Lamb's

Questions
and Answers on the
Marine Diesel Engine
Eighth Edition
-
- A _ _

Stanley G Christensen
B.Sc., C. Eng., F.I. Mar. E., Extra 1st Class Engineer,
M.O.T., Silver Medallist Institute of Marine Engineers and
William Nevins Prize Winner; Member, Society of Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers, USA
Formerly Professor, Dept. of Engineering, US Merchant
Marine Academy, Kings Point, New Y o r k , USA

A member of the Hoddcr 1

LONDON
 PREFACE

The late John Lamb wrote his first book The &nning and Maintenance of the
Marine Diesel Engine during 1919. The first edition was published by Charles
Griffin and Co. Ltd in 1920.
Readers of The Running and Maintenance qf the Marine Diesel Engine then
Great 1921 gave many expressions of thanks to the authot and made interesting enquiries
regarding diesel engines.

b
c d n m 1978 $

cdnmo Following these expressions of thanks for hi earlier book and the interesting
1999 by Amdd enquiries a need was recognised for a second b ok. A first edition of this book
a member of the Hodder Group was then created in the form of a categorized series of questions and answers
338 htslun Road. I ~ d o NWI
n 3BH
and was published in 1922.
In the preface to the first edition of his second book John Lamb wrote 'The
Question and Answer method seemed most serviceable for the purpose as giving
0 1990 Stanley G. Christensen at once essential teaching and enabling the student to express his knowledge'.
All rights reserved. No part of this may or transmitted in any
The need for a person to express himself or herself is as valid to day as when
form or by any means, electronically or mechanically, including photocopying, recording John Lamb wrote these words so many years ago. He also said at this time that
or any information storage or retrieval system, without either prior permission in writing the book made no claim t o completeness.
from the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying. In the United Kingdom Over the many years the QuestionsandAnswem book has been in publication
such licences are issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency: 90 Tottenham Court Road. it has been used by apprentices and student_s,se~oingengineer officers, a&
Lmdon 9HE.
shore-based technical staff. It has found use both as abook for study and for 41
Whilst the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the reference.
dale, of going lo press, but neither the nor the publisher can accept any legal The late A.C. ~ardy-wroteof John Lamb in thexistory of Motorshipping
responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions. with the words:
Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
The late Cornelius Zulver was technical head of the R yal Dutch Shell fleet of tankers. He was
ISBN 0 R52 61307 l also an early innoytiue pioneer in the use of the diesel e n t n e in marine propulsion and introduced
the under-piston method of pressure-charging in conjunction with Werkspoor of Amsterdam
during 1929. This simple method of pressurecharging was used in four stroke cycle crosshead
.. in 10111 by Colscl I'r~vateI.td. Singapore
engines up until their demise in the years following World War 11.
Although only these two names are mentioned it must be remembered there were many others
I'rinlcd and hound in (irc;~tl < r ~ t ;b~y ~Alhenxum
n I'ress Lld, who pioneered this most efficient means of propelling ships and brought it to the perfection it
Gateshead, 'Iyne & Wear enjoys today.
iv Preface

'Best known of all to technical people is, of course. John Lamb of boiler-oil-for-diesels
fame. A quiet-speaking 'Geordit' with a rich practical experience of motorships and a
wide diesel engine knowledge, for many years he was Zulver's* right hand man and
during this period he producqd two noteworthy books on marine diesel engineering
which are as popular today in'their up to date form as ever they were'.
What A.C. Hardy wrote in 1955 is still true today. It has been the aim of the
present author to maintain a precept of John Lamb and the publishers, that is to
keep this book fully up to date. Again no claim is made to completeness in its
INTRODUCTION -

content, it may however be claimed that it is very complete as a guide for those
wishing to make an in-depth study of the diesel engine irrespective of where it is
used.
It must be remembered that diesel engines drive the largest and fastest of
ships, the largest and smallest of tug boats, fish factories and fishing craft, the
largest and smallest pleasure craft, the largest trucks and lorries, the smallest
passenger vehicles, perform stand-by duty in hospitals and factories for the
supply of electrical pewer under emergency conditions, and in most nuclear
power plants worldwide the diesel engine is there ready to keep a reactor cool
andsafe under the worsteftmgetrcpmnstitibni - Many things have happened within the field of the marine diesel engine since the
The name of John Lamb was incorporated into the present title to perpetuate last edition of this book was published. Every endeavour has been made to
the name of one of the'early pioneers of the diesel engine. cover these changes in as full a manner as possible within the constraint of a
book that must of necessity cover all aspects of marine diesel machinery.
Stanley G. Christensen For a start one of the worldDSImost well known passenger liners the 'Queen
1989 Elizabeth 11' became a motorship. The change over to diesel machinery was
made to keep the ship competitive and obtain the many advantages of diesel
electric propulsion. Diesel electric propulsion gives a wider range of economic
speeds with a much lower fuel cost than may be obtained by a conventional
geared steam turbine or turbo electric drive. Another advantage of a multi
engined diesel electric propulsion system is the ease with which the survey of the
propulsion machinery may be carried out within the short turn round time
requirement necessary for profitable ship operation. The normal turn round
time for a passenger liner or cruise ship is now only a matter of a few hours
instead of days. To survey an engine, disassembly may take place during the ,
passage, an examination by a surveyor takes place while in port. The assembly &
of the engine is carried out after the ship is back to sea. A surveyor then sees the
engine under operating conditions when next in port, that completes the survey
on the engine. There is nothing new in diesel electric propulsion systems. The
history of marine engineering shows many fine examples of diesel electric
propulsion involving passenger liners, refrigerated fruit carriers, the largest of
dredgers, fish factory ships, trawlers, etc.
The largest part of the operating or voyage costs in many ships is shown in th
fuel cost when expressed as a percentage of the total operating cost. Usi
figures that may only be considered as approximate for many classes of sh
fuel cost has risen from something around 10% before the fuel crisis in 1973 t
over 50% of the total operating cost a few years later.
This began the demand for engines with the lowest specific fuel consumptio
The modern high efficiency turbocharger has enabled the designer of unifl . " m
scavenged engines to expand the combustion gases further down the
stroke and so increase the thermal efficiency of the engine. This has result
*k
 Introduction vii

much lower specific fuel consumption that-could ever-be obtaiied with loop during the refining processes. The concentratioo of impurities has then
scavenged engines where the necessity for efficient scavenging limits the ratio of increased as the amount of residue has been reduced.
the bore and piston stroke. Centrifuge manufacturers have responded well t o the challenge of dealing
Today, all slow speed engines are uniflow scavenged two stroke engines and with these low quality fuels. The fuel purification equipment available today is
follow the same uniflow scavenge principle adopted more than fifty years ago capable of handling low quality very high specific gravity fuels in an efficient
by Burmeister and Wain, when they placed single and double acting two stroke manner. The separator, as we knew it before, now has no place in the treatment
cycle engines on the market. Uniflow scavenging goes back to the days of the of low quality blended fuel oil. It has been replaced by the self cleaning clarifier
large industrial engines built in the last century. These engines used producer with sophisticated surveillance and control equipment that only operates the
gas or the gas supplied in towns for illumination purposes before electricity was cleaning process as and when required. The frequency of the cleaning process
available. then depends on the amount of waste matter in the fuel.
During the span of fifty years between the thirties and the early eighties diesel Lubricating oil characteristics are still being improved with better and more
engine builders have proclaimed the merits of their respective engines; their powerful additives. The quality and characteristics of lubricating oils have
followers were generally divided into two camps. Those who favoured the cross advanced beyond aU belief from the early days of burning heavy fuel oil in the
scavenged engine or the loop scavenged engine because the absence of exhaust late forties and early fifties. Then, additives giving alkalinity and detergency
valves made for simplicity, and, those who favoured the lower fuel consump- were compounded in an oil emulsion. Additives are now held in solution and do
tion of uniflow scavenged engines in spite of their added complication. The not separate while in storage. When additives were held in suspension or in an
complication being the exhaust valves irrespective of their types or the extra emulsion separation sometimes occurred when the lubricants were held in
bearings in an opposed piston engine where the piston acts as an exhaust valve. storage o n the ship. It can be said the work of the lubricants chemist has played
When the major builders of cross scavenged engines changed over to uniflow an enormous part in the commercial success of burning heavy low quality fuel
scavenging in the eighties they had to tell the world of the volte face they were in the marine diesel engine.
making. Increases in injection pressure together with other advances have made it
Burmeister and Wain had reached a position of preeminence with their four possible for medium speed engines t o use fuels with lower cetane numbers than
stroke cycle single and double acting engines in the late twenties. At this time could formerly be considered. Some of these fuels have such poor ignition
they also recognised that two stroke cycle engines could be designed to develop qualities that new methods of comparing the ignition quality of fuel have had to
considerably more power in the same space as their four stroke cycle engine. be devised. New generations of medium speed engines are being designed speci-
Out of this their two stroke cycle double acting and single acting engines came fically with the use of these low quality fuels in mind.
into being. The uniflow scavenging method was chosen for this range of Speed control governors of the electronic type are now being used
engines. A Dr H.H. Blache, the leader of the design team, had the difficult increasingly andelectronic control of the fuel injection process is being used
public relations task of telling the world of the change from cross scavenging to more and more as time progresses.
uniflow scavenging. --
-
Now all slow speed diesel exgines are very similar.
The seventh edition of this book was brought right up to date. No material
has been deleted in this new edition with the exception of a question on engine
It is pertinent to remark that over fifty years ago the first specially designed scavenging, some questions and answers have been replaced in order to update
hydraulic spanners and wrenches were supplied with the new range of them and comply with the latest practice. The major part of the matter keeping
Burmeister and Wain two stroke engines. They were used to precisely control the book up t o date is in the form of additional material. The first page of the
the tightening of threaded fastenings with the correct degree of tension,This
prevented the failure of parts subjected to alternating or fluctuating stresses. in this new edition.
-
book has remained the sameand so beiies ttre changes and additional materid

The increasing use of finite element analysis has made it possible to correctly Drawings and sketches have now been included w m the text to help students
ascertain the magnitude of stresses in both fixed and moving engine parts. This and others to better understand and clarify many of the answers.
has led to reductions in the dimensions of engine parts without in any way
impairing reliability. I t may also be said that finite element analysis has
increased reliability to a great extent. Large savings in weight and material cost
has then been made possible. Finite element analysis has also been used in the
study of heat transfer and this has also improved design.
The quality of residual fuel and some refined products supplied today has
deteriorated since the last edition was published. The deterioration has come
about from advances in oil refining techniques. These advances made it possible
to increase the percentage yield o f the more valuable oil products from crude oil
 Introduction vii

much lower specific fuel consumption that-could ever-be obta&ed with loop during the refining processes. The concentration of impurities has then
scavenged engines where the necessity for efficient scavenging limits the ratio of increased as the amount of residue has been reduced.
the bore and piston stroke. 'Centrifuge manufacturers have responded well to the challenge of dealing
Today, all slow speed engines are uniflow scavenged two stroke engines and with these low quality fuels. The fuel purification equipment available today is
follow the same uniflow scavenge principle adopted more than fifty years ago capable of handling low quality very high specific gravity fuels in an efficient
by Burmeister and Wain, when they placed single and double acting two stroke manner. The separator, as we knew it before, now has no place in the treatment
cycle engines on the market. Uniflow scavenging goes back to the days of the of low quality blended fuel oil. It has been replaced by the self cleaning clarifier
large industrial engines built in the last century. These engines used producer with sophisticated surveillance and control equipment that only operates the
gas or the gas supplied in towns for illumination purposes before electricity was cleaning process as and when required. The frequency of the cleaning process
available. then depends on the amount of waste matter in the fuel.
During the span of fifty years between the thirties and the early eighties diesel Lubricating oil characteristics are still being improved with better and more
engine builders have proclaimed the merits of their respective engines; their powerful additives. The quality and characteristics of lubricating oils have
followers were generally divided into two camps. Those who favoured the cross advanced beyond all belief from the early days of burning heavy fuel oil in the
scavenged engine or the loop scavenged engine because the absence of exhaust late forties and early fifties. Then, additives giving alkalinity and detergency
valves made for simplicity, and, those who favoured the lower fuel consump- were compounded in an oil emulsion. Additives are now held in solution and do
tion of uniflow scavenged engines in spite of their added complication. The not separate while in storage. When additives were held in suspension or in an
complication being the exhaust valves irrespective of their types or the extra emulsion separation sometimes occurred when the lubricants were held in
bearings in an opposed piston engine where the piston acts as an exhaust valve. storage on the ship. It can be said the work of the lubricants chemist has played
When the major builders of cross scavenged engines changed over to uniflow an enormous part in the commercial success of burning heavy low quality fuel
scavenging in the eighties they had to tell the world of the volte face they were in the marine diesel engine.
making. Inaeascs in injection pressure togethq with other advances have made it
Burmeister and Wain had reached a position of preeminence with their four possible for medium speed engines to use fuels with lower cetane numbers than
stroke cycle single and double acting engines in the late twenties. At this time could formerly be considered. Some of these fuels have such poor ignition
they also recognised that two stroke cycle engines could be designed to develop qualities that new methods of comparing the ignition quality of fuel have had to
considerably more power in the same space as their four stroke cycle engine. be devised. New generations of medium speed engines are being designed speci-
Out of this their two stroke cycle double acting and single acting engines came fically with the use of these low quality fuels in mind.
into being. The uniflow scavengi~gmethod was chosen for this range of Speed control governors of the demonic type are now being used
engines. A Dr H.H. Blache, the leader of the design team, had the difficult increasingly a n d electronic control of the fuel injection process is being used
more and more as time progresses.
uniflow scavenging. -
public relations task of telling the world of the change from cross scavenging to

Now all slow speed diesel ezgines are very similar.

The seventh edition of this book was brought right up to date. No material
has been deleted in this new edition with the exception of a question on engine
It is pertinent to remark that over fifty years ago the first specially designed scavenging, some questions and answers have been replaced in order to update
hydraulic spanners and wrenches were supplied with the new range of them and comply with the latest practice. The major part of the matter keeping
Burmeister and Wain two stroke engines. They were used to precisely control the book up to date is in the form of additional material. The first page of the
the tightening of threaded fastenings with the correct degree of t e n s i o ~ w book has remained thesamearrtfso-belies tkchangesand addiaonCmatenW-
prevented the failure of parts subjected to alternating or fluctuating stresses. in this new edition.
The increasing use of finite element analysis has made it possible to correctly Drawings and sketches have now been included wfCh the text to help students
ascertain the magnitude of stresses in both fixed and moving engine parts. This and others to better understand and clarify many of the answers.
has led to reductions in the dimensions of engine parts without in any way
impairing reliability. I t may also be said that finite element analysis has
increased reliability to a great extent. Large savings in weight and material cost
has then been made possible. Finite element analysis has also been used in the
study of heat transfer and this has also improved design.
The quality of residual fuel and some refined products supplied today has
deteriorated since the last edition was published. The deterioration has come
about from advances in oil refining techniques. These advances made it possible
to increase the percentagc yield of the more valuable oil products from crude oil
vi Introduction , Introduction vii

much lower specific fuel consumption that-could ever-be obtaned with loop during the refining processes. The con cent ratio^ of impurities has then
scavenged engines where the necessity for efficient scavenging limits the ratio of increased as the amount of residue has been reduced.
the bore and piston stroke. Centrifuge manufacturers have responded well to the challenge of dealing
Today, all slow speed engines are uniflow scavenged two stroke engines and with these low quality fuels. The fuel purification equipment available today is
follow the same uniflow scavenge principle adopted more than fifty years ago capable of handling low quality very high specific gravity fuels in an efficient
by Burmeister and Wain, when they placed single and double acting two stroke manner. The separator, as we knew it before, now has no place in the treatment
cycle engines on the market. Uniflow scavenging goes back to the days of the of low quality blended f u d oil. It has been replaced by the self cleaning clarifier
large industrial engines built in the last century. These engines used producer with sophisticated survdllance and control equipment that only operates the
gas or the gas supplied in towns for illumination purposes before electricity was cleaning process as and when required. The frequency of the cleaning process
available. then depends on the amount of waste matter in the fuel.
During the span of fifty years between the thirties and the early eighties diesel Lubricating oil charocreristics are still being improved with better and more
engine builders have proclaimed the merits of their respective engines; their powerfuI additives. The quality and characteristics of lubricating oils have
followers were generally divided into two camps. Those who favoured the cross advanced beyond all belief from the early days of burning heavy fuel oil in the
scavenged engine or the loop scavenged engine because the absence of exhaust late forties and early fifties. Then, additives giving alkalinity and detergency
valves made for simplicity, and, those who favoured the lower fuel consump- were compounded in an oil emulsion. Additives are now held in solution and do
tion of uniflow scavenged engines in spite of their added complication. The not separate while in storage. When additives were held in suspension or in an
complication being the exhaust valves irrespective of their types or the extra emulsion separation sometimes occurred when the lubricants were held in
bearings in an opposed piston engine where the piston acts as an exhaust valve. storage on the ship. It can be said the work of the lubricants chemist has played
When the major builders of cross scavenged engines changed over to uniflow an enormous part in the commercial success of burning heavy low quality fuel
scavenging in the eighties they had to tell the world of the volte face they were in the marine diesel engine.
making. Increases in injection pressure togethq with other advances have made it
Burmeister and Wain had reached a position of preeminence with their four possible for medium speed engines to use fuds with l o v p cetane numbers than
stroke cycle single and double acting engines in the late twenties. At this time could formerly be considered. Some of these fuels have such poor ignition
they also recognised that two stroke cycle engines could be designed to develop qualities that new methods of comparing the ignition q d i t y of fuel have had to
considerably more power in the same space as their four stroke cycle engine. be devised. New generations of medium speed engines are being designed speci-
Out of this their two stroke cycle double acting and single acting engines came fically with the use of these low quality fuels in mind,
into being. The uniflow scavenging method was chosen for this range of Speed control governors of the electronic type are now being used
engines. A Dr H.H. Blache, the leader of the design team, had the difficult increasingly and electronic control of the fuel injection process is being used
public relations task of telling the world of the change from cross scavenging to more and more as time progresses.
uniflow scavenging. - The seventh edition of this book was brought right up to date. No material
Now all slow speed diesel exgines are very similar. has been deleted in this new edition with the exception of a question on engine
It is pertinent to remark that over fifty years ago the first specially designed scavengiog, some questions and answers have been rej$aced in order to update
hydraulic spanners and wrenches were supplied with the new range of them and comply with the latest practice. The major part of the matter keeping
Burmeister and Wain two stroke engines. They were used to precisely control the book up to date is in the form of additional material. The first page of tho
the tightening of threaded fastenings with the correct degree of t e n s i o k w
prevented the failure of parts subjected to alternating or fluctuating stresses. in this new edition.
-
book has reqmined the s a r m - a n d s o ~ c h a n g e s a n dadditionatmatenat

