International Journal of Green Energy

ISSN: 1543-5075 (Print) 1543-5083 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ljge20

Rubber Tire Life Cycle Assessment and the Effect

of Reducing Carbon Footprint by Replacing Carbon
Black with Graphene

Tse-Hung Lin, Yu-Shu Chien & Wei-Ming Chiu

To cite this article: Tse-Hung Lin, Yu-Shu Chien & Wei-Ming Chiu (2016): Rubber Tire Life Cycle
Assessment and the Effect of Reducing Carbon Footprint by Replacing Carbon Black with
Graphene, International Journal of Green Energy, DOI: 10.1080/15435075.2016.1253575

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15435075.2016.1253575

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 Rubber Tire life cycle assessment and the effect of reducing

carbon footprint by replacing carbon black with graphene

Tse-Hung Lin*1, Yu-Shu Chien*2 ,Wei-Ming Chiu1,

Graduate Institute of Precision Manufacturing 1

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Department of Chemical and Materials engineering 2

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National Chin-Yi University of Technology

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*Corresponding [email protected] , [email protected]

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ABSTRACT
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This research utilizes real operating data from a tire plant operating in Central Taiwan to investigate the

carbon footprint emissions involved in producing the electric bicycle. The simulation results are based on the
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PAS2050 standard using the SimaPro7.3 software tool. Our results show that total carbon footprint emissions

of 1.2 Kg tire for the electric bicycle weighing 4.53 Kg CO2e, composed of 2.63 Kg CO2e from raw tire
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materials stage, 1.295 Kg CO2e from the tire manufacturing stage, and 0.605 Kg CO2e from the tire transport

stage. An international certified organization (The British Standard Institute, BSI) verified our results accuracy
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to 98.7%.

We found the raw material stage carbon emissions were higher than that for the other two stages –
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manufacturing and transportation. Carbon black was determined the maximum source of carbon emissions in

the raw material stage. To reduce the tire plant carbon emissions, this paper recommends using graphene to
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replace carbon black. Graphene has been reported by many researches to improve the properties of rubber

products.

From our simulation results the carbon footprint 4.56 Kg CO2e of the origin tire plant uses 0.456 Kg

carbon black to produce 1.2Kg electric bicycle tires. This can be reduced to 4.29 Kg CO2e (5.92%), 4.03 Kg

CO2e (11.62%), 3.75 Kg CO2e (11.76%) and 3.49 Kg CO2e (23.46%) by using graphene to replace carbon

black 25wt%, 50wt%, 75wt% and 100wt% respectively. If we only focus on 0.456 Kg carbon black producing

1.08 Kg CO2e, the reduced carbon footprint will be 0.812Kg CO2e(24.81%), 0.547 Kg CO2e(49.35%), 0.28

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Kg(74.07%) and 0.0128Kg CO2e (98.81%) by using graphene to replace carbon black 25wt%, 50wt%, 75wt%

and 100wt%, respectively. From our analysis, graphene replacing carbon black can reduce the carbon

footprint. This has not been published in previous papers and provides a direction for the tire plant to save

carbon emissions.

Keywords: Carbon footprint、Life Cycle Assessment、Electric bicycle tires、Graphene、SimaPro7.3 software、

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PAS2050 standard

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1. INTRODUCTION

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Motor vehicles are used extensively throughout the world. Rubber tires are indispensible for motor

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vehicles. Motor vehicle tire production is increasing. The greatest tire use is in motorcycles at about 70%.

Governments have recently begun to reward people for driving electronic motorcycles to reduce carbon
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emissions. In this presentation, we focus on the carbon emissions of electronic motorcycle tires for the G102

E-Scooter Tire at 1.2KG weight.

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These tires are not easily decomposed by the natural environment, which causes many problems as
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follows (Sadhan, et. al., 2005):

(1). The tire size is too large to bury in fields in Taiwan. The tires do not decompose in the natural environment.
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(2).The tire water displacement causes dandy fever, i.e. break bone fever (an infectious disease in the tropics

transmitted by mosquitoes and characterized by rash and aching head and joints).
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(3). The collected tires pose a fire hazard easily causing fire conflagrations lasting many days. One fire incident

in Ontario, Canada lasted 17 days. Another incident at Chia-Yi, Taiwan lasted one week. The tire burn
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temperature is not high enough to prevent air pollution. – Dioxin is produced in tire fires (a highly poisonous

hydrocarbon that occurs as an impurity in some herbicides, defoliants, and other chemical compounds, and

sometimes as a byproduct of incineration).

