ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL PURPOSES

1ST QUARTER LESSONS

EAPP
  focuses instruction on skills required to
perform in an English-speaking academic
context across core subject areas generally
encountered in a university setting

I. NATURE OF ACADEMIC TEXT

WHY WRITE?
1. To explore your life
 Writing in a personal journal helps you
learn about yourself.
2. To understand new ideas
 Writing in a learning log helps you
become better student
3. To show learning
 Your teachers assign paragraphs, essays,
reports and etc. to see how well you are
learning
4. To share ideas
 Sharing your ideas through writing is a great
practice in your academic and professional
aspects.
SPECIFIC AUDIENCE
ACADEMIC WRITING The audience is your teacher (for the most part), your
 is a process that starts with posing a question, peers who will read and evaluate your work, academic
problematizing a concept, evaluating an community that may also read your work. The
opinion, and ends in answering the question or assumption is that your audience is composed of people
questions posed in clarifying the problems, and who are knowledgeable on the subject that you are
or arguing for a stand. writing about.
LANGUAGE OF YOUR PAPER
PURPOSE OF ACADEMIC WRITING  Your audience should determine the language
 To inform- it shows or explains factual of your paper. For example, your audience is a
information. It’s the writer’s goal to enlighten group of experts on language policies, it is
the reader with topics that are usually real or acceptable that you use jargons such as
contain facts. vernacular, mother tongue, first language, or
 To argue a specific point- the writer attempts Englishes. But if your audience, however, are
to influence the reader and usually makes an your fellow students, you have to make sure
argument. that the words you use are explained in layman
 To persuade- it’s the writer’s goal to persuade terms.

the reader to agree with the writer’s opinion.
Rules/Practices in Academic Writing
Academic Writing is thinking. You cannot just write
anything that comes to your mind.
Consider the following:
 You should abide the set rules and practices in
writing.
 You have to write in a language that
appropriate and formal but not to pretentious.
 You also have to consider the knowledge and
background of your audience.
 You have to make sure that you can back up
your statement with a strong and valid
evidence.
Consider the ff. areas as you write:
 Content- clarity of the purpose and the thesis
statement, relevance on the supporting points
to the thesis statement, knowledge on the
subject matter.
 Structure- coherence and logical sequencing of
the ideas.
  Language and Style- word choice, sentence  Mechanics- grammar, punctuations,
construction. capitalization, formatting and documentation.
FEATURES OF ACADEMIC TEXTS CONCLUSION
COMPLEX  should not contain any new facts or ideas, but
 Written language has longer words, it is lexically rather function as a brief restatement of the
denser and it has a more varied vocabulary. main arguments and facts that have been
 Written texts are shorter and the language has treated in the essay.
more grammatical complexity, including more Recognizing Informational Text Structure
subordinate clauses and more passives. 1. Cause-effect or Problem Solving
FORMAL 2. Compare/Contrast
 should avoid colloquial words and expressions. 3. Description or Explanation
PRECISE 4. Connecting
 facts are given accurately and precisely. 5. Sequencing or Time-order
OBJECTIVE Cause-Effect
 objective rather than personal.  Authors use this type of text structure to show
 has fewer words that refer to the writer or the relationships, organize correlated factors, or
reader. show changes in results.
 main emphasis should be on the information Compare/Contrast
that you want to give and the arguments you  Provides a process of identifying how things are
want to make, rather than you. alike and different
EXPLICIT Description
 it is the responsibility of the writer in English to  Describes the main idea
make it clear to the reader how the various  Describes supporting concepts
parts of the text are related.  Describes key process
ACCURATE  Describes important details
  uses vocabulary accurately. Connecting
 Connecting text to self helps students explore
 most subjects have words with narrow specific
thinking
meanings.
 Connecting text to text helps students extend
HEDGING
understanding
 it is necessary to make decisions about your
 Connecting text to words helps students expand
stance on a particular subject, or the strength of
meaning
the claims you are making.
Sequencing
RESPONSIBLE
 Refers to putting actions or events in a
 you must be responsible for, and must be able
chronological order
to provide evidence and justification for, any
SQ3R
claims you make.
