Marine Auxiliary Machinery Course

Marine Auxiliary Machinery Prof. Dr.
Mosaad Mosleh
Alexandria University
Faculty of Engineering
Alexandria University, Faculty of Engineering
Marine Engineering and Naval Architecture Department
Marine Auxiliary Machinery
Prof. Dr. Mosaad Mosleh
1
Marine Auxiliary Machinery Prof. Dr. Mosaad Mosleh
Contents:-
1. Pumps and Pumping.
Types: Displacement Pumps, Axial Pumps,
Centrifugal Pumps, Piping and fittings.
2. Air Compressors.
Types: Reciprocating, Rotary Vane, Screw,
Centrifugal.
3. Heat Exchanger.
Types: Shell-and-tube, Plate type.
4. Oil/ Water separator.
Types: centrifugal, purifying, clarifying.
5. Stabilis(z)ier and Stablis(z)ing systems.
Types: Tank Stabilisier.
REF:
1. Introduction to Marine Engineering ( Taylor)
2. Marine Engineering (SNAME)
3. Marine Auxiliary Machinery ( Smith)
2
Introduction
Auxiliary machinery covers everything on board except the main engines and boiler, and
includes almost all the pipes and fittings, as well as many items of equipment providing
the following functions:
1) Supply the requirements of the main engines and boilers-circulating water, forced
lubrication, feed and feed heating, coolers, condensers, air compressors, oil
reception, transfer and treatment.
2) Keep the ship dry and trimmed – bilge and ballast systems.
3) Supply the domestic requirements – fresh , salt, sanitary and sewage systems,
refrigeration, heating and ventilating
4) Apply the main power for propulsion and maneuvering, shafting, propellers,
steering gear, stabilizers.
5) Supply the ship with electric power and lighting steam and diesel generating
engines.
6) Moor the ship and handle cargo – windlass, capstan, winches, and cargo oil
pumps.
7) Provide for safety – fire detection and lighting, lifeboat engines and launching
gear, watertight doors.
8) Provide for data logging, remote control and automatic action – pneumatic,
electro – pneumatic and electric equipment, self – regulating apparatus, etc.
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Chapter 1
Pumps and Pumping
1. Pumps
1.1. Introduction:
A ship’s engine and engine room obviously contains a number of complex pipe
arrangement such as cooling, lubricating, bilge, ballast, oil fuel systems, etc.
Each system can be considered comprised of pumps, piping, valves and fittings, which
will now be examined in turn.
A pump is a machine used to raise liquids from a low level to a high level. Alternatively
it may simply provide the liquid with an increase in energy enabling it to flow or build up
a pressure. The pumping action can be achieved in various ways according to the type of
pump employed.
A pumping system on a ship will consist of suction piping, a pump and discharge piping.
Fig. (1.1) shows the basic pumping system.
Figure (1.1): Basic Pumping System
 The system is arranged to provide a positive pressure as head.

 The pump provides the necessary energy to overcome any losses in the system.
 Losses in the system are mainly due to friction within the pipes and the difference
between the initial and final liquid levels.
 The total system losses, H tot are:
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H tot = H Fr suction+ H Fr dis+ H Dis tank+ H Suc tank

where,
H Fr suction = friction head loss in suction piping,
H Fr dis = friction head loss in discharge piping,
H Dis tank = height of discharge tank level above pump,
and H Suc tank = height of suction tank Level above pump.
 The system head loss-flow characteristic is shown in Fig. (1.2). The system flow rate
or capacity will be known and the pump manufacturer will provide a head-flow
characteristic for this equipment which must be matched to the system curve. To
obtain the best operating conditions for the pump it should operate over its range of
maximum efficiency.
 The determination of Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is undertaken for both the
system and the pump.
 NPSH is the difference between the absolute pump inlet pressure and the vapor
pressure of the liquid, and is expressed in m of liquid.
 Vapor pressure is dependent on temperature and is usually given for the operating
temperature of the liquid.
Figure (1.2): Overall pump system characteristics
5
 The NPSH available in the system is given as:
NPSH avail = (H atm + H suc tank– H Fr suc) - H vap press

Absolute pump inlet pressure
where,
H atm = atmospheric pressure,
H suc tank = tank level from pump (-ve when tank level is below pump),
H Fr suc = friction head loss in suction piping,
and H vap press = liquid vapor pressure.
It has to be noted that all values are in meters (m) head of liquid.
Note:
 The pump manufacturer provides a NPSH required characteristic for the pump (m
head of sea water)
 The pump and the system must be matched in terms of NPSH such that
NPSHreq < NPSHavail
 An insufficient value of NPSHreq will result in cavitations, i.e. the forming and
collapsing of bubbles in the liquid, which will affect the pumping operation and
may damage the pump.
 Atmospheric pressure can be expressed as:
1 atm = 1.013 bar = 760 mmHg = 10.3 m water.
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1.2. Pump Types:
There are three main classes of pumps in marine use:

1. Displacement pumps
2. Axial flow pumps.
3. Centrifugal pumps.
A number of different arrangements are possible for displacement pumps (e.g.
reciprocating, screw, gear and water-ring types etc.) and centrifugal pumps to meet
particular system characteristics.
1.2.1. Displacement pumps:

 They are the most suitable and efficient for dealing with small volume.
 They are usually used for small to medium discharge rates.
 They can pump fluids of different viscosities.
 They can develop high pressure differentials.
 The method employed in the pumps is either a piston in a cylinder using a
reciprocating motion, or a rotating unit using vanes, gears or screws.
The method employed in the displacement pumps is either a piston in a cylinder using a
reciprocating motion, or a rotating unit using vanes, gears or screws.
Types of displacement pumps are:
1. A reciprocating pumps.
2. Gear pumps.
3. Screw pumps.
A) A reciprocating displacement pump:

A reciprocating displacement pump is shown diagrammatically in Fig (1.3). The pump is
double acting, that is liquid is admitted to either side of the piston where it’s alternately
drawn in and discharged.
As the piston moves upwards, suction takes place below the piston and liquid is drawn in,
the value arrangement ensuring that the discharge valve can’t open on the suction stroke.
Above the piston, liquid is discharged and the suction valve remains closed. As the piston
travels down, the operations of suction and discharge occur now on opposite sides.
An air vessel is usually fitted in the discharge pipe work to dampen out pressure
variations during discharge.
The reciprocating displacement pumps are self-priming.
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Figure (1.3): Diagrammatic reciprocating displacement pump
B) Gear pumps:
It’s usually motor driven through a chain or wheel drive. There are no suction or
discharge valves. The two toothed wheels shown in fig. (1.4) mesh together and are a
close fit in the casing. The fluid is carried round between the teeth and the casing. Such
pumps are fairly efficient and smooth running and are best suited to pump oil,
particularly for boiler oil fuel pressure feed.
Figure (1.4): Gear pump
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C) Screw Displacement pumps:

Consider Fig. (1.5), it’s seen that the fluid enters the outer suction manifolds and passes
through the meshing worm wheels, which are gear driven from a motor, t the central
discharge manifold.
Timing gears are fitted to some screw pumps to ensure that correct clearance is
maintained at all times between the screw, thereby preventing overheating and possible
seizure.
Figure (1.5): Double - screw displacement pump
Figure (1.6): Three-screw displacement pump
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Figure (1.5): Double screw displacement pump
1.2.2. Axial flow pump:

An axial flow pump uses a screw propeller to axially accelerate the liquid. The outlet
passage and guide vanes are arranged to convert the velocity increase of the liquid into a
pressure. Figure (1.6) shows some views and a diagrammatic diagram for the axial flow
pump.
It’s efficient, simple in design and reversible operation.
The pump casing is split either horizontally or vertically to provide access to the
propeller. A mechanical seal prevents leakage where the shaft leaves the casing. The
prime moves may be an electric motor or a steam turbine.
A water cooled thrust of the tilling pad type is required because of the considerable thrust
generated (consider a propulsion system).
Careful study of the characteristic curves for an axial flow pump, critical region, where
NPSH is negative, must be determined. In this region, pump must not be operated
continuously due to vibration.
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Figure (1.6): Axial flow pump
1.2.3. Centrifugal pumps:

In a centrifugal pump liquid enters the centre or eye of the impeller and radically out
between the vanes, its velocity being increased by the impeller rotation. A diffuser or
volute is then used to convert most of the kinetic energy in the liquid into pressure. Fig.
(1.7) shows the main types of centrifugal pumps.
Regenerative
Figure (1.7): Types of centrifugal pump
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The volute pump is the most common, being found in large numbers, usually the diffuser
pump is met mainly on high pressure pumps, usually multi-stage, such as boiler feed
pump. The regenerative pump is used where a relatively high pressure and capacity are
required.
The impeller and volute casing design will depend on the required duty, e.g. head to lift,
head to discharge (pressure), quantity, etc. A typical centrifugal bilge pump would give
an output of about 30 kg of water in one second, 12 kW power discharge up to 5 bar
running at about 17 rev/s.
For the velocity to be constant the volute is made so that cross sectional pipe area
increase uniformly from cut water to threat, Figure (1.8).
Figure (1.8): Volute type of centrifugal pump
These types of pump use the basic law (Bernoulli's) of converting potential energy into
kinetic energy and vice versa. The equation being:
Total energy (referred to unit weight of liquid) is
p v2
H Z 
 2g
where:
H = total head at a given point,
Z = height above datum,
p
= pressure head,

v2
= dynamic or velocity head,
2g
 = specific gravity (1 for fresh water)
From a mathematical consideration of the action of a centrifugal pump it can be shown
that the theoretical relationship between head H and throughput Q is a straight line
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(Figure 1.9), with minimum throughput occurring when the head is maximum. Because
of shock and eddy losses caused by impeller blade thickness and other mechanical
considerations there will be some head loss, increasing slightly with throughput. These
losses, together with friction losses due to fluid contact with the pump casing and inlet
and impact losses result in the H/Q curve shown in the figure. The final shape of this
curve will vary according to the design of the pump. Depending on application,
centrifugal pumps can be designed with relatively flat H/Q curves or if required the curve
can be steep to give a relatively large shut-off head.
Figure (1.9): Showing centrifugal pump action by mathematical relationship
From Figure (1.9) it can be seen that minimum power occurs when there is no flow and
when the discharge head is at its highest in other words when the discharge valve is
closed. Since throughput decreases as the discharge head is increased there is no
necessity to fit a relief valve to centrifugal pumps. It will also be noticed that the
efficiency curve for the pump is convex which means that maximum efficiency occurs at
a point somewhere between maximum and minimum discharge head and throughput
conditions.
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Selection of the centrifugal pump:
The selection of the centrifugal pump depends mainly upon:

