewalls.
sides.

Figure 12.
Figure Temperature difference
12. Temperature difference between
between outer
outer surfaces
surfaces of
of upper
upper and
and lower
lower sidewalls.
sidewalls.

The temperature difference dropped to 3 ◦ C when electromagnetic induction heating method was
4.2.3. Physical Properties
used. As for electromagnetic induction heating, due to the symmetry of the heating unit attached to
A tire is
the internal a composite
mold, the magneticof various rubberwas
field strength parts,
alsothe physicalSo,
symmetric. properties of the
that the eddy rubberdensity
current parts
determine
around thetire twooverall performance.
ends of the segmentAccording to thewhich
was the same, Tableensures
7, Physical properties ofoftread
the consistency changed
the degree of
slightly,
curing ofon thethe
leftcontrary,
and rightthose of sidewall changed significantly. Tensile strength of sidewall part of
sidewalls.
the cured tire was increased by 13.9%. It is likely that although under the same pressing force, the
4.2.3. Physical
pressure exerted Properties
by the internal mold on the sidewall was greater, which made the compounds more
compact and of higher
A tire is a composite crosslinking density.
of various rubber parts, the physical properties of the rubber parts determine
tire overall performance. According to the Table 7, Physical properties of tread changed slightly, on the
Table 7. Physical properties of rubber parts of the cured tire.
contrary, those of sidewall changed significantly. Tensile strength of sidewall part of the cured tire was
increased by 13.9%. It is likely that although under the Tread
same pressing force, the Sidewall
pressure exerted by the
Items
internal mold on the sidewall was greater, which made
Traditional the compounds
DPCT more compact DPCT
Traditional and of higher
crosslinking density.
Density (g/cm3) 1.154 1.159 1.110 1.101
Hardness (shore A) 58 59 47 52
Tensile strength (TS; MPa) 16.3 17.7 13.7 15.6
Elongation at break (Eb; %) 460 455 649 580
Stress at 100% Elongation (MPa) 2.3 2.3 1.3 1.3
Stress at 200% Elongation (MPa) 5.5 5.5 2.4 2.8
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 79 14 of 15

Table 7. Physical properties of rubber parts of the cured tire.

Tread Sidewall
Items
Traditional DPCT Traditional DPCT
Density (g/cm3 ) 1.154 1.159 1.110 1.101
Hardness (shore A) 58 59 47 52
Tensile strength (TS; MPa) 16.3 17.7 13.7 15.6
Elongation at break (Eb; %) 460 455 649 580
Stress at 100% Elongation (MPa) 2.3 2.3 1.3 1.3
Stress at 200% Elongation (MPa) 5.5 5.5 2.4 2.8
Stress at 300% Elongation (MPa) 9.9 10 4.4 5.3

5. Conclusions
To solve problems in traditional tire vulcanization technology, e.g., high energy consumption,
low vulcanization efficiency, and poor manufacturing accuracy, this work proposed a direct-pressure
vulcanization technology with the steel internal mold heated by electromagnetic induction heating.
Through simulation and trial-production of a certain tire size, the following conclusions can be drawn.

(1) Based on the same process temperature, the new technology reduced vulcanization energy
consumption by 86%.
(2) The new technology breaks the interlocking of internal temperature and pressure. Through finite
element simulation, the traditional process was improved and curing efficiency was increased by
22.5%, with the internal temperature of vulcanization raised from 185 to 205 ◦ C.
(3) The uniformity and balance of the tire was improved, with both RFV and couple unbalance
mass reduced.
(4) The temperature difference between the upper and lower sidewall of the raw tire was reduced
from 11 to 3 ◦ C, and the uniformity of degree of curing of sidewalls was clearly improved.
(5) Physical properties of the rubber parts of the finished tire were improved, which was especially
significant for the sidewalls.

The current internal mold structure was suitable for tires with an expansion ratio smaller than 0.45.
Further development is needed to expand the size series, which have a larger radial expansion ratio.
Moreover, the influence of internal pressure generated from the internal mold on the vulcanization
quality of tires remains to be extensively studied.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, W.Y. and J.Z.; methodology, B.W. and Q.D.; software, X.L.; validation,
X.L., J.Z. and J.T.; investigation, J.Z.; resources, H.Y; data curation, X.L.; writing—original draft preparation, J.Z.;
writing—review and editing, J.Z. and L.C.; visualization, B.W.; supervision, X.L.; project administration, J.T. and
H.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Key Research and Development Program of Shandong Province, China
(2019JZZY010450).
Acknowledgments: This work was sponsored by National Engineering Laboratory for Tire Design and
Manufacturing. Furthermore, the authors would like to acknowledge researchers of Greatoo Intelligent Equipment
Inc. who assist us in the mold processing. In addition, we are grateful to Shanglun Xun and Fei Liu for the
equipment debugging.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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