Artículo Específico Gasto Energético PDF

Human Energy Expenditure
R. PASSMORE AND J. V. G. A. DURNIN

Fro-m the Department of Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland
and the Instittite of Physiology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland
HYSIOLOGICAL STUDY of man’s food needs and capacity for physical work be-
gan on a systematic basis about seventy years ago. Following upon Atwater’s
classic experiments with a human calorimeter at the end of the last century,
the validity of using rates of oxygen consumption as the basis for measuring energy
expenditure (indirect calorimetry) was firmly established. Throughout this early
period rates of energy expenditure during a variety of human activities were recorded.
Recently there has been a renewal of interest in such measurements. This is in part
due to the development of apparatus which can be conveniently applied under many
industrial conditions, where it had not hitherto been practicable to use the more
cumbersome apparatus designed for laboratory studies. Also, methods of work in
many industries and in agriculture have changed markedly. Machines increasingly
do the work formerly done by manual labor. This change is more noticeable in the
highly industrialized coun.tries, but it is spreading throughout the world. Much of
‘heavy’ industry now consists in controlling large sources of mechanical power by
means of levers and switches and the work for the human operator is often ‘light.’
Further, with increased productiveness there has been a shortening of the working
week. There is now time and opportunity for recreations on a scale altogether dif-
ferent from fifty years ago. Many recreations demand much expenditure of physical
energy and a wage earner may use his muscles more in his leisure time than during
his earning hours. These factors call for new assessments of human energy expendi-
ture,
Indirect calorimetry enables the energy expended to be determined while a de&
nite activity is undertaken for a limited period of time, usually measured in minutes.
More information is necessa.ry to assess the energy expenditure in daily life. This
energy has, of course, to be provided by the food, if health and activity are to be
maintained. In the past most assessments of total energy needs have been made from
dietary studies. This was the method used by Voit, Atwater and others, who first
stated the energy expenditure of a variety of occupations, after analyzing records of
the diets consumed by persons of known employment. The method is open to the
theoretical objection that it assumes that the diets consumed provide exactly enough
energy with no surplus or deficiency. It provides no direct yardstick of requirement.
Indeed in the East and elsewhere large numbers of people certainly have an insufi-
ciency of food for health and activity, whereas the high incidence of obesity in West-
ern countries shows that many consume regularly an excess of food over their physi-
cal requirements. There is a real difficulty in converting the results of dietary surveys
into tables of food requirements. Further, dietary surveys are always difficult and
expensive to carry out. This particularly applies to individual surveys, which pro-
vide so much more inform.ation than the less precise family surveys.
An alternative assessment of daily energy expenditure may be made by recording
the time spent in each of the various daily activities and measuring by indirect calo-
rimetry the metabolic cost of these. In this way a record of calorie expenditure through-
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802 R. PASSMORE AND J. V. G. A. DURNIN Vodzcnae 35
out the 24 hours can be drawn up. Orr and Leitch (108) in their revieiv in 1938give
such daily estimatesfor several occupations. These are, however, for the most part
illustrative only and based on limited physiological measurements.The amount of
data at that time was limited to some extent owing to the practical difficulties of
determining oxygen consumption with the Douglas bag under industrial and domes-
tic conditions. The development at the Max-Planck-Institut fiir Arbeitsphysiologie
(80, 103) of a light portable respirometer, which measuredthe volume of the expired
air directly, and simultaneously diverted a small fraction (0.3-0.6%) into a rubber
bladder for subsequent analysis, greatly facilitated indirect calorimetry+ This in-
strument, which weighs lessthan 4 kg. and can be worn on the back like a haver-
sack, has made investigations practicable under a great variety of conditions,
With this new aid to indirect calorimetry the Dortmund workers (87) ca+rried
out a survey throughout German industry during World War II. They made obser-
vations only on personsat work in the factories and the mines, but, by making as-
sumptions for energy expenditure outside working time, they expanded their results
and expressedthem in terms of daily energy requirements. Many recreations involve
heavy muscular work and energy expenditure may vary widely from personto person.
Soci,alcircumstancesdetermine in part the opportunity for physical recreations. In
peacetime, at least, any proper assessmentof total energy expenditure must include
considerationsof activities both at work and at leisure,in the factory and in the home.
Four surveys have been carried out in Britain in which overall energy expenditure
was measuredby a combination of indirect calorimetry and a complete recording of
the pattern of daily activities. The first (III) was a pilot study of a group of students
who led. a life arbitrarily restricted within the laboratory. The second (49) studied
coal face miners and colliery clerks; and in the other two (132, 39) the subjectswere
military cadets undergoing intensive training. In all these British and German sur-
veys the number of measurementsmade by indirect calorimetry number over 2000,
Xn addition there are numerous other measurementsin the literature over the last
50 years. Our purpose here is to present, in the form of tables, samplesfrom these
results. These tables by no meansinclude all the published work in this field, but are
a selectionwhich we hope will enable others interested in energy expenditure to make
assessments under field conditions.
In estimating the expenditure of energy of any individual, it is our experience
that larger errors are likely to arise from a failure to determine correctly the length
of time spent in any activity rather than in any assessment of the metabolic cost of
that activity. For instance, if a man walks to and from his work every day, it is es-
sential to know how long he spendson the journey. When compared Gth his other
activities, the exacl energy cost of the walking may be comparatively unimportant.
Further, one measurementof such an activity is only strictly applicable to the walk-
ing while the measurement is being made. An accurate value for an individual’r;
walking, in general, necessitatesseveral estimations under a variety of environmental
conditions. For these reasons,a value derived from an informative table may intro-
duce only a small error. Field experience is neededfor the proper useof such tables;
but if their use is combined with accurate determinations of the time spent in ea.&
ztctivity, which can be done by unskilled assistantswith no laboratory equipment,
the increasein error will be of little importance.
With t.he intelligent use of these tables we consider that estimates of individual
daily energy expenditure, accurate to within IO per cent, can be made with the help
of very few additional metabolic measurements.

October 1955 HUMAN ENERGY EXPENDITURE 803
To a certain extent the tables are comparable to tables giving the nutritive values
of food. In such tables the figures given are based on one or more analyses of indi-
vidual samples of foods. Yet they are used in calculating the energy value of mixed
diets and provide useful information of a reasonable degree of accuracy (135). Cer-
tain foods, notably milk and meat, vary widely in chemical composition from sample
to sample and, if these form a large proportion of the diet, analyses of the actual foods
consumed are desirable. Similarly in estimations of energy expenditure, if one ac-
tivity predominates, in a daily routine, actual measurements of the cost of this ac-
tivity will be necessary.
How to express the results has presented a problem. We have decided to give all
figures as kilocalories per minute (Cal/min.) of gross energy expenditure. Values ex-
pressed as Calories per hour are liable to misinterpretation, for very few activities
are carried out at a steady rate over such a long period. Both work and play take
place more commonly in periods of varying intensity lasting a few minutes only and
interspersed with rest pauses. The argument as to whether gross or net values are
best used is more complex. Most writers, including the Dortmund School, give their
results in net calories after deducting a value for basal or resting metabolism. In
many instances, the basal rate has not been determined, but calculated from one of
the standard prediction tables, This deduction seems an unnecessary procedure.
If allowances are made for the subject’s weight, gross values are more directly useful.
That it is wrong to deduct from the energy expenditure of work a value for the rest-
ing metabolism-before work has been suggested by Wachholder (Izg), on the ground
that the exercise itself may have an effect on the resting level of metabolism. Ac-
cordingly in the tables, we have added, where necessary to an author’s figure an esti-
mated value for the BMR, in order to make all the figures comparable. Variations in
basal metabolism from person to person are small in comparison with total energy
expenditure and no great error in any individual figure has been introduced. Most
of the figures reported have been determined at varying times of day unrelated to
meals. Accordingly, they include the values for the specific dynamic action (S.D.A.)
of food. The S.D.A. of food is very variable and it is uncertain to what extent, if any,
the energy involved can be utilized for muscular work (107, 96, 37). Attempts to
allow for the S.D.A. only give a false impression of accuracy. In some papers only
data for oxygen consumption have been given. These have been converted into
Calories using from 4.8 to 5.0 as the calorie equivalent of oxygen. Some data are ex-
pressed in Cal/sq.m. and these have been converted assuming a surface area of 1.80
sq.m., unless the exact value has been given.
We apologize to those authors who find their results quoted in a form different
from that in their original presentation. Had these liberties not been taken, the tables
would have been much more awkward and cumbersome.
SLEEP
Most people spend about one-third of a normal day in bed asleep and the energy
used in this way may account for one-tenth to one-quarter of the daily energy ex-
penditure.
The main problem in assessing the metabolism during sleep is how accurately it
can be assessed from the basal metabolism. Several series of experiments have given
conflicting results on this point, and it may help to understand the reasons for these
if we consider the manner of sleep. Kleitman (78) divides adults into three groups ac-
cording to the manner in which they rest. 0) Those who have absolute rest for about

804 R. PASSMORE AND J. V. G. A. DURNIN Vd?me 3.5
3 hours after the onset of sleep,followed by short alternating periods of relative and
absolute rest. b) Those enjoying absolute rest throughout the night. C) People whose
sleepis broken into many periods of relative rest. No data were given for the per-
centagesin each group. Johnson and Weigand (66) showedthat during sleepvarying
degreesof muscular movementsof the limbs take place, although the total time spent
in grossmovement appearsto be quite small (79, 51). These experiments show that
sleepmay vary markedly between individuals and, in any case,rarely meanslying
for 8 hours, motionlessand flat on one’sback.
In the direct comparisonsof the metabolism when asleepand awake, Delcourt-
Bernard and Mayer (29) observed a decreasein the basal metabolic rate during short
periods of sleep in three subjects, no change in a fourth, and an increasein a fifth
subject. An interesting point, which casts doubt on the value of basal metaboli.sm
studies,is that they found the dorsal decubitus position was not necessarilythe posi-
tion where gaseousexchangeswere lowest; in someindividuals there was a lower
metabolism when they lay on their sides, semi-flexed, or even curled up. This may
account partly for lower than basalvalues being recorded during sleep.
In a study of three healthy young subjects, Grollman (61) found exactly the
sameoxygen consumption when they were asleepas when they were awake a few
minutes later; i.e. sleepper sedid not affect the oxygen consumption. He found, how-
ever, that during the night the oxygen consumption decreasedgradually to a mini-
mum about 5 to 6 hours after the onset of sleep, and this minimum was about ro
per cent below the basalrates.
This lack of any appreciable difference between the metabolism while asleep
and while resting in the waking state agreeswith the findings of Loewy (90), Johans-
son (65) and Delcourt-Bernard and Mayer (29). On the other hand Mason and
Benedict (100) found a decreaseof about IO per cent below basal levels in seven
Indian women when asleep. The basal metabolism of these women was measured
early in the morning; their metabolism was then measureda few minutes later when
t.hey had fallen asleepagain, and they were later awakenedand a third estimate ob-
tained, The apparatus and experimental methods of Grollman, and Benedict and
311ason are so similar that it is difficult to explain the contradictory findings.
Mason and Benedict (100) estimate that the average of all experimentsprevious
to 1934 on the effect of sleep on basal metabolism indicates a decreaseof about 7
per cent (8, II, 61, 65, 94, 104, 113). However, almost without exception, these ex-
periments have been on fasting subjects and the majority have been short-period
experiments. Most authorities agree that the depth of sleepvaries throughout the
night so it seemsinaccurate to say that the metabolic cost of sleep is TOper cenf.
lower than the basal metabolism.
In summary there appears to be no doubt that in certain circumstances,and
particularly when fasting, the metabolism when asleepmay fall below the B&K
HojYever, at the beginning of a normal night’s sleep,owing to the effect of the last
meal, the metabolism may be above the basal level. These two factors tend to cancel
each other out and the BMR is certainly not far from the average rate of energy ex-
I)enditure throughout a normal night’s sleep. A departure of IO per cent above or
below the normal basal level involves an error of only some50 Cal. throughout; a
Ilight’s sleep,which is a very small proportion of the total q-hour expenditure. Thus
the BMR can be taken as a measureof the metabolic rate when in bed, asleepor
iawake.
It is not one of the purposesof this paper to review the literature on vzristions

%JKE I. ICNERGY EXPENDITURE CARRYING OUT PERSONAL NECESSITIES
Ref. Subj. Age St% Wt., kg. Activity Cal/min.