The increasing use of finite element analysis has made it possible to correctly Drawings and sketches have now been included wtrh the text to help students
ascertain the magnitude of stresses in both fixed and moving engine parts. This and others to better understand and clarify many of the answers.
has led to reductions in the dimensions of engine parts without in any way
impairing reliability. It may also be said that finite element analysis has
increased reliability to a great extent. Large savings in weight and material cost
has then been made possible. Finite element analysis has also been used in the
study of heat transfer and this has also improved design.
The quality of residual fuel and some refined products supplied today has
deteriorated since the last edition was published. The deterioration has come
about from advances in oil refining techniques. These advances made it possible
to increase the percentage yield of the more valuable oil products from crude oil
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS CONTENTS

The author acknowledges and affirms his thanks to the following mentioned
companies for their assistance in supplying drawings used in the production of Heat and Engineering Science
this book. Internal Combustion Engines
Fuels, Lubricants - Treatment and Storage
Brown Boveri Corporation, Baden, Switzerland Combustion and Fuel-Injection Systems
Scavenge, Exhaust, Pressure-Charging Systems
Lucas Bryce Limited, Gloucester, England Construction Materials, Welding, Materials Testing
MAN-Burmeister and Wain, Copenhagen, Denmark and Augsburg, FDR Bedplates, Frames, Guides, Scavenge Trunks. Cylinder Jackets
Cylinder Liners, Cylinder Heads, Valves
Sulzer Brothers Limited, Winterthur, Switzerland Pitons, Piston Rods, Piston Skirts, Piston Rings
Crankshafts, Camshafts. Connecting-Rods, Crossheads, Slippers
The author also thanks the following for their friendship and the assistance so Starting and Reversing
freely given in supplying material and data enabling this book to be kept fully Reduction Gearing, Clutches, Couplings
up t o date. Line Shafting, Screw Shafts, Propellers, Thrust Bearings
Engine and Shafting Alignment
Mr Denis Eley Heat Exchangers, Cooling Systems, Lubricating Systems
Mr Ernst P. Jung , Air Compressors, Air Storage Tanks
Palle B. Jdrgensen - Balancing and Vibration
__Mr~GmddLosch - Instrumentation and Controls
Mr Tom Moore Safety
Mr Poul R. Nidsen Index
Mr Hans Roefler
Mr Claus Windelev.
 HEAT AND ENGINEERING
SCIENCE

1.1 Give a definition of the term 'matter' and stateihe constituentspf

which it is composed. Show how matter exists in various states.
In technology, matter is sometimes referred to as material substance. It can be
defined as anything known to exist and otmpy space. Any material substance
consists of minute particles known as molecules; these are the smallest particles
of a substance which can exist and maintain all the pr~pertiesof the original-
substance. A molecule is made up of a combination of two or more atoms of the
elements. The atom consists of various parts which are held together by forces,
recognized as bdng electrical in character. The forces of attraction come about
from unlike electrical charges. The constituent parts of an atom are the central
core or nucleus which has a positive charge and one or more electrons. The
electron ha# a negative charge. The nucleus is composed of protons and
neutrons (except the atom of hydrogen). Protons have positive electrical
charges and the neutrons are electrically neutral. When an atom is electrically
neutral it will have the same number of protons and electrons. The number of
electrons contained in an atom is shown by the atorfric number of the element.
An atom becomes an ion when the number of electrons is more or less than the
number of protons. The ion will be positive or negative according to the
predominant electrical charge.
The atom of hydrogm is the simplest; it corisists of one proton and one -
electron. If the electron is removed from the atom of hydrogen the remaining .
proton becomes a hydrogen ion which will be positive. In some cases two atoms ,
of the same element may differ in the number of neutrons contained in the
nucleus. The atomic we@ts will therefore be different and the atoms are
described as being isotopes of the element. The isotopes of an element have
identical chemical properties but differing physical properties. The electrons
outside the nucleus control the properties of the atom, and the protons and
ngutrons in the nucleus determine its atomic weight. The electrons are
considered to form a series of orbital envelopes or cases around the nucleus,
each envelope containing a set pattern of electrons. Other particles exist but
need not concern us in this study.
2 Questions and Answets on the Marine Diesel Engine Heat and Engineering Science 3

If a molecule canexist as one atom of an element it is referred to as being force required to overcome the resistance and the distance through which the
monatomic; if two atoms joined together form a molecule they are referred to body is moved.The unit o f work is the joule (J). One joule equals one newton
as diatomic; three atoms joined to form a molecule are triatomic. A substance metre.
formed from identical atoms is known as an element. Substances formed from
molecules of different atoms are called chemical compounds. If the molecules lJ=lNm
retain their identity and do not join together, the substance formed is a chemical Energy is the capacity for doing work. The various forms of energy are kinetic
mixture. energy, potential energy, heat energy. electrical energy, chemical energy,
Material substances usually exist in one of three physical states: solid, liquid, nuclear energy and radiant energy. All forms of energy except radiant energy
or gaseous. Substances existing in the solid state have the ability to retain their can exist only in the presence of matter. The unit of energy used in mechanical
original shape unless acted upon by externally applied forces. The ability to and marine engineering is the same as the unit of work.
retain their shape is due to the relatively large cohesive forces existing between
the particles forming the substance. Solids have three elastic moduli Potentialenergy is the energy contained in a body by virtue of its position. Its
(Question 1.9). When a substance is in the liquid state the cohesive force value is measured by the work that could be done by the body in passing from
between the molecules is much less than in solids, the molecules having the one defined position to another defined position.
ability to move with respect to one another. Liquids possess a property which Kinetic energy is the energy contained in a body by virtue of its velocity. Its
allows them to take up the shape of their container, and they offer a large value is measured by the work done by the body during some change in velocity.
resistance to change of voldme when subjected to pressures. Liquids have two
of the elastic moduli: bulk modulus and modulus of tension. The ability of a Momentum is the product of the mass and velocity of a moving body.
liquid to resist small amounts of tension is due to the cohesive force existing Power is the rate of doing work; the unit of power is the watt (W). One watt is
between the molecules. This cohesive force creates an apparent shear resistance equal to one joule per second.
between two adjacent planes in a liquid body and gives rise to the phenomenon
which we know as viscosity. With substances in the gaseous state the cohesive 1W = 1J/s
force between the molecules is so small that they are almost completely free to lhp (metric) = 735.5W
move in any direction. This property allows gases completely to fill their lhp (British; U.S.) = 746W
container. Gases have only a bulk modulus. Some substances do not have all the
properties of solids. They exist in an indeterminate state between that of a solid
.
and a liquid. These substances are said to be amorphous; on heating they
approach nearer the liquid state but do not have a precise melting point. 1.3 Define the following terms: moment of force, couple, torque,
twisting moment.

1.2 What do you understand by the following terms: mass, force, Moment of force is a measure of the tendency of a force to turn a body on which
velocity, acceleration, work, energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, it acts about some axis. Its value is the product of the force and the
momentum, power? Give units, derived units and symbols where perpendicular distance from its line of action to the axis.
applicable. Couple. A couple consists of two equal forces-acting in opposite directions
mass isthe quantify of matter in a body. The unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). - --along separate parallel lines of action. The moment of a couple is the product of
one of the forces'and the perpendicular distance between the lines of action.
Force is that which tends to cause a body at rest or in motion to alter its state of Torque and twisting moment ate synonymous with the moment of a couple.
rest or motion. The unit of force is the newton (N).

Velocity is the rate of change of position of a point or body; it may be linear or 1.4 What are centripetal and centrifugal forces?
angular. Linear velocity is measured in metres per second (m/s). Angular
velocity is measured in radians per second (rad/s). Centripetal force. When a body moves in a circular path it can be shown that it
has an acceleration acting towards t h e of its aorbit.
x The
i sforce required to
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity; it may be linear or angular. Linear produce this acceleration is called centripetal force.
acceleration is measured in metres per second squared (m/s2). Angular accelera-
tion is measured in radians per second squared (rad/s2). Centrifugal force is the reaction to centripetal force. Centrifugal force acts
radially outwards; centripetal force acts radially inwards and constrains the
Work is done when a body i.s moved against a resistance. It is the product of the body to move in a circular path.
4 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Heat and En~ineerin~
Science 5

1.5 Give definitions of inertia, moment of inertia, and radius of gyration. 1.8 What are tensile stress, compressive stress, shear stress?
Inertia is that property of a body which resists changes in its state of rest or Tensile stress. A body is subject to tensile stress when it is acted on by a load
uniform motion in a straight line. which causes an increase in its length.
Moment of inertia of a rotating body is the sum of the products of each particle Compressivestress. A body is subject t o compressive stress when it is acted on
of mass and the square of its distance from the axis of the rotating body. by a load which causes a decrease in its length. In each case the change in length
Moment of inertia = m,r: + m,4 b. . takes place in the line of action of the applied force. Tensile and compressive
stresses are sometimes referred to as liiear or direct stresses.
where m, + m, + m;+ . . . = total mass of body.
Shear stress. If the opposite faces of a cube are subjected to a couple acting
Note The term moment of inertia can have various definitions depending on tangentially to the faces, the sectional planes of the cube parallel to the applied
its use and application. force are under the action of a shear stress. The strain will be such that the cube
I
Radius of gyration is the radius at which the whole mass 'of a rotating b o o iliq will take up the shap&of a prism w i t f i ~ o n f o r m i n airhomba.3hesfrear
g
be considered as acting- If k is the radius of gyration, then strain is measured from the angle formed by the slo6ing side of the rhombus
and the side of the cube before it was stressed. If dl-onals are taken across the
mk2 = moment of inertia comers of the rhombus, one of the diagonals will be longer than it was
where m = total mass of body. originally and the other shorter. From this it may be deduced that some load is
set up along the diagonals which has caused the change in their length. Where
1.6 What are stress, strain, unital stress, unital strain? the diagonal has increased in length a tensile stress has been set up which is
acting on the plane of the shorter diagonal; where the diagonal is shorter a
Stress may be defined as the load that is applied externally to a body, or in effect compressive stress is set up which is acting on the plane of the longer diagonal.
as the force acting between the molecules caused by the deformation or strain. In a somewhat similar manner it can be shown that when a piece of material is
Strain is the change that occurs in the shape or dimension of a body subject to subjected to a direct stress, a shear stress exists on any plane taken at 45" to the
the action of stress. line of action of the force producing the direct stress.
Unital stress is the stress acting on unit area of material. I

1.9 Define Hooke's Law, elastic limit, Young's Modulus, shear modulus,
Load/area resisting load = unital stress bulk modulus, and Poisson's Ratio.
Unitalstrain is the ratio of the change in dimension to the original dimension of Hooke's Law states that stress is proportional to strain within the elastic limit.
the body before stress was applied.
Elastic limit. If a body is subjected to increasing stress a point will be reaches
Note When the terms stress and strain are used in the following text the single where the material will behave as only partially elastic. When this point i
word stress will imply unital stress and the single word strain will imply unital reached and the stress is removed some of the strain will remain as a permanen
strain. Should it be required to distinguish between the terms they will be deformation. The elastic limit is the point where the behaviour of the materia
written in full. changes to being partially elastic; up to this point strain completely disappear!
LoadsArea resisting load = stress when stress is removed.
Change in dimension/original dimension = strain Young's Modulus, shear modulus and bulk modulus are the three moduli o
elasticity.
1.7 Some materials are referred to as elastic. What does this imply?
What is an isotropic material?
Young's Modulus ( E ) is the ratio of direct stress and the resulting strain.
Most materials in a solid state when subject to stress, experience a change
in shape. If, when removing the stress, the material returns to its former shape Shear modulus, also known as the modulus of rigidity or modulus of transvers,
the material is said to be elastic. In studies of strength of materials it is elasticity (G), is the ratio of shear stress and the resulting shear strain.
often assumed that a body is isotropic. An is~tropicmaterial is one which
has identical properties in all directions from any point within the-body. -G = shear stresdshear strain (measured in radians)
Bulk modulus(K).If a cube of material is immersed in a liquid and subjected to
Note In practice most metals used in engine construciton are ion-isotropic
due to the grain structure which exists within the metal. hydrostatic pressure it will be seen that the cubeis acted on by three equal
forces acting mutually perpendicular to each other. The cube will suffer
 6 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
I
I Heal and Engineering Science 7
I

loss in volume as the hydrostatic pressure is increased. The change in volume is I Allernatingstress is said to occur when the value of a stress changes from some
the volumetric strain and the intensity of the hydrostatic pressure will be the value of tensile stress to a similar value of compressive stress. An example is the
equivalent compressive stress. overhung flywheel where a particle in the shaft surface will change from tensile
K = equivalent compressive stress/volumetric strain loading at its uppermost positioq of rotation to compressive loading at its
lowest point. The overhung flywheel may be considered as a cantilever with a
Poisson'sRatio. 1f abody is subjected to a direct stress it will suffer from linear concmtrated Laad. - -
strain in the direction of the line of action of the applied force producing this
streas. It will also suffer some lateral strain in a plane at 90" to the line of action Cyclicstress. When a certain pattern of stress change repeats itself at equal time
to the force. Lateral strain is prqportional to linear strain within the elastic Titervals (for example, each revolution of an engine or shaft) the pattern of
limit. stress is referred to as cyclic stress.
fluctuating, alternating, or cyclic stresses are of great importance as they are
lateral strain very closely associated with a form of failure of machine parts known as fatigue
= a constant (a) depending on the material
linear strain failure. Alternating or cyclic stresses are sometimes referred to as fluctuating
I stresses as a general term to distinguish them from simple stresses.
This constant (a) is known as Poisson's ratio. I 1.12 What do you understand by the term 'stress raiser'? How con stress
Note The relationship between lateral strain and linear strain is of great
importance in calculating the dimensions of coupling bolts made with an C\ I , raisers be obviated or reduced?
interference fit. Stress raisers occur at abrupt sectional changes of machink parts or members. '
They are sometimes referred to as notches. Fillets are made in way of abrupt
sectional changes to reduce the abruptness of the change in section.
1.10 What is resilience? The effect of abrupt changes on the stress pattern across a section of material
Resilience or elastic strain energy is a term used to denote the storage of the in way of the section change is such that where the change occurs, the stress is
work done in producing strain within a material which is strained. If a piece of not uniform across the section. It is higher at the corner or shoulder made by the
material is subjected to an increasing stress the strain will also increase. As work change. Material at the surface wiU yield earlier than material remote from the
done is the product of force and distance moved by force, the energy stored in a shoulder and under conditions of simple or static stress some redistribution of
material subject to stress will equal the average force producing the stress stress occurs. This does not have time to take place when a machine part is
multiplied by the distance it has moved through, which will be the total strain. subjected to fluctuating stresses. It is therefore of the utmost importance to
design properly and remove all stress raisers. This is done by making fillets