An active study-reading strategy
 You are also responsible for demonstrating an
Step 1 Survey
understanding of any source texts you use. Survey Examples:
STRUCTURE OF ACADEMIC TEXTS  What planning do you do before going on
THREE-PART ESSAY STRUCTURE  vacation?
 the reader is introduced to the topic that will be  What preparation must be done before building
discussed and to the argument that will be a house?
presented.  What do you do to get ready for a date?
 the discussion/analysis is carried out and the How to Survey?
results are presented.  Read titles and subtitles
 the argument is summed up and conclusions  Read bold-face print, italics
are drawn.  Read questions at end of section/chapter
INTRODUCTION  Look for key words
 to provide the reader with a clear idea of the  Skim through introductions and conclusions
focus and aim of the text  Look for margin notes
  the topic of the essay/article will be presented  Study graphics, tables and charts
in the introduction, Purpose of Survey
 often accompanied by a thesis statement (the • Improves background
claim that the writer wishes to make) • The better your background, the better
 provides the context/background of the your comprehension.
argument • Improves comprehension
 introduces the theoretical perspectives, • You will remember more
terminology, etc. that will be used • Maps out reading
 explains how the writing will be organized Step 2 Question
BODY How to Question?
 where the essay's (or article's) argument, ideas  Turn first bold faced subtitle into a question
and results are developed and discussed.  Ask what
  Ask who their significance is informed by what you have
 Ask why come to know and value from living in a
 Ask how particular time and place. But the texts you read
Purpose of Questioning were all written in the past, sometimes in a
 Gives reader a reason to read radically different time and place. To read
 Forces reader to pay attention critically, you need to contextualize, to
 Gives reader a “shopping list” recognize the differences between your
Example of Questioning: contemporary values and attitudes and those
 Heading: Particles in a Solid represented in the text.  
 Think: What might be contained in this 3. Questioning to understand and remember
paragraph?  Asking questions about the content.
 Question: How are particles in a solid  As students, you are accustomed (I hope) to
arranged? teachers asking you questions about your
Step 3 Read reading. These questions are designed to help
How to do Step 3: Read? you understand a reading and respond to it
 Read only one section at a time, looking for the more fully, and often this technique works.
answer to the question When you need to understand and use new
 Look for answers to questions information though it is most beneficial if you
 Talk to yourself write the questions, as you read the text for the
 Write in margins first time.
 Highlight  With this strategy, you can write questions any
 Draw graphic organizers time, but in difficult academic readings, you will
Purpose of Reading understand the material better and remember
 Read with the purpose of finding the answer to it longer if you write a question for every
the question paragraph or brief section. Each question
 Keep the reader’s mind focused on the text should focus on a main idea, not on illustrations
Step 4 Recite or details, and each should be expressed in your
How to Recite? own words, not just copied from parts of the
 Stop at the end of the section paragraph.
 Recall the question and answer it by: 4. Reflecting on challenges to your beliefs and values
 Saying the answer aloud  Examining your personal responses.
 Saying the answer silently  As you read a text for the first time, mark an X
 Taking notes in the margin at each point where you feel a
If the question cannot be answered, re-read-think personal challenge to your attitudes, beliefs, or
and try again status. Make a brief note in the margin about
Step 5 Review what you feel or about what in the text created
How to Review? the challenge. Now look again at the places you
 Return to first sub-title and recall question marked in the text where you felt personally
 Recall answers challenged. What patterns do you see?  
 Summarize all questions/answers 5. Outlining and summarizing
 Say it, write it, draw it  Identifying the main ideas and restating them in
Purpose of Review your own words.
 Locks information in long-term memory  Outlining and summarizing are especially
 The greatest amount of forgetting occurs right helpful strategies for understanding the content
after learning. Review slows this process and structure of a reading selection. Whereas
 Get to see all the important info one last time. outlining reveals the basic structure of the text,
summarizing synopsizes a selection's main
7 CRITICAL READING STRATEGIES argument in brief. Outlining may be part of the
1. Previewing annotating process, or it may be done
 Learning about a text before really reading it. separately (as it is in this class). The key to both
 Previewing enables readers to get a sense of outlining and summarizing is being able to
what the text is about and how it is organized distinguish between the main ideas and the
before reading it closely. This simple strategy supporting ideas and examples. The main ideas
includes seeing what you can learn from the form the backbone, the strand that holds the
headnotes or other introductory material, various parts and pieces of the text together.
skimming to get an overview of the content and  Outlining the main ideas helps you to discover
organization, and identifying the rhetorical this structure. When you make an outline, don't
situation. use the text's exact words.