Lb?. of I2 S-r I 5 34 Dressing and undressing 2.3
Av. of 7 9-10 M. 35 Dressing and undressing 3.5
C.G.D. 28 M 58 Washing hands and face, brush- 2-S
ing hair
49 Bob T. 2s 68 Washing, and dressing 2.6
3.5 Av. of 3 43-55 70 Washing, dressing and undress- 3.3
ing
rrr *4v. of 5 2 r-23 73 Dressing, washing and shaving 3.8
39 AL of 9 18-20 69 Dressing 480
x17 Av. of 4 20-25 62 Washing and shaving 2.6
rr7 L4V. of 6 20-25 62 Dressing 3.0
in basal metabolism. Fleisch (45) and Robertson and Reid (I 18) give standards from
which the basalmetabolism.may be easily caIculated.
PERSONAL NIxESSITIES
Everyone spends some part of the day in carrying out personal necessities;
this includes getting up, going to bed, washing, shaving etc. In a schematic repre-
sentation of how a man may spendhis day Lehmann (8G) allows I hour for ‘persiinlich
Bediirfrisse.’ 130th the tempo and the t,otal time spent in these activites naturally
vary a great deal. ‘.I’able I records measurementswhich have been made on various
subjects.
This section deals with the energy cost of all methods of locomotion, w&ing,
climbing and running. Skiin,,<J mountain climbing and bicycling are discussedunder
RECRE.~TI~X~.
Walking is the commonestform of exercise and, together with climbing stairs,
may be for many people the only break in an otherwise sedentary life. Predicting the
energy cost of walking involves many uncertainties. In everyday life, people walk
very differently, First of all, the speedmay vary markedly, not only between indi-
viduals but also in the same individual on differing occasionsand even within the
course of the samejvalk. Many go at a uniform speedonly when walking for some
specific purpose, such as going to work, or to catch a bus or t,rain; in a society well
equipped with both public and private transport these occasionsinvolve exercise
last.ingonly a few minutes. A recreational walk, a constitutional stroll, or a shopping
expedition may last for a much longer period and the pace may vary greatly. The
ground covered may also change, not only in type of surface, smooth or rough, but
also in gradient; it may be level, uphill or downhill all the way, but sometimesis a
mixture of all three. The coefficient of variation in the metabolic cost of individuals
walking at constant speedis of the order of 15 per cent (96). This individual varia-
tion may be much lessthan variations clue to changesin speedand gradient.
Walking on the Level. From the latter part of the 19th century up to the present
day, many measurementshave been made of the energy expenditure of walking on
the level. The results have usually been independent of whether the subject wa.lk,ed
on all outdoor or indoor track or on a treadmill. Figure I is a compositegraph from
data recorded of ivalking at varying speedsin England (33), in Austria (IS>, in the
United States (12), in Germany (4) and in Italy (c$). The weights of the subjectswere

So6 R, PASSMORE AND J. V. G. A. DURNIN
f-9
-8
FIG.Energy expenditure
I.
walking level at different
on the
speeds. Abler and Herbst (4) * z
Benedict and Murschhauscr (I 2)
-+, Brezina and Holmer (15) 1,
Douglas and Haldanc (33) X,
Margaria (~$3) 0.
i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO
between 60 and 75 kg. For the present purposeso good is the agreementbetween the
data from thesefive laboratories that tabulation of the many other results seemsun-
necessary.
Over the range 3 to 6.5 km/hr. (approximately 2-4 mph) energy expenditure is
linearly proportional to speedand the relationship is expressedby the equation
c = 0.w + 0.5 (I >
where C = energy expenditure in Cal/min. and V = speedin km/hr. Figure I shows
that at higher speeds,energy expenditure increasesat faster rates.
The effects of weight, age, sex and race on walking on the level at constant speed
have been investigated (96). Measure.mentswere made on 50 personswalking untler
standard conditions at 4.8 km/hr. (3 mph). Statistical analysis showedthat age, sex
and race had no significant effect on the metabolic cost of the work. The energy ex-
penditure was found to be proportional to body weight. The regressionequation was:
c = 0.047w + 1.02 (2>
where IV is the gross weight in kilograms. A systematic study of the combined el-
fects of varying speedand varying weight has not been made. Table 2 however has
been drawn up by calculations from eqz&ions I and 2. The figures should predict
energy expenditure with an accuracy of about &IS per cent for any individual. If
walking occupieslessthan I hour a day the total error involved in using the table in
an assessment of energy expenditure over 24 hours will not be great. If walking plays
a larger part in the daily life of an individual, then measurementsof the metabolic
cost should be made.
Walking on an Incline. Grade walking has also been the subject of many iw
vestigations, both on a treadmill and outdoors. Most of the outdoor studieshave t-)ee~

0ct0ber q)yj HUMAN ENERGY EXPENDITURE 807
TABLE 2. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENERGY EXPENDITURE (Cal/min.) AND SPEED OF WALKZKG
(mph) AND GROSS BODY WEIGHT (lb.)
.-..-m-w--
_._.-.m-_-___1_-- -IIII--
--*-...-----
I Weight, lb.
Speed mph --
80 100 120 IqO 160 II30 200
-- -.- ----p--
2.0 I-9 2.2 2.6 2.9 3*2 3.5 3.8

24 293 2.7 3-r 3.5 3.8 4*2 4*5
3-O 2.7 3.1 3-6 4** 4.4 4.8 5.3
3-5 3*I 3.6 462 4.6 50 s-4 6.1
4.0 3-s 4-r 4.7 S-2 S-8 6.4 7-O
done either at high altitudes or using the old Zuntz apparatus which was both heavy
and clumsy for the subject. A most comprehensivetreadmill study was carried out
by NlIargaria (98). Figure 2 has been drawn from his data and showsthe energy cost
of walking up gradients of o, 5, 15 and 25 per cent plotted against rate of linear ascent:
in kilometers per hour for a subject of 70 kg wt. The effect of downhill gradients have
not been so systematically studied. Margaria found that going down a slope of I in
IO at varying speedsinvolved an energy expenditure of up to 25 per cent less than
walking on the level. On very steep declinesand especially at slow speedsenergy ex-
penditure mav be appreciably more than when walking on the level.
That theseresults have somegeneral applicability is shown by the observations
of Keys, Brozek? Henschel, Mickelson and Taylor (76). They found the mean rate
of energy expenditure by 16 healthy subjects, average weight 70.6 kg., walking at
5.6 km/hr. up a IO per cent incline to be 8.9 Cal/mm. This point is marked by a cross
in figure 2 and falls aImost midway between the lines for the 5 and 15 per cent slopes.
Running on the Level. Apart from athletes, it is unlikely that running will ac-
count for more than a tiny fraction of the total energy metabolism. Margaria (98)
snd Ogasawara(106) have shownthat the energy expenditure may vary from arou&
9 Cal/min. at a speedof 7 km/hr. t.o as much as 20 Cal/min. at speedsof 12 km/In.
and over. Variations in the calorie cost of running are great and depend on the de-
gree of training and efficiency of the subject.
Effect of Different Surfaces. The type of surface may have a slight effect on the
energy cost of walking. However, unless the surface is markedly rough, the effect
will probably not exceed IO per cent more than walking on a flat surface. Table 3
shows the increase in energy caused by rough uneven surfaces of varying texture
(53)
<’
Climbing Stairs and Ladders. Several measurementshave been made on stair
climbing (13,35,g3, III), someof them on women. Table 4 presentssomeof the data.
The values are for the combined motions of going up and down ordinary household
stairs; descendinginvolves only about one-third of the energy usedin going upstairs.
The values give this activity the appearanceof moderately heavy work, and it is a
common complaint of many housewivesthat the stairs are very tiring. However, as
Schneiderand Karpovich (I 21) have pointed out, to ascenda staircase,which in the
ordinary househas about fifteen zo-cm. stepsin each storey, representing a vertical
distance of about 3 meters, requires lessthan 2.5 Cal. for a 6o-kg. person. Addition
of the cost of descendingbrings the total to about 3 Cal. Even going up and down
stairs IO times in the day hardly adds a significant amount to the total metabolism.
The table also gives somevalues for climbing ladders with and without th.e addition
c,f loads (86).

80X 31. PASSMORE AND I’. V. G. A. D’URNPhT
FIG. 2. Energy expenditure walking

uphill at different speeds. Data frond
Margaria (98), except for one point -i-,
which is an average figure for x6 subjec-ts
from Keys et al. (76) l
km/hr
IY 2 3 4 5 6 7 ,8 ,9
b
RECREATIONS
Several hundred measurementsof energy expenditure covering a varietv of rt;‘cru-
;%tionshave been made. Tables 5 to 8 give a selection of results. Yet the/are by no
meanscompleteand the energy cost of many types of gameshasnot to our knowledge
ken measured.Table 5 dealswith the children’s activities, table 6 with light indoor
rc~reations, table 7 with moderately energetic games,dancing and outdoor activities,
ttrzd table 8 lvith heavy sports, such as swimming, climbing and skiing. So Inany fac-
tors may have a large influence on the energy expenditure during sports and recrea-
t ions that commentson someindividual results are necessary. -
Table 5 contains data for few of the vigorous activities that go to make up a
child’s life. When ‘playing in the schoolplayground’ (28), the children were impeded
by a Douglas bag on their backs; the children were Asiatics below European stand-
;trds of weight and the figures almost certainly do not represent typical children’s
play. The cycling was done on an ergometer. The very limited data available at the
moment are clearly insufficient to assessthe energy expenditure of a normal active
c*hild’smanifold activities.
In table 6, the data on young men playing cards were obtained by Douglas (32)
(luring two investigations in connection with the ventilation required for gasproof
;l,ir raid sheiters. He determined the rate of vitiation of the air in a sealedcompart-
rw tt below decks in a ship and in the dead end of a London underground railway

October 1955 HUMAN ENERGY EXPENDITURE
TABLES. ENERGYEXPENDITURE WALKINGONDU-FERENTSURFACE~ (58)

Su&ect, age 23, wt. 69 kg., ht. 175 cm.
Nature of Surface Speed, km/h. Cal/min.

Asphalt road 54 5-h
Grass track 56 6.2
Potato furrows s-4 6.9
Stubble field w 6.8
Ploughed field
-
53 7-6
TABLE 4. ENERGY EXPENDITURE,GOINGUP ANDDOWN STAIRS Ahm CLIMBING LADDERS

-----
-I.
--
Up and Down Stairs Without Load, Ht. of Each Stair, 15.2 cm. Climbing Ladder (86), Ht. of
Each Step, 17 cm.
--
Vertical Weight of subject, kg. Ver tica 1
-.
Cal/
-II
Ref. speed speed, Load min.
m/min. 59 1 65 1 69 1 75 1 79 1 80 j 83 ( 84 m/min.
-- -- .---
111 14.8 6.0 9-3 9-I 0

IX1 17.6 8-s II.8 20
35 Not 8.0 50
stated
70” 11.1 0 9-o
20 11.3
50 17.1
90* II.9 0 II.5
20 14.6
$0 25.4
system. Naval and military personnelof good physique were used. Each experiment
lasted up to 3 hours and the men were allowed to sing and play cards, but had to
remain seated. Seven experiments were done and up to 132 men acted as subjects in
each. Oxygen consumption per man varied from 445 to 535 ml/min. in these experi-
ments. This correspondsto a rate of energy expenditure of from 2.2 to 2.6 Cal/min.
The figures in table 7 are often subject to wide variations. In canoeing, for in-
stance, the effects of wind and current may increasethe energy cost by as much as
300 per cent. The figures quoted (133) are for moderately skilled men in favorable
knvironmental conditions. The figures for riding (50) showedremarkably good agree-
ment between the three riders, even though the experiments were done on different
days. Other data (116, I 17) for riding by cavalry and horse artillerymen are sum-
marized in tables 32 and 34.
The energy cost of bicycling varies greatly with speed.Despite the many studies
on bicycle ergometersin the laboratory, only Zuntz (137) in 1899 appears to have
madea systematic study of the effect of speedon energy expenditure during bicycling
on the road. The other figures given in table 7 are for subjects bicycling at their
own selectedspeed. Asmussen(2) has studied the energy expenditure of a subject
bicycling at 8.6 km/hr. and at 135 half pedal revolutions/min. on a treadmill, the
slope of which could be adjusted. Going uphill, energy expenditure in Calories per
minute (C) was equated with work done in kilograms per minute (E) by the equation
10.2E
C = + 2.25 (3)
1000