I
Then
between shoulders or having easy tapers on section changes with the end of any
resilience = mean total stress x total strain taper rounded in at its small end. -This reduces to a minimum the chances of
= total stress x total strain fatigue failure.
If the material is subjected to a stress beyond the elastic limit some of the work Stress raisers cannot usually be obviated but the effects are reduced by the use
done is lost in the form of heat which is generated as the d t e r i a l yields. of proper fillets which give a better stress distribution and reduce stress concen-
trations and variations in way of the change of section. An example of a fillet
which we have all seen is the radius formed between the coupling flange and the
1.11 What are fluctuating stress, alternating stress, and''wclic stress? parallel portion of an intermediate shaft. It can be seen then that a close
How do they differ fmm simple stress? Why are they important? relationship exists between the ability of an engine part or member to resist
fatigue failure and the profile of the fillet in way of section changes. As a section
-.
-.
Simple stress comes about from some static form of loading, and the value of
thWressdoes not change.
- -- c h a q e becomes more abrupt by reduction of fillet radius, the risk of fatigue
failure is greatly increased.
Fluctuating stress. Diesel engines when operating are not subject to static forms Stress raisers may also occur in welded joints due to bad design, undercut (see
of loading. Due to cylinder pressure variations and dynamic effects of the Questions 6.34 and 6.37), or discontinuities in the way of the joint due to lack of
I moving parts, the forces acting on any part of an engine are always changing. penetration between the filler and the parent material.
As the forces change so the stresses in the various parts change. The changing
values of stress experienced on parts of a machine are referred to as fluctuating
stress. At any instant in time the value of a stress can be related to a simple
stress.
 8 Quetions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Heat and Engineering Science 9
- -
1 .I3 H ~ Wwodd you define failure of an engini part or component? . societies. Rules were drawn up with a view to its prevention and it is virtually
State what is done to correct a.failure? unknown in ship construction today.
--C

When an engine part or comp'inent is no longer fit to carry out the duty for
which it was designed and manufactured it is said to have failed. Failure may 1.15 What is fatigue failure? How does it occur and how would you
come about due to wear and tear or because of a failure in the material. recognize it?
If a part has failed due to normal wear and tear it may be scrapped or
withdrawn from use. The part scrapped or withdrawn m y then be replac~Qbyc Fatigue failure corn- unmllv_whm engine partisimp*

a new part or a similar part previously withdrawn and overhauled or designed or made from unsuitable material, when a cerrectly chosen material is
reconditioned. Economie factors must be considered; if a part costs more to given incorrect heat keatment, or when parts aze badly machined or badly
recondition than a newly manufactured part it is better to renew rather than adjusted. The cause may be a combination of those mentioned. The term for
recondition. fatigue is really a misnomer as metals do not get tired. Fatigue failure is mest
In some circumstances the wear and tear may have occurred over an common in materials subject to fluctuating tensile stress.
unexpectedly short space of time. In such cases the accelerated wear and tear Fatigue failure occurs when a machine part is subjected to fluctuating stress
should be investigated to ascertain the cause and rectify it. and soine form of slip occurs between the grain boundaries of the material,
In other cases failure may come about due to a breakdown in the material of usually at some point of stress concentration. Once slip occurs a crack is
the part or component. If this occursan investigation must be made to find the initiated which gradually extends across the d o n of the stressed material.
cause or causes leading to the breakdown of the material. Due to the stress changes which occur under the action of fluctuating stress the

..
strain also follows the stress pattorn, and movement in the form of chattering
takes place across the opposite surfaces forming tbe crack. The chattering
movement smooths the rough surfaces in way of the crack. The speed of crack
How may diesel engine component materials fail? propaslation increases across the material section until it reaches a point at
1.14
Failure of the materials from which engine parts are made may occur in various
- -
which yield and therefore sudden failure okurs in the remaining material.
In ferrous materials, failure that is due to fatifie can, be recognized by the fact
ways - either from a single cause or from a combination of causes. that there will be two forms of failure in the fracture: the relatively smooth
Material failure may occur due to the material stretching or compressing portion where initial failure and cracking progressed across the section, and the
under load so that its shape is permanently altered. This occurs when a material portion where f d failure took place, which would exhibit the n
is loaded beyond its yield point. The shape of the component is then altered so appearance of failure in tension. If the material is ductile a cup and cone
that it does not fit correctly or causes misalignment. Fracture of the material of final failure may be seen. Less ductile materials may only have a ro
may follow on from excessive deformation if the loading on the material is cyrstalline appearance, but the two distinct phases cdn be easily seen.
further increased. material is working in a conosive medium, fatigue failure may come a W t
Another form of fracture may occur when there is no permanent deforma-
tion. This form of fracture is known as brittle fracture. It is not likely to be
much more quickly.
Note The study of fatigue is quite comp1ex and a knowledge of m e t d r
&$j
found in parts from diesel engines, but we should be cognizant of this cause of
failure, particularly so in the case of parts manufactured by welding processes necessary for full a understanding. The foregoing, however, describes some of
and not subject to rigid inspection of material and welds. its mechanics and how it may be recognized. Later questions and answers #ill i
Failure may occur due to a part fracturing after a relatively small number of show how the risk of fatigue failure can be reduced.
cycles of stress variation. This form of fracture is referred to as low cycle fatigue -
failure.
When fracture of a part occurs after a large number of stress variation cycles 1 1.16 How does the engineer guard against fatigue failure when
designing important parts of a diesel engine? R
it is commonly referred to as fatigue failure. In written reports and documents it
is more correct to describe it as high cycle fatigue failure. When designing important parts of ; diesel engine the engineer responsible for
When unsuitable matejials are subjected to high teiiiperatuGs excessive the design will use various factors in the stress calc~ations.These factors m k
deformation and ultimate failure may occur due to creep (see Question 6.48). , the stresses coming on to the sections in way of the discontinuities accept
Note 1 Plastic materials may fail die to a variety of other causes. Common examples of discontinuities are the oil holes bored or drilled
crankshaft, reentrant or negative fillets at the junction between crankwebs
Note 2 Brittle fracture occurred in some welded ships built during the Second adjacent crankpins or journals, and counterbores in shafting flanges made
World War and the immediate post-war years. The causes of this form of that the coupling bolt heads and coupling nuts may sit flat on the flan
failure were investigated by various government bodies and ship classification surfaces.
 10 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Heat and Engineering Science 11

The factors referred to are known as stress concentration factors (SCF). The use is in the examination of a fatigue failure. With a scanning electron micro-
value of the factor will depend on the geometry of the part. Stress concentration scope it is possible to find the actual microscopic point or nucleation site where
factor values can be found from charts showing various types and proportions the initial slippage occurred in a fracture and indicate the cause of the slippage.
of discontinuities in graphical form. Scanning electron microscopes are also used in the analysis of fuel and -6 .-i
The allowable stress on the net sectional area in way of the discontinuity in a lubricating oils.
part will then be equal to the yield stress (YS)or the ultimate tensile strength
(UTS), whichever is applicable, divided by the product of the stress concen-
tration factor and the factor of safZty p). Then 1.18 Define the terms 'temperature' and 'heat.'

allowable stress = (YS or UTS) / (SCF x FS) Tempemturei s a measure that compares the degree of 'hotness' of various bod-
ies or masses of material. The differe~cein temperature between different bod-
In practice, difficulties often arise in obtaining the stress concentration ies atso determines the direction in which heat will be transmitted from ane
factor. When complications arise the designer must resort to other methods of body t o another. Heat is transmitted from a body at higher temperature to a
stress analysis (see Question 6.51). body at lower temperature and transmission of heat continues until both bodies
In computer aided design (CAD) the design engineer can use a mathematical are at the same temperature.
technique known as finite element analysis. This technique utilizes the power of
the computer to find the final results of complicated equations in an iterative Heat is a form of energy that is possessed by matter in the form of kinetic energy
manner. of the atoms or molecules of Hihich the matter is composed. The kinetic energy
Computer programs are available for building up the node points and is obtained from the movement of the atoms or molecules. In gaseous
connecting networks required for the analysis and then solving the equations substances the movement is quite complex and involves translatory, rotary and
vibratory motion. Translatory motion refers t o linear move t of molecules,
arising out of the network. The answers obtained will indicate the location and
value of the maximum stresses. 7
which may occur in any plane. Rotary motion involves rota on of molecules
Finite element analysis is also a valuable mathematical technique when about some axis, and vibratory motion includes both internal vibration of_
working in the fields of heat transfer and fluid mechanics. molecules and external vibration involving relative cyclic movements between
The subject is advanced in nature and involves the work of specialists. An two moIocu1es.
engineer should, however, be aware of its availability and have some knowledge
of the fields of its use. 1.19 What are the known effects of heat on matter? What are the latent
heat of fusion and the latent heat of vaporization?
1.17 What is an electron microscope? Where can it be used and for whot When the heat content of matter in the solid state is increased, vibratory
purpose? movement of the atoms and molecules increases and their kinetic energy
The electron microscope comes in two forms: the scanning electron microscope -
increases. This is shown by a rise in temperature and some change usually an
(SEM), and the transmission electron microscope (TEM). The microsc~pes -
increase in dimensions (thermal expansion). Increase in heat content without
consist of an electron gun, a form of magnetic lens or a video amplifier, photo- change of temperature occurs during the change of state from that of solid to
graphic plates or a fluorescent screen, or a video monitor. that of liquid. The heat required to effect this change of state without change of
The transmission electron microscope uses very thin specimens and the temperature is known as the latent hear of fusion.
electrons pass through the specimen. Faults in the structure of the material are When the liquid state is reached-the cohesive forces between the molecules of
in effect opaque to the passage of electrons and show up on the photographic the liquid are much reduced. Continued application of heat to matter in the
plate or on the fluorescent screen. liquid state increases the kinetic energy in the molecular movement which is
The scanning electron microscope bombards with electrons the surface of the again shown as a temperature rise and usually as an increase in volume. When
specimen under examination. At the point of impact secondary electrons are the boiling point of the liquid is reached large numbers of the molecules gain
generated; these are detected and measured. The electron beam is made to scan though kinetic energy to overcome the cohesive forces between them and break
the surface of the specimen in synchronism with the scanning of a video away from the surface of the liquid. As heat is applied to the liquid, vaporiza-
monitor. The picturcdtained from the secondary+lectrons is shown in a three- tion or change of state continues without change of temperature. The heat
dimensional form qn the monitor. required to effect this change of state is the latent heat of vaporization.
T b m a g n i f t c a t i e R s ~ t l e c t r O m n i c m s c o p efar
~ exceed those of Note Some molecules of liquids will have enough kinetic energy to overcome
the optical microscope. Scales can be used to obtain the dimensions of faults. the cohesive forces acting between them before the boiling point is reached, and
Electron microscopes are used in laboratory studies of materials and in fail- some evaporation will occur at a temperature below the boiling point. Evapora-
ure analysis studies to ascertain the causes of fractures. A good Cxample of their
-
tion and vaporization are accompanied by large increases in volume. Continued
d
' 12 Questiotdand Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
Heat and Engineering Science 13
application of heat to the vapour raisesTto some critical temperature above
which it behaves as a gas. Radiation or, more correctly, thermal radiation comes about when the
vibration of atoms and molecules in the hot body sets up waves dhich are trans-
mitted to the cold body. This in turn increases the kinetic energy of the atoms
1.20 What are sublimation and dissociation? and molecules in the cold body which is manifested by a rise in temperature of
Sublimation. Some chemical compounds have the ability to change dirzccy the cold body. The riSeFiK-femperafurFc-Z'jntinu~ untjl the cold b o w s a m-
from a solid state to a vapour.by application of heat. This change is known as same temperature as the hot body. When the cold body has a constant
sublimation. temperature it will be radiating as much energy a s 3 is receiving.
Radiant heat waves are known to be electromagnetic, as arc other radiations
Dissociation. Thermal dissociation occurs when heat breaks down a portion of such as visible light, ultra-violet rays, cosmic rays, gamma rays. etc. They arc
the molecules of a chemical compound in the gaseous state, to their constituent ,
specified by a wavckngtb or a f q u e n m their velocity in s p u x is the sunc as
molecules or molecules of other compounds. As the temperature falls the that of Iigbt. 7be m.dcagtb of krt rays or infrr-d &rkm f M s trnnar
decomposed portion recombines. that of viJiIe light and radio waves. At one time it was thought that emission
Note Thermal dissociation occurs in the combustion space of a diesel engine was a continuous process but this is now known to be incorrect. Polished
during combustion of the fuel &age. Other forms of dissociation are surfwes reflect thermal radiation; they are good reflectors but poor absorbers.
electrolytic, when the molecules are split into ions. Dark and dull surfaces are poor reflectors but good absorbers. Radiant energy
is the only form of energy that can exist in the absence of matter and be
transferred without the aid of some form of matter.
1.21 Define the term specific heat.
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the
1.U What is the relationship between the pressure, specific volume, and
temperature of unit mass of substance through one degree Celsius (one kelvin).
temperature of a perfect gas?
Specific9at is now often referred to as specific heat capacity.
Note Boyle's Law states that the volume of a given amount of any gas varies inversely
1 Btu = 1.055 kJ
as the pressure acting on it while the temperature of the gas remains constant.
1 kcal = 4.19 kJ P V = a constant
Charles* Law states that the change in volume of a given amount of gas ;i ,:
1.22 What Zl_re endothermic and exothermic reactions? directly proportional to its absolute temperature while the pressure of the gas
remains constant.
An endothermic reaction or process takes place with accompanying absorption - When these laws are embodied the characteristic equation of a gas is formed.
of heat.
This gives the relationship between the pressure, specific volume, and
An exothermic reaction or process takes place with the release of heat. temperature of a perfect gas and is

1.23 How does the transmission of heat occur between hot and cold
bodies?
where R is the gas constant.

A temperature difference is necessary for heat to flow or be transmitted.

Note Real gases only approach the behaviour of perfect gases at low
Thermal conduction is the passage of heat through matter caused by the inter- pressures. Other equations are used to give a more true relationship.
action of atoms and molecules possessing greater kinetic energy-wjth those
possessing less. Normally-when we speak of conduction of heat we are referring 1.25 Name the energy transformation processes that take place in the
to transmission of heat through solids. Transmission of heat through liquids theoretical air cycles of internal combustion engines.
and gases is almost entirely by convection. Convection of heat is the trans-
ference of heat in liquids and gases (fluids) by actual movement of the fluid Constant p m r e process is one in which the pressure of, the air remains
caused by density differences at higher and lower temperatures. The less dense constgnt throughout the change.
(hotter) portion of the fluid is displaced by the denser portion and forced to rise. Constant volumeproce~sis one in which the volume of the air remains constant
A convection current or circulation is set up (provided the source of heat is well throughout the change.
below the upper parts of the fluid) and will continue until all particles or
portions of the fluid are at the same temperature. Adiabatic process is one in which no transfer of heat to or from the air takes
place during the change.
16 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine I I w l und Engineering Science 17

1.29 State Avogadro's Law. Where may the law be used in practice? result the airstandardeSficiencyof the cycle. This relates the efficiency in terms
Avogadro's Law or hypothesis states that equal volumes of any gas contain the of temperatures, ratios of pressures, or a combination of these factors.
same number of molecules, provided the temperature and pressure conditions In making the calculations of theoretical efficiency the following assump-
are the same in each gas. tions are made: the air contained in the cylinder is pure air behaving as a perfect
It is common for the equipment used in analysing the contents of exhaust gas; no heat is transferred or lost during the adiabatic changes; the temperature
gases to give the results in terms of volumetric ratios. By using the molecular and pressure of the air in the cylinder is the same in every part at any instant
weights of the constituents found in a sample of exhaust gas, and Avogadro's during the cycle; no heat loss occurs during the heat-addition part of the cycle.
Law, it is easy to convert the figures of a volumetric analysis to an analysis In practice, air does not behave as a perfect gas, due to the increase in value of
based on weight. the specific heats with increase of temperature; also, during pan of the cycle the
air is contaminated with products of the combustion of fuel, causing further
Note Exhaust gas analysis is used mainly in laboratories during engine change$ in the specific heat values; and heat transfer and losses occur during
development and for the testing of fuels. adiabatic changes. The pressure and temperature of gas in the cylinder are not
. . always the same throughout the cylinder at any instant in the cycle.
1.30 What is a mole? During the cycle heat losses occur tB the engine coolant, also losses from
friction in the moving parts, and the losses which come about in getting the air
In the SI system the mole (abbreviation mol) is used as a measure of the amount into the cylinder and the exhaust gases out (pumping losses).
of substance within a system which contains as many units as there are carbon In the development of a new type of engine, the air standard efficiency of the
atoms in a specified amount of a particular form of carbon. cycle would be studied. Any changes in factors affecting efficiency will be
The engineer uses a slightly different concept of this and defines the mole as carefully calculated; the calculations will be developed, making corrections
the mass of a substance (in some weight units) equal to its molecular weight. For covering earlier assumptions, so that a very close approximation of what can be
example, the molecular weight of carbon is approximately 12. A kilo mol of expected in practice will be finally obtained. The design department of an
carbon would therefore be 12 kilos in weight. In gases the volume occupied by a engine builder compares the results obtained from the prototype on the test bed
mol of gas is termed the mold volume. with their earlier calculations and uses the information gained in later design
These units are very useful when dealing with fuel combustion and exhaust studies.
gas analysis problems.