2. Contextualizing  Summarizing begins with outlining, but instead
 Placing a text in its historical, biographical, and of merely listing the main ideas, a summary
cultural contexts. recomposes them to form a new text. Whereas
 When you read a text, you read it through the outlining depends on a close analysis of each
lens of your own experience. Your paragraph, summarizing also requires creative
understanding of the words on the page and
 synthesis. Putting ideas together again -- in your  Roman numerals for main idea
own words and in a condensed form -- shows  Capital letters for major details
how reading critically can lead to deeper  Arabic numerals for minor details
understanding of any text.  
6. Evaluating an argument Ex.:
 Testing the logic of a text as well as its I. Foods
credibility and emotional impact. A. Meats
 All writers make assertions that they want you 1. ham
2. pork chops
to accept as true. As a critical reader, you
B. Vegetables
should not accept anything on face value but to
1. broccoli
recognize every assertion as an argument that
2. carrots
must be carefully evaluated.
 An argument has two essential parts: a claim
2 Types of Outlining
and support. The claim asserts a conclusion --
1. Topic Outline
an idea, an opinion, a judgment, or a point of
-summarizes the main topics and subtopics of
view -- that the writer wants you to accept. The
the article in words or phrases
support includes reasons (shared beliefs,
Ex.: I. How do we learn English?
assumptions, and values) and evidence (facts,
A. By listening and speaking
examples, statistics, and authorities) that give
1. listen to English songs
readers the basis for accepting the conclusion.
2. converse in English
 When you assess an argument, you are
concerned with the process of reasoning as well
2. Sentence Outline
as its truthfulness (these are not the same
-Uses complete sentence for each topics and
thing). At the most basic level, in order for an
subtopics as it is more informative compared to topic
argument to be acceptable, the support must
sentence.
be appropriate to the claim and the statements
Ex.:
must be consistent with one another.  
I. How do we learn English?
7. Comparing and contrasting related readings
A. We learn English by listening and speaking.
 Exploring likenesses and differences between
1. Studying English by listening to English songs.
texts to understand them better. 2. Make English conversations with your partner
 Many of the authors we read are concerned
every day.
with the same issues or questions, but approach
how to discuss them in different ways. Fitting a Reading and Evaluating Arguments
text into an ongoing dialectic helps increase  The critical reader must be able to evaluate
understanding of why an author approached a arguments.
particular issue or question in the way he or she  When you evaluate an argument (a set of
did. claims), you determine its value or
persuasiveness.
GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS  To be able to do a good job evaluating
 Graphic organizers are visual representation of arguments, you need to know what an
knowledge that structures information by argument is and how an argument is put
arranging important aspects of a concept or together.
topic into a pattern using labels (Bromley, An argument is a claim that is supported by reasons or
DeVitis & Modlo, 1999). evidence.
 Their main function is to help present  When an author tries to persuade the reader
information in concise ways that highlight the that something is true or correct by presenting
organization and relationships of concepts. supporting reasons or evidence, an argument is
being made.
Graphic organizers are a helpful way to organize  This means that an argument is different from a
information. Graphic organizers are helpful statement.
because: *An argument presents logical reasons and evidence to
1. They help you understand how things go support a viewpoint
together.
2. They help you remember information better. Parts of an Argument
3. They make it easier to write your final draft.  ISSUE - problem or controversy about which
4. They help organize any type of writing. people disagree
 CLAIM - the position on the issue
OUTLINE  SUPPORT - reasons and evidence that the claim
-blueprint or plan of your paper is reasonable and should be accepted
-shows the order of various topics and the relationship  REFUTATION - opposing viewpoints
between the various parts
-way of formally arranging and developing your ideas Persuasion
Format of a formal outline:
  The author is trying to convince the reader that  Examples - should not be used by themselves
a claim is true by giving supporting reasons or  Statistics - can be misused, manipulated or
evidence. misinterpreted.