1. Duty:
A) Flow and total head requirements:-
This will govern the speed of rotation, impeller dimensions, numbers of impellers
and type, e.g. single or double inlet.
B) Range of temperature of fluid to be pumped:
If suction capacity is insufficient to accommodate supply conditions due for
example to high inlet temperature, cavitations can occur.
C) Viscosity of the medium to be pumped.
D) Type of medium, e.g. corrosive or non-corrosive:-
This would affect the choice of the material (although for salt water and fresh
water, the difference is often just the casing).
2. Space:-
With vertically arranged pumps less floor space is required, this usually means that no
hydraulic balance is necessary, impeller access is simple and no pipe joints have to be
broken.
Power supply:
In the calculation of power supplied to the pump must take into account the various
losses, these are made up to:
1. Friction loss in the bearing and glands, surfaces of impeller and casing. Impellers
are highly polished to minimize friction loss.
2. Head loss in pump due to shock at entry and exit to impeller vanes and eddies
formed by vane edges.
3. Leakage loss in thrust balance devices, gland sealing, and clearance between cut
water and casing and bearing seals.
A typical curve is shown in Figure (1.10),

reciprocating and axial pump curves given for
comparison.
Figure (1.10): Characteristic curves
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Failure:
a) Failure to deliver caused by loss of suction may be due to, insufficient supply
head, air leakage in suction pipe, facility or leakage shaft gland.
b) Capacity reduction could be the result of damaged sealing using, leakage gland,
obstruction (valve partly closed), incorrect rotational speed.
c) Excessive vibration may be caused by either:
1- Loose coupling.
2- Loose impeller.
3- Bearing damaged.
4- Impeller imbalance.
Advantages:
1. Increasing efficiency at high speeds.

2. Small space occupation, weight, cost.
3. Easy maintenance.
4. Small frictional losses.
5. Steady flow rate of liquid.
6. Reduction of noise.
7. More reliable.
Disadvantages:
1. Needs to prime mover.

2. Reduction of efficiency at small speeds and also for small size.
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1.3. Pump Performance:
1.3.1. Velocity Diagram for entrance & exit of impeller centrifugal pump vane at inlet & exit:-
Consider one vane and two velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet tips of vane are given
in Figure (1.11).
Figure (1.11): Velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet tips of vane
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Let
D1 = inner diameter of the impeller,
v r1 = velocity of the fluid relative to the vane at entrance
u1 = tangential velocity of the inlet tip of the vane
v1 = absolute velocity entering the impeller (vector sum of v r1 & u1 ).
  
i.e. v1  vr1  u1
The velocity v1 can be analyzed into the radial component at inlet v f 1 , and the whirl
component v w1 .
  
i.e. v1  v f 1  vw1
θ = the inlet angle of the vane (blade angle at inlet).
φ = the outlet angle of the vane (blade angle at outlet).
α = the angle which the absolute velocity makes with U1.
β = the angle which the absolute velocity at exit makes with U2.
D2 , vr 2 , u 2 , v2 , v f 2 and v w 2 are corresponding values at the outlet.

The cross- section of the impeller is shown in figure.
Figure (1.12): cross- section of the impeller
It has to be noted that:
r1 b1  r2 b2  r b
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1.3.2. Energy of impeller:
For good efficiency, the following assumptions are usually made:

1) The flow towards the impeller is radial (i.e. no velocity of whirl)
vw1  0  v f 1  v1 and   90 o ⁰
2) Velocity of flow through the impeller is assumed to be constant
vf1  vf 2
(Different values of vf1 & vf 2 may be used in some problems).
Work done by liquid or runner is

W .D.  vw2 u 2  vw1 u1 (N.m / kg of liquid)
Energy exerted by impeller on liquid is
Energy  vw2 u 2  vw1 u1 (J / kg of liquid)
Since the inflow is radial ( v w1  0 ), so the previous equations will be

W .D.  vw2 u 2 (N.m / kg)
Energy  v w2 u 2 (J / kg )
1. Mechanical energy given by prime mover to the shaft of impeller can be

expressed as
Mechanical energy = v w 2 u 2 + mechanical losses in bearing of shaft (J / kg)
2. Neglecting the losses of energy in the pump, theoretical energy developed by

liquid will be
Theoretical energy = vw2 u 2 (J / kg)
3. Actual energy developed by liquid is known as manometric energy or output
energy of pump.
Manometric energy = v w2 u 2 - hydraulic losses in pump (J / kg)
It has to be noted that the actual head developed by liquid is known as manometric
head.
Figure (1.13) shows a schematic diagram for the relationship between the different
energies of the pump.
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ηO.A
η man
ηmech.
Theoretical Energy Actual Energy
Motor Mechanical Energy
Electric Energy
Mechanical Losses in Bearing Hydraulic losses in pumps
Figure (1.13): A schematic diagram for the relationship between

the different energies of the pump.
Efficiency of centrifugal pump:
Unless mentioned otherwise, by efficiency of centrifugal pump, it means the manometric

efficiency.
manometric energy H m 
1- Manometric efficiency  man 
energy by impeller  w 2 2 
v u
 g
energy by impeller vw 2u2  Q 
2- Mechanical efficiency  mech 
energy given to impeller
manometric energy
3- Overall efficiency O. A 
energy given to impeller
O. A  mech man
 is the discharge of the pump

where, Q   D1 b1 v f   D2 b2 v f
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Manometric Head:
- It’s an important term, in the field of centrifugal pumps.

- Figure (1.14) shows a centrifugal pump with its suction and delivery pipes.
Figure (1.14): A centrifugal pump with its suction and delivery pipes.
Let,
hi = loss of head at inlet of suction pipe,
hs = suction height,
hd = delivery height,
vs  v A = flow velocity in suction pipe

vd  vB = flow velocity in delivery pipe
h fs = loss of head due to friction in suction pipe
h fd = loss of head due to friction in delivery pipe

A be the inlet to the pump
B be the outlet of the pump
Then,
Total vertical lift = total static lift = hs  hd
vs2
H s  Suction head  hi  hs  h fs 
2g
20
vd2
H d  Delivery head  hd  h fd 
2g
Total external head against which the pump has to work; or total external resistance
vd2
which the pump has to overcome  hi  hs  h fs  hd  h fd 
2g
vs2
 Hs  Hd 
2g
Now, the manometric head H m is the head actually developed by the pump or the
internal resistance developed by the pump. For the working of the pump
Hm = total external resistance to be overcome
vd2
H m  hi  hs  h fs  hd  h fd 
2g
vs2
 Hs  Hd 
2g
Since hi is too small with respect to the other terms, it can be neglected.
H m  hs  hd   h fs  h fd  
vd2
2g
In other form,
Hm  Head at outlet - Head at inlet
Hm  HB  HA
 pB vB2   p A v A2 
    z B      z A 
  2g    2g 
where z A & z B are the level of suction and delivery of the pump.
It has to be noted that H m is head given by prime mover less the head equivalent to
hydraulic losses in the pump.
vw 2 u 2
i.e. Hm  – head equivalent to hydraulic losses in the pump (Impeller losses)
g
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Example 1:-
1. During a test on a centrifugal pump, the following , the following readings were obtained
Vacuum gauge reading = 25 cm of mercury

Press gauge reading = 1.38 bar
Effective height between gauges = 0.46 m
Shaft horsepower of electric motor = 30 hp
Discharge of pump = 85 lit / s
Diameter of delivery pipe = 15 cm
Diameter of suction pipe = 20 cm
Determine the overall efficiency of the pump.
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2. Piping and fitting:
A ship’s machinery space contains hundreds of meters of piping and fitting. The various
system are arranged to carry many different liquids at various temperatures and pressures.
2.1. Pipes:
Machinery space pipe work is made up of assorted straight lengths and bends joined by
flanges with an appropriate gasket or joint between or very small bore piping may use
compression couplings.
The piping material will be chosen to suit the liquid carried and the system conditions.
Where piping is to be galvanized, the completed pipe with all joints fully welded is to be
hot dipped galvanized.
The pipes are supported and held in place by hangers or pipes clips in such a way as to
minimize vibration.
Pipes in systems with considerable temperature variation such as steam pipes may be
supported on spring hangers which permit a degree of movement.
2.2. Valves:
Valves are provided in a piping system to regulate or stop the liquid flow. Various types
will be existing in ship piping systems.
2.2.1. Cock:-
A cock is used in a small bore pipe work. It can restrict or close an internal passage by
moving a central plug, Figure (1.15).
Figure (1.15): Cock
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2.2.2. Globe valve:-
A globe valve has a somewhat spherical body enclosing the valve disc Figure (1.16).
Flanges are provided at either side for connecting to adjacent pipe work. A gland with
appropriate packing surrounds the spindle where it leaves the valve bonnet. The upper
part of the spindle is threaded and passes through a similarly threaded bridge piece. A
circular hand wheel is used to turn the spindle and raise or lower the valve disc (to open
or close).
Globe valve also exist in a right angled form where the inlet and exit flanges are at 90⁰ at
each other.
Figure (1.16): Globe valve
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2.2.3. Non-Return valve:
Non-return or check valves are arranged in various pipelines to prevent reverse flow.
They are sometimes arranged without spindles, in which case they are liquid operated and
can’t be manually closed Figure (1.17). A free lifting valve may be used or a hinged flap.
Figure (1.17): Non-return or check valve
2.2.4. Gate valve:
A gate valve should be fully opened or closed; it isn’t suitable for flow control. When
open it provides a clear full bore internal passage for the liquid since the valve or gate is
raised clear Figure (1.18). The spindle is threaded over its lower portion and when turned
causes the gate to raise or lower. The gate may be parallel or wedge shaped in section
fitting against a matching seat.
25
Figure (1.18): Gate valve
2.2.5. Relief valves:-
Excess pressure is avoided in pipe