1.31 What do you understand by the kinetic theory of gases?

The kinetic theory of gases deals with the movements of molecules and their
effect on the pressure, temperature, and heat in a gas. The theory assumes that
the molecules are moving with very high velocity and during their movement
they collide with one another and with the walls of the vessel containing the gas.
As the molecules are considered to be perfectly elastic no velocity is lost during
impact. The pressure which the gas exerts on the walls of the vessel is considered
to be due to molecular impact. The velocity of the molecules is considered to be
related to the temperature of the gas, and the heat in the gas is consideid to be
due to the kinetic energy of the molecules. If the temperature is increased the
velocity of the molecules increases with consequent increase in their kinetic
energy and increase in heat. The theory also deals with the molecular formation
of monatomic, diatomic and triatomic gases and the various degree of
movement in each group. The theory can be explained mathematicallyand can
be used to verify Avogadro's Law.

1.32 How are theoretical air cycles used and what are the deviations
that occur in practice?
Theoretical air cyccs are used in thermodynamic calculations to ascertain the
theoretical efficie'ncies-of the-various wt-cy_c~. These calculations give as a
 ~nternalCombustion Engines 19

2.2 Describe the events which take place in the cylinders of four-stroke
cycle and two-stroke-cycle
- diesel engines. - -- .- -
The fundamental requirements for the operation of adiesel engine are a supply
of fuel, the necessary air for combustion of the fueLand some means to get the
air and fuel into the cylinders and the products of combustion out.
INTERNAL COMBUSTION The stages in the operation of a diesel engine are as follows:
1 Supply of air.
ENGINES 2 Compression of the air to raise its temperature high enough to initiate
combustion of the fuel.
3 Supply of fuel.
4 Expansion of the hot high-pressure gas which forces out the piston against
the resistance of the load on the crankshaft.
5 Removal of the products of combustion.
These stages may be performed in two or four strokes of the piston (one or two
r&olutions of the engine crank).
2.1 What is an internal combustion engine? Name the various types. Consider first the four-stroke cycle engine, which has air inlet and exhaust
valves. By the opening and dosing of these valves in proper sequence, the piston
An internal combustion engine is one in which the fuel is burnt within the am be made to paform not only its main funaion of transmitting power to the
engine. It is usually of the reciprocating type. Combustion of the fuel and the crank, but also the subsidiary functions of drawing air into the cyfinder,
conversion of the heat energy from combustion to mechanical energy takes compressing the air, and subsequent expulsion of the exhaust gases.
place within the cylinders. Internal combustion engines can also be of the rotary Starting with the piston at topcentre, with the air inlet valve open, downward
type, such as the gas turbine and the rotary engine developed by Dr Felix movement of the piston lowers the presswe in the cybder, and air flows in.-
Wankel. During the period when air is flowing into the cylinder, the air in the id@ ,
Reciproca!i_ng internal combustion engines may be of the spark-ignition or passages to the inlet valve will gain a high velocity and, in turn, kinetic energy.
cornpression-ignition type. Spark-ignition engines use gaseous or volatile Use is made of this effect to keep the air inlet valve open until the piston is past'
distillate fuels and work on a modified Otto cycle. They operate on the two- bottom centre. The air then continues to flow into the cylinder until its kinetic
or four-stroke cycle. Compression-ignition engines may also be of either energy is lost and air flow ceases. The air inlet valve completely closes after the
two- or four-stroke cycle type. They use distillate liquid fuels or, where crank has moved 20' to 40' past bottom centre. The gain of kinetic energy of
conditions allow, a blend of distillate and residual fuels. This type of engine is the air moving in the air inlet passages, and the use made of it, is known as the
usually designed to operate on the dualtombustion cycle or a modification of ram effect.
it. In some cases the cycle is such that the whole of combustion takes place at With upward movement of the piston the air is compressed to a pressure
constant volume. which may be between 24 and 63 bars depending on the engine design and
Some engines are designed for dual-fuel operation and may use either liquid speed. Injection of the fuel commences when the crank is between 25' and 10'
or gaseous fuel. When gaseous fuel is used a small amount of liquid fuel is before top centre position. After fuel injection beg&?, a short delay occur@
injected to initiate combustion.
- - before the fud begins to burn. Combustion continues until the piston and cranlq
pass over the top centre position. Injection of fuel usylrlly finishes shortly after!
Note Different names-are u s d for comp&ion:ignition engines. Nomen-
clature was discussed by a committee of distinguished engineers in 1922 and is the top centre position, depending on engine speed, bad, and original design.,
still a matter of discussion and argument today. The name Diesel is in common The high-pressure gases in the cylinder, which may be between 54 and 108
use and has reached the poi'nt where it is often spelt with a lowercase 'd9. The bars, force the piston downwards, so rotating the engine shaft and doing work
modern oil engine bears little resemblance to the engine developed by Dr R. in the process. Movement of the piston continues downwards as the combustion
Diesel, but more closely resembles the engine developed by H. Akroyd Stuart at gases expand. The exhaust valve begins to open before the piston reaches the
Bletchley, near London, in about 1890 -some few years before Dr Diesel took end of its stroke. This allows a large part of the exhaust gas to be blown out of
out patents for the engine he developed at Augsburg in Germany. In using the the cylinder during the period in which the cylinder pressure equalizes with the
name Diesel we must not forget the work done by Akroyd Stuart. pressure in the exhaust line. This is referred to as the blow-down period. The
pressure in the cylinder will be approximately 3 to 4 bars when the exhaust valve
begins to open, and the crank angle will be from 50" to 40" before bottom
20 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine internal Combustion Engines 2 1

centre. By the time the piston reaches bottom centre, the exhaust valve will be Note Variation in the heights of the scavenge ports alters the timing at which
at, or nearly at, its fully open position. the events occur. In order to reduce scavenge air wastage between the closure of
When the piston moves upwards the exhaust gases are expelled by the piston the scavenge and exhaust ports some engines are fitted with non-return valves,
movement. As the exhaust valve is fully open, the resistance to gas flow is at a which are located between the inlet to the scavenge ports and the scavenge
minimum and any pressure build-up during the exhaust period is also minimal. ducting. This allows the tops of the scavenge ports to be made higher than the
Continued upward movement of the piston expels the remaining exhaust gas. tops of the exhaust ports. The non-return valves prevent the exhaust gases from
Before the piston reaches the top position the air inlet valve will begin to open in blowing back into the scavenge ducting. When the gas pressure within the
sufficient time to be fully open soon after the piston passes over the upper cylinder falls to a lesser value than the scavenge air pressure the non-return
position. The operations are then continued as a new cycle. (scavenge) valves open and scavenge air flows into the cylinder. When the
Note 1 Work against an external load, i.e. propeller or generator, is only done piston rises the exhaust ports are first closed, and scavenge air continues to flow
on the expansion stroke. During the air inlet stroke and exhaust stroke work into the cylinder until the scavenge ports are closed by the rising piston. The use
must be obtained from that stored in the flywheel or from other cylinders, of non-return valves in the manner described makes it possible to increase the
which is a loss. The loss is referred to as pumping loss because the piston is, in power output of an engine by 8% to 20%.
effect, working as a pump. The non-return valves are often referred to as scavenge valves.
Note 2 There is a significant time lapse between the commencement of - -
opening of a valve and its arrival at the fully open position; dependent upon the
acceleration imparted to it by its operating cam. 2.3 Explain the difference between'crossheadand trunk-piston type
engines. What is the function of the crosshead and piston trunk?
In two-stroke cycle engines the events described above as taking place in four
strokes of the pbton are contrived to take place in only two strokes of the The main difference between crosshead and trunk-piston type engines is the
piston. In two-stroke engines the exhaust gases are expelled from the cylinder, manner in which the transverse thrust from the piston and connecting-rod is
and the cylinder is charged with air, during the period that the crank is passing taken up and the.nature of the bearing assembly at the upper part of the
from approximately 45" to 40' before bottom centre position until 40" to 45" connecting-rod. Crosshead engines have a piston-rod and trunk-piston engines
after bottom centre position. The remaining part of the cycle is identical with do not.
the compression, combustion and expansion phases in the four-stroke engine. The working parts of a crosshead engine consist of a piston head and rod.
To accomplish expulsion of the exhaust gases and the supply of air charge connected together. The crosshead block, pins and slippers form an assembly
within 90" of crank rotation requires the assistanceof a low-pressure air supply. which is attached to the lower part of the piston-rod. The gppers slide up and
This is referred to as the scavenge air. In simple two-stroke engines, where the ' down with the crosshead assembly in the engine guides. The crosshead assembly
exhaust and scavenge ports are situated in the lower parts of the liner, the is connected to the crankshaft through the crosshead bearings (top-end
scavenge air pressure will be 0.06 to 0.25 bars. Movement of the piston covers bearings) and the connecting-rod bearing (big or bottom-end bearing). When
and uncovers the scavenge and exhaust ports. Following expansion of the gases the crank moves away from the t o g and bottom-dead-centre positions the
in the cylinder the piston uncovers the exhaust ports when the crank is connecting rod is at an angle. to the line of piston stroke and, consequently,
approximately 45' to 40° before bottom centre and blowdown of the gases into there is angularity. The downward force exerted by the piston together with the
the exhaust manifold occurs. The speed of opening of the exhaust ports is very upward reaction from the connecting-rod cause a transverse thrust to be set up
rapid and the pressure of the gas falls quickly. (this can be shown with a triangle of forces). This transverse thrust is trans-
By the time the pressure of the gases in the cylinder has fallen slightly below mitted by the guide slippers on to the engine or cylinder guides. The transverse
C

the scavenge air pressure, the piston uncovers the scavenge ports and scavenge thrust is referred to as guide load.
air blows into the cylinder forcing out the remaining exhaust gases. The There arc fewer parts in trunk-piston engines. The working parts consist of
scavenge ports begin to be uncovered by piston movement when the crank is the piston, piston trunk, gudgeon bearing assembly and connecting-rod. The
approximately 35' before bottom centre. After the piston has passed bottom transverse thrust or guide load is transmitted by the piston trunk or skirt on to
centre the scavenge air supply is stopped when the crank is 35" past bottom the cylinder. The function of the crosshead and piston trunk is to play a part in
centre. A small amount of the air in the cylinder escapes through the exhaust the conversion of the reciprocating movement of the piston to the rotary motion
ports before they are closed by further upward movement of the piston. When of the crankshaft. They also transmit the transverse loads on to the fixed parts
the exhaust ports are covered by the piston the compression phase of the cycle of the engine designed to take these loads (see Fig. 7.11).
commences and all events are similar to the four-stroke cycle until the exhaust Note The guide load comprises the resultant of the piston-rod and
phase begins again.' The maximum pressure in simple two-stroke engines is connecting-rod loads caused by the cylinder pressures (static load) and the
-
lower than in four-stroke engines. dynamic loads caused by inertia of the moving parts.
-
22 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Englne --- -
- Internal -Combustion Ennines 23

2.4 What are the relative advantages of crosshead and trunk-piston type is that a high degree of balance may be more easilyychieved with opposed-
engines? piston engines than with'conventional types.
Their disadvantage is the amount of headroom they require in comparison
Crosshead type engines are able to develop much higher power at lower with other engines of equivalent power and rotational speed.
rotational speeds than trunk-piston type engines, because the space available
for the crosshead bearings is greater than the space within the piston for the
gudgeon bearing assembly. Trunk-piston engines have the advantage of 2.6 What do you understand by the following terms: swept volume,
requiring less head room than crosshead engines. Their working parts are fewer clearance volume, compression ratio, volumetric efficiency, scavenge
in number and much less costly to produce because their design lends itself to efficiency, air charge ratio, natural aspiration, supercharging? What other
mass production methods. The gudgeon bearing assembly is not particularly names a r e used for the supercharging process?
suited for highly rated two-stroke engines unless special arrangements are made Swept volume. This term refers to the volume swept by the piston during one
for its lubrication. Cheaper quality fuels may be used in crosshead engines as it stroke md is the product of the piston area and stroke.
is possible to isolate the cylinder space from the crankcase, thus preventing
acidic residues entering the crankcase. The total cost for lubricants is less with Clearonce volume is the volume remaining in the cylinder when the piston is in
crosshead engines than with trunk-piston engines of equivalent power. the topcentre position. The difference between the total cylinder volume and
the swept volume is equal t o the clearance volume. The clearance volume space
forms the combustion chamber.
2.5 What is an opposed-piston engine and how are the cranks arranged? Compression rario. This is the value obtained from dividing the total cylinder
What advantages and disadvantages do these engines have? volume by the clearance volume and will be from 12 to 18, depending on the
engine design. If the compression ratio is below 12 the engine may be difficult to
An opposed-piston engine has two pistons working in the same cylinder, which start. High speed engines with small cylinders usually have high compression
is much longer than normal. The cranks are arranged so that movement of the ratios. Slow speed direct-propulsion engines have compression ratios of around
pistons towards each other takes place at the same time, as does movement 14.
away from each other. The opposed-piston engine always works on the two-
stroke cycle with the uniflow method of scavenging. The combustion chamber Volumetric effiienq. This is the ratio of the volume of air drawn into the
is formed in the space between the heads of the pistons and the small exposed cylinder (at normal temperature and pressure) to the swept volume. In naturally
section or belt of the cylinder left between the pistons. The fuel injection valves, aspirated four-stroke engines the volumetric efficiency will be from 0.85 to
air starting valve, cylinder pressure relief valve and pressure-indicating cock are 0.95.
fitted to the cylinder in way of the belt left between the two pistons when they Scuvenge Zffiienncy. l%is is the ratio of the volume of air (at normal
are at their innerdead-centre position. temperature and pressure) contained in the cylinder at the start of compression
Opposed-piston engines may have two crankshafts, one at the top of the to the volume'swept by the piston fromthe top edge.of the ports to the top of its
engine for the upper pistons and one in the conventional place &r the lower stroke.
pistons. Engines with two crankshafts are arranged as trunk-piston engines for
both upper and lower pistons. The two crankshafts are connected through a Air charge mtio. This is the ratio of the volume of air (at normal temperature
train of gears. and pressure) contained in the cylinder at the start of compression to the swept
Another form of opposed-piston engine has one crankshaft. For each volume of the piston. This term has now more or less replaced the previous two
cylinder there are three cranks: the centre crank is connected to the lower piston terms. It is qmctixnes referred to as air mass ratio or air supply ratio. In four-
through a connecting-rod and crosshead, and the two outside cranks, which are strofe engines the value will vary from 0.85 for naturally aspirated types up to 4
in the same line and opposite to the centre crank, are connected to the upper or more in highly supercharged engines. In two-stroke engines the value wi1l.be
piston through connecting-rods, crossheads and tie or side rods. Movement of from 0.85 for simple engines with ported scavenge and exhaust, up TO 2.5 for
the pistons uncovers and covers the exhaust ports which are in the top of the supercharged engines. .
cylinder and the scavenge ports which are at the bottom of the cylinder. Na~uralaspirationis a term applied to four-stroke engines where the air charge
A third variation of the opposed-piston engine uses eccentrics for the upper '
is brought into the cylinder only by the downward movement of the piston
piston instead of the two side cranks. without other aids.
The advantage of the opposed-piston engine over other types of engine is that
no firing loads are transmitted from the cylinders to the bedplates holding the Supercharging is a term used to indicate that the weight of air supplied to the
crankshaft bearings. In consequence of this they may be constructed to lighter engine has been considerably increased. This allows more fuel to be used per
scantlings and therefore have a good power to weight ratio. Another advantage stroke with a consequent increase in engine output power. More power is
 24 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Internal Combustion Ennines 25

developed by a supercharged engine than by a non-supercharged engine of the Some of the ports (called scavenge ports) carry the scavenge air between the
same bore, stroke and speed. Supercharging has had the effect of lowering the scavenge trunk or scavenge manifold into the cylinder space. In a similar
specific weight of diesel engines, i.e. more horsepower is obtained per ton of manner the exhaust ports carry the exhaust gases into. the exhaust pipes or the
engine weight. The term pressure-charging is now used generally instead of exhaust manifold.
supercharging. Where use is made of an exhaust-gas turbo-driven compressor, The opening of the ports occurs when the piston moves downwards to a
, the term turbocharging is often used. position near the bottom centre point and the ports become uncovered giving
access into the cylinder space. The ports are closed by upward movement of the
piston blanking them off.
B 2.7 Name the factors an engine designer considers in the selection of In cross-scavenged engines the scavenge and exhaust ports are arranged
the compression ratio for a compression ignition engine. Give some diametrically opposite one another and the scavenge air flows from the
examples of compression ratio values. scavenge air ports to the exhaust ports and crosses from one side of the cylinder
The ratio between the total surface area of the cylinder space and the volume of to the other. The scavenge ports are usually sloped in an upwards direction to
the space is such that as the cylinder dimensions increase the ratio between the scavenge the upper part of the cylinder space. (Fig. 2.1)
values decrease. In loopscavenged engines the exhaust ports are placed above the scavenge
In a small engine this means more heat is lost to the cylinder space surface ports on the same side of the cylinder liner. The pattern of air flow takes place
during compression than in a larger engine. For this reason smaller engines across the diameter of the cylinder, then upwards into the upper part of the
require a higher compression ratio than larger engines. cylinder space, then down the opposite side of the cylinder into the exhaust
An engine started in low ambient temperatures without preheating requires ports. The air flow forms a loop pattern inside the cylinder space. (Fig. 2.2)
a higher compression ratio than an engine started in higher ambient Note In later generations of slow-speed engines the cross-scavenged engine
temperatures. - was superseded by the loopscavenged engine. The loop-scavenged engine was
The factors considered by the designer are therefore the cylinder dimensions later su-persedcdby the uniflow-scavenged engine. Slow-speed cross-scavenged
and the ambient starting temperature of the engine's operating environment. and loopscavenged engines are no longer built.
Common values of diesel engine compression ratios are as follows.
Uniflow-scavenged engines have a row of scavenge ports arranged around
Slow-speed two-stroke cycle engine used for ship propulsion 12: 1.
Medium-speed turbocharged four-stroke cycle engine used for propulsion
purposes 12: 1.
Emergency electrical generator set 14: 1 to 16: 1.
Small, high-speed, naturally aspirated four-stroke cycle automotive engine
fitted with glow blugs up to 23: 1.
Note Large engines are usually preheated by raising the temperature of the
cooling water. This aids starting and reduces cylinder liner wear. The
lubricating oil is also preheated to reduce its viscosityand to assist starting by
reducing the friction in bearings.
For cylinders with identical proportions, the total area of the cylinder
surfaces varies as the square of the linear dimensions, and the volumes vary as
the cube of the linear dimensions (see Question2.14 and questions on fuel
atomization in Chapter 4).