Two researchers (Chen, 2000 and Tsia, 2008) studied the environmental impact and economic cost

analysis of used tires as a recovery resource. Recently, Qiang, et. al (2014) confirmed that grapheme is

one of the ideal fillers for rubber. Marianella et. al (2012) published that the interfacial interactions

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between FGS(Functionalized grapheme sheet) and the rubber matrix can accelerate the

cross-linking reaction, increase the electrical conductivity and cause an important enhancement

on the mechanical behavior of the NR(Natural Rubber) nano-composites.

However, a full analysis of the tire life cycle from manufacturing to the end of tire recycling has rarely been

reported. This paper uses real manufacturing data from a tire plant to calculate the carbon emissions

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corresponding to verified BSI. Our proposal is to use carbon graphite to replace carbon black in rubber tire

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products. Carbon graphite has been explored in many researches and claimed to improve the properties of

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rubber products (Brendan, 2006, Forrest, 2011 and Qiang Bu et. al., 2014). New simulations were conducted in

this work for improving the tire properties and reducing carbon emissions to provide a new operating strategy for

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the tire industry in Taiwan.
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This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 introduces tire manufacturing practices including the process,

the raw material compositions and the four actual plants that execute the manufacturing functions. This data is
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critically important for calculating the carbon emissions. Section 3 investigates the tire plant data using SimaPro

software, the LCA (Life Cycle Analysis) tool based on the PAS2050 regulations, to calculate the tire

manufacturing carbon emissions. It is demonstrated that our carbon emission calculation results are acceptable
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and verified by BSI. Section 4 suggests using graphene, recently explored by many researches that claimed it

can improve the properties of rubber products, to replace carbon black in tire production to reduce carbon
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emissions. Section 5 presents the conclusion.

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2. LCA (Life Cycle Analysis) tool of the SimaPro 7.3 based on the
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PAS2050
2.1 Descriptions

The most established product carbon footprint standard is PAS (Publicly Available Specifications) 2050, which is

an international standard for the carbon footprint of goods and services across the full life cycle. PAS 2050 was

prepared and published by BSI in 2008 and later updated in 2011. PAS 2050 builds on existing LCA methods

established through ISO 14040a and ISO 14044 by giving requirements specifically for the assessment of GHC

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emissions within the life cycle of goods and services. These requirements further clarify the implementation of

these standards in relation to the carbon footprint analysis of goods and services (ISO 14040) .

The LCA of SimaPro 7.3 software is used to analyze the carbon dioxide emissions since it is the standard tool

for analyzing LCA. The literature compared the many features including the capacity and database renewal,

interface use, on-line operation, transparent algorithm, convenient operation, learning friendly, etc., with three

software Simapro 4.0, Ecopo 1.5 and Gabi 3.0 (ISO 14044) .

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2.2 Define the system boundary

PAS 2050 consider that the boundary setting is very important part to calculate the carbon dioxide emission.

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PAS 2050 is based on Product Category Rules (PCR) to determine the life cycle stage of the overall product or

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service, which individually defines nine boundaries such as the raw materials, energy, production data,

production and services provided, business places, transportation, storage and the uses and final treatments.
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Our presentation considers Business-to-Business (BTB) of PAS 2050, which only includes the raw materials

and production dispatched to another agency and does not include the product distributed to the customer and

the product path used and the final waste treatments. This presentation is inventory of carbon footprint of the
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electric-bicycle tires, which goal investigates from the cradle to gate of the above tires process.

2.3 Manufacturing tire and its materials

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The tire manufacturing process is shown in Fig 1. There are three function blocks based on the system

classification, the input block, the manufacturing block and the output block. The input contains the main
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materials, auxiliary materials and the energy and resources. The manufacturing block contains the

manufacturing process, compounding, covering glue, lace curtain cutting, flat tire calendaring, steel wheeling,
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photo typing, vulcanizing, packing, transportation and equipments. The output is the waste which includes the

material edges from curtain cutting, the outer side edge, waste water, the waste steel wheels and the left over
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lateral edge materials from calendaring.

These classifications and fundamental tire materials are shown in Table 1. The fundamental materials

include natural rubber; synthetic rubber; carbon black; accelerator; steel wire and screen. The rubber

compositions are styrene- butadiene rubber, carbon black, extender oil, zinc oxide, stearic acid, sulfur and

accelerator as shown in Table 2.