systems by the use of relief valves. The
valve disc is held closed by a spring
arrangement on the stem Figure (1.19).
The spring compression can be adjusted
to enable the valve to open at the
appropriate pressure. It’s used as a safety
valve, e.g. Boiler safety valves.
Figure (1.19): Relief valve
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Chapter 2
Air Compressors
Introduction:
An air compressor is a machine that increases the pressure of air by reducing its volume.
Compressors are used to raise the pressure of gases because gases are compressible
fluids. Pumps are used to raise the pressure of liquids because liquids are practically
incompressible. Compressors and pumps are similar in that both increase the pressure of
a fluid and both can transport the fluid through piping.
Compressed air is used on board ship for starting diesel engines, in pneumatic control
systems and for various pneumatic tools and cleaning equipment. The most useful use of
compressed air is for diesel engine starting using air pressures of 25 bar or more provided
by reciprocating compressors.
Classification and types:
There are primarily two basic types of compressors. One type uses dynamic compression
accomplished by the mechanical action of rotating contoured blades which impart
velocity and hence pressure to the flowing gases. The other type uses positive
displacement accomplished by trapping a volume of gas and displacing it by the action of
a piston or a rotating member.
The dynamic compression compressors are sub-categorized as either centrifugal
compressors where the gas flows radically through the compressor or as axial
compressors where the gas flows straight through the compressor (parallel to the rotating
drive shaft of the compressor).
The positive displacement compressors are sub-categorized as either reciprocating
compressors or rotary compressors and each of those include a number of different
types.
The main types of gas compressors are illustrated in the chart below at Fig. (2.1), and
each type is then discussed in the following sections:
Fig. (2.1): The main types of gas compressors
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In marine field, the most used compressors may be of either the reciprocating, rotary, or
centrifugal type. Compressors for medium and high pressure are of the reciprocating
type, and are almost multi-staged.
Compressors for low and medium pressures may be of the reciprocating, rotary, or
centrifugal type.
A) Reciprocating Compressors:-
They use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be either stationary or portable, can be
single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion
engines. Small reciprocating compressors are ranged from 5 to 30 horsepower (hp) and
are typically for intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating compressors well over 1000 hp
are still commonly found in large industrial and petroleum applications. Discharge
pressures can range from low pressure to very high pressure (>5000 psi or 35 MPa).
Fig. (2.2) is a photo of a reciprocating air compressor.
Fig. (2.2): .A photo of a reciprocating air compressor
28
In certain applications, such as air compression, multi-stage double-acting compressors

are said to be the most efficient compressors available, although they are typically larger,
noisier, and more costly than comparable rotary units. A typical vertical single acting
reciprocating compressor is shown in Fig. (2.3).
Fig. (2.3): Vertical single acting reciprocating compressor
A cross section of a single-stage, single-acting, motor-driven reciprocating air

compressor for general ship’s service is shown in Fig. (2.4).
The intercooler is the air-cooled radiator type with the fan belt driven from the main
shaft. All bearings and rods are pressure lubricated.
Automatic stopping and starting of this type of compressor is controlled by an air-
operated switch which stops the motor when the accumulator pressure has reached the
related value and restarts the motor when the pressure has dropped a certain amount.
These types of compressors are used for many shipboard air services such as diesel
engine starting, ship’s service air, combustion and control air, tube cleaning and sand
blasting. They range from 4 to 20 bar. Air or water may be used for cylinder cooling and
inter cooling.
29
Fig. (2.4): A cross section of a single-stage, single-acting, motor-

driven reciprocating air compressor for general ship’s service
These compressors at sea are generally two or three stages types with inter-stage cooling.
Most modern diesel engines use starting air at a pressure of about 26 bar and to achieve
this a two stage type of compressor would be adequate. These compressors are generally
reciprocating type, with various possible arrangements of the cylinders, or they could be
a combination of a rotary first stage followed by a reciprocating high pressure stage. This
latter arrangement leads to a compact, high delivery rate compressor.
Fig. (2.5) shows a typical two-stage reciprocating type of air compressor, the pressures
and temperatures at a various points would be approximately as follows:
Delivery Air temperature

Pressure Before the coolers After the coolers
o o
(bar) C C
2
First stage 4 130 35
3
2
Second stage 26 130 35
3
30
Fig. (2.5): A typical two-stage reciprocating type of air compressor
Fig. (2.6) shows diagramatically a tandem type of three stage compressor, the pressures
and temperatures at a various points would be roughly as follows:
Delivery Air temperature

Pressure Before the coolers After the coolers
o o
(bar) C C
First stage 4 110 35
Second stage 16 110 35
Third stage 40 70 25
31
Fig. (2.6): A typical three-stage reciprocating type of air compressor
32
B) Rotary compressors:-
They are used to produce large volumes of air at relatively low pressure and are used at
sea as integral parts of main engines for scavenging and for boiler forced draft.
Rotary compressors are classified as fixed vane, rotary vane, screw, axial-flow or lobe.
B.1) Fixed vane (Rotary piston )
Figure (2.7) shows a rotary piston compressor with its parts. It consists of a cylindrical
steel roller revolving on an eccentric shaft, mounted concentrically in a cylinder. A
spring-loaded blade, free to move in a longitudinal slot in the cylinder wall bears against
the revolving roller; as the shaft revolves and the roller moves round the cylinder wall in
the direction of shaft rotation, it maintains continual contact.
Figure (2.7): Parts of a rotary piston compressor.
33
The operation of this compressor is illustrated in Fig. (2.8)

At the piston shown, at 270⁰, the discharge and suction strokes are completed.
At 0⁰ discharging at compression stroke, induction at suction stroke.
At 90⁰ start of compression and end of suction
At 180⁰ compression taking place and the suction stroke has just started.
Thus leading flank of the rotor acts as discharge and the lagging flank acts as the inductor.
Fig. (2.8): Operation of rotary piston compressor
Such compressors mainly find application in domestic units but modern practice is
extending their use to cargo purposes.
The speed of this type of compressor makes it well suited for attachment to high-speed
diesel engines to supply scavenging air.
Rotary types are generally suitable for pressures up to 8 bar, but are predominantly used
for lower pressures.
A refrigeration and air conditioning system is a good and clear application of this type of
compressors. Illustration of the operation of this compressor in refrigerant system is
illustrated in Fig. (2.9)
34
Fig. (2.9): Operation of rotary compressor in refrigerant system
B.2) Rotary vane compressors:-
Figure (2.10) shows a rotary vane compressor with its components.

These compressors employ a number of vanes or blades carried in longitudinal slots
machines in an eccentrically mounted rotor. This rotor is installed in the cylinder in such
a way that it approaches closely the cylinder wall on one side. The vanes move radically
in the rotor slots as the rotor revolves, being held against the cylinder wall centrifugal
force; in some cases springs are fitted behind the vanes.
In other words, rotary vane compressors consist of an off-center drive shaft that rotates
housing for a number of vanes. As the off-center housing rotates, the vanes slide in and
out of their housing slots to keep contact with the outer wall of the compressor. Thus, a
series of decreasing volumes is created by the rotating vanes.
35
Figure (2.10): A rotary vane compressor with its components
36
The operation of this compressor can be represented in Fig. (2.11)
Fig. (2.11): Operation of rotary vane compressor
As the off-center drive shaft rotates, so does the vane housing, and the vanes slide in and
out to maintain contact with the cylindrical compressor wall. Air enters the largest
opening and the compressed air discharges from the smallest opening.
With suitable port connections, the rotary vane devices may be either a compressor or a
vacuum pump. They can be either stationary or portable, single or multi-staged, and
driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines.
A rotary vane compressor is well suited to electric motor drive and is significantly quieter
in operation than the equivalent piston compressor.
Rotary vane compressors are, with piston compressors, one of the oldest of compressor
technologies.
B.3) Screw compressors:-
These compressors can be visualized as a development of the gear pump. A male motor
on the shaft meshes with a female rotor on a parallel shaft to force air into a smaller
space. Clearance between screw and casing is kept minimum with sealing strips and oil
film.
There are two types of screw-compressors, those that utilize a circulating oil to seal and
cool the screws and those that operate completely dry (i.e., oil-free).
An oil-bath screw compressor is a system where a complete screw compression system
utilizing a circulating oil.
Figure (2.12) is photos of the two screws within the body of a screw compressor: a
female and a male screw. The screws rotate in opposite directions with the female screw
37
receiving the driving power and transmitting this power to the male screw through a set
of synchronization gears.
Figure (2.12): Photos of the two screws within the body of a screw compressor
As the screws rotate, the air is drawn into the inlet port and fills up the space between the
screws. The compression begins when the end of a male thread blocks the end of a
female thread. The volume available between the compressor body and these two threads
then progressively decreased during rotation. When this volume merges into the delivery
outlet of the compressor, compressed gas is discharged from the compressor.
Screw compressors are typically used for continuous operation and may be either
stationary or portable. Their applications range from 3 hp (2.24 kW) to over 500 hp (375
kW) and from low pressure to very high pressure (>1200 psi or 8.3 MPa).
B.4) Axial-flow compressors:-
Axial-flow compressors are dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays of fan-like
airfoils to progressively compress the working fluid. Figure (2.13) shows is a photo of an
axial-flow compressor. They are used where there is a requirement for a high flows or a
compact design.
Figure (2.13): A photo of an axial-flow compressor
38
The arrays of airfoils are set in rows, usually as pairs: one rotating and one stationary.
The rotating airfoils, also known as blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid. The stationary
airfoils, also known as a stators or vanes, turn and decelerate the fluid; preparing and
redirecting the flow for the rotor blades of the next stage. Axial compressors are almost
always multi-staged, with the cross-sectional area of the gas passage diminishing along
the compressor to maintain an optimum axial. Beyond about 5 stages or a 4:1 design
pressure ratio is normally used to improve operation.
Axial compressors can have high efficiencies; around 90% polytropic at their design
conditions. However, they are relatively expensive, requiring a large number of
components, tight tolerances and high quality materials. Axial-flow compressors can be
found in medium to large gas turbine engines, in natural gas pumping stations, and within
certain chemical plants.
B.5) Lobe compressors:-
Figure (2.14) shows the lobe compressors. They can be visualized as a development of
pump. Two rotors are rotates in opposite direction in housing with inlet and outlet.
These types of compressors are rarely used on ship board.
Figure (2.14): Rotary lobe compressors
39
C) Centrifugal Compressors:
These machines work on a similar principle to the centrifugal pump. These machines are
best suited to low differential pressure, high volume capacity work such as air
conditioning.
In these compressors one or more impellers are mounted on a steel shaft and enclosed in
a volute casing, usually of cast iron; the number of impellers depends on the compression
ratio required and the number of stages necessary for this.
Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing to force the
gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser (divergent
duct) section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy.
Figure (2.15) is a photograph is of a typical single-stage compressor (left) driven by
electric motor (right) using gear box (center). Air enters compressor through flanged
opening at left center and discharges from flange at upper left comer.
Figure (2.15): A photograph of a typical Single-stage compressor
Figure (2.16) is a photograph of a centrifugal compressor impeller and diffuser.
Figure (2.16): A photograph of a centrifugal compressor impeller and diffuser.
40
They are also used in internal combustion engines (as superchargers and turbochargers),
in small gas turbine engines and as the final compression stage of medium sized gas
turbines.
They are very widely used for continuous, stationary service in industries such as
petroleum refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants
and many other industrial facilities.
Their applications can range from 100 hp (75 kW) to thousands of horsepower. With
multiple staging, centrifugal compressors can achieve extremely high output pressures
greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).
The compression ratio (i.e., the gas discharge pressure divided by the gas inlet suction
pressure) of a centrifugal compressor is typically limited to about 3.5 to 1. To achieve
higher compression ratios, a series of compressors (referred to as compression stages) are
required.
Since compression generates heat, the compressed gas has to be cooled between stages.
The inter-stage coolers may result in some partial condensation of the gas and the
condensed liquid is removed in vapor-liquid separators.
Accessories of air compressors:
1. Drains:
 Fitted after each cooler is drain valve, these are essential.