2.8 Describe with the aid of sketches the loop-scavenge, cross-scavenge,

and uniflow-scavenge methods of scavenging two-stroke cycle engines
currently in use.
Loop- and cross-scavenged engines are relatively simple in design because the
cycle of operations is carried out without requiring an exhaust valve or valves.
Instead the air-exhaust gas exchange process (gas exchange process) is carried Fig. 2.1 Section through a cylinder of a cross-scavenged engine showing
out by using ports cut or cast in the lower part of the cylinder liner. direction of air flow during scavenging.
26 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine InternaLCombustion Engines 27 @
e

Fig. 2.2 Section through a cylinder of a loop-scavenged engine showing

direction of air flow during scavenging.

the circumference of the lower part of the cylinder liner. The ports connect
directly with the scavenge space formed around the outside of the lower section
of the cylinder liner.
An exhaust valve is fitted in the cylinder cover or cylinder head and connects
directly with the exhaust pipes in older engines or the exhaust manifold in
- section on methods nf pressuresharging in
engines of later generations. (See
Chapter 5.)
As the piston approaches the bottom centre position the exhaust valve is
made to open allowing the relatively high-pressure exhaust gases to blow out of Fig. 2.3 Section through a uniflow-scavenged engine with an exhaust valve in
the cylinder. The pressure in the cylinder rapidly falls, the scavenge ports are the cylinder head. Some swirl can be imparted to the air by giving the scavenge
then opened by the downward movement of the piston and scavenge air passes ports a near tangential entry instesd of a radial entry. Some eddies occur in the
upwards in one direction through the cylinder space. The remaining exhaust gas air flow below the exhaust valve.
is then expelled and the cylinder is left with a new air charge ready to commence
another cycle. (Fig. 2.3)
If the stroke/bore ratio of cross- and loop-scavenged engines is increasd
2.9 What effect does an increose in the stroke/bore ratio have on cross- beyondthevalues given, it becomes increasingly difficult to get the upper part
and loop-scavenged engines? of the cylinder space properly scavenged of exhaust gas. Mixing of the
The stroke/bore ratio of an engine is the number obtained by dividing the remaining exhaust gas and the incoming scavenge air takes place. The oxygen
length of the stroke by the diameter of the cylinder. content in the cylinder at the start of compression is then reduced. In order to
The value of the stroke/bore ratio in loop-scavenged engines is about 1.75; in correEt this it will become necessary to reduce the quantity of fuel injected
cross-scavenged engines it may go higher reaching a value between 2.00 and during each cycle; the output of the engine will then be reduced. (Fig. 2.4)
2.20. Some limiting value will be very little higher than this. Note The final design of any engine is a finely balanced compromise between
,
 28 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Internal Cambustion Engines 29

_1
of scavenge and exhaust ports in the lower part of the cylinder. The surfaces left
by a core in the casting process of the liner are inadequate in their profile and
surface finish. In order to be acceptable the ports must be milled out to give a
correct shape and a smooth surface finish. The height of the ports extends
relatively high in the cylinder liner and the effective stroke for expansion of the
gases is reduced. The cross-sectional area of the ports is relatively large
compared with the area of the port bars. This often leads to an excess of liner
wear in way of the port bars.
Piston ring breakage is more common in cross-scavenged engines than in
uniflow-scavenged engines.
Because they are so complicated the cost of a cylinder liner for a cross-
scavenged engine is considerably more than for a uniflow-scavenged engine of
similar dimensions.
Uniflow-scavenged engines require an exhaust valve or valves, the number .
,.&
depending on engine speed and cylinder size. - 1 I. 9tr,
In slow-speed engines only one exhaust valve is required. When one exhaust Y''\
'
valve is required two or more fuel injection valves must be fitted whereas in the
cross-scavenged engine only one centrally located fuel injection valve is
required.
The cylinder liner for a uniflow-scavenged engine has the scavenge ports
fitted around the whole of the circumference of the liner. The full circum-
f e m W spaceavailableallows the porb to be made circular. This arrangement
of ports does not extend as far up the cylinder liner so the effective length of the
piston stroke is considerably more in a uniflow-scavenged engine than in a
cross-scavenged engine of similar dimensions.
Cylinder liner wear in way of scavenge port bars in uniflow-scavenged
engines shows no increase over those parts above and below the ports.
The cylinder liners of uniflow-scavenged engines cost considerably less than
Fig. 2.4 Section through a cross-scavenged engine with a high borelstroke those for equivalent cross-scavenged engines.
ratio. Note. Here, the scavenge ports are shown higher than the exhaust ports, The arrangementsfor sealing the bottom of the cooling water space are much
backflow of the combustion gases into the scavenge air manifold being simpler in uniflow-scavenged engines.
prevented by the scavenge valves. The scavenge valves allow air flow only into
the cylinder and act as check valves or non-return valves and so prevent a
backflow. 2.1 1 Why has the cross-scavenged engine been superseded by the
-
uniflow-scavenged engine?
The cross-scavenged engine cannot take advantage of an increase in thermal
0 the extremes of various desirable features. For example, if the stroke/bore ratio efficiency by increasing the stroke-bore ratio. The stroke-bore ratio of modern
is increased it may be possible to obtain an increase in engine efficiency. If this uniflow-scavenged engines may be between 2.4 and 2.95. This allows for a
0 increase in efficiency requires a larger size cylinder to maintain the same power greater ratio of expansion; the increase in thermal efficiency reduces the specific
output on the same or a very slightly lower specific fuel consumption, any fuel consumption and so reduces fuel costs. As fuel costs make up a large part
0

.
commercial advantage gained is badly offset by the required increase in the size of the daily running cost of a ship, engines, if they are to be commercially
iw of the engine. attractive, must have the lowest possible specific fuel consumption.
Note The ratio of expansion is governed by the compression ratio, the bore-
2.10 What are the advantages and disadvantages of cross-scavenged
stroke ratio and the timing of the opening of the exhaust valve. The opening
b and uniflow-scavenged engines?
Cross-scavenged engines do not require exhaust valves or scavenge valves so
point of the exhaust valve is related to the power demand of the turbocharger.
An increase in the efficiency of the turbocharger allows the exhaust valve to be
some simplicity is obtained over other engine types. opened later. Opening the exhaust valve later increases the thermal efficiency of
The cylinder liners of cross-scavenged engines require a complicated pattern the engine and lowers the specific fuel consumption.
 30 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine hternai Combustion Ennines 31

Note By 1981, only one of the three principal slow-speed engine builders was 2;13 How is the combustion chamber formed in diesel engines? What
still building cross-scavenged engines, The other two builders had always built governs Its shape?
uniflow-scavenged engines. Today all slow-speed engine builders and their
licensees build uniflow-scavenged engines only, but large numbers of loop- and In normal engines the combustion chamber is formed in the space between the
cross-scavenged engines will remain in service for some years to come. cylinder cover and the piston crown. The upper part of the cylinder liner usually
forms the periphery t o the space.
The shape of a combustion chamber may vary between that of a spheroid
2.12 Why is it necessary to cool the cylinder heads or covers, cylinder which will be formed from a concave piston crown and cylinder cover, to that of
liners and pistons of diesel engines? What is used a s the cooling medium? an inverted saucer, formed from a concave cylinder cover and a slightly convex
piston crown. In opposed-piston engines the combustion chamber will be
The temperature inside the cylinders of diesel engines rises to approximately spheroidal. The piston crowns on the upper and lower pistons are usually
2000°C during combustion of the fuel and drops to approximately 600°C at the identical in form. Combustion chambers of the shapes mentioned are referred
end of expansion. With temperatures in this range the metal of 'the cylinder to as open types.
covers, cylinder liners and pistons would quickly heat up to the point where its The shape of a combustion chamber must be such that all parts of the space
M

strength would be insufficient to withstand the cylinder pressures; also, no oil are accessible to the fuel sprays. If any part is not accessible, the space is wasted , '
. film would be able to exist on the cylinder walls, and lubrication of the cylinder and wmbwtion has to take place in a reduced space, which causes further
and piston rings would break down. Cooling is necessary to maintain sufficient difficulties due t o less air being available in the region of the fuel spray. The
strength in the pans and to preserve the oil film on the cylinder. wasted space is sometimes referred to as parasitic volume. The shape of the
The cooling medium for cylinder liners and covers is a flow of distilled or various parts must also be satisfactory in respect of their strength as they must
fresh water: the medium for cooling pistons is also distilled or fresh water, or oil be able to withstand the pressures in the cyIinder without flexing.
from the crankcase system. The amount of heat extracted from the various With high-speed engines, open combustion chambers can create problems
partsimust be such that they operate at temperatures well within the strength with very high rates of pressure rise due to the shortness of time available for
limits of the materials used. The coolant flow patterns must also be arranged so injection and combustion. To overcome this problem the fuel is injected into a
that the surfaces of all parts are as near uniform temperature as possible to separate chamber which is c o ~ e c t e dto the main combustion chamber by a
prevent large thermal stresses being set up. restricted passage. The restricted passage is at a high temperature, the fuel spray
With modern highly rated engines the temperatures of the parts subjected to is long and narrow. Following injection the fuel commences to burn in the
combustion temperature are much lower than in earlier engines. This has been separate chamber and issues from the restricted passage at a high velocity due to
made possible by the availability af better temperature mGsuring3evices and the pressure rise in the chamber. The fuel enters the main combustion chamber
the research carried out by engine builders. The temperature of the combustion as burning vaporized particles and combustion is then completed. The small
chamber surfaces of cylinder covers, piston crowns and cylinder liners varies chamber is about one-third of the clearance volume and is called a pre-
between 200°C and 350°C in modern highly rated engines. The variation in combustion chamber or antechamber. Its use allows high-speed engines to
temperature of the different parts of the surface of cylinder covers will be operate over wide speed ranges without combustion difficulties, and is a
within about 50°C to 100°C. and for piston crowns the temperature variation necessity in automotive engines. It is met in the marine field when automotive
will be 75°C to 100°C. Cylinder liners show greater temperature variation engines are used for electrical generation or other quxiliary purposes.
throughout their length, but in the highly critical area at the top of the liner the
variation is kept to within approximately 100OC.
Small diesel engines with pistons less than about 150 mm (6 in) diameter have. 2.14 Why is it necessary to atomize the fuel when it is injected into a
only the cylinders and covers cooled by water. The piston crown will be cooled diesel engine cylinder?
by excess lubricant from the gudgeon bearing and by the heat transfer to the
walls of the piston which are then cooled by the cylinder liner. Small high-speed When combustion of liquid fuel takes place the fuel must go through various
diesel engines may also be cooled by forced air flow passing over fins fitted on changes before it can begin to burn. These changes require absorption of heat
the outside of cylinders and cover. It should be noted that air-cooled diesel and temperature rise. After the changes have taken place oxygen is required to
engines have very low cylinder wear. complete combustion and this is present in the compressed air charge.
The rate at which the fuel can receive heat to raise its temperature will be
NOW With pressure-charged engines the air flow during the scavenge period dependent on the surface area of the fuel particles in contact with the hot
(in two-stroke and four-stroke engines) over the hot internal surfaces of compressed air in the combustion space. The speed with which the changed fuel
the cylinders, covers and piston crowns helps to ma-intain low surface particles can burn will be dependent on the supply and availability of air.
temperatures. It also reduces the temperature gradient across the material Let us assume that one cubic centimetre of fuel is used per cycle. If the fuel
section and in turn lowers the thermal stresses. were to enter the cylinder as a single cube it would have a surface area of six
 - d

lnternal Combustion Engines 33

32 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine I

square centimetres. The heat absorption by this cube would be relatively slow .radially from the centre of the bearinpit would be seen that the plot of these
and the required changes would take place only on the surface, which would pressures would form a bulge something like a cam profile. The pressure of
then start burning. The volume of air closely surrounding the cube would soon liquid in the wedge-shaped space sets the shaft over to one side and lifts the shaft
become oxygen-starved, and combustion would sIow up and could proceed away from the bearing so that it is supported on an oil film. The position where
only as oxygen made itself available. the oil film thickness is least will be a small distance away from the static contact
If the cubic centimetre of fuel is broken down to one thousand cubes, each a linein the direction of shaft rotation. For pressures to be built up to a value high
cubic millimetre, the total surface area will be six thousand square millimetres. enough to separate the shaft from the bearing, the oil must have sufficient
With these smaller particles the temperature rise necessary to prepare them for viscosity and the speed of the shaft must be above a certain value. This form of
burning will occur much more quickly. Assuming the cubic millimetre particles lubrication is referred to as fluidfilm or hydrodynamic.
are distributed evenly throughout the combustion chamber, each will be Boundary lubrication occurs when the rotational shaft speed falls and the oil
surrounded by air and the speed of combustion of each small particle will be wedge is lost. Metal to metal contact then occurs. To prevent metallic contact
faster. The time for combustion of the total fuel mass will then be the time under boundary conditions greases may be used or additives may be added to
required for one particle to burn. the oils. The bearings of a diesel engine do not work under boundary
If we proceed to break down the particles further, with each decrease in conditions. Very highly loaded crosshead bearings in two-stroke engines may
particle size a larger increase in the total surface area of the fuel droplets comes approach boundary conditions.
about. This allows a still greater rate of heat transfer to the fuel and a quicker Diesel engine bearings are lubricated by oil films built up under the
temperature rise, so the fuel is prepared for burning in a much shorter time. If conditions described. The bearings are supplied with large amounts of oil which
the particles are dispersed evenly throughout the combustion chamber space, are used t o maintain theoil film and remove the heat generated. Removal of the
each particle will have an adequate air volume around it and oxygen starvation heat generated keeps the working parts at temperatures that will not reduce the
will not take place. Completion of combustion canthen come about in a shorter oil viscosity to values low enough to allow breakdown of the oil film.
time period.
From the progressivesteps we have taken it is readily seen that to enable a fuel I
charge to go bhrough the various stages of combustion in a very small time 2.16 How are the air inlet and exhaust valves of a diesel engine opened
interval, it is absolutely essential for it to be broken down to minutely small and closed? What forces must be applied to open exhaust valves and
droplets, i.e. become atomized. where is the force obtained from?
I
Note The time spanY(fora two-stroke engine) for injection to take place will be The air inlet and exhaust valves of four-skoke engines and the exhaust valves of
T seconds when two-str& cngiiies are opened by cams, and closed by springs. In four-stroke
period of fuel-valve opening in degrees 60 engines the camshaft runs at half the crankshaft speed; in two-stroke engines
T= -X the speed of camshaft and crankshaft are the same.
, 360 rev/min I
When a valve is opened the coil spring is compressed and loaded. When the
For an engine operating at 100 rev/min with a fuel-valve opening period of 20" cam r&er rides off the cam the resilience in the spring closes the valve. During
the closiag period the spring may set up a reverse torque on the camshaft by
20 60 1
T =-x -=- second = 33 milliseconds driving the cam. The force required to open an air inlet valve or an exhaust valve
360 100 30 I will be the sum of the following forces: the product of the valve lid area and
The time required for the changes to take place in the fuel before it can burn is pressure difference on the valve, the acceleration forces during the opening
1.5 to 3.0 milliseconds. period, the force to overcome the spring and the force to overcome friction of
the moving' parts.
2.15 How are the bearings of diesel engines lubricated? What do you
The torque on an engine camshaft may have wide variations, even to -
the extreme condition in which, during valve opening the crankshaft drives the
understand by the terms fluid-film lubrication and boundary lubrication? camshaft, but during valve closing the camshaft feeds back work into the
i crankshaft.
Diesel engine bearings are lubricated by fluid films. The journal is always !
smaller than its surrounding bearing. When the shaft is static it will make The mechanism consists of a cam engaging with a cam roller. The roller may
contact with the bearing and this contact will be a line. On each side of this line be fitted between the forked end of a valve lever which receives its motion from
the normal distance between the shaft and the bearing will increase gradually the action of the cam. Upward movement of the cam end of the lever causes
and will in effect be a curved wedge. When the shaft revolves in the presence of downward movement at the end corupted to the valve and the valve is opened.
an adequate liquid supply (lubricating oil), the oil is pulled into the wedge and In other cases the cam roller may be connected to a push rod which is connected
pressure is set up. If these liquid pressures were to be plotted on lines drawn at its upper end to the valve lever. Where push rods are fitted in large engines a
34 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Internal Combustion Engines 35
-
hydraulic loading device is fitted at the foot of the push rod; this permits smaller Normally a designer aims to keep propeller speeds low to obtain greater
tappet clearance without fear of the valve being kept off the seat during the efficiency from the propeller. In medium- and lower-power main engine
closed period. The camshaft is connected to the crankshaft through gearing or installations the speed may be allowed to go higher to keep machinery weight
roller chains. low at the expense of propellkefficiency.
Medium-speed diesel engines directly connected to the propeller, as found in
2.17 Basically two different areas of maintenance work are involved in smaller vessels such as coasters, trawlers and service vessels, may have engine
keeping diesel engines in good operational order. Name the two areas speeds up to 750 rev/min. Their characteristics will be within the group lb, or
and list the maintenance requirements. 2b, 3,sor 6 (depending on power requirements and space available), 8. lob or
10c. 11 or 12, and 13.
The two areas requiring maintenance are those associated with (a) combustion, Propulsion machinery installations using medium-speed engines and gearing
and (b) bearing adjustment, and maintenance of correct alignment in all will have characteristics l b or 2b, 3,s or 6 , 8 (engine speed will be between 40d-
running parts. There is some overlap between the two areas of activity. and 600rev/min), lob, 11 or 12, and 13.
Maintenance work associated with combustion involves scavenge port and Engines used for electrical generation purposes commonly have
I '