810 R. PASSMORE AND J. V. G. A. DURNPN Vd21?m3 35
TABLE 5. ENERGY EXPENDITUIU DURING CHILDREN'S RECREATIQKS
Av. x0.
of Energy Cost)
Ref. Subjects Age St% Wt., kg. Sport or Recreation Cal/min .
I26 I2 g-x I F 33 Sitting, listening to radio
124 6 7-8 M 22 Sitting, playing at puzzles
124 6 g-x I M 29 Sitting, playing at puzzles
124 IO 12-14 M 41 Sitting, playing at puzzles
I26 IO 6-9 M 37 Sitting, singing
8; 5 13-14 M+F 41 Playing balalaika, mandolin and
klavier
ws I2 g-12 F 34 Standing, drawing
125 7 IO-II M 35 Standing, drawing
126 13 g-11 F 35 Standing, singing
28 25 IO M 24 Playing, school playground
28 25 =4 M 32 Playing, school playground
124 6 7-8 M 22 Cycling
124 6 g-11 M 29 Cycling
124 IO I 2-14 M 41 Cycling
85 II 13-14 M+F 40 Carpentry
for rates of work varying from 200 to 1600 kg.m/min. Going downhill, leg movements
were reversed and the relationship between C and E over the samerange espresscd
by the formula
c = XE + 2.37 (4)
IO00
The ratio of the cost of positive to negative work is given by the ratio of the slopes
of thesetwo lines and in this casewas7.4. (The problem of the nature of negative work
is a fascinating one but outside the scopeof this review. Interesting experimentswith
full discussionare recorded by Abbott, Bigland and Ritchie, ref. I). The energy ex-
penditure during bicycling is in part dependent on the size of the tires. Dill, Seed
and Marzulli (30) have recently shown that the large tires now in fashion on Ameri-
can bicycles necessitatethe expenditure of about I Cal/min. more than when bicycling
at the samespeedon a similar machine with traditional narrow tires.
The figures for gymnastics (74) are averages of many estimations on one man
carrying out several types of exerciseprescribed in a British Army training manual.
The value for golf (49) was obtained by measuring the energy expenditure of a 9
handicap player continuously over two holes.The values for cricket (39) are basedon
measurementsof the different activities involved in the game in conjunction with n
time study during actual matches. They are thus an over-all estimate of the energy
expenditure of batting, bowling and -fielding.
The figure for associationfootball of 8.9 (range 6.0-12.0) Cal./min. is basedon
measurementswhile the men were actually in play with the ball. For 512estixnate of
overall expenditure during a game, an allowance for the times of relative inactivitjv
I%Tould be necessary(seeDAILY ENERGY EXPENDITURE RATES).
Most of the data for swimminggive details of the number of strokesusedand the
distance covered per minute. Recreational swimming with different strokes, resting,
floating and diving is usually fairly energetic and an over-all rate of energy expendi-
ture of 6 to 7 Cal/min. is probably common. The figures for swimminggiven in table
S are in general agreement with those of Karpovich and Millman (70). Swimming at:
speedsgreater than 50 m/min. may be very vigorous exercise, but the skill of the
swimmer is an important factor.

elctober 1955 HUMAN ENERGY EXPENDITURE 8xX
TABLE 6. ENERGY EXPENDITURE DURING LIGHT INDOOR RECREATIONS
Wt., Energy Cost,

Ref. Subjects 49 Sex b70 Recreation Cal/min.
49 Av. of 12 32 M 6Q Lying at ease I-4
39 Av. of 12 I9 M 70 Lying at ease 14
49 Av. of 16 34 M 66 Sitting at ease 1.6
*34 K.N. 24 M 62 Sitting at ease 1.6
35 Be 44 F 65 Sitting, eating 14
111 EViZTJ 21 M SO Sitting, listening to radio 2.0
III IUirt 21 M 82 Sitting, listening to radio 24
=34 H.114. 25 M 64 Sitting, writing 1.9
III Iah 21 M 82 Sitting, writing 2.2
III Evan 21 M 80 Sitting, playing cards I-9
III A listair 21 M 76 Sitting, playing cards 2.1
32 Av. of 112 Young M Sitting, playing cards 2.4
I27 62 Sitting, playing woodwind 2.0
=27 70 Sitting, playing horn 2.0
127 62 Sitting, playing flute 2.2
49 30 M 68 Sitting, playing accordion 2.2
91 34 M 62 Sitting, playing piano Q-5
I27 62 Sitting, playing violin 2.7
91 J.&t. 28 M 63 Sitting , playing cello 2.6
41 h;l 60 Sitting, playing organ 3*2
41 M 65 Sitting , playing organ 395
91 P.M-. 49 h!l 58 Sitting, playing drums 490
127 65 Sitting, playing drums 4.2
49 Av. of 5 26 M 69 Standing at ease I.7
49 Av. of 7 38 h!t 64 Standing at ease I.9
I34 ILK 25 hz 64 Standing, drawing 2.3
91 FL 50 M 64 Standing, conducting orchestra 2.;
91 O.B. 28 h4 67 Standing, playing trumpet 2.1
91 J.W. 67 h!I 71 Standing, playing double bass 2.5
49 Av. of 3 33 hl 64 Playing with children 3*5
DOMESTIC WORK
Domestic activities are varied and manifold. Table g showsa selectionof a large
number of measurementswhich have been made. Many-domestic tasks involve hard
physical work. However, the work necessaryand the amount of equipment and elec-
trical power available are very different in many homes,and the total daily expendi-
ture possibly varies more among housewivesthan in any other group. One systematic
study has been made (35). It was carried out in wartime Germany on three house-
wives, who lived in homeswith very limited equipment and each of whom was some-
what obese.
Table 9 showsclearly that domestic work may be heavy. In times when food is
scarceand a rationing system strictly enforced, the fact that many housewivesmay
be doing hard physical work is often overl.ooked. In such circumstancesfurther field
studies might be desirable.
MENTAL WORK AND OFFICE WORK
The brain has a very high rate of oxygen utilization, about 3.5 ml/Ioo gm/min.
(82). This amounts to nearly 50 ml/min. for the whole organ or roughly 20 per cent
of the total oxygen uptake of the body at rest. That concentrated mental activity
requires appreciable extra amounts of energy is a common assumption and someof
the early investigators claimed that this was the case. However, in 1909 Benedict
and Carpenter (IO) measuredin a respiration calorimeter the heat production of 22

3x2 FL PASSMORE AND J. V. G. A. DUKNIN Iwlkme j-5
wt.,
Ref. Subjects Age Sex kg* Recreation
39 Av. of 3 19 M 64 Driving a car
39 AK of 3 I9 M 64 Driving a motor cycle
133 Av. of 4 M 68 Canoeing, 2.5 mph
I33 Av. of 4 M 68 Canoeing, 4.0 mph
50 Av. of 3 M 73 Horse riding, walk
50 Av. of 3 M 73 Horse riding, trot
50 Av. of 3 M 73 Horse riding, gallop
=37 zuntz, L, M 7= Cycling (5.5 mph) -I* 5
=37 Zuntz, L” M 7= Cycling (9.4 mph) ;i.o
I37 Zmtz, L. M 7= Cycling (13.1 mph) 1P.L
39 Av. of IQ 19 M 69 Cycling (own pace) 8 .2
49 T.A. 27 M 57 Cycling (own pace) s-9
49 J.H. 32 M 67 Cycling (own pace) 6 .6
49 B.T. 28 M 68 Cycling (own pace)
III George 23 M 69 Dancing, petronella
III EtUH3 21 M 80 Dancing, foxtrot
1r1 .A listaiY 21 M 76 Dancing, waltz
III George 23 M 69 Dancing, rumba
III Av. of 3 21 M 77 Dancing, eightsome reel
49 W.B. 41 M 55 Gardening, weeding
49 G.B. 46 M 6; Gardening, weeding
49 GM. 40 M 63 Gardening, digging
74 27 M 68 Gymnastic exercises--
balancing exercises,
74 27 M 68 abdominal exercises,
74 27 M 68 trunk bending,
74 27 M 68 arms swinging, 13opping et c
115 M 68 Volley ball
49 G.C. 32 la 70 Bowls
49 J.K. 29 M 63 Golf
39 Av. of 2 20 M 69 Archery
39 Av. of 6 19 M 72 Cricket, fielding
39 Av. of 6 19 M 72 Cricket, bowling
39 Av. of 6 I9 M 72 Cricket, batting
.39 Av. of 7 I9 M 70 Tennis
university students during a 3-hour examination and during a control period and
stated that “the results obtsined in these experiments do not indicate that me11ln1
effort has a positive influence on metabolic activity.” In 1933Benedict and Benedict
(9) demonstrated beyond any manner of doubt that mental work requires an insig-
nificant additional expenditure of energy. They studied six subjects and oxygen
consumption was determined by spirometry, the subjects wearing a large helmet
and breathing through a closedcircuit apparatus. Experimental periods were about
rj minutes long; periods of reposeand mental activity alternated on each day and
were repeated on each subject for several days. The mental work consistedchiefly of
arithmetic and involved multiplication of pairs of 2 digit figures. The metabolism
rose from a mean of I .oo Cal/min. during repose to 1.04 Cal/mine during mental
effort. The maximum rise for any one person was0.06 Cal/min. The figure for repose
approximated to the theoretical basal values for the subjects and the mean increase
was only 4 per cent, This rise amounts to only 2.4 Cal/hr. Indeed only experienced
workers using accurate apparatus under the most careful experimental conditions
could have demonstrated such an increase satisfactorily. Other studies (;2r, 22, 88,

s13
TABLE 8. EXEKGY EXPEND~TUKE DCJKING IIECKEATX~KS ~XV~LVIXG IEXKD EX~~;RCISE
wt., Energy Cost,

Ktf. Subj. Age kg* Sport or Recreation Cal/min.
117 Av. of 4 23 68 Football, association 899
88a S.R. 22 66 Sculling at 51 m/min. 4-r
88a S.R. Sculling at 69 m/min. 6.4
8%~ S.R. Sculling at 97 m/mm. 11.2
8th J.L. 48 61 Sculling at 61 m/min. 4.8
88a J.L. Sculling at 87 m/min. 7.0
88a G.L. 32 50 Sculling at 93 m/min. 5, . 3
88a i .Ii. 31 52 Sculling at 68 m/min. 5 *5
93 J.R. 21 68 Swimming, breast stroke 1r.o
95 J.B. 21 68 Swimming, back crawl x.5
89 Av. of 2 71 Breast stroke, 20 yd/min. ,i -0
89 Av. of 2 71 Breast stroke, 30 yd/min. 7.5
89 Lb. of 2 71 Breast stroke, 40 yd/min. 10.0
89 90 Back stroke 25 yd/min. 5 -0

89 90 Back stroke 30 yd/min. ‘I.0
9 90 Back stroke 35 yd/min. C) . 0

g:: 90 Back stroke, 40 yd/min. II.0
8; 90 Side stroke, 40 yd/min. IT .o
89 90 Crawl, 45 yd/min. r I .j
89 90 Crawl, 55 yd/min. 14.0

39 Av. of 2 19 67 I-laying squash rackets 10.2
rr7 Av, of 4 25 65 Cross country running 10.6

38 AK of 2 83 Climbing
slope I in 5.7
5 kg load 10.7
<is iI\:. Of 2 Y
(3 1o-kg. load JI.0
38 Av. of 2 83 2o-kg. load 12.2
38 Lb. of 2 ‘i
c3 slope I in 4.7
s-kg. load
3s 83 x o-kg. load
3s 83 zo-kg. load
24 B.L. 83 Skiing,
level hard snow, 6 km/hr.
24 nr.iv. 57 level hard snow,
moderate speed
83 Walking
on hard snow 6 km/hr.
24 B.L. (-s 3 with snow shoes, soft
snow, 4 km/hr.
i1r.X. 57 Skiing
level hard snow, moderate speed 1 j ’ r)
6s uphill hard snow, max speed TS.h
c-
‘3 Walking, loose snow, zo-kg. load,
4 km/hr. 20.2
120) have given essentially the same result, but there is a great degree of individual
variation. Eiff and Gijpfert (40) studied 57 persons.The average rise of metabolism
on mental effort was 11.6 per cent, but differencesin singleexperiments ranged from
3-56 to - 2x per cent. Electromyographic studies were carried out simultaneou+
snd the authors concluded that a rise in metabolism during mental work could be
related to a correspondingrise in muscle tone.
In most of the papers quoted, mental work has entailed sitting still for long
periods. When an estimate is required for the calorie output of mental effort, the
value for energy expenditure when sitting still will give an accurate figure. However,