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3. The real data used to investigate the tires manufacturing plant
3.1 Descriptions

This presentation investigates a real tire manufacturing plant to find the overall operating data including

the raw materials (main and auxiliary materials), the resources and energy used in the manufacturing steps

and transportation distance for these materials and products. The real record data for the electric bicycle

takes the proportional production rates from the real manufacturing data in producing many types of tires. The

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main tire plant does not include two outside satellite plants that execute the compounding and glue covering

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steps, as shown in Fig.1.

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3.2 The carbon emissions from the real tire plant carbon footprint

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The operating data for the main and auxiliary material in the input block can be seen in Tables 3 and 4.The

main materials include natural rubber; synthetic rubber; carbon black; accelerator; steel wire and screen. A
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single piece electro bicycle-tire with a stand weight of 1.2 kg, the bill of materials(BOM) of investigate data

includes the compositions and proportions and follows the standard procedures in PAS 2050 via Simapro7.3
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software to obtain the direct data as shown in Table 3.

The auxiliary materials contain Inner solvent, dioxide regent, clean pipe oil and heavy oil. The same routes
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are followed as in Table 4 above.

The energy and resources in the input block can be seen in Table 5. The compounding and gluing operations are

executed by the two outside satellite factories. And their operating data are shown in Tables 6 and 7, respectively.
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Table 8 shows the truck type weights and the distance between the satellite plants during the materials transport
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stage.

The real operating data are composed of four plants, two satellite plants situated at Taichung for
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compounding rubber and the second is situated at Changhua for glue covering. The third is the main plant

situated at Nantou for manufacturing beside the above two steps. The fourth is the materials warehouse which

is a materials depository situated at the Port of Taichung,

We put the materials data in Tables 3 and 4. The resources and energy data for the main plant are in Table

5. The operating data is in Table 6 (compounding satellite factory) and Table 7 (the gluing satellite factory). The

transport data is in Table 8 for the transport stage.

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 Figure 2 is the carbon dioxide emissions from electro-bicycle tire manufacturing using SimaPro 7.3. Figure

2 shows the regions from the bottom up to top (the color of red, green, yellow, and blue) indicating the carbon

dioxide emissions for the raw material stage, the compounding (outside plant), the gluing (outside plant), the

producing stage (inside plant) and the transport stage, respectively. We found that the largest carbon dioxide

emissions come from the raw material stage and the second largest carbon dioxide emissions come from the

production stage (inside plant). The third greatest carbon dioxide emissions come from the transport stage,

followed by the compounding stage (outside plant). The smallest carbon emissions come from the gluing stage

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(outside plant). Therefore, the most efficiency route for reducing carbon emissions is reducing the emissions

from the raw material and manufacturing stages. The last route is to reduce carbon emissions from the transport

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stage.

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Remarks an
Figure 3 shows the environmental Kg CO2e impact from all tire production stages using SimaPro 7.3. The total carbon

dioxide emissions are 4.53 Kg CO2e based on 1.2 Kg electric-bicycle tire produced per year. The values 2.63 Kg

CO2e, 0.882 Kg CO2e, 0.387 Kg CO2e, 0.0255 Kg CO2e and 0.605 Kg CO2e are for the tire material stages, the tire
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production (inside plant), tire compounding (outside plant), tire gluing (outside plant) and the tire transport stage,

respectively. Since the producing, compounding and gluing belong to the manufacturing stage, the overall
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manufacturing stage is 1.295 Kg CO2e.

Fig. 4 and Table 9 show that of the percentage of carbon dioxide emission for 2.63 Kg CO2e(58.06％), 1.295 Kg
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CO2e(28.59%) and 0.605 Kg CO2e(13.35%) correspond to the raw material stage, the manufacturing stage, and the

transport stage.
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3.3 Our inventory corresponds to BSI notarized

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To demonstrate that total carbon dioxide emissions are 4.53 Kg CO2e on the basis of 1.2 Kg electric-bicycle

tire/year produced are credible, BSI notarized 4.59 Kg CO2e (seen in Fig.5 ) can guarantee that our results are

correct and the accuracy attain 98.7％. To protect commercial secret, the name of the manufacturing tire plant

is erased in Fig. 5. To the author’s knowledge, there are very few papers published on carbon dioxide emissions

using real manufacturing tire plant data, verified by BSI.