valve cleaning, piston ring replacement, air inlet and exhaust valve changes and characteristics l a or Ib, 3.5 or 6,8 (speed will be 800 to 1200 rev/min) 10c,11or
overhaul, cleaning turboblower blading, compressor air inlet filters, scavenge 12.13 or 14.
and charge air cooler, and attending to instrumentation associated with Where high-speed engines are used for electrical generation the engine
combustion. The items mentioned cover all types of engines. characteristics most likely are to be lb, 3,5,9, I&!, 12,lSa or 15b. Engines of
The other type of maintenance work covers all the moving and static parts of this type follow the standards of automotive diesel engine practice. In some
the engine, and includes bearing examination and adjustments, lubrication and cases they may be pressurt-charged two-stroke uniflow engines with two or four
cooling services, examination of bedplates, frames, cover, safety devices, etc. exhaust valves in the cylinder-head.

2.18 List the characteristics by which diesel engines can be classified and D 2.19 W)pt Is the value of the maximum load that a diesel engine
compared. Using these characteristics, briefly specify the various types of I
diesel engine found in -marine practice. - - , - cylinder tover and piston are subiected to? Give an example of the
magnitude of this load in a slow-speed two-stroke diesel engine. Show
Diesel engines can be classified as follows. how these loads are transmitted through the engine structure.
1 Four-stroke (a) naturally aspirated (b) pressure charged I The value of the maximum load on a cylinder cover and piston will be
2 Two-stroke (a) low-pressure scavenge (b) pressure charged approximately the same, and will be the product of the area of the piston and
3 Trunk-piston type the m a u m gas pressure. In the case of the cover area it will be the projected
4 Crosshead type area of the cylinder cover measured to the outer edge of the joint spigot. In
, some engines this may be considerably more than the piston area.
5 Vertical cylinder in line
6 V cylinder arrangement Example
/

7 Slow-speed 65/70-15 rpm Cylinder diameter = 980 mm

8 Medium-speed 300-1200 rpm Ma&nurn pressure = 78.5 bars (80 kg/cm2)
9 High-speed 120, up to about 3500 rpm Maximum load = 0.7854 x 98' x 80/1000 tonnes
10 Fuel viscosity (a) 370 CST 1500sec Redwood No. 1 = 600 tonnes approx
(b) 85 CST 350sec Redwood No. 1
(c) diesel oil The load on the cylinder cover is transmitted into the cylinder beam through
(d) gas oil the cover studs. The load on the cylinder beam is passed down to the bedplate
1.1 Crankshaft supported on bearings in bedplate through the tie-bolts and transverses supporting the crankshaft main bearings.
12 Crankshaft underslung from engine frame The upward direction of the forces on the cylinder cover is balanced by the
13 Bedplate continuously supported on short spaced solid chocks downward forces on the piston, which are transmitted through the piston-rod.
14 Bedplate continuously supported on resilient chocks crosshead block, bearings, connecting-rod, crankshaft and crankshaft main
15 Bedplate point support (a) solid bearings.
(b) resilient The system of parts may be likened to a square flat plate tied to a square
frame below it by four long tie-bolts at the corners. If a round shaft is placed
Slow-speed diesel engines directly coupled to the propeller shaft will have across the frame, bearing on the two sides, and a jack is inserted between the
characteristics 2b, 4, 5, 7, 10a. 11 and 13. shaft and the plate, and loaded, we may say that the system of engine parts is
36 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

simulated. The load on the jack, which is simulating the firing load on the
piston and transmission of the load to the shaft, produces tension in the tie-
bolts, a bending moment on the shaft and a bending moment on the two sides of
the frame supporting the shaft. The flat plate at the top will also be subjected to
a bending moment. The actual parts of an engine will be subjected to the same
loads as the simulation rig. The engine tie-rods will be in tension and the trans-
verses supporting the main bearings will be subjected to a bending moment. The
cylinder beam will also be subjected to bending moments.
FUELS,
Note The gas load coming on to the cylinder cover studs will be calculated on
the area to the outer edge of the spigot. The tension on the tie-bolts from gas
LUBRICANTS-TREATMENT
load will be calculated on the area of the piston.
The stresses coming about from the bending moment on the shaft in the
simulated rig will be additive to the other stresses set up during engine
AND STORAGE
operation.

3.1 What ore fossil fuels ond how do they differ from other types of
fuel? Which fossil fuels are used in diesel engines?
Fossil fuels are the remains of prehistoric animals and plants and are found -
below the surface of the earth; they may be solid, liquid or gaseous.
'
Solid fuek. Coal is the most important solid fuel used commercially.
Liquid fuels of a wide variety are obtained from distillation and other processes
carried out on crude oil. The products obtained are essentially engine fuels,
boiler burner fuels, and lubricants.
-
Note -The oitindustry is also a large supplier of chemicals used in other
industries such as plastics, paints and compositions, synthetic rubbers and the
like.
Gaseous fuek may exist naturally in the ground or be produced from coal or
crude oil. Liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) are increasingly used.
The fossil fuels are essentially carbon-hydrogen compounds. The energy is
derived from them by the exothermic action of converting the carbon to carbon
dioxide and the hydrogen t o water, which will be in the form of steam at the end
of the combustion process.
The other types of fud used are nuclear, which are fissile materials used in a
reactor. One of the isotopes of uranium is commonly u s e
The fuels used in diesel engines are the gas oils and diesel oils which boil off
-
from crude at temperatures between approximately 200°C and 400°C, or
blends of diesel oil and residual fuel which have higher boiling points.
Note Liquefied petroleum gases must be stored under pressure or in
refrigerated conditions, since their boiling points are low.
38 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Fuels, Lubricants - Treatment and Storage 39

3.2 Name the various types of crude oil and briefly describe the refining Modern oil refineries are highly automated and much of the equipment used
processes by which petroleum fuels and lubricants are produced. has now found its place in ships' engine rooms and other industrial plant.
There are no universally accepted standards for classifying crude oil. For our
3.3 What are the reasons for the deterioration in the quality of the fuel
purposes crude oil can be classified as paraffinic, as found in Pennsylvania, supplied for use In marine diesel engines?
naphthenic as found in the Caucasus, and asphaltic as found in Texas. Many
types of crude oil are found throughout the world but the majority will be The sale of energy in any form of the three types of fossii fuel is a highly
within the groups paraffin base, naphthenic base, or some intermediate base. competitive business. When the cost of crude oil rose sharply during 1973 the
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons, and, although there are considerable suppliers of refined crude oil products were forced to compete at a considerah .
differences in the physical properties of the various hydrocarbons, the variation disadvantage with the suppliers of fuels such as coal and natural gas,i
in chemical analyses is small. The carbon content varies from 83% to 87% and Furthermore, at about this time some countries were bringing in legislation to
the hydrogen content from 14% to 11%. The balance is made up of sulphur, reduce and eventually stop the supply of leaded fuels. This was done t o reduce
sodium, vanadium, water, etc., which may be classed as impurities. the very harmful atmospheric pollution resulting from increased use of the
The molecular structure of the fuel determines its physical properties. This automobile and the resulting increase in gaseous pollutants containing
structure can have numerous forms and may be such that the carbon atoms compounds of lead.
form either chains or chains with side chains, or have a ring structure. The The customary forms of refining crude oil are very briefly set out in the
hydrocarbons with the ring structure are more stable chemically. answer t o Question 3.2.
The oil refinery processes are generally devised with a view to obtaining the Oil refining techniques were updated to meet the increasing demand for
highest yield of fuels in the range from the the liquefied petroleum gases unleaded petrol or lead-free gasoline having an acceptable octane rating, and to
through to the paraffins (kerosine) and gas oil. The crude oil is first stored in a increase the yield of the more valuable fuels from the crude oil stock. This
settling tank to separate water, sand and earthy matter. After separation of the modification and updating gave a greater yield of the more valuable distillation
heavier impurities the crude oil is pumped into an ail- or gas-fired heat products and reduced the amount of the, remaining less valuable residual
exchanger (pipe still) and-heated fo approximately 350°C, which brings a large products.
part of the crude oil to above its boiling point. The heated crude oil is then Increased yields are obtained by subjecting the residue from the atmospheric
passed to fractionating towers. The fractionating towers are in effect vertical distillation process to a vacuum distillation process. This increases the amount
condensers with horizontal partitions. The heated crude oil is passed in near the of distillate from that part of the residue having a higher boiling point. While
bottom and the major part flashes off and passes up through the fractionating under a reduced pressure the boiling point of the liquid is lowered and distilla-
tower. The rising vapour condenses at the various levels of the horizontal parti- tion then takes place without subjecting the residue to such high temperatures.
tions and is piped off from them as various grades according to their boiling The distillate from the vacuum distillation process may then be reheated and
points. The vapour leaving the top consists mainly of petroleum gases, part of treated in a catalytic cracking reactor.
which is condensed. while the remainder may be used as fuel for heating Note There are many different forms of the catalytic cracking process.
processes within the refinery. The condensed portion may be recirculated
through the first tower. The bottoms from the first fractionating tower are The fluidized solid catalytic cracking process 'uses silicon oxide (silica) and
passed through a second tower from which petrol is produced. The bottoms aluminium oxide (alumina) as the catalyst. It is used in a powdered form so that
from the second tower are passed to a third tower'from which a range of other it behaves like a fluid when in a stream of air or vapour. Some of the particles
products are obtained. The residuum from the third tower may be treated in break up and catalyst dust is formed. The dust is referred to as catalyst fines or
various plants, in which the molecular formation of the residuum is reformed to CC fines.
increase the yield of the light constituents. The cracked oil vapours or light hydrocarbons from the reactor create gases,
If the base of the crude is satisfactory the residuum may become the stock for petrol or gasoline, and light fuel oils. The residue left from the process often
production of lubricants. Lubricants can be produced from most types of contains some of the catalyst carried over from the reactor.
crudes and their properties will vary according to the crudes from which they The other cracking process used is known as thermal cracking. This may be
are produced. The residuum contains waxes, resins, asphalts and unstable used for altering the molecular structure of distillates and residues from the
hydrocarbons. atmospheric distilling process. The thermal cracking process uses distillate to
Lubricants are produced by solvent refining and acid refining. In solvent increase the yield of high octane petrol or gasoline, and the residue to increase
refining the solvent is pumped into the top of a tower and the stock is pumped in the yield of light fuel oils.
at the side. The solvent takes out the unwanted constituents in the itock, which A form of the thermal cracking process may also be used to reduce the
pass to the bottom of the tower. The refined oil is passed out from the top of the viscosity of residual products. This is known as 'Visbreaking'.
tower. I t is further treated to remove waxes, impurities and discoloration. These modifications in oil refinery practice result in a reduced amount of
- -
 40 Qtrrsrrons und Answers on fhe Marine LNesel Engine Fuels, Lubricants - 7ieafmenl and Sforage 41

residuum. The impurities such as sulphur, vanadium, sodium, barium, *Distillation range
calcium, and ash, etc., while remaining the same in a unit amount of crude oil, Calorific value (thermal vatac, heating value)
become much more concentrated in the lesser amounts of residue. *Cetane number and cetane index
Similarly carry-over of silica and alumina from the fluid catalytic cracking *Aniline point
process also shows a greater concentration in the lesser residue amount. *Diesel index - -
The fuels supplied to diesel-propelled ships are obtained by blending a Carbon residue
residual fuel having a relatively high viscosity with a distillate fuel having a Alumina content
lower viscosity. The resultant blend then has a viscosity complying with the Asphalt content
viscosity stated in the order for the fuel. When the residual component of the Silica content
blend has a viscosity lowered by the visbreaking process, the amount of Sodium content
distillate fuel (the 'cutter stock') required to bring the blend to the required Sulphur content
viscosity is again reduced in amount. This leads to a further increase in the Vanadium content
concentration of the impurities. Compatibility (blended fuels)
Another complication arising and leading to more problems with blended *Copper strip corrosion
fuels is that in many cases the cracking processes increase the amount of the
aromatic constituent. The increased aromatic constituent may then lead to Notes The terms marked with the asterisk are generally applicable to distillate
problems with combustion and the cleaning of the fuel with centrifugal fuels.
separators and clarifiers. The tests used t o find the cetane number or the cetane index do not generally
The following changes in quality may be apparent. In some cases most of the yield reliable results with many of the high-viscosity fuels marketed today.
mentioned changes may be present while in other cases only one or a combina- The use in some modem engines of very high pressures for the injection of
- tion of two or more may be present. fuel into the cylinder has had a beneficial effect on engine operation when using
Increase in aromatics giving a high density very high-viscosity blended fuels.
Increase in ash content
Increase in asphaltic material content
Increase in carbon residue content
W 3.5 Give a list of the properties or tests by which a lubricating oil may be -4
specified or a decision made on its fitness for further use.
Increase in catalytic cracking fines contept
Increase in sodium content Density
Increase in density Colour
Increase in sulphur content Viscosity (kinematic)
Increase in vanadium-content Viscosity SAE number (SAE: Society -of Automotive Engineers USA)
Viscoeity index
Note The cracking or molecular reforming of liquid hydrocarbon fuels are Cloud point
not recent advances in oil refining techniques. The first forms of the thermal Pour point
cracking process were begun at about the time of the First World War; catalytic Flash point
cracking processes were started during the mid 1930s. Total base number(TBN)
Total acid number(TAN)
3.4 Give a list of the properties or tests by which distillate and blended Ash content
fuels may be specified or decisions made on their fitness for use.
An analysis can also be made of the strong acid content of oil samples
Density removed from the crankcase. Spectrographic analysis can be wried out on
API Gravity (API: American Petroleum Institute) samples of crankcase system oils to determine the content of different metals
*Colour
Viscosity (kinematic)
that may be present.
-. -
*Cloud point
- Pour point 3.6 What is the flash-point of an oil and what dies it indicate?
Flash point The flash-point is the lowest temperature at which an oil will give off suffi-
Fire point (open cup flash-point) cient inflammable vapour to produce a flash when a small flame is brought
Ignition point (self-ignition point or auto-ignition point) to the surface of the oil. The flash-point may be measured as an open or closed
42 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Fuels, Lubricants - Treatment and Storage 43

flash-point figure. Fuels for use aboard ships are tested in a Pensky-Martens
instrument which measures the closed flash-point. The Department of
Trade & Industry sets the lower limit of 65OC for the flash-point of fuels
used aboard merchant vessels and also stipulates that fuel in storage tanks
must be kept at temperatures at least 14OC lower than its flash-point. The
flash-point of an oil gives no indication of its suitability for use in a diesel
engine. It o d y serves as a guide to the temperature below which it can be
stored and handled with reasonable safety. A knowledge of the flash-point of
the lubricating oil used in the crankcase of a diesel engine is useful,
since lowering of the flash-point inducates that the lubricant may be
contaminated with fuel.

3.7 Define the following terms: viscosity, viscosity index, cloud point,
pour point. ,'.--
F .
A , +
dv
9 * -du
/ =-
4
f

Viscosity can be defined as that property of a fluid (liquid, vapour, or gas)

which is related to its ability to flow. We are all aware af what we commonly Ares A 8-0
refer to as thick and thin liquids, and know chat thin liquids flow more easily
than thick liquids.