The Claim  Comparisons and Analogies - reliability depends
 The claim of an argument is the point of the on how closely they correspond to the
argument. situation.
 When an author makes an argument, it’s the  Relevancy and Sufficiency of Evidence - is there
claim that the author is trying to persuade the enough of the right kind to support the claim?
reader to accept as true.  Definition of Terms - should be carefully defined
and used consistently
 Cause-Effect Relationships - evidence that the
Types of Claims relationship exists should be present
CLAIM OF FACT - statement that can be proven or  Implied or Stated Value System - are they
verified by observation or research. consistent with your personal value system?
Ex.: Within ten years, destruction of rain forests
will cause hundreds of plant and animal species to Recognizing and Refuting Opposing Viewpoints
become extinct.  Question the accuracy, relevancy or
CLAIM OF VALUE - states that one thing or idea is better sufficiency of the opponent’s evidence.
or more desirable than another.  Does the author address opposing
Ex. “The Hows of Us” is the best movie of viewpoints clearly and fairly?
Kathryn Bernardo and Daniel Padilla.  Does the author refute the opposing
CLAIM OF POLICY - suggests what should or ought to be viewpoint with logic and relevant
done to solve a problem. evidence?
Ex.: To reduce shooting incidents in schools in Unfair Emotional Appeals
the US, more gun and metal detectors should be  Emotionally Charged or Biased
installed in public schools.” Language
 False Authority
Analysis athletes endorsing underwear
 To evaluate an argument, you need to analyze movie stars selling shampoo
it.  Association
 When you analyze an argument, you break it a car being named a Cougar to
down into its parts and examine them by remind you of a sleek animal
themselves and in relation to the other parts of a cigarette advertisement
the argument. featuring a scenic waterfall
 Appeal to “Common Folk”
Types of Support an ad showing a product being used
 REASON - a general statement that supports a in an average household
claim. a politician suggesting he is like
 EVIDENCE - consists of facts, statistics, everyone else
experiences, comparisons, and examples that  Ad Hominem - attack on the person
show why the claim is valid. rather than his/her viewpoint
 EMOTIONAL APPEALS - ideas that are targeted  “Join the Crowd” Appeal or Bandwagon
toward needs or values that readers are likely
to care about. LOGICAL FALLACIES
What is Fallacy?
Strategies for Reading an Argument • Fallacies are defects that weaken arguments.
1. Think before you read. • First, fallacious arguments are very, very
 What does the title suggest? Preview! common and can be quite persuasive, at least
 Who is the author, and what are his or her to the causal reader or listener. You can find
qualifications? dozens of examples of fallacious reasoning in
 What is the date of publication? newspapers, advertisements, and other
 What do I already know about the issue? sources.
2. Read actively. • Second, it is sometimes hard to evaluate
 Read once for an initial impression. whether an argument is fallacious.
 Read the argument several more times. • An argument might be very weak, somewhat
 Annotate as you read. weak, somewhat strong, or very strong. An
 Highlight key terms. argument that has several stages or parts might
 Diagram or map to analyze structure. have some strong sections and some weak
ones.
Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
 Evaluate Types of Evidence - Is it sufficient to TYPES of LOGICAL FALLACIES
support the claim? 1. Hasty Generalization
 Personal Experience - may be biased, so do not
accept it
Definition: Making assumptions about a whole group or seems particularly clear that this chain of events won't
range of cases based on a sample that is inadequate necessarily take place.
(usually because it is atypical or just too small).