814 R. PASSMORE AND J. V. G. A. DURNIN tz701zknr e 35
TABLE 9. ENERGY E~P~DI~RE DURING DOMESTIC worn
wt.,
Ref. Subj. Age sex kg* Activity
84 Av. of z 22 F so Sewing, 30 stitches/mine
84 Av. of 2 22 F 50 Knitting, 23 stitches/min.
I34 CN F 44 Hand sewing
134 CN F 44 Sewing with machine
83 Av. of 4 22 F 50 Sweeping floors
35 Al 43 F 84 Simple work sitting
20 C.G.D. 28 M 58 Brushing boots
35 Al 43 F 84 Washing sma,ll clothes
39 Av. of 5 20 M 71 Polishing
III George 23 M 69 Peeling potatoes
130 Av. of 3 31 F 48 Scrubbing standing
35 Al 43 F $4 Stirring
20 C.G.D. 28 MI 58 Cleaning windows
35 Be 44 F 6.5 Washing small clothes
35 Al 43 F 84 Bringing in the wash
35 Be 44 F 65 Kneading dough
130 Av. of 3 31 F 48 Scrubbing, kneeling
49 Bob T. 28 M 68 Getting in coals
35 Ha $5 F 80 Scrubbi ng floors
1x7 Av. of IO 24 M GI Cleaning windows
117 Av. of xo 24 M 61 Tidying beds
35 HO 55 F 80 Mopping
39 Av. of 5 19 M 67 Ironing
35 Be 44 F 65 Wringing the wash by hand
35 Ho 55 F SO Taking out and hanging out the
wash
35 Al 43 F 84 Polishing floor
49 Bob T. 28 M 68 Breaking firewood
49 Be 44 F 6s Beating carpets and mats
49 Al 43 F 84 Taking and hanging out the wash-
ing
49 HO 55 F 80 Bed making, bed stripping
49 AZ 43 F 84 Clearing floor ‘kneeling and Exnd-
ing’
49 Be 44 F 6s Putting washing through mangle
49 Al 43 F s
c4 Scrubbing
49 Ho 55 F 80 Beating and brushing carpets
49 Al 43 F 84 Putting washing through mangle
.
most types of mental and clerical work mvolve some pnyslcar actlvlty, such as
1 1 l 1 .* l
writing, opening and shutting books and drawers, walking acrossa room to get a,
book or paper. We have made an extensive investigation on IO male clerks during
normal work in a colliery office (49). Energy expenditure wa$smeasured over XO-
minute periods while entering up ledgers, completing registers, issuing pay slips
etc., and included occasionaljourneys acrossa small office to get forms, books etc.
Table IO shows these results. The mean values when sitting and stand.ing at work
are 50 and 70 per cent respectively above predicted basal met,abolicrates. By ahoy-
ing an increaseof these amounts over the predicted basal.metabolic rate, the assess~
ment of rates of energy expenditure of ofice workers would probably not be greatly
in error. Normal office work doesnot involve great energy expenditure. Someclerks,
however, spendmuch time in walking bet,weenvarious offices,and, in theseinstances,
allowancesfor this increasedphysical work would have to be made. “RAle TOAn

OctoberI955 HUMAN ENERGY EXPENDITURE 815
TABLE IO. ENERGY EXPENDITURE DURING CLERICAL WORK, Cal/miIL
Misc. Of-
fice ‘Work No. of
* Observ. Min. Max. Mean
(49) TYPk (99) t Min. Max. Meau
Sitting 36 1.28 1.82 1.6 Mechanical 30 words/min. I. 26 I .47 x.39
40 words/min. I. 39 I. 57 I .48
Standing 45 1.54 ~47 x.8 Electrical 30 words/min. 1.13 1.19 1.16
40 words/min. I .25 1.39 1.31
* Subjects, IO men, wt. 55-72 kg.
t Subjects, 6 women, wt. 44-52 kg.
shows the results of an Italian study (gg) on six young women using an ordinary
mechanical and also an electrical typewriter. Measurements were made over several
ro-minute periods. When typing on a mechanical typewriter at about 30 words/
min., there was an increaseof 45 per cent over the resting metabolism, and at about
40 words/min., the increasewas 55 per cent. With the electrical machine, the re-
spective values were approximately 20 and 30 per cent.
The metabolic cost of the mental work of school children has been measuredin
Moscow in 1935 (85). During a variety of lessons,38 children, aged x3 to 14 years,
meanweight 41 kg., expendedenergy at a meanrate of 1.05 Cal/min. and 3g children
aged g to ro years, mean weight 28 kg., at 0.83 Cal/min.
LIGHT INDUSTRIES
The variety of the different tasks, which may be describedas light industry, is
so great that it is impracticable to try either to describeor classify them exhaustively
and figures for the metabolic cost of such work can only be very broadly illustrative.
Tables II to 14 contain a selectionof data from four good studies carried out under
conditions which were probably fairly representative of work in Europe between
1916 and 1950. Turner (128) measured the energy expenditure on 302 personsen-
gagedin light engineeringat a plastic and ebonite moulding factory, an accumulator
factory and a government; training center in the neighborhood of Manchester just
after World War II. Table I I is a selection from his results. Greenwood, Hodson and
Tebb (60) studied women working in a munition factory during the first world war.
Table 13 contains data from a comprehensive investigation in Germany during
World War II (87) and table 14 from an excellent study (but with very few sub-
jects) in Hungary in 1930 (42). All the figures are for actual work and do not include
allowancesfor rest pauses.Full details of the working processesare given in the
original papers. The tables show that a wide variety of industrial activities demand
energy expenditure rates between 2 and 5 Cal/min. These can properly be called
light industry and further subdivision or classification is quite impracticable. A few
tasks in such industries however occasionally demand harder physical work.
In a study carried out in the Ukraine in 1926-27, Kagan (67) compared the
energy expenditure by men assemblin, 0 agricultural machinery, .I) when working
entirely by hand and 2) when the machineswere put together on a conveyor system.
Energy expenditure of the men on hand-assemblyvaried from 5.2 to 6.4 Cal/min.
When the conveyor was introduced, the assembly was broken down into nine sepa-
rate stages,each carried out by separate operators. Mean energy expenditure rat.es
for these men were 1.8, 2.1, 2.6, 3.0, 3.4, 3.4, 3.8, 4.3 and 4.7 Cal/min., respectively.
Energy expenditure was much reduced for all operators and the efficiency of as-
sembly greatly increased.

816 R. PASSMORE AND J. V. C. A. DURNIN I/‘olwae 35
TABLE II. ENERGY EXPENDITURE 0~ MEN PERFOR~~~XNO LIGHT ENGINEERING WORK (x2§)
Energy Cost,
Operation No. of Observ. CaT/min.
(a) Operations arbitrarily graded as hea,vy.
Unloading battery boxes from oven 4 6.8
Loading chemicals into mixer 2 6 .a
Machine moulding battery plates 2 5 * I
Casting lead balls in mould 2 4.8

Straightening lead contact bars 3 4.6
Rimming battery plates 3 4*4
Heavy battery plate casting 4 4.2
Machine fitting 12 4.2
Lead rolling on roller mill 3 3 *9
T,oading plates into charging vat 8 3 v9
Moulding ebonite 7 3l6
Light. battery plate casting 6 3*6
(b) Operations arbitrarily graded as medium.
Tool room workers 4
Turners 4
Joiners 18
Cutting battery plates I4
Plastic moulding 9
Punching battery plates to size 5
Machinists (engineering) 12
Sheet metal worker 8
Joiner trainee 8
Medium assembly work 14
‘I’ypewriter mechanic trainee 6
(c) Operations arbitrarily gmded as light.
Light machine work (engineering) 8 2.4
Fixing ru.bber insulation to battery plates 3 2.2
Draughtsmen 5 I.8
Drilling (training center) 3 1.8
Light assembIy line 3 I.8
Inspecting wooden separators 4 x.8
Watch and clock repairer trainee 8 x.6
MISCELLANEOUS LABORING ACTMTIES

Load carrying, work with pick, spadeand shovel, pushing and pulling of wheel-
barrows, are a part of many types of work. For instance many personsengagedin
the building industry, in agriculture, in mining, in the iron and steel industry and
as postmen, porters and dockers may expend much energy in physical labor of this
nature. These relatively simple activities are consideredin this section.
There may be much variation in the energy expended during the performance of
similar types of work. The method of carrying a load, the size and shapeof a shovel,
the designof a wheel barrow may all affect the energy required to carry out a specific
task.
Load Cm-ying. In 1924Bedale (7) carried out a classicalstudy on the efficiency
of different methods of carrying loads. She herself, aged 29, weight 56 kg., acted as
subject and energy expenditure was measuredwhile she walked IQO m., picketl up
a load and returned with it at a speedof 4.5 km/hr. The loads were carried in eight
different ways. Figure 3 showst,h.e data for three of these methods.
a yoke acrossthe shoulders the energy expenditure was minimal.

October 1955 HUMAN ENERGY EXPENDITURE gr7
TABLE 12. ESERGYEXPENDITTJRE OF WOMEN INMUNITION WORK (60)
Energy Cost,
No. of No. of Cal/min.,
Operation Persons Exper. 4s Wt., kg. Range and Av.
Light turning 8 37 18-33 48-77 2.2~4.3(2.5)
Turning and finishing 36 19-33 47-65 1.6-4.6(3.0)
Forging 20 22-32 S-69 2-9-3*7(3-d
Stamping 12 35-44 44-55 $I--3.2(3.2)
Hoisting shelf with pulley 5 54 56 (3-3)
Heavy turning 21 23-44 49-62 2*4-3*7(3*3)
Too1 setting 25 21-26 45-59 2.0-;.7(3.4)
Finishing copper bands 6 42-44 55-57 3*3-3d3.4)
Walking and carrying II 27-44 55-77 3.2~3*5(3*9)
Gauging 4 I9 18-44 P-55 3.0-4.6(4.0)
Cleaning and drying 5 IS-44 54-66 +o-O~(4.9)
Laboring 35-s 44-56 4.7~eLr(5.1)
TABLE 13. ERERGU F,XPEKDITURE IN LIGHT INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES (87)
Energy Cost,
Occupation No. of Persons No. of Exper. Cal/min.
Electrotechnical work
Armature winding 2 8 2.2
Radio mechanics 4 8 2.7
Printing industry
Hand compositor I I 2.2
Printer I I 2.2
Paper Layer I I 2-s
Book-binder at the guillotine I I 2-3
Leather trade
Shoe repairing 6 =7 2.7
Shoe manufacturing 4 16 3 lo
Press goods industry
Pressing household utensiIs 6 IO 3.8
carried on the hip under the arm, it was maximal. Intermediary values were obtained
when the load was carried in trays, in hand bundles, on the head and over the shoulder.
A selection of the data obtained in two other systematic studies is &own in
figure 4. Brezina and Kolmer (IS) measured energy expenditure by a young man
walking on an outdoor track in the summer in Vienna and carrying loads in a knap-
sack, high up on the back and supported by straps. Cathcart, Richardson and Camp-
bell (19) investigated two soldiers wearing military equipment, marching on an indoor
track in Glasgow. The agreement between the two studies is good and similar results
have also been obtained by Atzler and Herbst (5). It will be seen that at slow speeds
energy expenditure even with a 43-kg. load is not high, but that when the speed rises
over 4 km/hr. energy expenditure increases rapidly. For very heavy loads much more
energy may be necessary. Glasow and &Killer (54) found that a man aged 24, weight
72 kg., carrying a heavy sack over his shoulder at speeds from 3. I to 3.5 km/hr.
expended 9.4, 11.6 and 16.8 Cal/mm. when the sacks weighed 55, 80 and 1x5 kg.,
respectively. Dressel, Karrasch and Spitzer (34) found that carrying at 3 km/hr. two
concrete blocks, each weighing 25 kg., by means of a yoke with two carrying handles
to support the blocks involved about 7.0 Cal/min.
Some values for the effects of different loads when ascending stairs are shown in
table 15. The results given by Karrasch are very high, but the step height was more