 Drains and valves to air storage unit must be open upon starting up the
compressor in order to get rid of accumulated moisture.
 When the compressor is running drains have to be opened and closed at regular
intervals.
2. Filters:
 Air contains suspended foreign matter, much of which is abrasive.

 If it’s entering the compressor, it will combine with the lubricating oil causing
wear on piston rings, liners and valves.
 Also, this in turn can lead to form what appears to be a carbon deposit on the
valves.
 These carbons like deposits can become extremely hot on valves which are net
closing correctly and could acts ignition points for air-oil vapor mixtures, leading
to possible fires and explosion in the compressor.
 Hence air filters extremely important, they must be regularly cleaned and where
necessary renewed and the compressor must never be run with the air intake filter
removed.
3. Relieving devices:
 A relief valve will normally be fitted after each stage. Also, some other relieving
devices are fitted to the water side of coolers so that in the event of a compressed
41
air carrying tube bursting, the sudden rise in pressure of surrounding water will
not fracture the cooler casing.
4. Lubrication:
Certain factors govern the choice of lubricant for the cylinders of an air compressor,
these are:-
 Operating temperature (which effects on oil viscosity)
 Cylinder pressure ( if it’s high, the oil requires to have a high film strength )
 Air condition
Starting of compressors:
Before staring of compressor:
1. The cooling water must be flow to delivery of all air package by opening the
breathing drains & valves
2. To check of the oil level
3. Open all the water and air valves after coolers because of the compressor works
without any external load.
4. It’s preferred to start the compressor manually at first.
Maintenance of compressor:
1. To clean the water cooler and ensuring the cooling pump.

2. To clean the oil lubricators and filters and examine the oil pump.
3. Clean of air filter.
4. Removing of cylinder heads and valves and check with maintenance
5. Clean the piston, connecting rod, piston rings.
6. To check about the clearance volume.
7. Examine the motor shaft compressor alignment.
8. It’s preferred to operate the compressor without any loading for 10 min and then
it’s stopped the temperature of all bearing & coolers have to be measured.
42
Chapter 3
Heat Exchangers
Introduction:
Heat exchangers on board ship are mainly coolers where a hot liquid is cooled by sea
water. There are some instances where liquid heating is required, such as heavy fuel oil
heaters and sea water heaters for tank cleaning. The heat exchange process is
accomplished by having the two liquids pass on either side of a conducting surface. The
heat from the hot liquid passes to the cold liquid and the conducting surface, i.e. the tube
wall, is at a temperature between the two.
For marine heat exchangers, it is usual to have the two liquids flowing in opposite
directions, i.e. counter or contra flow. This arrangement provides a fairly constant
temperature difference between the two liquids and therefore the maximum heat transfer
for the available surface area.
4.1. Types of Heat Exchangers
The heat exchangers at sea fall into two groups, shell and tube and the plate type.
A) Shell and tube
Most marine heat exchangers are of the shell-and-tube type, an example of which is
shown in Figure (3.1).
- A tube bundle or stack is inserted inside a shell, whose branches are connected into
the circulating system of the hot fluid. The stack comprises a number of tubes secured
into a tube-plate at each end, and a series of baffles to direct the flow of hot fluid back
and forth across the tube bundle. The tube bundle has baffles fitted which serve to
direct the liquid to be cooled up and down over the tubes as it passes along the cooler.
- At each end of the heat exchanger is a header whose purpose is to conduct the other
fluid (usually sea water). These headers may be designed to give a single pass through
the tubes, as shown in Fig. (3.2), or two passes as in Figs. (3.3) (a and b). Removable
covers or inspection door are normally provided on the headers, to facilitate access to
the tubes for cleaning.
- At one end of the heat exchanger, gaskets are fitted between the tube-plate and both
the shell and the header.
43
- At the other end, the tube plate is free to move with seals fitted either side of a safety
expansion ring. This is, in the event of leakage past the seal it will pass out of the
cooler and be visible with out intermixing or contamination.
Fig. (3.1): Shell and tube heat exchanger
44
Fig. (3.2): One pass tube-side

heat exchanger
(a)
Fig. (3.3): Two pass tube-side

heat exchanger
(b)
45
- This arrangement also permits movement of the tube-plate to differential expansion

between tube stack and shell.
- The shell is usually made of closed grained cast iron. Gun metal or fabricated steel
may be used as alternatives depending upon requirements.
- End boxes with end access covers are of the same material as the shell. Sacrificial
anodes in rod form and an electrical contact strip are fitted to minimize corrosion. The
tube stack is made of stress relieved aluminum brass tubes.
- The joint arrangements at the tube plate ends are different. Fig. (3.4) shows photos for
two different arrangements of shell and tube heat exchangers.
Fig. (3.4): Photos for different

fabricated and
arrangements of shell and
tube heat exchangers.
46
A) Plate Type
- The plate-type heat exchanger is made up of a number of pressed plates surrounded

by seals and held together in a frame, figure (3.5).
(a)
(b)
Fig. (3.5): Plate-type heat exchanger: (a) construction, (b) operation
47
- A Schematic diagram of the operation of plate-type heat exchanger is shown in Fig.

(3.6).
Fig. (3.6): Schematic diagram of plate-type heat exchanger
48
- This consists of a variable number of gasketed, titanium (stainless steel or aluminum

brass) plates, clamped together, between a closing pressure plate and a frame.
- The plates have various designs of corrugations to aid heat transfer and provide
support for the large, flat surface.
- The surface of the plates is corrugated, as shown in Fig. (3.7), to give strength and
additional heat transfer surface.
Fig. (3.7): corrugated surface plates of plate-type heat exchanger
- The plates are usually of titanium providing very high resistance to corrosion by sea
water.
- Gaskets are usually Nitrile rubber bonded to the plate and arranged so that in the
event of failure the two fluids cannot mix.
- The inlet and outlet branches for each liquid are attached to one end plate.
- The arrangement of seals between the plates provides passage ways between adjacent
plates for the cooling liquid and the hot liquid, Fig. (3.8)
- The seals between the plates are so arranged that one fluid flows in alternate passages,
usually in the opposite direction.
49
- Principal advantages of the plate heat exchanger are:
1- Compact and space saving.

2- Easily inspected and cleaned.
3- Variable capacity
4- With titanium plates there is virtually no corrosion or erosion risk.
5- The turbulent flow which takes place between plates increases the heat transfer
and also enables fewer plates to be used.
Fig. (3.8): Arrangement of seals adjacent plates for the cooling liquid and the hot liquid
4.2. General Principles of Heat Exchanger Operation:
- Temperature control of coolers is usually achieved by adjusting the cooling liquid

outlet valve.
- The inlet valve is left open and this ensures a constant pressure within the cooler.
- Vents are provided in the highest points of coolers which should be opened on first
filling and occasionally afterwards. Also, it is important because Air remaining in a
cooler will considerably reduce the cooling effect.
50
4.3. Maintenance of Heat Exchanger:
A) Shell and Tube
1- Clean heat transfer surfaces are the main requirements for satisfactory operation.
With sea water cooling the main problem is fouling of the surfaces, i.e. the
presence of marine plant and animal growth.
2- With shell and tube coolers the end covers are removed to give access to the tubes
for cleaning.
3- Special tools are usually provided by the cooler manufacturer for cleaning the
tubes.
4- Tube leakage can result from corrosion. This can be checked for, or identified, by
having the shell side of the cooler circulated while the cooling water is shut off
and the end covers removed. Any seepage into the tubes will indicate the leak.
5- It is also possible to introduce fluorescent dyes into the shell-side liquid: any
seepage will show under an ultraviolet light as a bright green glow.
6- Leaking tubes can be temporarily plugged at each end or removed and replaced
with a new tube.
B) Plate Type Coolers
They develop leaks present a more difficult problem.
1- The plates must be visually examined to detect the faulty point. The joints
between the plates can present problems in service or on assembly of the cooler
after maintenance.
2- Where coolers are out of use for a long period, such as during surveys or major
overhauls, they should be drained on the sea water side, flushed through or
washed with fresh water, and left to dry until required for service.
51
Chapter 4
Oil/Water Separator
Introduction:
- Oil/water separators are necessary aboard vessels to prevent the discharge of oil
overboard when pumping out bilges, de-ballasting, when cleaning oil tanks, or any
oil-contaminated space.
- The international legislation of IMO relating to oil pollution has limited the
requirement to fit the separators. It is becoming more and more stringent in the limits
set for oil discharge.
- Inshore discharge of oil can cause damage to fish and bird life and mass pollution of
beaches.
- The legal maximum oil particle discharge quantity is 100 parts per million (PPM) of
water.
- Oil/water separators using the gravity system can only achieve 100 parts per million
and must therefore be used in conjunction with some form of filter. Depending upon
the size of ship, a discharge purity of 100 or 15 parts per million will be required.
- Where 100 parts per million purity is required, the oil/water separator may be used
alone.
4.1. Oil/water separator; System Description
Figure (4.1) shows an oil/water separator. It consists of a vertical pressure vessel

containing a number of inverted conical plates. The complete unit is first filled with clean
water. The oily water mixture is then pumped through the separator inlet pipe in the
upper half of the unit (into the coarse separating compartment), and is directed
downwards to the conical plates. Hence some oil, as a result of its lower density, will
separate and rise into the oil collection space. The remaining oil/water mixture now flows
down into the fine separating compartment and moves slowly between the conical plates.
The water leaves the conical plate pack via a central pipe which is connected to a flange
at the base of the separator. More oil will separate out on to the underside of these plates
and travel outwards until it is free to rise into the oil collecting space. The almost oil-free
water passes into the central pipe and leaves the separator unit.
Two test cocks are provided to observe the depth of oil collected in the separator dome.
When oil is seen at the lower test cock, the oil drain valve must be opened. An
automatically controlled valve releases the separated oil to a storage tank. Air is released
from the unit by a vent valve. Steam or electric heating coils are provided in the upper
and sometimes the lower parts of the separator, depending upon the type of oil to be
separated.
The purity at this point will be 100 PPM or less. Where greater purity is required, the
almost oil-free water passes to a filter unit.
52
1. Clean water run-off connection

2. Outlet
3. Oil accumulation space
4. Riser pipes
5. Inlet connection
Fig. (4.1): Sectional view of oil/water separator
Where greater purity is required, the almost oil-free water passes to a filter unit. A
complete oil/water separator and filter unit for 15 parts per million purity is shown in
Figure (4.2). The water flows in turn through two filter stages and the oil removed passes
to oil collecting spaces. The first-stage filter removes vertical impurities present and
promotes some fine separation. The second-stage filter uses coalesced inserts to achieve
the final de-oiling. Coalescence is the breakdown of surface tension between oil droplets
in an oil/water mixture which causes them to join and increase in size. The oil from the
collecting spaces is drained away manually, as required, usually about once a week. The
filter inserts will require changing, the period of useful life depending upon the operating
conditions.
53
Fig. (4.2): A complete oil/water separator and filter unit
Visual and audible oil overload indicators may also be fitted.