Example: "My roommate said her philosophy class was 5. Weak Analogy
hard, and the one I'm in is hard, too. All philosophy Definition: Many arguments rely on an analogy
classes must be hard!" between two or more objects, ideas, or situations. If the
*Two people's experiences are, in this case, not two things that are being compared aren't really alike in
enough on which to base a conclusion. the relevant respects, the analogy is a weak one, and
the argument that relies on it commits the fallacy of
2. Missing the Point weak analogy.
Definition: The premises of an argument do support a Example: "Guns are like hammers--they're both tools
particular conclusion--but not the conclusion that the with metal parts that could be used to kill someone.
arguer actually draws. And yet it would be ridiculous to restrict the purchase
Example: "The seriousness of a punishment should of hammers--so restrictions on purchasing guns are
match the seriousness of the crime. Right now, the equally ridiculous."
punishment for drunk driving may simply be a fine. But *While guns and hammers do share certain
drunk driving is a very serious crime that can kill features, these features (having metal parts, being
innocent people. So the death penalty should be the tools, and being potentially useful for violence) are not
punishment for drunk driving." the ones at stake in deciding whether to restrict guns.
*The argument actually supports several Rather, we restrict guns because they can easily be used
conclusions-- "The punishment for drunk driving should to kill large numbers of people at a distance. This is a
be very serious," in particular--but it doesn't support the feature hammers do not share--it'd be hard to kill a
claim that the death penalty, specifically, is warranted. crowd with a hammer. Thus, the analogy is weak, and
so is the argument based on it.
3. Post hoc (false cause) *If you think about it, you can make an analogy
This fallacy gets its name from the Latin phrase of some kind between almost any two things in the
"post hoc, ergo propter hoc," which translates as "after world: "My paper is like a mud puddle because they
this, therefore because of this." both get bigger when it rains (I work more when I'm
Definition: Assuming that because B comes after A, A stuck inside) and they're both kind of murky." So the
caused B. mere fact that you draw an analogy between two things
* Of course, sometimes one event really does cause doesn't prove much, by itself.
another one that comes later--for example, if I register
for a class, and my name later appears on the roll, it's 6. Appeal to Authority
true that the first event caused the one that came later. Definition: Often we add strength to our arguments by
But sometimes two events that seem related in time referring to respected sources or authorities and
aren't really related as cause and event. That is, explaining their positions on the issues we're discussing.
correlation isn't the same thing as causation. * If, however, we try to get readers to agree with us
Examples: "President Jones raised taxes, and then the simply by impressing them with a famous name or by
rate of violent crime went up. Jones is responsible for appealing to a supposed authority who really isn't much
the rise in crime.“ of an expert, we commit the fallacy of appeal to
*The increase in taxes might or might not be one authority.
factor in the rising crime rates, but the argument hasn't Example: "We should abolish the death penalty. Many
shown us that one caused the other. respected people, such as actor Guy Handsome, have
publicly stated their opposition to it."
4. Slippery Slope *While Guy Handsome may be an authority on
Definition: The arguer claims that a sort of chain matters having to do with acting, there's no particular
reaction, usually ending in some dire consequence, will reason why anyone should be moved by his political
take place, but there's really not enough evidence for opinions--he is probably no more of an authority on the
that assumption. death penalty than the person writing the paper.
*The arguer asserts that if we take even one step
onto the "slippery slope," we will end up sliding all the 7. Appeal to Pity
way to the bottom; he or she assumes we can't stop Definition: The appeal to pity takes place when an
halfway down the hill. arguer tries to get people to accept a conclusion by
Example: "Animal experimentation reduces our respect making them feel sorry for someone.
for life. If we don't respect life, we are likely to be more Example: "I know the exam is graded based on
and more tolerant of violent acts like war and murder. performance, but you should give me an A. My cat has
Soon our society will become a battlefield in which been sick, my car broke down, and I've had a cold, so it
everyone constantly fears for their lives. It will be the was really hard for me to study!"
end of civilization. To prevent this terrible consequence, *The conclusion here is "You should give me an
we should make animal experimentation illegal right A." But the criteria for getting an A have to do with
now." learning and applying the material from the course; the
*Since animal experimentation has been legal principle the arguer wants us to accept (people who
for some time and civilization has not yet ended, it have a hard week deserve A's) is clearly unacceptable.