E:Iilane
The resistance to flow is caused by the shear resistance between adjacent
layers in the moving fluid. On this basis we can define viscosity as that property
of a fluid which tends to prevent relative movement between adjacent parts
within itself.
Y
'Y
4
I
Viscosity index. The viscosity index (VI) of a lubricating oil indicates the change
of viscosity that occurs with a change of temperature. A lubricating oil with a Fig. 3.1 Diagrams showing the derivation of dynamic viscosity.
high-viscosity index has only a small change in viscosity over a large tempera-
ture change. Additives are used to improve the viscosity index of lubricating
oils. The viscosity index is a dimensionless number. Let f = shear stress
p = dynamic viscosity
Cloud point. The cloud point of an oil indicates the temperature at which u = fluid velocity
waxes begin to form. The figure is important because as the wax crystallizes y = depth from surface
there is always the possiblity that filters will become clogged with the wax
crystals.

Pour point. The pour point of an oil is the temperature at which it ceases to
I By definition

C( =-f =
4
-f
dddy
flow. The pour point of some oils may be lowered by the addition of additives
known as pour-point depressants.
I Or
,
=
force x time
length2
= N s/m2

Viscometers based on Newton's law of viscosity have been devised to obtain

3.8 How is the viscosity of an oil measured and what are its units? I values for the dynamic viscosity of a liquid. (Fig. 3.2)
One such instrument uses two hollow cylinders. The inside diameter of the
Work done by Newton established what is now known as Newton's law of
viscosity. This law shows that the sbear force set up in a slow-moving liquid is larger cylinder is slightly greater than the outside diameter of the smaller
equal to the product of its absolute viscosity (now commonly known as dynamic cylinder. When the smaller cylinder is fitted in the larger there is a clearance
viscosity) and the extremely small distance between adjacent layers within the between the two cylinders equal to dR. The inner cylinder is fixed to a slender
liquid divided by the extremely small c h a s e in velocity between the adjacent vertical shaft. When the outside cylinder is rotated the shear stress set up in the
layers. (Fig. 3.1) This can be mitten as an equation. liquid by movement of the outside cylinder is shown as an angular deflection on
44
-
Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Fuels, Lubricants - Treatment and Storage 45

Fixed end -'-C and the time taken for the liquid to pass through the orifice is equal to the
dynamic viscosity of the liquid divided by its density. The dynamic viscosity of a
liquid divided by its density is known as the kinematic viscosity. The kinematic
viscosity of the liquid is obtained by multiplying the constant for the instrument
by the time taken for the flow.
It is'sometimes necessary-se the kinematic viscosity of a liquid in calcula-
tions. This is particularly so in the subjects of fluid mechanics and naval
architecture and therefore it is useful to have values for the kinematic viscosity
of liquids.
The SI unit for kinematic viscosity is the metre squared per second, m2/s. An
older unit has been named the stokes (St) after Sir George G. Stokes, a British
scientist and mathematician.
1 Stokes (St) =0.0001 m2/s ,

= lo-' m2/s
1 centistokes (cSt) = 0.000 001 m2/s
= m2/s
= 1 mm2/s

I A third method of determining the viscosity of a liquid is based on the work

of Stokes. His research led to what is known as Stoke's Law. This research
investigated the time taken for steel balls to fall in a column of a viscous liquid.
Fig. 3.2 Viscosity meter used for measuring dynamic viscosity.

the shaft. The deflection can be used to find the torque, and the shear stress on
I Viscometers have been devised in which a steel ball is allowed to fall in a tube
filled with the liquid under test. Some simple types of this viscometer are
available for use in the field. These work by measuring the time taken for a steel
ball to fall in a liquid under test, or by comparing the time taken for a ball to fall
the liquid can then be calculated. in a liquid of known viscosity with the time taken for an identical ball to fall in a
The SI unit for dynamic viscosity is the newton second per metre squared. In liquid being tested.
symbolic form it is written For the mathematical background to Newton's law of viscosity, Poiseuille's
work, Stoke's Law and the relationship of these and other laws, the student
should refer to books dealing with fluid mechanics.
since 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. This unit has the cumbersome name of pascal second, in The viscosity of fuel and lubricating oils is usually quoted giving the viscosity
France it is known as the the poiseuille (PI) value in cSt (centistokes) at some temperature.
A unit commonly used in England and other countries is the poise (P) named In some cases the viscosity obtained at two separate temperatures is given.
after the French scientist Poiseuille. 1
1 poise(P) ' =0.1 N d m 2 I
1 centipoise (cP) =0.001 N s/m2 -Kinematic viscosity (cSt) = 152.8 at 40°C
Kinematic viscosity (cSt) = 14.9 at 100°C
During the middle of the 19th century P~iseuilleinvestigated the viscous fric- I
tion encountered by various liquids when moving in capillary tubes. Poiseuille's
work and that of others led to a set of equations making it possible to calculate I The viscosity of distillate fuel is quoted in cSt at a temperature of 40°C and
the viscosity of residual fuel is quoted in cSt at a temperature of 80°C or 100°C.
the kinematic viscosity and the dynamic viscosity of liquids. Note Viscometers giving a digital readout of viscosity based on electronic
This led to the construction of viscometers such as the Saybolt viscometer,
the Redwood viscometer, the Ubbelohde viscometer and other similar instru-
ments. Viscometers of this type allow a defined volume of the liquid being
tested to pass through a small orifice. The instrument can be calibrated by
I W
circuitry are now available.

3.9 State how pure mineral lubricating oil may be improved for use in
timing the passage of liquids of known viscosity. From this it is possible to a
obtain a constant C for the instrument.
1 diesel engines.

The set of equations mentioned above show that the product of the constant
1 Oils produced from various types of crude-oil stocks differing,
characteristics. Oil from paraffinic base stocks has generally a lower s.g. and a
46 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

higher viscosity index than oils produced from naphthenic base stocks. The up. Foam formation is prevented by using small quantities of an organic'silicon_
carbons formed from paraffinic base lubricants are generally harder than compound in the form of a polymer.
carbons formed from the naphthenic base lubricants. Naphthenic base 'Most of the treated oils in common use today are fairly stable in normal*'
lubricants have some natural detergency properties. Blending of oils from storage conditions.
different base stocks makes for some improvement, but to obtain improve-
ments necessary for the commercial success of the newer generation of high- 3.10 Name the properties or constituents that may be found in a blended
output engines, additives must be used in the lubricants. The use of additives in fuel having a high viscosity and a high carbon content. Explain how they
internal combustion engine lubricating oils commenced in the 1920s and gained may cause problems in engine operation.
some impetus in the early 1940s from research carried out earlier. With the gain
of knowledge from the field of organic chemistry the results from the use of Density. The ability of a centrifugal separator to function correctly and remove
additives have been spectacular in the last few years. water and other foreign matter from fuel oil is dependent on the differences
Crankcase oils in both crosshead and trunk-piston engines deteriorate in use between the density of the oil, the water, and the foreign matter.
through changes brought about by oxidation. When this occurs the viscosity of As the density of the oil increases the difference in the separating forces
between the oil, the foreign matter, d the water is reduced; the ability of the
the oil increases, corrosive material in the form of organicacids is created, and
sludges may form. Additives in the form of complex compounds of sulphur, 2%
centrifugal purifier t o function con y is then impaired.
Limits on the density of the fuel oil are fued by the density it will have at the
phosphorus or both may be used. Another class of additives obtained from
modified compounds of ammonia or derivatives of aromatic organic com- operating temperature of the centrifugal separator. The operating temperature
pounds is also used. These additives are referred to as antioxidants. Oils of the separator must be less than the boiling point of water due t o the problem
used in the crankcases of slow-speed engines where large amounts are in circula- of losing the water seal.
tion do not suffer from oxidation at the same rate as high-rated high-speed aux- Viuxwity.High viscosity values have a similar effect as high fuel densities on the
iliary engines. In these engines the temperatures are higher, and much smaller action of a centrifugal separator.
amounts of oil are in circulation. The use of antioxidants reduces or prevents If the viscosity of the fuel is such that it'cannot be reduced by heating to the
the breakdown of crankcase lubricating oil due to oxidation. Different addi- requirements of the fuel injection system, problems may arise with combustion
tives act in different ways. and failure of parts in the injection system due to the high pressures that are
Cylinder oils used in crosshead engines and the crankcase oils used in trunk- created.
piston engines, if untreated, allow carbon to build up in the piston-ring grooves.
This is caused by the high temperatures involved. Combustion residues also
Pourpoint. Fuels having a pour point higher than the expected ambient storage
temperatures must be maintained at some safe temperature above the pour
form sludges which mix with the crankcase oil in trunk-piston engines. A group point to prevent waxes coming out of suspension, or the oil congealing.
of additives referred to as detergent-dispersants are used to prevent carbon If some form of solidification occurs the action is often irreversible and
build-up in piston rings and to prevent the formation of deposits from sludges. causes serious technical problems and a heavy financial commitment to remove
The detergent-dispersants are generally complicated compounds of barium or the solidified fuel.
calcium. Some types of engine develop lacquers on the pistons and cylinder As the pour point increases above the ambient temperature the demand for
liners from untreated lubricants; the use of detergent-dispersants prevents heating steam increases and may reach a point where the exhaust gas boiler
lacquer formation.
cannot meet the total steam demand. In such cases it may be necessary to
Certain engine parts and gearing may at times work very near boundary- supplement the heat from the exhaust gases by firing the auxiliary boiler or
lubrication conditions. To reduce wear rates under these conditions, fatty
shutting down the steam turbine generating set if one is fitted and running an
acids, or compounds of sulphur, phosphorus or chlorine may be used. The
additive selected will depend on the severity of operating conditions and
auxiliary diesel set for electrical power.
Whatever is done, some of the saving fram utilizing lowercost heavier fuel is
possible temperatures. Additives to improve the resistance of oils to very heavy lost when the pour point is higher than the ambient storage temperatures.
loads arecalled extreme pressure (E.P.) additives. Additives may also be used to
improve the viscosity index of ari oil, i.e. to give an oil a higher viscosity at Corbon raridue. Fuels with a high car- residue value often run into problems
higher temperatures. They are usually polymers of high molecular weight. with combustion and the build up of carbon and other materials in the combus-
High-molecular-weight polymers may also be used as additives in paraffinic tion chamber and exhaust system. This may affect exhaust valves, the exhaust
base lubricants to lower the pour. point. These additives are referred to as pour gas section of turbochargers, the heating surfaces within exhaust boilers, and
point depressants. spaces in silencers or mufflers.
Oil used for lubrication of reduction gearing and in the crankcase of high- Asphalt content. When a fuel is high in asphalt or asphaltenes and low on
speed engines becomes aerated and may allow large volumes of foam to build
48. Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Fuels. Lubricants - Treatment and Storone 49

certain aromatics some of the asphaltenes will not be held in solution and such as standard solutions of potassium hydroxide can be titrated into acidic oil
trouble may be experienced with fouling of filters and separators. solutions to measure their acidity.
Fuels with a high asphaltene content bum relatively slowly when compared Colour indicators (e.g., methyl orange, litmus, phenolphthalein, etc.) are
with fuels from a paraffinic base crude. used to find the end point during titration as in boiler water testing. These
Generally the effect of high asphaltene content is similar to the effects of high indicators are not, however, suitable for finding the end ,point when testing
carbon residue content. solutions of lubricating oils.
Note The paraffinic series of hydrocarbons have a chain-type molecular Potmtiometry is then used to find the end point of the titration. This involves
structure while the napthenic series of hydrocarbons have a ring structure. placing electrodes or half cells in a solution of the oil under test and measuring
Asphaltic base crudes and napthenic base crudes are synonymous terms. any potential difference across them with a millivoltmeter. When the reagent is
being added to the oil solution the potential difference measured on the
Sulphur is known to cause corrosive wear in cylinder liners but the problem of millivoltmeter is recorded together with the amount of reagent added to the oil
high sulphur content fuels has been overcome with alkaline cylinder oils. When solution. The results are plotted on a graph with the end point shown by the
burnt, sulphur forms gases having various combinations of sulphur and midpoint where the plot changes from concave to convex curvature. It takes
oxygen. Hydrogen when burnt creates H20in the form of steam vapour. If at considerable skill to operate this type of analytical apparatus and interpret the
any point in the exhaust system the exhaust gases fall in temperature bebw their results.
dew point, corrosiveacids are formed. These acids cause corrosion damage at The final results are calculated and then reported as the, weight of reagent
the place where co~densationof the acid vapours occurs. - -iiequircd to n e u t r h some standard mass of the oil sample. Common units are
TroUMgr maniftstedaY-er liner wear, has been milligrams of reagent to 1 gram of sample. The numbers corresponding to these
experienced with very low sulphur fuels when used with some of the high- units are then expressed as Total Acid Number (TAN) and Total Base Number
alkalinity cylinder lubricants available. mw*
Silica and alumina. These fuel contaminants are very abrasive. If they are not Notes The specifications fodaese testinffprocedures covering equipment, the
removed when the fuel is cleaned in the separator and clarifier they may cause standard solutions, solvents, etc., are given in various standards adopted by
extensive wear of the fuel injection equipment in a very short space of time. different nations throughout the world.
Sodium and vanadium. These contaminants are chemically combined with the Examples of the standards most c a m o n l y used by engineers internationally
fuel and cannot be removed by centrifuging. In conjunction with each other are ANWASTM Standards D 664 and D 28%. These correspond respectively
after combustion they are highly corrosive in the liquid state. If the exhaust to the PI Standards 177 and 276.
valves cannot be operated at a sufficiently low temperature the corrosive ANSI: American National Standards Institute
products in the liquid state stick to the valve seating surfaces and lead to early ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials
problems with gas leakage. This results in burnt valves and low compression PI: Petroleum Institute
pressures leading to a loss of efficiency.
t

3.12 How often should crankcase system oils be tested?

3.1 1 How can lubricating oils be tested for alkalinity or acidity?
The period allowed between testing of crankcase system oils will be dependent
Lubricating oils can be tested for alkalinity or acidity by a method known as on whether the engine is of the crosshead type or the trunk-piston type.
titration in much the same way as the water taken from a boiler is, tested for For an engine of the crosshead type an acceptable period between laboratory
alkalinity. Titration is an old experimental method of volumetric analysis used testing is three months provided there is no bad case history of oil contamina-
by chemists. It is known that if an increasing amount of an acidic solution is tion for the engine.
added to an alkaline solution the resulting solution will eventually be made For an engine of the trunk-piston type a satisfactory time interval for
neutral. The measured amount of acidic solution required to neutralize the laboratory testing of crankcase oil will be dependent on a number of factors.
alkaline solution can be then used as a measure of the strength of the alkali in These factors relate to engine design, engine rating, risk of fuel contamination,
the alkaline solution. daily amount of oil make up relative to the quantity of oil being circulated, type
In a similar manner acidic solutions can be tested for the strength of the acid of fuel being used, filtration of the oil, type of centrifuge treatment of fuel, type
content by carefully measuring the amount of alkaline solution to make the of bearings (e.g., white metalBabbitt lined bearings or hard alloy thin wall
resulting solution neutral. bearings), period of time between oil changes if changed on the basis of number
Acidic reagents such as standard solutions of hydrochloric acid can be of engine operating hours and the degree and amount of on board oil testing
titrated into alkaline oil solutions to measure their alkalinity; alkaline reagents carried out.
50 Questions and Answers on-the Marine Diesel ~ n & e . - Fuels, Lubricants -Treatment and Storage 5 1