The latest legislative requirements are, where 100 parts per million purity is required, a
monitoring unit which continuously records, and, where 15 parts per million purity is
necessary, an alarm unit to provide warning of levels of discharge in excess of 15 parts
per million. Monitor oily water using direct light alarm is shown in Fig. (4.3).
The photo-cells of Fig. (4-3) are normally in a static of electric balance, i.e. measure and
reference tube mist content in equilibrium. Out of balance current due to high oil parts
existing can be arranged to indicate on a galvanometer which can be connected to
continuous chart recording and auto visual or audible alarms.
54
Fig. (4.3): Monitor oily water using direct light
It has to be noted that before initial operation, the separator must be filled with clean
water. To a large extent the conical plates are self-cleaning but periodically the top of the
vessel should be removed and the plates examined for sludge build up and corrosion. It is
important that the separator is not run at over capacity, to avoid deterioration of the
effluent quality.
4.2. Fuel and lubricating oil treatment:
Both fuel oils and lubricating oils require treatment before passing to the engine. This
will involve storage and heating, To ensure good combustion in diesel engines and reduce
wear and corrosion in this type of engines and turbines it may be necessary to remove
impurities from fuel and lubricating oils. These include ash, various salts and water
present in fuel oil and carbon-aceous matter, materials, acids and water present in used
lubricating oil. The main methods used at sea are centrifuging, filtration and coalescing.
Of these three methods centrifuging is the most widely method used.
Separation is speeded up by the use of a centrifuge and can be arranged as continuous
process.
55
4.2.1. Centrifuging
- A bowl centrifuge is shown in Fig. (4.4). It consists of an electric motor drive to a

vertical shaft on the top of which is mounted the bowl assembly. An outer framework
surrounds the assembly and carries the various feed and discharge connections. The
bowl can be a solid assembly which retains the separated sludge.
- The dirty oil is admitted into the centre of the bowl, passes up through a stack of discs
and out through the top.
- The bowl contains a stack of conical discs up to 150 and are separated from are
another by a small gap.
- The action of centrifugal force causes the lighter components (the clean oil) to flow
inwards and the water and impurities flow outwards.
Fig. (4.4): A Bowl centrifuge
- Where a centrifuge is arranged to separate two liquids, it is known as a 'purifier', see

Fig. (4.5).
- Where a centrifuge is arranged to separate impurities and small amounts of water
from oil it is known as a 'clarifier', see Fig. (4.6).
- Table (1) illustrates a comparison between Purifying and Clarifying processes
56
Table (1): Comparison between Purifying and Clarifying processes
Purifying Clarifying
- Separation of two liquids such as oil - Separation of impurities and small

and water. amounts or no water from oil.
- There is cylindrical interface

- No interference is formed.
between the two liquids.
- It is necessary to use a dam ring or

gravity discs at the outlet of the
- No gravity disc is necessary.
centrifuge.
Fig. (4.5): Purifying bowl arrangement Fig. (4.6): Clarifying bowl arrangement
1- Feed 2- purified 3- separated water 4- sludge
4.2.2. Non-continuous operation
- Certain designs of centrifuges are arranged for a short period of operation and are then
shut down for cleaning.
- After cleaning and removal of the sludge from the bowl, the machine is returned to
service.
- Two different designs are used for this method of operation;
A) The narrow-bowl machine:
It has to be cleaned after a shorter running period and requires dismantling in order
to clean the bowl.
57
B) The wide-bowl machine:

It can be cleaned in place. The complication of the stack of conical discs must be
cleaned.
4.2.3. Continuous operation
- Modern wide-bowl centrifuge designs enable continuous operation over a

considerable period of time.
- This is achieved by an ejection process which is limited timed to discharge the sludge
at regular intervals.
- The sludge deposits build up on the bowl periphery as separation continues, and the
ejection process is timed to clear these deposits before they begin, to affect the
separation process.
- To start the ejection process the oil feed to the centrifuge is first shut off and the oil
remaining in the bowl is removed by admitting flushing water into the hydraulic
system in the bottom of the bowl to open a number of spring-loaded valves. This
'operating' water causes the opening of discharge ports in the bowl periphery. The
sludge is discharged through these ports by centrifugal force, as shown in Figure
(4.7).
- Closing 'operating' water to close the discharge ports, the oil feed reopened, and
separation continues.
Fig. (4.7): Sludge discharge
58
4.3. Maintenance
1. The bowl and the disc stack will require periodical cleaning.
2. Care should be taken in stripping down the bowl, using only the special tools
provided.
3. The centrifuge is a perfectly balanced piece of equipment, rotating at high speeds: all
parts should therefore be handled and treated with care.
59
Chapter 5
Stabilizers and stabilizing systems
Introduction:
There are two basic stabilizing systems used on ships- the fin and the tank. A stabilizing
system is fitted to a ship in order to reduce the rolling motion. This is achieved by
providing an opposite force to that attempting to roll the ship.
5.1. Fin stabilizer
- One or more pairs of fins are fitted on a ship, one on each side, see Figure (5.1). The
size or area of the fins is governed by ship factors such as breadth, draught,
displacement, and so on. The fins may be retractable, i.e. pivoting or sliding within
the ship's form, or fixed.
- They act to apply a lighting moment to the ship as it is inclined by a wave or force on
one side. The angle of tilt of the fin and the resulting moment on the ship is
determined by a sensing control system. The forward speed of the ship enables the
fins to generate the thrust which results in the righting moment.
- A mechanism of fin stabilizing system is presented in Fig. (5.2).
- Control of fin movement is automatic and is usually driven as a result of a hydraulic

power unit incorporating a type of variable displacement pump. When it reaches the
desired value, the ship is brought to rest.
- A compensated control system for stabilizing is generally used in large installations,

see Figure (5.3). A sensing unit based on a vertical-keeping gyroscope and a velocity
gyroscope coupled into differentiating and summation units enables fin movement to
be controlled by a composite function derived from roll angle, roll velocity and roll
acceleration. By adding a ‘natural list’ unit, stabilization is achieved about the mean
point of roll and so reduces both propulsion and stabilizing power demand.
- The control system which signals the movement of the fins utilizes two gyroscopes,
one which senses movements from the vertical and the other the rolling velocity. As a
result of this control system, fin movement is a function of roll angle, roll velocity,
roll acceleration and natural list.
60
Fig. (5.1): Fin stabilizer
61
1. Fin shaft
2. Fin shaft housing
3. Fin
4. Flap
5. Guiding rail
6. Pentagram linkage (of the rigging mechanism) (fin locked in its rigged out position)
7. Tilt cylinder mechanism
8 Limit-stop and fin “repeat back” assembly (used to take the pump “off stroke” as the
tilt cylinder approaches its limits of travel)
9. Link to the hydraulic unit
10. single-ended cylinder (of the rigging mechanism)
11. Crosshead slide,
12. Tilt crank arm
13. Bracket,
Fig. (5.2): A mechanism of fin stabilizing system
62
- The effectiveness of the fins as stabilizers depends upon their speed of movement,
which must be rapid from one extreme point to the other. The fins are rectangular in
shape and streamlined in section.
- Fin stabilizers provide accurate and effective roll stabilization in return for a complex
installation, which in merchant vessels is usually limited to passenger ships. It is to be
noted that at low ship speeds the stabilizing power falls off, and when stationary no
stabilization is possible.
Fig. (5.3): Stabilizing Control System
Fig. (5.4) illustrates a schematic diagram for the operation of fin stabilizing system. A
signal from the Bridge control panel (8) is electrical transmitted to the Main control unit
(6) through the Central switchbox (7). The Local control unit (installed on fin box) (4)
transmits a signal to the gravity oil tank (5), which is suitable to the signal transmitted to
Motor switchbox (installed on fin box) (2). This motor drives the Hydraulic power unit
(2).
63
Fig. (5.4): A schematic diagram for the operation of fin stabilizing system
64
5.2. Tank Stabilizer
- Tank stabilizers are independent of the forward speed of the vessel. They generate a
righting or anti-rolling force as a result of the delayed flow of fluid (water or reserve
fuel, etc) in transverse tanks installed at suitable heights and distances from the ship's
center line.
- Consider a mass of water in an athwart ships tank. As the ship rolls the water will be
moved, but a few degrees after the ship (see Figure (5.5)). Thus when the ship is
finishing its roll and about to turn, the still moving water will oppose the return roll.
The water mass thus acts against the roll at each ship movement. The system is
considered passive, since the water flow is activated by gravity.
Fig. (5.5): Passive tank stabilizer
(a) Stern view of ship with passive tank rolled to starboard. The water is moving in the
direction shown.
(b) Ship rolling to port. The water in the tank on the starboard side provides a moment
opposing the roll velocity.
65
(c) Ship at the end of its roll to port. The water is providing no moment
to the ship.
(d) Ship rolling to starboard. The water in the tank on the port side provides
a moment opposing the roll velocity.
- A wing tank system arranged for controlled passive operation is shown in Figure
(5.6). The greater height of tank at the sides permits a larger water build-up and thus
a greater moment to resist the roll. The rising fluid level must not however fill the
wing tank.
Fig. (5.6): Air controlled tank stabilizer system
- The wing tanks are connected by cross ducts. The air ducts contain valves which are
operated by a roll sensing device. A typical valve of the tank stabilizing system is
66
shown in Fig. (5.7). The differential air pressure between tanks is regulated to allow
the fluid flow to be controlled and 'phased' for maximum roll stabilization.
Fig. (5.7): A typical valve of the tank stabilizing system
- The idea of the operation of the wing tank stabilizing system may be simplified as
the schematic diagram shown in Fig. (5.8).
- A tank system must be specifically designed for a particular ship by using data from
model tests. The water level in the system is critical and must be adjusted according
to the ship's loaded condition.
- Free surface effect resulting from the moving water which effectively reduces the
stability of the ship.
- The tank system does, however, stabilize at zero speed and is a much less complex
installation than a fin stabilizer.
67
Fig. (5.8): A schematic diagram for the wing tank stabilizing system operation
68
Chapter 6
Piping Systems
Fuel oil system:
The fuel oil system for a diesel engine can be considered in two parts—the fuel supply
and the fuel injection systems. Fuel supply deals with the provision of fuel oil suitable for
use by the injection system.
Fuel oil supply for a two-stroke diesel:
A slow-speed two-stroke diesel is usually arranged to operate continuously on heavy fuel