IL PXSSXIRE AND J. V. G. A. DURNIS VOlU??l e 35
TABLE 14. ENERGY EXPIWDITURE IN LIGHT INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES (42)
Energy Energy
cost, cost,
Activity Csl/min. Activity Cal/min.
Shoemaker, age 27, wt. 45 kg. Tailor, age 21, wt. 62.5 kg.
Fixing soles 2.4, 2.1 Cutting 2.4
Filing soles 2.3 Machine sewing 2.8, 2.9
Polishing shoes 1.8 Hand sewing x.9
Pressing 3*5
Locksmith, age 19, wt. 53 kg. Tailor, age 20, wt. 61.5 kg.
Filing with large file 3-3, 3J Cutting 2.7
Five other processes 2.1-2.9 Machine sewing 2.6, 2.7
Hand sewing 2.0
Pressing 4*3
than usual and certainly no orclinarvd workman would climb stairs at that speedGth
such loads.
Working With Pick, Spade and Shovel. Table 16 showsthe energy cost of shovel-
ling and hewing. Much theoretical information on the muscular work involved in
shovelling and on the energy cost of shovelling various loads t.o several heights has
been given in papers by Wenzig (x31) and Kommerell (81). Simonson (123) gives
somedata for shovelling and other laboring activities in a long paper concerned with
the eniciency of industrial work, A summary of similar data is given in the table along
with other data for nonspecifiedshovelling of loads. In general, the usual expenditure
involved in using a shovel seemsto be about 6 to 7 Cal/min. Someof the data have
been slight-Iv rearranged from their original presentation and the authors are asked
to accept our apologies.
Pushing Wheelbarrows. Also in table 16 are so.mevalues for the energy ex-
penditure in pushing loads in a wheelbarrow. Dresselet al. (34) found relatively little
difference in using several types of wheelbarrow on a smooth road or on planks.
However, the differences would almost certainly be magnified if the surface were
very rough. An interesting analysis of someof the muscular factors in barrow work
has been published by Crowden (26).
IW-~XL DELIVERY
A postman’s physical work is essentially walking and carrying loads. In towns
with many flats there may be much climbing up and down stairs and, in someremote
country districts, hill climbing. Crowden (27) has studied the energy expenditure
of London postmen both in the laboratory and on their usual rounds which involved
much stair climbing. Table 17 gives someof his results. The values for climbing stairs
at the men’sown paceinclude both goingup and down but not pausesfor the handing
in of the mail to the householder.The cost of climbing up and down stairs with the
load was found in the four subjects to be almost exactly one and a half times that
of walking on the level carrying the sameload. It was also stated that the common
rate of climbing stairs, up and down, was 80 steps/min., i.e. 40 up and 40 down, and
of walking is 90 yd/min.
BUILDING
Much of the work of building and construction involves basic laboring activities
already considered.Data for someof the more specializedjobs are arranged in table
18. There are little available data to enable accurate assessment of the energy ex-
penditure of building work. An investigation concerned with finding the usual daiivti

October 1955 HUMAN ENERGY ESI’EXDLTU13E S19
FIG. 3. Energy expenditurewhen

carrying loadsin various ways. Data horn
Bedale(7).
energy expenditure of builders would probably involve more measurementsthan

would be necessaryin most other major industries. In addition, building techniques
probably differ more than those in any other industry. Mechanical aids and equip-
ment and prefabricated materials are available in very varying quantities. Some of
the data come from Italy and the methods of work may be very different in other
countries. The reference to bricklaying in the table is for work at ‘normal rates’ in
Germany before the war. Theseare almost certainly higher than apply at the present
time in Britain.
MINING AND QUARRYISG
Comprehensivestudies of the energy expended by coal miners have been made

in England during 1932 ( IOI), in Russia in 1933 (97), in Germany (87) and Italy
during World War II (57) and in Scotland in 1952 (49). Table 19 slows the cost of
sometypical activities. The English, Italian and Scottish results show a remarkable
generalagreementfor the work with pick and shovel, although of coursethere is con-
siderablevariation in individual results. The German workers do not give figures for
individual activities. They studied 72 miners in 18 different jobs in two coal fields.
The grossenergy expenditure in caloriesper minute of pure working time varied from
3.8 to 7.1 with a mean of 4.9 and for total time spent underground the figures varied
from 2.4 to 4.6 with a meanof 3.5. The 17 strippers and 2 brushersstudied at the coal
face in Scotland had a mean energy expenditure of 4.3 Cal/mm. of total time under-
ground. Moss found the correspondingfigure in his English survey to be 6.3.
Miners may spendfrom 30 minutes up to 3 hours every shift walking to and from
their work. This often involves travelling over uneven surfacesup and down inclines.
In addition, owing to the low ceilings stooping is often necessary.In a laboratory
study on 8 miners Moss (101) showedthat the average cost of walking was increased
by 28 per cent with a half stoop and 65 per cent with a full stoop and as much as 73
per cent when proceeding on all-fours. We ourselves can personally vouch for the
fact that the journeys to and from the coal face may be very hard work. Out of 68
measurementsof the cost of walking underground in various conditions in Scotland
(49), 18 showedan expenditure of over 7 Cal,/min. and of these, 2 were over IO Cal/
min.
The Russian study (97) gives mean figures for hewing, timbering and drilling
of 2.9, 4.7 and 3.2 Cal/min., respectively. These values are so far below those ob-
tained in other countries that it is difficult to comment on them. The men appear
to have spent IO hours underground each shift and this may be in part: responsible
for the low rates of energy expenditure.
Vervd few data are available for other forms of mining. In South Africa measure-

l<. I’,ESMOl<I~ AND J. V. G. A. DUKNIX
Load kg
FIG. 4. Energy expenditure

carrying loads at different speeds.
Data from Brezina and Holmer (x5) 0
and Cathcart et aC. (19) X.
ments of 8 non-European gold miners ‘lashing in a stope’ have been reported (136).
A large Douglas Bag (1000 1.) was usedand expired air was collected over 30 minutes
on each subject. Energy expenditure varied from 2.3 to 5.4 Cal/min. (mean 3.3).
There can be no doubt that most miners still, despite the increaseof mechaniza-
tion, carry out hard physical work. Although the basic mining processesinvolve a
high rate of energy expenditure, over-all rates of energy expenditure may be much
reduced by rest periods, which may be either voluntary or, more frequently in our
experience, causedby the breakdown of essentialhaulage systems (49). Daily rates
of energy expenditure may thus not always be high.
IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

Important studieshave been made in Sweden (23) and in Germany (87). Table
20 showsthe Swedish data. The Douglas bag technique was used. The figures give
rates for limited periods of activity only and there is no record of how long suchrates
were kept up. There is a wide variation in the intensity of the work and somemen
worked very hard for someperiods. This survey was carried out under normal in-
dustrial conditions in peace time.
The German survey was much more extensive, but was carried out during the
war, when production was not reaching the target required by the war leaders.Many
men were working up to 70 hours a week. In addition the work was affected by food
shortagesand in somecasesby air raids. Table 21 gives a small selection of results
made from the 12 original tables. The energy expenditure was calculated over the
whole of a shift by a combination of time studiesand indirect calorimetry. Here it is
expressedas a grossover-all rate per minute. Someof these rates are not high. This

Height of Vcr tical Spwcl , Load Energy Cost,
Subj. wt., kg. Step, cm. m/min. Carried, kg. Cal/min.
R.P. 63 I -5.2 49.2 s 8.0
2.3 10.4
38 14.2
D.0. 77 T.5.2 8.2 s 990
2.3 IO.7
33 13.2
65 17.2 x7.2 IO 16.2
20 I9=5
40 25.2
60 30.7
Energy Cost,
Rei. Activity Cal/min.
Shrwelling S-kg. lfxul clistancc of 1 m.,
86 less than I-m. lift, I 2 throwx/min. 74
86 from ~-2 m. lift, ~2 throws/An. 96
Shovelling &kg. load distance of 2 111.p
86 less than 1-m. lift---Io throws/tnin 8.5
86 from 1-2 111.lift, IO throws/min. 10.5
86 Digging trenches, clay soil 8-s
Shovelling g-kg. load distance of 1 Ill.,
34 0.5-m. lift sand, I 2 throws/min. 594
34 0.5-m. lift, gravel, 12 throws/min. 7.2
34 I .0-m. lift, sand, I2 throws/:nin. 6.0
34 I .O-111. Kit, gravel 91 2 throws/min. 84
34 t .5-m. lift, sand, ‘co throws/min. 6.0
34 r.p-n. lift, p.vcl, 10 throws/n~in. 8.0
57 Shovelling 6.0
49 Shovelling 6.8
49 Hewing with pick 7*0
34 50
86
was due in part to large differencesbe~.wecnthe times for work laid down by regula-
tions and the times spent in effective tvork . Further the intensity of the work was
seldomhigh, perhapsdue to food shortages.The authors alsopoint out that there is
a natural subjective tendency to over-estimate the heavinessof the human work in
an industry, where loads weighing several tons are moved, although in fact this work
is done by machines.Whatever the reasonsand despite long hours, the majority of
men in the German steelindustry during the war werenot expending large amounts of
energy, There were, however, many jobs involving hard work.
In both surveys there lvere wide variations in energy expenditure. Clearly gen-
eralizations in the iron and steelindustry are unjustified. There is both a great variety
of jobs and a great variety of mechanization in different plants. In both papers de-
tails of the processesinvolved and the degreeof mechanization are given. Undoubt-
edly somesteel workers arc engagedregularly in heavy work, but in most modem
plants many are only doing light work.
F’:+rl;a~ ;tncI Gcldrich (42) studied in somedetail the cncrgy expenditure of two

822 K. PASSMORE AND J. V. G. A. IiUKNIN I’nlrrnre 35
Tanm I;. I-hERc:Y ExPRxorruaP HY POSTMYS CI.lYBIKC STAIRS AT USUAL PACK (27)
Fnergy Cost,
Subj. Age \Vt., kg. Postal Load, kg. Cal/min .
K.W. 56 82 II 9.8
AX. 46 85 16 II.5
A.R. 27 68 16 9.g
J.S. 2.5 7’1 16 13.8
‘I’ARLE 1% t<NlW:Y ISXt’EXDITUI(E IS THIS RUILDING INDUSTRY
Ref. Subj. Wt.. kg. Activity

6 hlaking a wall with bricks and mortar at nor-
mal rates 4.0
Mixing cement 4.i
Miscellaneous work (carrying tricks, cemrut 5.6
or hoIs)
Shaping stones with stone-mason’s hammer 3.8
Preparing wooden straps for plastering 3.1
Plastering walls 4-I
Light work in laying stones or bricks 3 * 4
Av. of z IMaking road, preparing ground and laying 4.0
blocks of flint
Av. of 2 .Making road, beating blocks into grouud with
heavy wooden block weighing ao-z8 kg.
55 One man beating alone 0.7
55 ‘It0 men beating rlternatcly .j .s
42 62 Measuring wood I.4
42 62 Machine sawing 2.4
4= 62 Measuring and sawing 3.s
42 62 Joining floor-boards 4.4
42 62 Miscellaneous work -l.S
42 65 chisellillg 5.7
42 65 Sawing softwooa 6.3
42 62 Drillinrr hardwood 7.0
42 65 SaWiDghEUdWGGd
42 65 Planing softwood -2
42 65 Planing hardwood 9.1
blacksmiths at work at a forge. When using a heavy hammer, the men were expencl-
ing between 6.3 and 9.8 Cal/min. They were also employed on many lighter tic-
tivities.
Measurements of the energy expenditures of peasants in agricultural tasks have

been made systematically in Hungary (43,44), Russia (6S), Italy (16, sS), the Gambia
(48) and Nii (112). A selection of the data is set out in tables 22 to 26. The orig-
inal papers all give full details of working conditions and the type of work done. In
the Hungarian survey mid-day temperatures rose up to 35’C. Here time studies were
done and an estimation of total daily calorie expenditure made. This was up to 5200
Cal. by some men, who worked very long hours getting in the harvest. &I these studies
the men were working with the help of little or no mechanical power. Two recent
investigations in Germany (62, 63) compare the work done in hand- and machme-
milking and in walking with a horse-drawn plough and sitting on a tractor while
ploughing. Table 27 summarizes the data for rates of energy expenditure. Both these

823
D’tJR J;rjG COATS MINING
Type of x0. of Cal./min., ??o. r,l- Cal/min .,

Rd. Kork Subj. Mean and Range Ref. ‘rjp of Work Subj. Nean and Range
49 Hewing 18 7.0(,5.0-Io.gj IO1 Timbering 7 7.r(j.6-Io.I)
191 Hewing IO 7.3(6.0- 8.8, J.or Drilling coal 2 7m2(4*9- 9G>
57 Hewing 30 5.7(2.g--IO.,;1 57 Drilling coal 30 5.8(3.8- 8.7)
49 Loading 20 7.1(6.0- Kgj 57 Drilling rock 3s s*3(3*7 -5.7)
IO1 Loading 12 7*7(6*3- 9.4) 57 Pushing tubs I 2 8.o(s.g-10.2)
37 Loading 30 6.6(5.0- 8.8) 40 Packing 3 6.8
49 Timbering 18 5=7(4J- 9.0)
Energy Cost, Energy Cost,

Cal/min. Mean and (:1al /min. Mean anrl
Type of Work Range Type of Work Range
O~pen hartlt Wiue rod mill
Slag removal 11.fi(10.6--12.6) Roughing 8.2(7.0-10.4)
Dolomite shovelling IO.<)( 9.p12.9) Wire bundling L0.2(Q.3-12.2)
Tipping the moulds 6.0