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3.4 The carbon black is the maximum source of carbon emission on the raw material stage

Tables 10 to 14 show the detailed carbon dioxide emissions for the raw materials, energy and resources of

the main plant, two satellite plants and the transportation stage, respectively. The largest carbon dioxide

emissions of species or stages in these Tables, which can be chosen as the best recycle route to reduce carbon

dioxide emissions. We observe that recycling the carbon black belongs to more efficient recycling routes to

reduce carbon dioxide emissions because the carbon dioxide emission percentage of carbon black is more than

others in these Tables. To save distance in the transport stage, only the warehouse and main manufacture pant

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are left to substitute the real plants (the warehouse, two satellite plant and main manufacture pant) in this

presentation.

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4. Graphene replaces carbon black to reduce carbon emission
4.1 Descriptions
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From the previous analysis, the raw material stage carbon emissions are higher than the other two stages –

manufacturing and transportation. Carbon black is the maximum source of carbon emissions in the raw material
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stage. We suggest that carbon black be replaced with graphene to reduce the tire production carbon footprint.

The motivation is that graphene has very strong stretch resistance, good thermal conductivity and excellent heat
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dissipation effect, with much lower carbon emissions in comparison with carbon black.

Currently the rubber industry feels that the graphene surface is not yet practical for tire applications. We

therefore suggest replacing carbon black with graphene plasticizer added to the tires to enhance the tire quality.
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We used PAS 2050 and SimaPro7.3 software specification analysis tool inventory to analyze the carbon
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footprint at all rubber tire production stages.

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4.2 The simulated results the effect of reducing carbon footprint by graphene replacing carbon black

From our simulated results (Table 15 and Fig. 6), the carbon footprint 4.56 Kg CO2e of origin tire plant

(Section 3) which use 0.456 Kg carbon black to produce 1.2Kg tire of the electric bicycle tire can be reduced to

4.29 Kg CO2e(5.92%), 4.03 Kg CO2e(11.62%), 3.75 Kg CO2e(11.76%) and 3.49 Kg CO2e (23.46%) by using

graphene to replace carbon black 25wt%, 50wt%, 75wt% and 100wt% respectively. If we only focus on a basis

of 0.456 Kg carbon black producing 1.08 Kg CO2e, the effect of reducing carbon footprint are 0.812Kg

CO2e(24.81%), 0.547 Kg CO2e(49.35%), 0.28 Kg(74.07%) and 0.0128Kg CO2e (98.81%) using graphene to

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replace carbon black 25wt%, 50wt%, 75wt% and 100wt%, respectively. From our analysis, graphene replacing

carbon black can indeed reduce the carbon footprint, which has not been published in the previous paper. It

provides the direction to reduce carbon emission for manufacturing tire plant.

5. CONCLUSIONS
The contributions of this presentation include carbon emissions calculated using real operating data from a real

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tire plant inventory. The accuracy of this research was verified to 98.7% by international certified organization. We

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suggest a new direction in reducing carbon footprint by using graphene to replace carbon black. This idea has been

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verified by simulation based on real tire plant inventory. In the future, we will experiment with a prescription for

improving tire performance and find the optimum operating conditions based on the minimum tire manufacturing

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carbon emissions using graphene to replace carbon black.
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Acknowledgements
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This work was supported in part by the NSC under NSC103-313-E-167-001-CC2 (National Science

Council of Taiwan)
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REFERENCES
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1. Brendan and Rodgers,2004, “Rubber Compounding Chemistry and Applications”, Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.

2. BSI,2011, “PAS 2050:Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of
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goods and services “, London.

3. Carbon Trust,2006, “Carbon footprints in the supply chain: the next step for business”. Carbon Trust,
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London.

4. Ecoinvent, 2010, “Ecoinvent database v2.2 Swiss centre for life cycle inventories”, Dubendorf.

5. Fayong Li, Ning Yan, Yanhu Zhan, Guoxia Fei, Hesheng Xia, 2013, “Probing the Reinforcing Mechanism

of Graphene and Graphene Oxide in Natural Rubber” , Journal of Applied Polymer, 129: 2342–2351.

6. Forrest, M. J.,2001,“Rubber Analysis – Polymers, Compounds and Products”, Rapra Technology Ltd, United

Kingdom, London.