and have available a diesel oil supply for maneuvering conditions.
In the system shown in Figure 6.1, the oil is stored in tanks in the double bottom from
which it is pumped to a settling tank and heated.
After passing through centrifuges the cleaned, heated oil is pumped to a daily service
tank. From the daily service tank the oil flows through a three-way valve to a mixing
tank. A flow meter is fitted into the system to indicate fuel consumption. Booster pumps
are used to pump the oil through heaters and a viscosity regulator to the engine-driven
fuel pumps. The fuel pumps will discharge high-pressure fuel to their respective injectors.
The viscosity regulator controls the fuel oil temperature in order to provide the correct
viscosity for combustion. A pressure regulating valve ensures a constant-pressure supply
to the engine-driven pumps, and a pre-warming bypass is used to heat up the fuel before
starting the engine. A diesel oil daily service tank may he installed and is connected to
the system via a three-way valve. The engine can he started up and maneuvered on diesel
oil or even a blend of diesel and heavy fuel oil. The mixing tank is used to collect
recirculated oil and also acts as a buffer or reserve tank as it will supply fuel when the
daily service tank is empty. The system includes various safety devices such as low-level
alarms and remotely operated tank outlet valves which can be closed in the event of a
fire.
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Lubrication:
The lubrication system of an engine provides a supply of lubricating oil to the various
moving parts in the engine. Its main function is to enable the formation of a film of oil
between the moving parts, which reduces friction and wear. The lubricating oil is also
used as a cleaner and in engines as a coolant.
Lubricating oil system:
Lubricating oil for an engine is stored in the bottom of the crankcase, known as the sump,
or in a drain tank located beneath the engine (Figure 6.2). The oil is drawn from this tank
through a strainer, one of a pair of pumps, into one of a pair of fine filters. It is then
passed through a cooler before entering the engine and being distributed to the various
branch pipes. The branch pipe for a particular cylinder may feed the main bearing, for
instance. Some of this oil will pass along a drilled passage in the crankshaft to the bottom
end bearing and then up a drilled passage in the connecting rod to the gudgeon pin or
crosshead bearing. An alarm at the end of the distribution pipe ensures that adequate
pressure is maintained by the pump. Pumps and fine filters are arranged in duplicate with
one as standby. The fine filters will be arranged so that one can be cleaned while the
other is operating. After use in the engine the lubricating oil drains back to the sump or
drain tank for re-use. A level gauge gives a local read-out of the drain tank contents. A
centrifuge is arranged for cleaning the lubricating oil in the system and clean oil can be
provided from a storage tank. The oil cooler is circulated by sea water, which is at a
lower pressure than the oil. As a result any leak in the cooler will mean a loss of oil and
not contamination of the oil by sea water.
Where the engine has oil-cooled pistons they will he supplied from the lubricating oil
system, possibly at a higher pressure produced by booster pumps, e.g. Sulzer RTA
engine. An appropriate type of lubricating oil must be used for oil-lubricated pistons in
order to avoid carbon deposits on the hotter parts of the system.
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Cylinder lubrication
Large slow-speed diesel engines are provided with a separate lubrication system for the
cylinder liners. Oil is injected between the liner and the piston by mechanical lubricators
which supply their individual cylinder. A special type of oil is used which is not
recovered. As well as lubricating, it assists in forming a gas seal and contains additives
which clean the cylinder liner.
Cooling
Cooling of engines is achieved by circulating a cooling liquid around internal passages

within the engine. The cooling liquid is thus heated up and is in turn cooled by a sea
water circulated cooler. Without adequate cooling certain parts of the engine which are
exposed to very high temperatures, as a result of burning fuel, would soon fail. Cooling
enables the engine metals to retain their mechanical properties. The usual coolant used is
fresh water: sea water is not used directly as a coolant because of its corrosive action.
Lubricating oil is sometimes used for piston cooling since leaks into the crankcase would
not cause problems. As a result of its lower specific heat however about twice the
quantity of oil compared to water would be required.
Fresh water cooling system
A water cooling system for a slow-speed diesel engine is shown in Figure 6.3. It is
divided into two separate systems: one for cooling the cylinder jackets, cylinder heads
and turbo-blowers; the other for piston cooling.
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The cylinder jacket cooling water after leaving the engine passes to a sea-water-circulated
cooler and then into the jacket-water circulating pumps. It is then pumped around the
cylinder jackets, cylinder heads and turbo-blowers. A header tank allows for expansion
and water make-up in the system. Vents are led from the engine to the header tank for the
release of air from the cooling water. A heater in the circuit facilitates warming of the
engine prior to starting by circulating hot water.
The piston cooling system employs similar components, except that a drain tank is used
instead of a header tank and the vents are then led to high points in the machinery space.
A separate piston cooling system is used to limit any contamination from piston cooling
glands to the piston cooling system only.
Sea water cooling system
The various cooling liquids which circulate the engine are themselves cooled by sea
water. The usual arrangement uses individual coolers for lubricating oil, jacket water, and
the piston cooling system, each cooler being circulated by sea water. Some modern ships
use what is known as a ‘central cooling system’ with only one large sea-water-circulated
cooler. This cools a supply of fresh water, which then circulates to the other individual
coolers. With less equipment in contact with sea water the corrosion problems are much
reduced in this system.
A sea water cooling system is shown in Figure 6.4. From the sea suction one of a pair of
sea-water circulating pumps provides sea water which circulates the lubricating oil
cooler, the jacket water cooler and the piston water cooler before discharging overboard.
Another branch of the sea water main provides sea water to directly cool the charge air
(for a direct-drive two-stroke diesel).
One arrangement of a central cooling system is shown in Figure 6.5. The sea water circuit
is made up of high and low suctions, usually on either side of the machinery space,
suction strainers and several sea water pumps. The sea water is circulated through the
central coolers and then discharged overboard. A low-temperature and high-temperature
circuit exist in the fresh water system. The fresh water in the high-temperature circuit
circulates the main engine and may, if required, be used as a heating medium for an
evaporator. The low-temperature circuit circulates the main engine air coolers, the
lubricating oil coolers and all other heat exchangers. A regulating valve controls the
mixing of water between the high-temperature and low-temperature circuits. A
temperature sensor provides a signal to the control unit which operates the regulating
valve to maintain the desired temperature setting. A temperature sensor is also used in a
similar control circuit to operate the regulating valve which controls the bypassing of the
central coolers. It is also possible, with appropriate control equipment, to vary the
quantity of sea water circulated by the pumps to almost precisely meet the cooler
requirements.
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Bilge and Ballast System
74
The bilge system and the ballast system each have particular functions to perform, but are
in many ways interconnected.
Bilge system:
The bilge main is arranged to drain any watertight compartment other than ballast, oil or
water tanks and to discharge the contents overboard. The number of pumps and their
capacity depend upon the size, type and service of the vessel. All bilge suctions must be
fitted with suitable strainers, which in the machinery space would be mud boxes
positioned at floor plate level for easy access. A vertical drop pipe would lead down to
the bilge.
The emergency bilge suction or bilge injection valve is used to prevent flooding of the
ship. It is a direct suction from the machinery space bilge which is connected to the
largest capacity pump or pumps. An emergency bilge pump is required for passenger
ships but may also be fitted as an extra on cargo ships. It must be a completely
independent unit capable of operating even if submerged. A centrifugal pump with a
priming device is usually used, driven by an electric motor housed in an air bell. The
power supply is arranged from the emergency generator.
A typical system is shown in the diagram. The various pumps and lines are
interconnected to some extent so that each pump can act as an alternative or standby for
another.
Ballast system:
The ballast system is arranged to ensure that water can be drawn from any tank or the sea
and discharged to any other tank or the sea as required to trim the vessel. Combined or
separate mains for suction and discharge may be provided. Where a tank or cargo space
can be used for ballast or dry cargo then either a ballast or bilge connection will be
required. The system must therefore be arranged so that only the appropriate pipeline is
in service; the other must be securely blanked or closed off. Where tanks are arranged for
either oil or ballast a change-over chest must be lifted in the pipeline so that only ballast
maims or the oil transfer main is connected to the tank.
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Bilge and ballast system
The essentials of the bilge and ballast system are simple. They consist of a bilge main in
the engine room which is connected to one or more pumps and, also to the hold, tunnel
and machinery space bilges by suitably placed valves; the pumps discharge overboard. A
ballast main is similarly connected to a pump, the sea and to ballast tanks; the pump
discharging overboard or to deep and peak tanks through the ballast main. In practice the
use of oil fuel with the attendant need to retain the oil when discharging overboard, the
need to provide adequate services in the event of breakdown or casualty without
unreasonable duplication and to avoid accidental flooding, have all given rise to some
elaboration of the system. Figure 6.6 is a diagrammatic arrangement showing bilge,
ballast and oil-fuel filling.
A fire and bilge pump has suctions from sea, bilge main and engine room bilge, with
discharges to fire main, oily water separator and overboard. A ballast pump has suctions
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from sea, ballast main, engine room, bilge direct and bilge main with discharges to
overboard. the ballast main, the oily water separator and possibly, the main salt water
circulating system. A general service pump has suctions from sea, ballast main, bilge
main and engine room bilge with discharges to the fire main, the ballast main, the oily
water separator and overboard. In this way, three pumps provide effective alternatives for
all essential services in the event of breakdown of one or even two. Many ships will have
more generous provision and all passenger ships will have a submersible fire and bilge
pump, supplied with power from an emergency dynamo.
There are many differences in arrangement; some ships will be fitted for oil or ballast in
all double bottom tanks (except one or two, port and starboard for fresh water) some in
only two or three. Other vessels will have one (or more) lower hold(s) fitted as deep tanks
and most will have peak ballast tanks forward and aft. Some ships will have a tunnel
from the engine room to No. 1 hold aft bulkhead, for bilge, ballast and oil pipes and
fittings and others will have a duct keel to carry the pipes forward. In most other ships the
bilge suction pipes will pass through the wings of the holds and the ballast pipes through
the double bottom. In the two latter cases, the valve chests will be on the engine room (or
boiler room) forward bulkhead or in a forward cofferdam. In all cases, the bilge suction
valves will be screw-down, non-return, the oil and ballast valves, screw-lift. Ring and
blank flanges will be fitted in deep tank suctions, so that ballast cannot be discharged
inadvertently by a bilge pump nor the hold be flooded when used for cargo. If liquid
cargoes are carried, both will be blanked. Note that double bottom tanks should never be
pumped up.
The minimum number and capacity of bilge pumps and fire pumps and their
displacement within the ship is governed by:
1. Classification Society Rules
2. National requirements
3. The IMCO International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 (SOLAS
74).
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Bilge system
The bilge system is used to remove small quantities of fluid that have leaked or
condensed into a dry space. The system serves the machinery spaces, cargo holds,
cofferdams, voids, stores, tunnels and pump rooms. Each space has its own piping but the
pump is likely to be shared.
The capacity of a bilge system is defined by the diameter of the bilge main and pump
capacity for the volume of the enclosed space.
The diameter of the bilge main is: d  25  1.68 L B  D