Heavy mill 14-inch merchant mz’ll
Tending the heating furnaces IO. 2 ( 6.7-16.2) Merchant nlill rolling 9.4(7.0-11.0)
Hand rolling 8*9( u- 9-3) Forging 6.5(6.4- 6.7)
Tending the sawpits 6d .5*7- 7.2) Fettling 4-9(4*8- 4-9)
papers give a detailed analysis of the changesin the work requi.red of the human
operator consequentupon the introduction of mechanization.
Somedata (I x7) for grooming and the care of horsesby soldiers~-e summarized
in table p.
Tables 22 to 27 provide a quantitative demonstration of the fact that farming
demandshard work. Time studiesin several seasonsof the year are necessaryif com-
pari.sonsare to be made with urban industrial workers.
We know of no studvd of the energy expenditure rates of agriculture in Asia.
Kscellent physiological studieshave been made in lumber campsin Sweden(g2),

in Finland (73) and Germany (68a). Table 28 shows some of the Swedish results.
There is no doubt that heavy expenditures of energy are involved. This is confirmed
by dietary studies and many men in both surveys have been recorded as consuming
over 5000 Cal/day and someover 6000. Lumbering is pcrl~tl~s the hardest physical
work undertaken.
Kaminsky (68a) has measuredthe work done transporting wood by sleigh over
the snow during the German winter. Pulling the sleigh uphill into the forest cost
10.5 Cal/mm. and loading the wood off and on the sleigh between 6 and 7 Cal/min.
Long hours were worked and estimatesof both energy i expenditure and food intake
were over 6ooo Cal/day.
Gl&er (52) has devised an ingenious technique for measuring in the laboratory
the efficiency of work with an axe. Table 2g shows the very high rates of energy
expenditure that may be involved.
FISHING INDUSTRY
One study as yet incomplete (14) has been made on a trawler in the Netherlands
fishing fleet. This showedthat. \vhen bringin,q in the trawl, 11x men do hard physical

824 I<. I’ASShIOKI< ANL, J. V. G. A. DUKNIN Ibhme 35
TABLE 21. OVER-ALL RATES OF ENEIXY EXI~ENI)ITURE IN A W?LK’I‘IME STEEL INUUSTRY (Germany, 87~
Over-all Energy
\Veeks Working I:xpend. Rates,
Type of Work Time, hr. Cal/mill,
Rolling Work
Bar cleaner 72.5 3 8
Furnace man 70 .i . 2
Furnace man i” 4 .3
rvagon Tvorhsllop
Smith 67.5 3.6
Striker 67.5 4.0
Wire-clralver 55.5 A.6
\Qre-wnsher is.; j.1
Forge (mcchaniec~l)
Smith io 2.4
Smith’s mate 70 2 .o
Moaldi~zg
Moulcler 68 .j 3.7
Sloulder 52 .I I
Core layrr 52 .i . 0
TABLE 22. ENIW:Y JSIPENUIUJ~~ I’: IN ACI~KU~~CUWE, IIu~~g:try, rt),;~ (+,;, .gd?
So. of Subj. No. of Exper. .r\ctivity Cal/roiu.

6 29 Mowing wheat ;.7(6,2-10.1)
2 0 Mowing barley ;.0(5.6- 8.T\
4 12 Setting up stooks 6.6(S.1- 8..+1
3 12 Ilirl<lin,rr wheat 7.:;(6.2- 8.6)
work. Manq’ measuretwxts of cncr,qy ~spcnditure up to IO Cal/nliu. \v2rc ILUC.!C,

Work at this rate was carried out for many hours on end ant1;t daily energy eq>cntIi-
ture of over jOO0 Cal. was rrmirltainetl for 2 or more days.
Donald and Davidson (31) have measured the oxygen consumptio~~OFunder-

water divers and frogmen and table 3~ gives a summary of their results. The figures
have not been converted into Caloriesper minute sincethe oxygen requirement itself
is of much more practical importance. The levels of oxygen uptake CL t rest wdcr
water are remarkably low and sometimesbut little above basal levels. Even when
doing apparently very heavy work under water, the booted diver doesnot expend
energy at high rates. This is presumably clue to the very great restrictions on leg
movements. Finned underwater swimmers, able to move their limbs freely, have
lnuch larger oxygen upt:tkrs.
Tables 31 to 34 give cln~aobtained for British soldiersat home (I ;> IS, 39, 741
and in the tropics (117)~ for Jugoslav soldiers(116) and for the TJnited States Army.
(IIS). The Jugoslav paper (r16) has references to reports giving data obtained in
the RussianArmy, but we have not been able to see these. The military studies have
been carried out with met iculorls c:are, and accurate values are available for :na.ny
standard military tasks.

825
‘FABLE 23. &ERGY EXPENDITU’RE IN AGRIC!ULT?JR.fi;, kSSia, 1933 (68)
Subj. Sex Age wt., kg. Activity Cal/min.

P M 24 65 Roughing 6.9(6.3-7.8)
s M 2r 67 Ploughing 5*4(5*2--5.6)
P M 24 65 Thrashing rye 5.0(4.8--5.2)
w M 32 76 Thrashing rye 4*5(4*2-4.9)
4 F fig Binding oats
I9 .3*3(3*0-3*8)
;a1 F I9 52 Binding oats 4*1(3*6-4.7)
A F 19 63 Binding rye 4*2(3-s--4.9)
Sar F 19 52 Biding rq-c 4J(4-I-SJ)
Sar F 19 52 Weeding m.pc, 3*3(3*0-3.5)
The oxygen consumption of airplane pilots has been determined under artificial
conditions in a dummy cockpit by Karpovich and Ronkin (71). The mean energy
expenditure for 27 pilots, average weight 73 kg., when sitting in a cockpit and manip-
ulating controls, was 1.7 Cal/min., a rate similar to most sedentary occupations.
This paper gives references to other American work published in service memoranda
with restricted circulation.
Corey (29, in a short report, showed that the metabolism while piloting an air-
craft varied from IO to about 60 per cent above the normal sitting energy rate; a
range of values of from 1.5 to 2 Cal/min. probably covers the majority of activities
during piloting.
APPLICATION OF ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION
The results of one study (69) are recorded in table 35. The figures are averages
for IO men and IO women operating respectively on 4 male victims (weights 48-82
kg.) and on 4 female victims (weights 41-75 kg.) at 12 respirations/min. and using
five different methods.
EFFECTS OP AGE, SEX, BODY SIZE, KAC,E AND CLIMATE
The effects of thesefactors on basal metabolismhave been extensively, perhaps
exhaustively, studied (36,45, 77, II~). As already pointed out, man is only metaboliz-
ing at approximately basal rates when asleepor lying down and this contributes but
a small proportion of the daily energy expenditure of active persons.
There is little evidence that the mechanical efficiency with which a standardized
muscular movement is madeis subject to important individual variation. The obvious
differences between the energy expended by old and young and by the inhabitants
of the tropics and of temperate zones are brought about mainly by variations in the
economy of muscular movement and in the amount of surplus activity, The young
are spendthrift of movement, whereas with increasing years unnecessaryphysical
activity is curtailed. Consequently to compare the rates of energy expenditure by
juvenile, adult and elderly personsemployed at the same type of industrial work,
accurate timing of their various activities would be necessary.The young will always
find time for secondary energy-consuming activities, surplus to the main task.
The evidence that there are no significant metabolic differences in the per-
formance of standardized muscularwork is, however, not great. Mahadeva, Passmore
and Woolf (96) investigated in 50 subjects the relationship between energy expendi-
ture, during standardized walking and stepping, and weight, height, age, race and
sex. Energy espenditurc wasclosely correlated with body weight, but not significantly

826 R. PASSMORE ,4ND J. V. G. A. DURNIN
TABLE 24. ENERGY ~~PEND~~RE IN AGRICULTURE, Italy, 1945
Cal/mm.
Ref. Subj. Activity (Mean)
16 I 5 men, aged I 5-55 Mowing with a scythe 6.8
16 15 men, aged 15-25 Mowing with a horse-drawn reaper 4.3
16 8 WOmen,aged IS-29 Preparing bundles of cut corn 5.0
T6 I Imen, aged 15-g Binding bundles of corn 6.8
I6 8 men, aged 19-41 Preparation of stooks 5*5
16 4 women, aged 14-2~) Preparation of stooks 4.8
16 3- men, aged 16-41 Loading stooks onto carts 5.6
58 7 men, aged 15-41 Threshing, throwing sheaves from pile to 6.0
ground
58 7 men, aged 15-41 Threshing, throwing sheaves towards thresh-
ing machine
58 7 men, aged 15-41 Threshing, thro\ving sheaves up to threshing
machine
58 -5women, aged 13-25 Threshing, binding sheaves
58 j women, aged 13-25 Threshing, throwing sheaves into machine
with height, age,race or sex. The serieswas small, but sufficient to indicate that these
other factors have no large effect on muscular efficiency.
Astrand (3) has measured the energy expenditure of children and adolescents
when running on a treadmill and working on a bicycle at submaximal rates. The ex-
periments on the bicycle ergometer showed no differences between the two sexes.
On the treadmill at any given speed, the net oxygen uptake per kilogram of bodv
weight fell progressively as age advanced from 5 to 15 years. The younger children
were at a mechanical disadvantage owing to their shorter legsand this is suggested
as a possiblereasonfor the increasedoxygen consumption.
Seltzer (122) has measuredthe oxygen uptake of 34 malesaged 20 to 24 during
moderate exercise-walking on a treadmill up a grade of 8.6 per cent at 5.6 km/hr.
for 15 minutes, He also made a large number of anthropometric measurementsand
has attempted to correlate thesewith rates of energy expenditure. In moderate exer-
ciseoxygen consumption correlated best with chest circumference (o&7), then with
weight (0.771) and surface area (0.724) and only very roughly with other physical
measurements,height (0~363)and leg length (0.275). Seltzer calculated the mechani-
cal efficiency of 44 different anthropometric groups within the whole sample. The
lowest figure for the efficiency of any group was 15.0 per cent and the highest 16.1
per cent. He makesa casethat in moderate exercise,thosewhosebody build is ‘lateral’
rather than ‘linear’ have the greater mechanicalefficiency. His argument is, however,
largely a discussionof the functional significance of differences, which his previous
analyseshad shown to have no statistical significance. On any reckoning these dif-
ferencesare small and weight is the most important factor in determining individual
energy expenditure.
The effect of temperature on the metabolic cost of work is also probably Vera
small. Nelson et (II. (105) studied by partitional calorimetry the heat exchangesof
three acclimatized men while standing still and walking in a seriesof seven hot en-
vironments (32c)--490C.).Metabolic heat production for a given amount r)f work
remained unchanged irrespective of changes in environmental conditions. Gray,
Consolazio and Kark (59) found that for men working at a Axed rate on a bicycle
ergometer in standard 0utfit.s of clothes the metabolism only varied by up to 4 per
cent over the temperature range -q” to +32OC. IIorvath and Golden (61) founct

ENERGY EXPESDITURE IN AGRKXJLTURE, The Gambia West Africa, 1953 (48)
x0. of EfffXtiW2 I 0. 0 f
‘ICT
Subj. Sex &F Wt., kg. Temp., “F Observ. Activity Cal/min.
4 M 25-38 63(56-68) 63-70 11 Clearing shrub and 7. I (5.8-8.4)
dry grass
5 M 24-36 57 (49-W 69-76 13 Ridging (deep dig- g .s (5. s-15.2)
ging)
4 M 21-28 67(64-70) 74-80 x2 Planting groundnuts 3.7 (3. 1-4.~)
‘, M X9-33 63(61-w 63-71 9 Weeding .53(3.8-7J3)
r3 F 18-30 54 (48-58) 73-81 II Hoeing 5.8(4.8-6.8)
4 F I&-28 57 (43-65) 75-84 IS Pounding rice 5*0(3*9--6.4)
the metabolic rate of five men increased by about 7 per cent w-hen performing stand-
ard work at temperatures of - 16’ to -47OC. Very cold temperatures may thus in-
crease the energy cost of work, but, except possibly under arctic conditions, the eflect
will be negligible.
At high temperatures (32OC., relative humidity 70%) Robinson (I 19) corn-
pared a large man and a small man working on a treadmill at over 12 Cal/mm. The
efficiency of the 2 men in performing the work was the same,but the large man had
more difsculty in dissipating metabolic heat and his rectal temperature rose much
more than that of the small man. This was presumably becausethe small man had a
larger surface area relative to the metabolizing mass.This experimental observation
is consistent with the view that small men might be at an advantage over large men
in performing hard physical work in the tropics.
The most important observations on the effects of temperature on energy ex-
penditure under field conditions are those of Richardson and Campbell (I I 7). They
found no significant differencesbetween the energy expended by British soldiersin
India, when marching at about 3.4 mph in drill order (load about x3 kg.) during the
hot weather (temperature 27OC.,relative humidity 92%) and during the cold weather
(temperature IoOC., relative humidity 67%). In fact, energy expenditure was always
higher by up to IO per cent in the cold weather. This difference was attributed entirely
to difficulties in tirne keeping. On the cold invigorating winter mornings, the men
steppedout briskly and were always a little ahead of schedule.In the dull hot humid
atmosphere during the m.onsoon,there was a constant tendency to slacken pace.
These slight differences in pace, in the authors’ opinion, were alone responsiblefor
the differences in energy expenditure. This work was carried out with meticulous
care on six young soldiers.
DArLgl ENERGY EXPENDITURE RATES
The data set out in the tables presented have given rates of energy expenditure
calculated per minute. For assessingenergy expenditure over periods longer than
xo to 15 minutes, metabolic measurementsmust be supplementedby time studies
and accurate recording of activities. With the help of these it may be possible to
build up an estimate of calorie expenditure over a longer period. Most textbooks of
physiology and nutrition contain tables giving estimates of daily energy expenditure
for various occupationsdrawn up in this way. This summationmethod of estimating
calorie expenditure (and thus requirement) was criticized by Keys (75) in 1949,
who pointed out that the assessments had usually been basedon inadequate physio-
lo,rrir-aldata and insuficient knowledge of the actual lvork processes.This is true of