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7. Horng-Dar Tasi,2008, ”The evaluation of environment and economic benefit of recycling technology for used tires

in Taiwan”, Ms. Thesis, National Taipei University,

8. ISO 14040,2006,“Environmental management — Life cycle assessment— Principles and framework”, second

edition.

9. ISO 14044,2006,“Environmental management— Life cycle assessment — Requirements and guidelines”, first

edition.

10. Ku-Rong Chen,2000, ”The environment impact and economic analysis of the resource of recycle used tire”, Ms.

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Thesis, National Cheng Kung University.

11. Marianella Hernandez, Maria del Mar Bernal, Raquel Verdejo ,and Tiberio A. Ezquerra (2012), “Overall

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performance of natural rubber/graphene nanocomposites”, Composites Science and Technology , 73,

P40-46.

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12. Qiang Bu, Fang-Fang He and He-sheng Xia,2014, “Progress in Graphene/Rubber Nanocomposites”, Acta

polymerica Sinica, No.6, P715~723.

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13. Roger Brown,2006, ”Physical Testing of Rubber”, The fourth edition, Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.

14. Sadhan, K. De, Avraam I. Isayev, and Klementina Khait, “Rubber Recycling”, Taylor & Francis Group, New York,
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2005.
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 Figure 1. The flow chart of tire manufacturing plant

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Figure. 2 The carbon dioxide emissions of the manufacturing tire from SimaPro 7.3.

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Figure 3. The carbon emission of the overall manufacturing tires

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Figure 4 The carbon emissions of raw material, manufacturing and transportation stages during tire producing

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Figure. 5 BSI notarized in this presentation

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Figure. 5 BSI notarized in this presentation (continued)

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Figure. 6 The effect of reducing carbon emissions of carbon black replacing by graphene on the basis of 1.08 kg

carbon emissions in per unit tire carbon emissions accounted 0.456kg

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Table 1. The compositions of tire

classifications name types

steel wire steel wire bra-plated steel wire、 bronze steel wire

fiber organic carbon thread Nylon、Rayon、polyester

carbon back carbon back N110、N220、N330、N660

additive agent additive agent extender oil、zinc oxide、sulphur、rubber accelerators、

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antioxidant

rubber natural rubber 14% NR、SBR、BR、CR、IR

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synthetic rubber 27%

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Table 2. Tire rubber compositions and its functions

compositions performance w.t %

styrene- butadiene
tire main materials 62.1
rubber

carbon black reinforce、abrasion performance 31.0

extender oil rubber process for processing 1.9

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zinc oxide increase physical property of rubber for vulcanization 1.9

Increase physical property of rubber for controlling

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stearic acid 1.2
vulcanization

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combine the molecular of rubber for inter-digitation to hard
sulfur 1.1
and avoid deformation

accelerator catalyst for vulcanization rubber 0.8

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Table 3 Main materials

action data
materials analysis the source of action data
(unit used)

nature rubber 0.276 Kg supplier inventory

synthetic rubber 0.252 Kg supplier inventory

carbon back 0.456 Kg supplier inventory

accelerator 0.072 Kg supplier inventory

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steel wire(loss 1%) 0.09696 Kg supplier inventory

tire cord yarn (loss 1%) 0.04848 Kg supplier inventory

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Table 4 Auxiliary materials

action data
Materials analysis the source of action data
(unit used)

inner liquid 0.001 Kg direct measurement and SimaPro software computing

deoxidizer 0.000439 Kg direct measurement and SimaPro software computing

tube cleaner 0.000508 Kg direct measurement and SimaPro software computing

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heavy oil (specific gravity 0.91) 0.2989 Kg direct measurement and SimaPro software computing

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Table 5 The manufacturing steps of the tire plant

action data
the manufacturing
materials analysis (unit used) the source of action data
steps

electricity bill and emission factor 0.78 Kg

energy source electricity 1.1 KWH
CO2e/KWH

running water bill and emission factor 0.193 Kg

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energy source running water 0.008332 m3