8. Appeal to Ignorance important and be distracted from the fact that
Definition: In the appeal to ignorance, the arguer the arguer has not given any evidence as to why
basically says, "Look, there's no conclusive evidence on a curve would be fair.
the issue at hand. Therefore, you should accept my
conclusion on this issue." 11. False Dichotomy
Example: "People have been trying for centuries to Definition: In false dichotomy, the arguer sets up the
prove that God exists. But no one has yet been able to situation so it looks like there are only two choices. The
prove it. Therefore, God does not exist." arguer then eliminates one of the choices, so it seems
Here's an opposing argument that commits the same that we are left with only one option: the one the
fallacy: arguer wanted us to pick in the first place.
*"People have been trying for years to prove Example: "Caldwell Hall is in bad shape. Either we tear it
that God does not exist. But no one has yet down and put up a new building, or we continue to risk
been able to prove it. Therefore, God exists." students' safety. Obviously we shouldn't risk anyone's
*In each case, the arguer tries to use the lack of safety, so we must tear the building down."
evidence as support for a positive claim about *The argument neglects to mention the
the truth of a conclusion. There is one situation possibility that we might repair the building or find
in which doing this is not fallacious: If qualified some way to protect students from the risks in
researchers have used well-thought-out question--for example, if only a few rooms are in bad
methods to search for something for a long shape, perhaps we shouldn't hold classes in those
time, they haven't found it, and it's the kind of rooms.
thing people ought to be able to find, then the 12. Begging the Question
fact that they haven't found it constitutes some Definition: A complicated fallacy, an argument that
evidence that it doesn't exist. begs the question asks the reader to simply accept the
conclusion without providing real evidence
9. Straw Man * the argument either relies on a premise that
Definition: One way of making our own arguments says the same thing as the conclusion (which you might
stronger is to anticipate and respond in advance to the hear referred to as "being circular" or "circular
arguments that an opponent might make. The arguer reasoning"), or simply ignores an important (but
sets up a wimpy version of the opponent’s position and questionable) assumption that the argument rests on.
tries to score point by knocking it down. *Sometimes people use the phrase "beg the
Example: "Feminists want to ban all pornography and question" as a sort of general criticism of arguments, to
punish everyone who reads it! But such harsh measures mean that an arguer hasn't given very good reasons for
are surely inappropriate, so the feminists are wrong: a conclusion, but that's not the meaning we're going to
porn and its readers should be left in peace." discuss here.
*The feminist argument is made weak by being Examples: "Active euthanasia is morally acceptable. It is
overstated--in fact, most feminists do not propose an a decent, ethical thing to help another human being
outright "ban" on porn or any punishment for those escape suffering through death." Let's lay this out in
who merely read it; often, they propose some premise-conclusion form:
restrictions on things like child porn, or propose to allow *Premise: It is a decent, ethical thing to help
people who are hurt by porn to sue publishers and another human being escape suffering through death.
producers, not readers, for damages. *Conclusion: Active euthanasia is morally
acceptable.
10. Red Herring *If we "translate" the premise, we'll see that
Definition: Partway through an argument, the arguer the arguer has really just said the same thing twice:
goes off on a tangent, raising a side issue that distracts "decent, ethical" means pretty much the same thing as
the audience from what's really at stake. Often, the "morally acceptable," and "help another human being
arguer never returns to the original issue. escape suffering through death" means "active
Example: "Grading this exam on a curve would be the euthanasia." So the premise basically says, "active
most fair thing to do. After all, classes go more euthanasia is morally acceptable," just like the
smoothly when the students and the professor are conclusion does! The arguer hasn't yet given us any real
getting along well." Let's try our premise-conclusion reasons why euthanasia is acceptable; instead, she has
outlining to see what's wrong with this argument: left us asking "well, really, why do you think active
*Premise: Classes go more smoothly when the euthanasia is acceptable?" Her argument "begs" (that
students and the professor are getting along is, evades) the real question (think of "beg off").
well.
*Conclusion: Grading this exam on a curve
would be the most fair thing to do.
*When we lay it out this way, it's pretty obvious
that the arguer went off on a tangent--the fact
that something helps people get along doesn't
necessarily make it more fair; fairness and
justice sometimes require us to do things that
cause conflict. But the audience may feel like
the issue of teachers and students agreeing is