828 R, PASSMORE AND J. V. G. A. DURNIN Volume 35
TABLE 26. ENERGY EXPENDITURE IN AGRICULTURE, Nigeria, West Africa, 1954 (x12)
Six wbjeds mean weight 55 kg.
Mean Energy XIean Energy
No. of cost, A
v 0. 0 f cost,
Observ. Activity Cal/min. Osberv. Activity Cal/mm.
12 Grass cutting 4’3 I2 Head planning, load 3*5
wt., 20kg.
I2 Bush clearing 6.1 12 Log carrying 3 04
12 Hoeing 4.4 l-o Tree felling s.2
TABLE 27. ENERGY EXPENDITURE m AGRICULTURE, Germany, 1953 (62, 65)
Subj. Activity Cal/min. 7 Subj. Activity

Ages IS-39, wt.
57-86 kg.
Age 28, Milking: by hand 4.7(3.5--6.3) 16 observ. Horseploughing ‘,c
kg. wt. 64 Machine milking I Jx2if 3 .4 (3 . 2---3 .7 ) 6 observ. Horseploughing (an - ;.:
other type of plougll)
Machine milking z pails 3*9(3*1-4-a 8 observ. Tractor ploughing 4.2
Cleaning milk pails 4*4(4*3-4*5) I 4 observ. Tractor ploughing (an- 462
other type of tractor)
much past work, but recently in Great .Britain there have been several atten~pts to
measure energy expenditure over long periods by improved summation methods
(39,49, III, 132). Tables 36 and 37 are illustrative and give data which we (49) have
obtained for two individuals, one a clerk with a sedentary occupation, the other a coal
face miner. For each, the necessary information was collected over a whole week:
a week is a minimum period. since any daily average figure which did not include data
obtained over the week-end period would be misleading. These tables also give the
daily average calorie intake over the same period obtained by a simultaneous diet
survey. Table 38 is a summary of these surveys in Great Britain in which simultaneous
assessments of energy intake and energy expenditure have been made. They were
carried out by teams of experienced dietitians and of physiologists. The figures show
that such teams can arrive independently at results which agree within TO per cent.
The estimation by diet-ary survey of the calorie intake of even a rekttively homo-
geneous group of persons is subject to wide error, to which the use of tables of food
analyses contribute. Woolf (135) has discussed the accuracy of dietary surveys and
concludes that even with good technique the coefficient of variation in estimating
calorie intake is at least ro per cen.t. In most circumstances, we think that estimations
of energy expenditure rates can be at least as accurate. These may thus provide a~,n
alternative method for indicating the calorie needs of population groups. 111some
circumstances, perhaps in industrial. communities, surveys of energy expenditure may
prove simpler, less expensive and more informative than large scale dietary surveys.
In this field. of research, if experiments are designed to obtain data with a high
degree of accuracy for each individual subject, inevitably onlv a limited number of
persons can be studied. Carefully carried out field experiments,% which the accuracv
compared favorably with that of many controlled laboratory investigations, require
large numbers of experienced staff and assistants. Even then observations CM. only
be made on small numbers of subjects. There is a large variation in energy expend.iture
by individuals leading the same type of life. The energv expenditure of the same indi-
vidual varies from day to day and from week to week f and persons in exactly similar

TABLE 28. ENERGY EXPENDITURE DURING LUMBER WORK (92)
Cal/min.,
Type of Work No. of Subj. Mean and Range
Timber cutting irt the winter
Tree-felling with felling saw II [email protected])
Trimming of felled trees II 10.2(8.7-1x.6)
Barking II 10.1(8,;-12.0)
Cross-cutting with bucksaw II 9*0(7+-~0*5)
Fire-wood cutting in the summer
Tree-felling with bucksaw g.6(8.2-1x.0)
Trimming of felled trees 8.4(8.1- 8.6)
Dragging of firewood g.8(8.7-x0.9)
Cross-cutting in a sawhorse 7.8(6.9- 8.7)
Barking in strips 5*9(5=2- 6.5)
Cleaving of softwood 9.7(9.2-10.1)
Cleaving of birch billets 8.g(8.6- 9.1)
Stacking of firewood 6*3(57- 6891
TABLE ~~.ENERGY EXPENDITURE WORKING WITH AN AXE (52)

Subj., age 23, wt. 82 kg.
Wt. of Axe, Speed, Energy Cost, Wt. of Axe, Speed, Energy Cost,
kg. Blows/min. Cal/min. Qc* Blows/min. Cal/min.
Perpendicular blows Horizontal blows
0.6; 36 11.4 0.65 34 12.0
I.25 34 11.9 I.25 34 13.2
2.00 33 13.0 2.00 33 12.3
I.25 19 6.9
I.25 35 11.0
1 l 25 51 24.1
occupations, becauseof differences in body weight and in activities outside waking

hours, may have markedly differing values for their energy output per day. Although
it may appear undesirable to advocate the use of methods which do not reduce the
errors of individual observations to a minimum, neverthelesswe feel it will be more
profitable in the future to accumulate information over a much wider field, even at
the expenseof someinaccuraciesin individual results, rather than to perseverewith
the laborious techniques which have hitherto been used.
In planning fresh surveys it is essentialto consider how many measurementsby
indirect calorimetry on each subject are desirable and how much data from tables
of energy expenditure can be utilized. Such decisionswill be determined to a large
extent by the length of time which each subject spendson any activity and by the
experience of the observer. Many activities during work, and many recreational ac-
tivities, last for only a few hours in the week. Little error is introduced by using tables
to assessthe energy cost of such activities. For example, if a man plays one game of
football in a week, lasting go minutes, and an average value taken from tables of
6 Cal/min. is used, this gives a total expenditure of 540 Cal. If, in fact, the man were
very energetic throughout the whole game and had an average energy expenditure
of 8 Cal/min., or if he were in a wing position and had relatively little of the play
so that his over-all metabolismwas only 4 Cal/min., the deviation from the assessed
total would be only =t 180 Cal. Thus in one week the use of a table to assess a single
outburst of activity such as a game of football will introduce into the daily average
an error no more than =tq Cal/day, a negligible amount. If it is possibleto observe

830 R. Z’ASSMOICE AND J. V. G. A. DURNIN ?ToltLme 35
'hi.)'. 30. o2 UPTAKE OF DIVERS (l/min. N.T.P.), SUMMARY OF RESULTS (31)

No. of No. of
state Exper. Mean Min. Max. State Exper. Mean Min. Max.
Booted Divers Finned Underwater .!fhimmers
Tank SxGmming baths
Sitting I3 0.25 0.20 0.32 Suit and fins
Standing I3 0.27 0.22 0.30 I .3-I. 7 ft/sec. 9 2.32 1.60 2.68
Min. movement 13 047 0.40 0.73 I. 7-2.3 ft/sec. 4 3.09 2.65 3.60
Max. movement 13 I*53 1.24. I.96 No suit and fins
Open water I .3-I. 7 ft/sec. 4 2.02 I.90 2.33
I ft. Mud x .7-2.3 ft/sec. 4 3.16 2.63 4.15
Min. movement 9 1.08 O-73 1.61
Max. movement 9 1.71 1.20 2.45
2 ft. Mud
Min. movement g 0.98 0.61 I.65
Max. movement g I.96 1.41 2.35
TABLE 31. ENERGY EXPENDITURE OF BRK~ISH SOLDIERS
Ref. Xo. of Subj. Wt., kg. Activity Cal/min.

I8 Av. of 2 51 i1n ti-gas drill 2.0
39 Av. of 12 70 Weapon training 2.2
18 74 Kit inspection 2.3
IS Av.bf 5 68 -\rms drill 2.4
18 Av. of 6 64 3Iusketry 2.7
39 Av. of 7 71 Polishing equipment 2.7
39 Av. of 6 73 IMixed sports in gymnasium* 2.7
39 Av. of 6 66 Cleaning kit and rifle 2.7
I8 Av. of 5 71 Throwing hand grenade 2.9
IS 79 Guarcl and sentry drill 3.2
18 Av.‘of 3 58 Company drill 3*4
I8 Av. of 8 69 Squad and platoon drill 3.7
39 Av. of 6 67 Mixed sports outdoors* 3.8
74 I 68 Slow march 3.8
17 68 Marching (2 mph) with 27-kg. load 3*9
18 Av.Iof 6 71 I3 ayone t exercise 3.9
IS Av. of 7 68 Physical exercises
I& I 73 Doing fatigues
39 Av. of 5 67 Ironing equipment
39 Av. of 12 70 Drill
74 I 68 LMarching (3 mph) with z7-kg. load
IS I 68 Quick marching
I8 79 Field operation
39 Av.‘of 3 78 Digging trenches
IS Av. of 6 7,3 Obstacle course
I7 Av. of 2 80 Assault course
74 I 68 %Iarching (4 mph) with 27-kg. load
18 I 68 Rapid marching
* Over-all figure including rest pauses.
the game, the error should be even lessthan this. On the other hand, it is most im-
portant to try to obtain reliable figures for the duration of each activity throughout
the 24 hours. As far as possiblesuch information should be obtained by independent
observers,although inevitably for someparts of the day the subject must be respon-
sible for recording the times spent on his activities.
In every survey it is essentialthat there must be facilities for making measure-

TABLE 32. ENERGY EXPENDITURE OF BRITISH SOLDIERS IN INDIA (117)
Activity Cal/min. Activity Cal/tin.
Infantry, av. figures for IO men aged 24, wt. 61 kg. Horse artillery, av. figures for 8 men aged 23, wt.
65 kg*
Standing at ease I.3 Horse clipping 4.2
Standing at attention I*4 Cleaning harness 4.8
Cleaning equipment 2.9 Cleaning guns 51
Signalling with morse, semaphore and 3** Trotting on horseback S-6
lamp Cantering on horseback 6.5
Musketry-training 3*2 Jumping on horseback 7*6
-firing on range 3.8 Harnessing and unharnessing 6.9
Sentry duty 3-5 Grooming horses 8.3
Squad drill-without arms 4.7
-with arms 4.8
Throwing grenades 4*7
Marching in drill order (load 13 kg., 6.3
speed 3.4 mph)
Bayonet exercises 6.7
Field exercises in extended order 7.8
Digging trenches 8.8
TABLE 33. ENERGY EXPENDITURE OF U. S. SOLDIERS (x15)*
Activity Cal/min. Activity Cal/mine

Inspection 2.4 Field march with rifle 6.5
Fatigue duties 2.4 Obstacle course with pack and rifle 6.6
Drill 3*s Creeping and crawling with full equip- 7.9
Digging foxholes (mixed with march- 4.6 ment
ing and short rest periods) Field march with rifle and 27-lb. pack S. o
Mass games 5.2 at 3 mph
Field march 54 Field march with heavy pack 3.9
* Values applied to standard rso-lb. man.
ments by indirect calorimetry. No assessments should depend solely on the use of

tables. Nevertheless tables, combined with an accurate time study, can reduce the
necessity for large numbers of measurementson each subject.
In addition to the use of tables, another way of simplifying surveys of energy
expenditure may be to reduce the number of gas analysesand rely in part on de-
terminations of pulmonary ventilation. Durnin and Edwards (38a) have shown in
field studies that, if a small number of measurementsof energy expenditure are made
on any one individual, it is then possibleto use the pulmonary ventilation alone as
an index of the energy cost of activities; the increasein experimental error is less
than 5 per cent. Such a technique, together with a knowledgable use of the tables in
this review, shouldmake it practicable to carry out field surveys of energy expenditure
on a much more extensive scalethan has been possibleup to the present.
Under controlled conditions with the subjects living in the laboratory or in
hospital for periods as long as 2 to 3 weeks, measurementsof total daily energy ex-
penditure can be very accurate. In one study (110) in a metabolic ward of a hospital,
the error appeared to be lessthan 5 per cent. The technique may thus be a useful
tool in investigatin,0 obesity and other metabolic disorders, in which the energy
balance may be upset.