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CO2e/m3

Liquid of Petroleum Gas purchase order and emission factor 1.755 Kg

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energy source 0.000013 L
(LPG) CO2e/L

air pollution (table

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sulfur oxide 0.0077 Kg annual report by examination
of declaration)

air pollution (table

nitrogen oxides
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0.0053 Kg annual report by examination
of declaration)
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Table 6.The stages of compounding of the tire plant

the stage of action data

Materials analysis the source of action data
manufacturing (unit used)

the stages of electricity bill and emission factor 0.78 Kg

electricity 46.64 KWH
compounding CO2e/KWH

the stages of supplier interrogate and SimaPro software

release agent 0.15 Kg
compounding computing

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Table 7.The stage of glue

action data
the manufacturing stage materials analysis the source of action data
(unit used)

electricity 68 KWH electricity bill and emission factor

the stages of glue
0.78 Kg CO2e/KWH

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Table 8 The stages of transportation of the tire plant

action data
the beginning of the source of action data
the ending of transportation types of car (unit used)
transportation

the factory of the address of factory and

the tire plant truck 16t 0.678 tKm
compounding the distance by GPS

the factory of the address of factory and

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the factory of tire truck 16t 0.642 tKm

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glue the distance by GPS

the factory of raw the address of factory and

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the factory of compounding truck 40t 0.78 tKm
material storage the distance by GPS

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Table 9 The carbon emissions of raw material, manufacturing and transportation stages during tire producing

carbon emissions accounting

raw material stage 2.63 Kg CO2e 58.06%

manufacturing stage 1.295 Kg CO2e 28.59%

transport stage 0.605 Kg CO2e 13.35%

Total 4.53 Kg CO2e 100.00%

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Table 10 The carbon emission compositions of tire producing on the raw materials stage

compositions action data Carbon emission accounting

(unit used) CO2e

nature rubber 0.276 Kg 0.538 Kg 11.90%

synthetic rubber 0.252 Kg 0.667 Kg 14.74%

carbon black 0.456 Kg 1.080 Kg 23.90%

accelerator 0.072 Kg neglect 0

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steel wire(loss 1%) 0.09696 Kg 0.0383 Kg 0.86%

tire cord yarn (loss 1%) 0.04848 Kg 0.123 Kg 2.74%

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inner liquid 0.001 Kg 0.000409 Kg 0

deoxidizer 0.000439 Kg 0.0000646 Kg 0

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tube cleaner 0.000508 Kg 0.00124 Kg 0.03%

heavy oil (specific gravity 0.91) 0.2989 Kg 0.176 Kg 3.89%

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Table 11 The carbon emission of tire producing on manufacturing stage

materials analysis action data (unit used) carbon emission CO2e accounting

electricity 1.1 KWH 0.858 Kg 18.94%

running water 0.008332 m3 0.0228 Kg 0.50%

liquid of Petroleum Gas (LPG) 0.000013 L 0.00161 Kg 0.03%

sulfur oxide sulfide oxides 0.0077 Kg 0 0

nitrogen oxides 0.0053 Kg 0 0

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Table 12 The carbon emission The energy of tire producing on compounding stage

compositions action data (unit used) carbon emission CO2e accounting

electricity (compounding) 46.64 KWH 0.38435 Kg 8.48%

antitank Agent(compounding) 0.15 Kg 0.00265 Kg 0.05%

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Table 13 The carbon emission of tire producing on gluing stage

compositions action data (unit used) carbon emission CO2e accounting

electricity(gluing) 68 KWH 0.0255 Kg 0.56%

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Table 14 The carbon emission of tire producing on transporting stage

the beginning of The ending of transportation action data CO2e Carbon accounting

transportation (unit used) emission

the factory of compounding the factory of compounding (Nantou) 0.678 tKm 0.252 Kg 5.56%

(Zhanghua)

the factory of compounding the tire plant (Nantou) 0.642 tKm 0.238 Kg 5.28%

(gluing)

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the factory of raw material the factory of compounding 0.78 tKm 0.115 Kg 2.54%

storage (Taichung) (Zhanghua)

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Table 15 The effect of reducing carbon emissions of carbon black replacing by graphene on the basis of 1.08 kg

Carbon emissions in per unit tire carbon emissions accounted 0.456kg

Original Carbon Graphene replace Graphene replace Graphene Graphene

Black 100% carbon black 25% carbon black 50% replace carbon replace carbon

black 75% black 100%

Carbon 4.56(0%) 4.29(5.92%) 4.03(11.62%) 3.75(17.76%) 3.49(23.46%)

emissions

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(kg/per unit

tire)

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Carbon 1.08(0%) 0.812(24.81%) 0.547(49.35%) 0.280(74.07%) 0.0128

emissions (kg) (98.81%)

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of 0.456kg

carbon back
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for per unit tire
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