d = internal diameter of bilge main, in millimeters
L = length between the ship’s perpendiculars, in meters
D = moulded depth, in meters
in a tanker with a separate cargo pumping and piping system, the ‘enclosed space’ is the
engine room and the diameter of the bilge main is:
d  35  3 Lo B  D  Lo = length of the engine room, in meters
Cargo ships are required to have two bilge pumps with non-return valves fitted to prevent
back-flow or cross-flow. The pumping system in a passenger ship must be able to drain
water from any dry space when one or more of the ship’s other compartments are
flooded. However, the system is not required to empty the flooded space. A flooded
passenger ship is required to have at least one bilge pump, with its own power supply,
available for pumping. Bilge suctions must have remotely operated suction valves. The
minimum number of pumps required is three or four, depending on the ship’s design.
Mud boxes and strum boxes (line filters) are fitted at the ends and in bilge lines to stop
debris being sucked into the pipe. The requirements for bilge systems on ships carrying
dangerous goods are basically the same as for cargo ships. However, systems drawing
fluids from gas-dangerous spaces are kept segregated with their own pumps and pipes,
where appropriate, from systems serving gas-safe spaces.
Ballast system
Ballast is taken on to increase a ship’s draught, particularly the stern draught, when
sailing without cargo. On a dry-cargo or passenger ship, the ballast system is operated
from the engine room. On a tanker, the entire ballast system is located within the cargo
area and is operated from a pump room.
Ballast piping is usually made of ordinary mild steel. A ship’s size determines the
capacity of its ballast system
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Bilge system
Ballast system
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81
Bilge and ballast system:

The bilge system and the ballast system each have particular functions to perform, but are
in many ways interconnected.
Bilge system:
The bilge main is arranged to drain any watertight compartment other than ballast, oil or
water tanks and to discharge the contents overboard. The number of pumps and their
capacity depend upon the size, type and service of the vessel. All bilge suctions must be
fitted with suitable strainers, which in the machinery space would be mud boxes
positioned at floor plate level for easy access. A vertical drop pipe would lead down to
the bilge.
The emergency bilge suction or bilge injection valve is used to prevent flooding of the
ship. It is a direct suction from the machinery space bilge which is connected to the
largest capacity pump or pumps. An emergency bilge pump is required for passenger
ships but may also be fitted as an extra on cargo ships. It must be a completely
independent unit capable of operating even if submerged. A centrifugal pump with a
priming device is usually used, driven by an electric motor housed in an air bell. The
power supply is arranged from the emergency generator.
A typical system is shown in the diagram. The various pumps and lines are
interconnected to some extent so that each pump can act as an alternative or standby for
another.
Ballast system:
The ballast system is arranged to ensure that water can be drawn from any tank or the sea
and discharged to any other tank or the sea as required to trim the vessel. Combined or
separate mains for suction and discharge may be provided. Where a tank or cargo space
can be used for ballast or dry cargo then either a ballast or bilge connection will be
required. The system must therefore be arranged so that only the appropriate pipeline is
in service; the other must be securely blanked or closed off. Where tanks are arranged for
either oil or ballast a change-over chest must be lifted in the pipeline so that only ballast
maim or the oil transfer main is connected to the tank.
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Bilge and ballast system
83
The essentials of the bilge and ballast system are simple. They consist of a bilge main in
the engine room which is connected to one or more pumps and, also to the hold, tunnel
and machinery space bilges by suitably placed valves; the pumps discharge overboard. A
ballast main is similarly connected to a pump, the sea and to ballast tanks; the pump
discharging overboard or to deep and peak tanks through the ballast main. In practice the
use of oil fuel with the attendant need to retain the oil when discharging overboard, the
need to provide adequate services in the event of breakdown or casualty without
unreasonable duplication and to avoid accidental flooding, have all given rise to some
elaboration of the system. Figure 1.5 is a diagrammatic arrangement showing bilge,
ballast and oil-fuel filling.
A fire and bilge pump has suctions from sea, bilge main and engine room bilge, with
discharges to fire main, oily water separator and overboard. A ballast pump has suctions
from sea, ballast main, engine room, bilge direct and bilge main with discharges to
overboard. the ballast main, the oily water separator and possibly, the main salt water
circulating system. A general service pump has suctions from sea, ballast main, bilge
main and engine room bilge with discharges to the fire main, the ballast main, the oily
water separator and overboard. In this way, three pumps provide effective alternatives for
all essential services in the event of breakdown of one or even two. Many ships will have
more generous provision and all passenger ships will have a submersible fire and bilge
pump, supplied with power from an emergency dynamo.
There are many differences in arrangement; some ships will be fitted for oil or ballast in
all double bottom tanks (except one or two, port and starboard for fresh water) some in
only two or three. Other vessels will have one (or more) lower hold(s) fitted as deep tanks
and most will have peak ballast tanks forward and aft. Some ships will have a tunnel
from the engine room to No. 1 hold aft bulkhead, for bilge, ballast and oil pipes and
fittings and others will have a duct keel to carry the pipes forward. In most other ships the
bilge suction pipes will pass through the wings of the holds and the ballast pipes through
the double bottom. In the two latter cases, the valve chests will be on the engine room (or
boiler room) forward bulkhead or in a forward cofferdam. In all cases, the bilge suction
valves will be screw-down, non-return, the oil and ballast valves, screw-lift. Ring and
blank flanges will be fitted in deep tank suctions, so that ballast cannot be discharged
inadvertently by a bilge pump nor the hold be flooded when used for cargo. If liquid
cargoes are carried, both will be blanked. Note that double bottom tanks should never be
pumped up.
The minimum number and capacity of bilge pumps and fire pumps and their
displacement within the ship is governed by:
1. Classification Society Rules
2. National requirements
3. The IMCO International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 (SOLAS
74).
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Chapter 7
Desalination Plant
Water Purification
Fresh water is an essential ingredient of modern life. Though it’s often available as the
result of natural processes, there are times when it must be extracted from impure water,
typically salt water. In some countries where rain water is scarce, desalinated sea water is
the main source of drinking water. Any extraction process that purifies water must
separate water molecules from contaminating liquids, solids, or gases. This section
examines some of the techniques that make this molecular separation possible.
Distilling Water from Salt Water:
One way to purify water is by distillation. Distillation is a general technique for