83” R. PASSMORE AND Je V. CT. A. DURNIN Volume 35
TABLE 34. ENERGY EXPENDITURE OF YUGOSLAV SOLDIERS (1x6)*
Activity Cal/min. Activity CalJmin.

Dressing and undressing 24 Rifle exercises, standing 3-g
Driving a tank 24 Horse riding, slow 4-3
Adjusting caterpillar tracks 2.4 Cleaning horse 4.5
CIeaning a tank 2.8 Lifting car by jack 4-S
Rifle exercises, lying down 2.8 Carrying boxes of ammunition 6.3
Rifle exercises, kneeling 3.2 Horse riding, trotting 6.5
Taking off and putting on car tires 3.3 Digging a trench 8.0
Cleaning equipment 3.6 Horse riding, galloping 8.1
Cleaning gun 367
* Mean age of subjects, 22 yr., mean wt., 67 kg.
TABLETS. ENERGYEXPENDITUREDURINGARTIFICIALRESPIRATION (Cal/min.) (69)

Holger Hip Roll Prone
Method of Art. Resp. Schafer Silvester Nielson Pressure Hip Lift
Men operating on men 2.7 3-s 4-6 s-1 s**
tvomen operating on women 2.2 2.4 3.2 3-s 3-7
GRADING OF INDUSTRIAL WORK

A convenient grading of the physical effort required for different types of in-
dustrial work has long been needed. Industrialists use a variety of arbitrary gradings,
which for the most part have little physiological support. Christensen (23) in dis-
cussing the results of his measurements of energy expenditure in the Swedish steel
industry, suggests the following definitions of different grades of work:
Unduly heavy, energy expenditure over 12.5 Cal/min.
Very heavy, energy expenditure over 10.0 Cal/min.
Heavy, energy expenditure over 7.5 Cal/min.
Moderate, energy expenditure over 5.o Cal/mm
Light, energy expenditure over 2.5 Cal/min.
These figures correspond approximately to rates of oxygen consumption of 2.5, 2.0,
1.5, 1.0 and 0.5 l/min., respectively. The tables in this review indicate that these
definitions correspond with common conceptions of what is and is not heavy work.
In our opinion Christensen’s definitions are sensible and their introduction into
general use would be helpful to both industrialists and physiologists.
The definitions, of course, only apply to rates of work which are carried on con-
tinuously for periods of a few minutes. Periods of heavy work must be punctuated
by rest pauses. These will naturally reduce the over-all rates of work for a whole
working shift and the definitions do not apply to average daily rates of work. How
hard a man is capable of working for long periods of time, months, years or even a
lifetime is another problem.
HUMAN WORKING CAPACITY
Those of us who lead for the most part sedentary lives know that on occasions
we can carry out physical work for short periods at rates very much faster than the
usual rates of those regularly employed as manual laborers. At a week end we can
work in the garden at a rate which could not be kept up day after day and week after
week. Nearly a hundred years ago Playfair (II~), Professor of Chemistry in Edin-
burgh, after a study of the behavior of rural postmen and of infantrymen, suggested

TABLE 36. EKIZRGY OUTPUT AND INTAKE OF A CLERX OVER I WEEK
Ian C., Age 29, Ht., 66 in., Wt., 66 kg., Occupation, CZerk
Total Time Spent

Activity hr. min. Cal/min. Total Cal.
In bed 54 4 1.13 3,670
Daytime dozing I 43 1937 140
Recreational aftd off work:
Light sedentary activities 31 14 1.48 2,810
Washing, shaving, dressing 3 18 3*0 590
Playing with child 30 3.2 100
Light domestic work 7 14 3.0 1,300
Walking 8 35 6.6 3,400
Gardening d 48 4.8 810
Standing activities 45 1.56 630
Watching football 2 IO 2.0 260
Total recreational and off work 62 32 9,800

Working:
Sitting activities 22 22 1.65 2,210
Standing activities 25 57 I.90 2,960
Walking I 22 6.6 540
Total working 49 41 5,710
Grand total 168 19,320

Daily average 24 2,760
Food intake (daily av. determined by diet survey) 2,620
that the upper limit of useful physical work that a man can perform on 6 days of the
week throughout the year was the equiva>lentof a 2o-mile walk a day or a I4-mile
march with a 6o-lb. pack. Higher rates of work were likely to be associatedwith
physical breakdowns due to cumulative fatigue.
Lehmann (86) and Miiller (102) have recently been investigating this problem
again. They suggestthat in order to prevent evidence of fatigue the intensity of the
working rate and the length of the compensatingrest pausesmust be so adjusted as
to give grossover-all rates of energy expenditure of not more than 5 Cal/min, This
they call an ‘endurance limit.’ It representsapproximately the upper limit of work
that can be performed without an increasing accumulation of lactic acid and without
a rise in body temperature. It correspondsapproximately to walking on the level at
about 3.8 mph. A man, so the German workers say, should be able to maintain an
over-all working rate of this order for 6 days a week, week after week, and year after
year. It is equivalent to a daily walk of about 30 miles. Playfair’s postmen in rural
Scotland would have several steep hills to climb in their 20 miles and the two stand-
ards probably do not differ greatly.
Work at 5 Cal./min. for 8 hours correspondsto 2400 Cal. expended at work. If
we allow 500 Cal. for 8 hours in bed and. about 1400 Cal. for the 8 hours spent off
work (49, seealso tables 36 and 37), the total energy expenditure for the 24 hours is
4300 Cal. This probably representsthe upper rates of daily energy expenditure that
can be maintained regularly in heavy industry. It is slightly higher than rates re-
corded in British (49) and German (87) coal miners. Food intakes corresponding to
very much higher rates have on occasionsbeen recorded. This is notably so in the

R. PASSMORE AND J. V. G. A. DURNIN Volume 35
834
TABLE 37. ENERGY OUTPUT AND INTAKE OF A COAL MINER OVER I WEEK (49)
John E., Age 32, Ht., 6g i~., Wt., 67 kg., Occupation, Stripper
Total Time Spent
Activity hr. V&Z. CaI/min e Total Cd.
In bed 58 30 0.94 3,690
Recreational and off work:

Light sedentary activities 38 37 I-59 3,68o
Washing, shaving, dressing 5 3 3.3 1,000
Walking 1s 4-9 4,410
Standing 2 16 1.8 250
Cycling 2 25 6.6 960
Gardening 2 5-O 600
Total recreational and off work 65 21 10,900
;Vorking:
Loading 12 6 6.3 4,570
Hewing 14 6.7 500
Timbering t 51 57 2,340
Walking 6 43 6.7 2,700
Standing 2 6 I*3 230
Sitting I5 9 1.63 1,530
Total. working 44 9 11,870
Grand total 168 26,460

Daily average 24 3,780
Food intake (daily av. determined by diet survey) 3,990
TABLE 38. SIMULTANEOUS MEASUREMENTS OF DAILY EXERGY EXPENDITURE Am INTAKE
Daily Daily (Expend./

No. of Days Cal. Cal. Intake)
Ref. Subj. Obs. Nature of Activities Expend. Intake x I.00
III 5 13 Male students, 5 days hard work and 8 3, po 3,610 97
days sedentary
132 77 7 Military cadets, normal training 3,420 3,710 92
49 10 7 Male clerks in colliery office 2,800 3,040 92
49 19 7 Coal face 3,660 4,030 91
Iumber camps (68a, 73, 92). Lumbermen are, however, a carefully self-selected group
with physiqaes far above the average. The figure of 5 Cal./min. given by Lehmann
and Miiller is intended to apply to an average cross-section of an industrial com-
munity. Lumbermen do undoubtedly work for long periods at high rates, but the
accumulation of several weeks with good wages or the curtailment of opportunity
because of the long hours of winter darkness in the northern forests usually result in
long periods of absence from work. The lumberman does not carry on with his work
regularly year-in and year-out like the coal miner.
Mtiller emphasizes that this endurance limit gives only a rough idea of what mav
be expected of men in heavy industry. In light industry many oth.er factors, such
as the necessity to maintain awkward postures or the excessive use of one set of
muscles may limit capacity for work at much lower rates of energy expenditure.

Ociobeu rg;s’ HUMAN ENERGY EXPENDITURE 835
ENERGY EXPENDITURE AKD CALORIE REQUIREIUENTS

In this review we have attempted to collect together someof the knowledge that
is available concerning the rates of energy expenditure in various human activities as
determined by physiological methods. Much more information is available from
dietary studies of the energy intake of different population groups, and dietary
studies provide indirect information on over-all rates of energy expenditure. Both
sourcesof information are necessary in drawing up physiological scalesof calorie
needs.Such scalesare of great importance since they must be the basisof any form
of food rationing in times when food is scarce.Probably the best modern statement of
calorie needs is that published by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the
United Nations (46). This report was first issuedin 1950, and is undergoing revision
at the moment (47).
Nutrition and industrial health are still both young sciences.In this review we
have tried to gather someof the data in one branch of physiology common to these
two sciences.Knowledge of the energy expenditure of an individual will usually indi-
cate the food needs.But the energy needscan also be indicated from the dietary in-
take, and we feel that a comprehensiveand critical review of the literature on dietary
intakes would also be most useful at the present time. The study of energy expendi-
ture and of food intake is complementary, and much information is already avail-
able. A more preciseunderstanding of this data will increaseour practical knowledge
of man’s food requirements and capacity for physical work.
We wish to thank Dr. K. Mahadeva for much help in the early stages of the preparation of
the manuscrip t.
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Human Energy Expenditure

R. PASSMORE AND J. V. G. A. DURNIN

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Ref. Subj. Age St% Wt., kg. Activity Cal/min.

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2.0 I-9 2.2 2.6 2.9 3*2 3.5 3.8

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FIG. 2. Energy expenditure walking

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TABLES. ENERGYEXPENDITURE WALKINGONDU-FERENTSURFACE~ (58)

Nature of Surface Speed, km/h. Cal/min.

TABLE 4. ENERGY EXPENDITURE,GOINGUP ANDDOWN STAIRS Ahm CLIMBING LADDERS

111 14.8 6.0 9-3 9-I 0

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TABLE 5. ENERGY EXPENDITUIU DURING CHILDREN'S RECREATIQKS

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TABLE 6. ENERGY EXPENDITURE DURING LIGHT INDOOR RECREATIONS

Wt., Energy Cost,

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TABLE 8. EXEKGY EXPEND~TUKE DCJKING IIECKEATX~KS ~XV~LVIXG IEXKD EX~~;RCISE

wt., Energy Cost,

95 J.B. 21 68 Swimming, back crawl x.5

89 Av. of 2 71 Breast stroke, 20 yd/min. ,i -0

89 Av. of 2 71 Breast stroke, 30 yd/min. 7.5

89 Lb. of 2 71 Breast stroke, 40 yd/min. 10.0

89 90 Back stroke 25 yd/min. 5 -0

9 90 Back stroke 35 yd/min. C) . 0

89 90 Crawl, 55 yd/min. 14.0

rr7 Av, of 4 25 65 Cross country running 10.6

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TABLE 9. ENERGY E~P~DI~RE DURING DOMESTIC worn

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Casting lead balls in mould 2 4.8

MISCELLANEOUS LABORING ACTMTIES

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TABLE 13. ERERGU F,XPEKDITURE IN LIGHT INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES (87)

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TABLE 14. ENERGY EXPIWDITURE IN LIGHT INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES (42)

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FIG. 3. Energy expenditurewhen

energy expenditure of builders would probably involve more measurementsthan

MINING AND QUARRYISG

Comprehensivestudies of the energy expended by coal miners have been made

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FIG. 4. Energy expenditure

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

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‘I’ARLE 1% t<NlW:Y ISXt’EXDITUI(E IS THIS RUILDING INDUSTRY

Ref. Subj. Wt.. kg. Activity

Measurements of the energy expenditures of peasants in agricultural tasks have

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Type of x0. of Cal./min., ??o. r,l- Cal/min .,

TABLE 24. ENERGY PENDRE IN AGRICULTURE, Italy, 1945