separating various chemicals from one another. The chemicals are heated to form a vapor
and that vapor is condensed to form a new mixture of chemicals. Because the various
chemicals have different tendencies to form vapors at a particular temperature, the newly
formed mixture has a different balance of the chemicals from the original mixture. In
some cases, the condensed liquid contains primarily a single chemical—all of the other
chemicals are left behind in the original liquid.
To understand how distillation can purify water, let’s look at the phases of water. At any
temperature above absolute zero, there’s a possibility of finding gaseous water molecules
above the surface of ice or water. These water molecules have acquired enough thermal
energy to break free of the solid or liquid and become a gas.
If you place some water in an enclosed container, water molecules will evaporate until
there are enough of them in the gas phase that they return to the liquid’s surface as often
as they leave it. At that point the two phases, liquid and gas, are in phase equilibrium.
Although molecules constantly shift back and forth between the two phases, neither phase
grows at the expense of the other. Overall, there’s no net movement of molecules from
one phase to the other.
At this phase equilibrium, the relative humidity is 100%—the water vapor has reached its
saturated vapor pressure. But we have forgotten to pay attention to temperature. Since
water’s vapor pressure depends on temperature, the present balance of gas and liquid in
the container is ideal only at its current temperature. If you warm up the container, more
water molecules will enter the gas phase and the amount of liquid water will decrease. If
you cool down the container, more water molecules will enter the liquid phase and the
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amount of gaseous water will decrease. This connection between temperature and vapor
pressure is the central principle behind distillation.
What happens if there is air inside the container, along with the water and water vapor?
Surprisingly, the air doesn’t matter. The density of water molecules in the gas phase is the
same, whether the air is there or not. This interesting observation makes it possible to
perform distillation with or without air around, although air’s presence affects the total
pressure on the water and thus its boiling temperature. The desalination schemes we’ll
examine shortly operate most effectively at less than atmospheric pressure, so many
distillation plants remove air from their equipment in order to reduce the gas pressure.
How much water vapor is there in the container? Water’s vapor pressure at 20 °C, typical
room temperature, is about 2,300 Pa or about 2% of atmospheric pressure. That means
that when the humidity is 100% at room temperature, about 2% of the molecules in the
air are water molecules. At 0 °C, the melting temperature of ice, water’s vapor pressure is
only about 600 Pa or about 0.6% of atmospheric pressure. That means that there is still
quite a bit of moisture in the air even at freezing. And at 100 °C, water’s vapor pressure is
about 101,300 Pa or 100% of atmospheric pressure at sea level. That’s why water boils at
100 °C at sea level.
The simultaneous presence of both water and water vapor in the container means that
there is a phase separation. The two phases, liquid and gas appear in separate regions of
the container. The denser water phase sinks to the bottom of the container while the less
dense water vapor phase floats to the top. These two phases can exist in phase
equilibrium over a wide range of temperatures. There is actually one special temperature
and pressure, water’s triple point, at which water, water vapor, and ice can all exist
together in a single container and in phase equilibrium with one another. This triple point
occurs at about 0.01 °C.
Before going further into water distillation, let’s consider the behaviors of a few other
chemicals to see how they differ from water. After all, if they behaved exactly as water
does, distillation wouldn’t separate them from water.
Table salt, sodium chloride, is a solid at room temperature. It doesn’t even melt until 801
°C and its boiling temperature is about 1450 °C at atmospheric pressure. Salt’s vapor
pressure is almost negligible at any temperature below about 500 °C. So if you put a
block of salt in a container at less than 500 °C, it will reach a phase equilibrium with
almost all the salt molecules in the solid phase and only a tiny number in the gas phase.
(For some interesting cases of materials in different phases)
The situation is quite different for ethyl alcohol (grain alcohol). Ethyl alcohol melts at –
112 °C and boils at only 78 °C near sea level. Although ethyl alcohol molecules are larger
than water molecules, they don’t form many hydrogen bonds and are relatively easy to
87
separate from one another. As a result, ethyl alcohol is more likely than water to form a
gas.
Distillation uses these differences in vapor pressures to separate chemicals. When you
heat a mixture of chemicals to a particular temperature, the whole mixture tries to
establish a phase equilibrium. The chemicals that tend to be gaseous at that temperature
accumulate in the gaseous phase of the system. The chemicals that tend to be a liquid at
that temperature accumulate in the liquid phase. When the phase equilibrium is finally
reached after a minute or two, the balance of chemicals in the gaseous phase may be very
different from that in the liquid phase.
The distillation process occurs when you insert a colder surface into the vapor. Molecules
condense as a liquid on that surface and you can use a pump to remove them from the
system. As you remove molecules from the gaseous phase, more molecules will shift
from the liquid phase to the gaseous phase to maintain the phase equilibrium.
The condensed liquid contains molecules that evaporated most easily from the original
liquid phase and that condensed most easily on the colder surface. These molecules are
the ones that experienced the largest changes in vapor pressure between the two
temperatures. They tended to become gaseous at the temperature of the liquid phase and
liquid at the temperature of the colder surface.
We can now look at how to desalinating salt water by distillation. A simple distillation
system appears in Fig. 7.1. Two separate liquid containers, a boiler containing the
original salt water and a condenser containing fresh water, share a single region of vapor.
Since salt molecules rarely enter the gas phase near room temperature, the vapor is
virtually pure steam. The salt water boiler is kept hot so that its water molecules tend to
evaporate into a gas. The fresh water condenser is kept cold so that its water molecules
tend to condense into a liquid. Since the two regions share the same vapor, water
molecules tend to move from the salt water to the fresh water.
In the process of obtaining Fresh water by distilling salt water, salt water in boiled in one
region to form a vapor that is mostly pure steam. This steam is then condensed in a
second, cooler region and becomes fresh water.
With enough patience, only a small temperature difference is needed to separate fresh
water from salt water. This temperature difference just has to be large enough to make
sure that, on the average, water molecules leave the salt water as gas and arrive at the
fresh water as liquid. Nature is very patient and it uses small temperature differences to
produce fresh water. Rain, dew, and frost are all created by natural distillation. Salt water
evaporates in warmer weather and the resulting water vapor condenses in colder weather.
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Fig. 7.1 - Fresh water can be obtained by distilling salt water
It might seem as if even the tiniest temperature difference can perform distillation, but
that’s not true. When you mix salt with water, you create disorder and entropy.
Separating salt from water decreases entropy and the second law of thermodynamics
comes into play. If you’re going to separate the two chemicals and reduce their entropy,
you must create extra entropy elsewhere. In distillation, that extra entropy comes from
letting heat flow from the hotter region to the colder region. The temperature difference
between the two regions must be large enough so that the total entropy doesn’t decrease.
In real water distillation systems, the temperature difference is usually quite large. A
large temperature difference doesn’t make purer water but it does speed up the process.
Most systems boil the salt water, a step which dramatically increases the evaporation rate.
They also condense the water vapor rapidly by bringing it into contact with a very cold
surface. The water molecules move swiftly from the salt water side to the fresh water side
so the facility produces fresh water much more rapidly than nature itself. In exchange, the
facility consumes far more ordered energy per liter of fresh water than nature does.
Actually, large distillation-based desalination plants are a little more sophisticated than
this. For the distillation to proceed quickly, they do have to boil the water. But they don’t
boil it at atmospheric pressure—they pump the air out of the distilling chambers so that
water boils at a much lower temperature. Everything proceeds as above, except they don’t
have to heat the salt water as much. While the facility can’t produce quite as much fresh
water per hour because the density of water molecules in the vapor is lower, a little
patience saves a lot of energy.
However, distillation still uses more energy than anyone would like. The problem lies in
water’s huge latent heat of vaporization. Water vapor carries away lots of heat from the
salt water as it evaporates and it gives that heat to the fresh water when it condenses. The
salt water gets colder and the fresh water gets hotter, reducing the temperature difference
and slowing the distillation process. To keep everything working quickly, the distillation
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plant must continuously add heat to the salt water and remove it from the fresh water. It’s
this heating and cooling that makes distillation so expensive.
The transfer of heat from the boiler to the condenser, due only to water’s latent heat of
vaporization, is unfortunate. The second law of thermodynamics doesn’t require such a
transfer in order to separate water from salt. It’s just a side-effect of using the liquid/gas
phase transition to separate two chemicals from one another. Fortunately there are tricks
that a desalination plant can use to reduce this heat transfer.
The best trick is to reuse the heat. Most distillation plants use the same heat over and over
again, operating several separate distillation systems with it. Because distillation units
that operate at different pressures also operate at different temperatures, the waste heat
leaving the condenser of a higher pressure distillation unit can be used to heat the boiler
of a lower pressure distillation unit. Since water’s boiling temperature depends on
pressure, the two distillation units function properly at very different temperatures.
An example of such heat reuse appears in Fig. 7.2. The heat first distills water in a high
pressure distillation unit and then in a low pressure distillation unit. In the high pressure
unit, the heat travels from the boiler to the condenser in the steam and then leaves the
condenser in its cooling water. This cooling water leaving the high pressure distillation
unit is actually hot enough to be the heating water for the low pressure distillation unit.
There, the heat travels from the boiler to the condenser and finally leaves the plant in a
second cooling water system. This waste heat is dispersed into the great outdoors.
A desalination plant may reuse the same heat five or more times before sending it out into
the ocean or the atmosphere. The heat may originate as solar energy or it may come from
burning fuel or from a nuclear reactor. In some cases, it comes from waste heat released
by an electric power plant.
This same process of distillation is used to create liquor. Natural fermentation can’t
produce liquids that are more than about 20% ethyl or grain alcohol because too much
alcohol kills the yeast that causes the fermentation. However, the alcohol and water
mixture can be distilled to create much more concentrated alcohol and water mixtures.
Near room temperature, alcohol has a much higher vapor pressure than water and it boils
at a lower temperature. When alcohol and water are heated together at atmospheric
pressure until the mixture boils, the vapor above the mixture will be mostly alcohol. If
this vapor is condensed, the new liquid is as much as 90% alcohol.
Distilling water at atmospheric pressure requires a large amount of heat. This heat is used
to raise the temperature of the water to 100° C and then to separated the molecules into a
vapor. When the steam condenses in the condenser, this heat is released and becomes
waste heat in the cooling water. However, a more sophisticated distillation plant lowers
90
the pressure in a second distillation unit and reuses heat from the first unit to operate the
second unit.
Fig. 7.2 - Distilling water at atmospheric pressure
91
Questions To Think About:
Where does naturally occurring fresh water come from?
Why does a can of soda go flat instantly if you open it after freezing it? How did minerals
form in the earth’s crust? Is sea ice salty? Why does swimming in salt water dry out your
skin? Is distilled water always purer than non-distilled water?
Experiments To Think About: You can purify water in your own kitchen. If you boil
salt water in a pot, you’ll create steam and will see mist forming above the water as that
steam condenses into water droplets in the air. If you place a cold surface in the steam,
the steam will condense on that surface. The condensed steam is nearly pure water—
distilled water. While the water in the pot contained salt, the distilled water does not.
However, before you taste the distilled water, make sure that the water in the pot
contained only non-toxic additives. Distillation isn’t perfect at removing contaminants
and it can even concentrate them in some situations. In a few minutes, you’ll understand
why.
92
References
H. D. Mcgeorge, ''Marine Auxiliary Machinery'', 6th Edition, Butterworth & Co

(Publishers) Ltd, London, 1987.
D. A. Taylor, ''Introduction to Marine Engineering'', 2nd Edition, Butterworth-

Heinemann Ltd, London, 1992.
Marine Engineering, SNAME
93

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Marine Auxiliary Machinery Prof. Dr.

Alexandria University, Faculty of Engineering

Marine Engineering and Naval Architecture Department

Marine Auxiliary Machinery

Prof. Dr. Mosaad Mosleh

Figure (1.1): Basic Pumping System

 The system is arranged to provide a positive pressure as head.

H tot = H Fr suction+ H Fr dis+ H Dis tank+ H Suc tank

Figure (1.2): Overall pump system characteristics

 The NPSH available in the system is given as:

NPSH avail = (H atm + H suc tank– H Fr suc) - H vap press

1.2. Pump Types:

There are three main classes of pumps in marine use:

1.2.1. Displacement pumps:

A) A reciprocating displacement pump:

Figure (1.3): Diagrammatic reciprocating displacement pump

Figure (1.4): Gear pump

C) Screw Displacement pumps:

Figure (1.5): Double - screw displacement pump

Figure (1.6): Three-screw displacement pump

Figure (1.5): Double screw displacement pump

1.2.2. Axial flow pump:

Figure (1.6): Axial flow pump

1.2.3. Centrifugal pumps:

Figure (1.7): Types of centrifugal pump

Figure (1.8): Volute type of centrifugal pump

Figure (1.9): Showing centrifugal pump action by mathematical relationship

Selection of the centrifugal pump:

The selection of the centrifugal pump depends mainly upon:

A typical curve is shown in Figure (1.10),

Figure (1.10): Characteristic curves

1. Increasing efficiency at high speeds.

1. Needs to prime mover.

1.3. Pump Performance:

D2 , vr 2 , u 2 , v2 , v f 2 and v w 2 are corresponding values at the outlet.

Figure (1.12): cross- section of the impeller

It has to be noted that:

1.3.2. Energy of impeller:

For good efficiency, the following assumptions are usually made:

Work done by liquid or runner is

Since the inflow is radial ( v w1  0 ), so the previous equations will be

1. Mechanical energy given by prime mover to the shaft of impeller can be

2. Neglecting the losses of energy in the pump, theoretical energy developed by

Mechanical Losses in Bearing Hydraulic losses in pumps

Figure (1.13): A schematic diagram for the relationship between

Efficiency of centrifugal pump:

Unless mentioned otherwise, by efficiency of centrifugal pump, it means the manometric

 is the discharge of the pump

- It’s an important term, in the field of centrifugal pumps.

vs  v A = flow velocity in suction pipe

h fd = loss of head due to friction in delivery pipe

Vacuum gauge reading = 25 cm of mercury

2. Piping and fitting:

Figure (1.15): Cock

2.2.2. Globe valve:-

Figure (1.16): Globe valve

2.2.3. Non-Return valve:

Figure (1.17): Non-return or check valve