3.13 What are the benefits of subiecting crankcase system lubricating oil 3.16 How will lubricating oil degradation (due to microbial growth),be
samples to spectrographic or spectrochemical analysis at regular intervals 'noticed and what will be its effects?
of time?
The indications of attack may be seen as follows.
If an oil sample is analysed spectrographically the presence and the amount of Creation of sulphurous gases having a smell similar to bad eggs.
any foreign metallic substances in the oilxan be obtained. Build up of yellowish-colouredfilm on the inside of crankcases and the polished
The amount of the various metals shown in the analysis is then compared steel surfaces at the sides or unworn parts of bearings.
with the metal contents previously shown and recorded. An abnormal increase The colour of the oil darkening.
of one or more of the metal contents indicates abnormal wear and enables the The oil tending to become opaque with a milky appearance.
investigating engineer to ascertain the region in which the increased wear rate is Inability of the lubricating oil centrifuge to separate water from the oil due to
occurring. For example, if a rapid increase in the iron content and the the creation of stable emulsions.
aluminium content is being shown it could indicate an abnormal increase in the Plugging of lubricating oil fdters due to thick sludges.
amount of wear in cylinder liners and on piston skirts.
An investigation should then be carried out to establish the causes of the The effect of degradation usually shows up on bearings and bearing journals
abnormal wear and eventually remove them. . as a corrosive attack in the form of pitting in both the journal and the bearing,
or a breakdown of the bearing surface. This may show itself as staining and in
3.14 What do you understand by the term ferrographic analysis? How extreme cases as a breakdown of the bearing lining alloy.
does it differ from spectrographic analysis?
Ferrographic analysis can be carried, out on lubricating bil samples to achieve 3.17 How does microbial degradation of fuel oil manifest itself?
the same objectives as spectrographic analysis. In ferrographic analysis the Degradation of high-viscosity blended fuels does not usually occur due to the
sample of lubricating oil is first thinned with some solvents and then allowed to high temperature to which they are subjected in land-based storage, in bunker
pass slowly down a slide set within a powerful magnetic field. The particles of and settling tanks, when being pumped, and during cleaning treatment when
ferrous and other metallic materials are then graded according to size along the passed through centrifugal separators and clarifiers. The high temperature
slide. -. - sterilizes the fuel by killing off the oiganisms causing the degradation.
The slides are examined in a special microscope using both reflected light and Degradation from various organisms only occurs with distillate fuels when
transmitted light together with red and green filters. The shape of the particles is water and the appropriate environmental conditions are present. %

used to identify the source of the wear d-. The degradation shows itself by smell, problems with filters becoming
In spectrographic analysis tKe wear debris in the oil sample is found by an clogged at frequent intervals, the development of a slimy build-up in pipes and
examination of its spectra. Each individual component in the wear debris can on storage tank surfaces, and by the creation of sludge.
then be identified by the wavelength of its electromagnetic radiation.
The testing of lubricating oil for use as a wear monitor is mainly applicable to
high-speed engines and highly rated medium-speed engines. There is, how_ev_er, 3.10 How can microbial degmdotion of distitlate fuels and lubricating
nothing to preclude their use for slow-speed engines. be prevented?
-
Biocides and fungicides can be used to kill and prevent the spread of organisms
3.15 The term 'microbial degradation' of oils 8s sometimes seen. To what within a distillate fuel oil. They can also be used in lubricating oils provided
does it refer? their use is approved by the oil supplier. Most of the treatments available cause
The term microbial degradation is sometimes referred to as biodegradation. It -
some deterioration in the lubricating properties of the oil and their use shodd
is the name given to the process whereby micro-organisms increase in number be carefully followed and observed.
and decompose a hydrocarbon fuel or lubricant and eventually render it unfit The known organisms causing degradation are killed by preheating the luFri-
for its duty. cating oil to a temperature of 82.5OC during continuous separation t r e t -
This form of decomposition requires the presence of water together with ment and when preparing to centrifuge the whole of the system oil charge.
other favourable environmental conditions including temperature, acidic Nott The temperature at which lubricating oils are heated prior%;t o
conditions (pH value), and nutrients. With favourable environmental con- centrifuging should never exceed the supplier's recommendations. T
$1
ditions the increase in microbial count may take place very quickly and
cause rapid breakdown of the fuel or lubricant. Care should be exercised in preventing leakage of cooling water into'tbe
In the case of lubricating oils the additives in the oil may function as the system oils in both crosshead and trunk-piston engines. Modern non-toxic anti-
nutrients. corrosion additives may act as a nutrient to the organisms causing degradation.
 52 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Fuels, Lubricants - Treatment and Sroroge 53 '

Some of the older additives are toxic to the organisms, but their use is banned 3.21 Whcit do Stokes's laws tell us about cleoning fuel oils?
in cooling systems used for heating low-pressure distilling plants producing
potable water. One of the many studies made by the the scientist Stokes was that dealing with
the behaviour of small spheres falling in viscous liquids. By mathematical
analysis he came up with the following statement.
3.19 What do you understand by SAE numbers? . 'The resistance to a sphere falling slowly in a viscous liquid is equal to six times
the product of r,the fluid viscosity, the radius of the sphere, and its velocity.'
The SAE number of an oil is an indication of its viscosity based on a classifica-
tion involving two temperatures. The authority responsible for the classifica-
tion is the Society of Automotive Engineers. =the coefficient of viscosity
Lubricating oils are marketed throughout the world on SAE number r = the radius of the sphere
specifications. Crankcase lubrication oil or system oil usually has an SAE 30 v = velocity of the sphere -
number. Cylinder lubricants may be SAE 30,40, or 50 depending on the service
and type of engine. then
resistance to motion = 6 m p
The resistance to motion of the falling sphere is equal to the downward acting
3.20 ' What are 'Supplement' and 'Series' lubricating oils? How do they force causing motion. This is equal to the difference between the mass of the
differ from treated cylinder oils? sphere and the buoyancy it receives from the fluid. The force acting downward
Supplement I, Series 2,Tnd Series 3 lubricating oils- are specially developed is q u a l to
oils for use in highly rated trunk-piston engines. They are all high
-cterergmtxii@ersant l u b ~ ~ ttestingoft6iiKiubricants
s ~ e is performed in
a test engine using a lowquality fuel. Test procedures are governed by rules
drawn up by various authorities. w h m 6, = density of fluid and 4 =density of sphere. Then
Series 3 oils under test are found to have twmty times the detergency level of
untreated mineral oils; Series 2 and Supplemtnt 1 lubricating oils have lower
detergency levels.
Treated cylinder oiis for use in crosshead engines remain in the cylinder until from which
they drain down to the diaphragm space, and are used once only. The cylinders
of trunk-piston engines are lubricated by mist and splash from the crankcase so
the oil lubricating the cylinder is in a process of regular change with oil from the
crankcase. On the basis of equal fuel quality, the cylinder lubricant of a and
crosshead engine, owing to oncesnly use, is subject to more rigorous
conditions than the oil lubricating the cylinder of a trunk-piston engine. The
use, in crosshead engines, of fuels containing larger amounts of impurities
makes the conditions of crosshead engine cylinder lubrication even more Examination of Eq. 1 shows that if the viscosity increases the velocity of the
severe. falling sphere decreases, and as the viscosity decreases the velocity of the falling
Treated cylinder oils for use with lower-grade fuels have higher detergency sphere increases. For this reason it can be seen that when a viscous fuel is heated
and are more alkaline than the Series and Supplement oils. This is reflected in and its viscosity is decreased, any particles of water contained in the fuel will
the total base number of the oil. The TBN of a cylinder lubricant is not, separate'out more rapidly because of their higher velocity.
however, a direct guide to its effectiveness in holding a piston and piston rings If Eq.1 is further examined it can be shown that as the density of the fluid is
clean and keeping ring and liner wear rates low. reduced the velocity of the falling sphere is increased.
The additives in cylinder oils are now usually oil soluble. This type of treated Water will separate more easily in a fuel which has a low density. Heating the
oil is more stable than the dispersion-type additive oils and the emulsion-type fuel lowers its density and therefore makes separation of the water occur more
cylinder lubricants, both of which gave problems in storage. Dispersant easily. If the density of the the fuel is equal to the density of water the difference
additives tended to come out of suspension and form a gel on the bottom of the in the densities will be zero and the value of the velocity will become zero.
storage tank; the difficulty with emulsion-type lubricants was that water tended Heating high-viscosity fuels is necessary to reduce their viscosity and their
to separate out of the emulsion. density in order to make separation of water occur more easily.
3-32 What do you understand by the term separating force when applied H 3.23 What is coalescer? Describe where it i s used and how it operates.
to water particles contained in a fuel oil as applicable to water separating
out in o settling tank? How does the separating force differ in a centrifu-
A'coalescer is a filtering device used for the separation of water and solid
gal purifier, or a centrifugal clarifier?
impurities from pure distillate fuels.
It has the advantage of being a static device and so requires little attention.
It can be shown that the separating force between a very small volume of water However, it cannot cope with high-viscosity blends of distillate and residual
and the oil surrounding it is equal to the difference between the mass of the fuels; also, if large amounts of water are present the cost of filter cartridge
water particle and the buoyancy it receives from an equal volume of oil. renewal becomes prohibitive. The space requirement for a coalescer is much
If the particle or small volume of water is spherical this statement can be greater than for normal separation equipment of the same capacity.
written in mathematical form with the separating forcef, equal to The coalescer is often in three parts, the first being a cascade-type filter
through which the fuel is passed to remove the water and solids that separate
out more easily. This stage may be heated and can be used in place of a settling
tank.
The second stage consists of metallic filter elements of chosen dimensions
that will filter out all solids above a certain size. Phenol-impregnated paper
cartridges are incorporated with these elements. he paper elements cause the
d fine water particles to collect together or coalesce, and form water globules. The
since r = -2 larger globules will separate from the oil straight away and collect in the bottom
of the second stage. The smaller globules will pass with the fuel to the third
where f, =SEPARATING FORCE newton stase.
r =radius of sphere of oil and equivalent sphere of The third stage consists of pleated paper elements. The paper in these
water elements is treated with a material to render it preferential to the oil and
d = diameter ditto - -,
opposed to the water. The fuel is able to pass the element but the water globules
g =9.81 m/s2 (coalesced water particles) remain on the outside of the vertical element and
6, = density of oil kg/m3 drain down to a sump where they collect. The water-free fuel is then led out
6, = density of water kg/m3
-
Note 6 is the density of the oil Cnd water at separation temperature.
from the top of the third stage of the filter.
The material used to impregnate the pleated paper elements in the third stage
must be such that it has the capability of reducing the surface tension of the oil
If water is separated from the fuel in a centrifugal separator, the separating in contact with the impregnated paper, so allowing the oil to pass through the
force experienced by the water particle in the settling tank will be multiplied by capillaries formed by the porosity in the paper, while at the same time it must
the centrifugal force acting on the particle when passing through th centrifugal not affect the surface tension of the water gldbules, which will be too great to
9 -
separator. It should be noted that there is a limiting size to the partic es of liquid-
or solid matter that can be separated, and particles of matter below a certain
allow them to pass-ht -
-

- -- - -- -

Note The surface tension of a liquid is dependentgn inter-molecular forces

size will not be separated. The size is governed by throughput, viscosity, which cause the molecules of a liquid to be attracted to one another. The surface
densities, rotational speed, and the internal construction of the bowl. The may be the open surface or the interface or'boundary surface between two
separating force in the centrifugal separator f, is equal to different liquids as in oil and water. Materials that decrease the surface tension
of liquids are referred to as wetting agents. Materials that decrease the surface
tension of liquids other than water are referred to as hydrophobic wetting
agents.
where
3.24 What is a homogenizer? Describe where it might be used and how
d =diameter of water particle
it operates.
u = linear velocity of water particle
r =radius of rotation of water particle A homogenizer is a piece of equipment used to create a material with a stable
uniform structure (homogeneous structure) from a mixture of two or more
With separator bowl speeds of 6000 to 7000rpm the separating force is finely divided solid materials or a mixture of immiscible liquids. It can be used
increased many thousands of times. I
 Fuels. Lubricants - Treatment and Storage 57
56 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

to break down relatively large water particles within a heavy fuel into a increased excessively, oil globules will be discharged with the sludgc and *ater.
homogeneous structure or emulsion consisting of water particles of the If the hole diameter is reduced unduly, the interface moves inwards and
minutest size uniformly distributed throughout the resulting liquid. particles of water will be discharged with the clean oil.
A homogenizer can also be used to reconstitute an emulsion that has Holes are placed in the conical plates making up the plate stack to allow the
separated out from some heavy fuel, in order to give it some stability. oil to feed upwards into the clearance spac4s between the conical discs. Water
A homogenizer works by severely agitating the mixture being homogenized. and heavy stable emulsions are discharged through the dam ring and spin off
The agitation can be carried out by mechanical means such as pumping the the Wwl or are removed from the rotating bowl by a paring disc. Clean oil is
mixture through very fine. orifices, or by acoustic means such as pumping the discharged from the bowl and spins off or may be removed by another paring
mixture in a thin layer over a surface being agitated at an ultrasonic frequency disc. Heavy solid matter is held in the bowl. (Fig. 3.3(a) )
(above twenty kilohertz). The agitation can be created with any electronic Clarifiers do n6t have a dam ring, a plain ring (also called a sealing ring) is
device that will create ultrasonic pressure waves. fitted in its place, and the water outlet is sealed off. Solid matter and water that
has passed through the separator are retained within the clarifier bowl until it is
opened and the water and sludge are discharged. On modern machines
3.25 What do you understand by the terms 'batch treatment' and surveillance and control devices watch out for the build-up of water within the
'continuous treatment' when applied to lubricating oil and fuel oil bowl or when a very small amount of water is discharged with the clean oil. The
centrifugal separators? bowl is then caused t o open. Modem centrifuges are operated as clarifiers and
Originally the terms cantinuous treatment and batch treatment applied only to controlled in this manner.
the purification of main engine crankcase lubricating oil. Theconical disc stack may not be fitted with feed holes, but if they are fitted a
In continuous treatment the separator was operated for the whole of the time blank conical disc without feed holes will be fitted at the bottom of the conical
the main engine wasin operation. Lubricating oil-was supplied to the separator disc stack. -
by its own pump taking oil from the main engine drain tank, or was bled from When a centrifugal separator is started up it must be filled with water to
thepressure supply t o 4 z e m a i n c n n i n e . ~ h z a t owas
r never shut down -establish a seal which prevents oil leaving the separator at the water outlet.
Clarifier bowls d6 not have to be filled with water after start up.
except for short periods when it was being cleaned.
Batch treatment referred to the system whereby the engine was shut down and The main purpose of the clarifier is to remove traces of foreign material not
the whole of the sump lubricating oil charge was pumped up to the dirty removed when the oil passed through the separators, and to act as a second line
lubricating oil tank in the upper part of the engine room. The lubricating oil was of defence against the accidental passage of contaminant material into the clean
heated in the tank and left as long as possible to settle out solids, sludge and any side of the oil storage system. Clarifiers are not normally used to clean
water. It was then slowly purified in one batch, hence the name. lubricating oil unless the &is almost-free of any water content. (See
Today the terms have different meanings. Batch treatment centrifugal Fig. 3;3(b) )
separators and clarifiers must be shut down for cleaning after treating a batch
of oil. - r- -
Continuous treatment machines are capable of being cleaned or sludged 3.27 What a r e the differences between the various types of self-cleaning
without being shut down. These machines are also termed automatic self- separators and clarifiers?
cleaning separators and clarifiers or automatic separators and clarifiers.
Self-cleaning separators and clarifiers found their place on board ship in the
very early 1930s. The differences between these machines and others were in the
3.26 What are the essential differences between a separator and a walls of the bowl. On self-cleaning machines the bowl side or wall sloped at an
clarifier? What a r e dam rings and sealing rings? angle instead of being vertical. A cross-section across the diameter of the bowl
A purifier is fitted with a dam ring which controls the position of the separation resembles the letter 'W'. The internal parts of the bowl are fastened in place and
line or interface between the water and oil when the bowl is rotating. locked in position.
If the inside of the dam ring is too large in diameter the separation line or In order to clean the bowl it is only necessary to stop the machine, open the
interface moves outward towards the outer periphery of the bowl and some oil hinged cover and remove the bowl cover. The hinged cover on the separator
will be discharged with the water from the water ~utlet.If the inside diameter of casing is then closed and the bowl is run up to speed. The solid material, sludge,
I
the dam ring is too small the interface moves inwards and some water will be and water in the bowl is moved up the sloping sides by centrifugal force and
discharged with the oil. The diameter of the dam ring is governed by the density I then spun clear of the bowl which is left clean. Occasionally, however, the disc
of the oil being treated. stack must be removed for cleaning the spaces between the conical discs.
If the diameter of the hole in the dam ring is increased, the interface between I At first this type of machine was used mainly for lubricating oil treatment.
It was a good step forward at this time, particularly with engines that had
the oil and water contained in the bowl moves outwards. If the diameter is
I
 Fue&, Lubricanfs- Treatment and Sforage 59

oil-cooled pistons. The shut down time for cleaning the separator was reduced
and the cleaning was made much easier.
'Automatic self-cleaning separators were available to shore-based industries
at about the same time. They were mainly used for the production of animal
fats and vegetable oils. These automatic self-cleaning machines were not fitted
into ships until some time later.
Automatic self-cleaning purifiers have the lower part of the bowl fitted into a
Bowl closed /f lower fued casing. The inner part can be made to slide up and down by
hydraulic pressure. In the lower position (the cleaning position) the outer
periphery of the bowl is open and allows solids, sludge and water to be spun
outwards leaving the bowl clean. In the upper position the bowl is closed for
normal operation.
After the bowl is closed sealing water is admitted and the separator is readyto
receive dirty oil. Cleaning is completed in a matter of seconds without stopping
the machine.
Clarifiers can be cleaned in a similar manner.
In.older ships the cleaning cycle or dump cycle was carried out by manually
operated valves controlling the water flow to the bowl's opening and closing
mechanism. Later separators had timing devices to control the frequency of
cleaning, and solenoid, pneumatic, or hydraulic actuated valves to control the
Woter ond
water supply. The automation and increased frequency of the cleaning opera-
sludge tion made the equipment suitable for unmanned engine rooms.
In modern ships, properly fitted out for handling high-viscosity, high carbon
content fuels, the automatic cleaning operation is controlled by electronic
(bl Clor~fterdamrlng wild timing equipment through a computer. Sensing devices in the dirty water outlet
owl open dump~ngsludge
can be used to trigger bowl cleaning. if this is' necessary within the normal
.
_3
cleaning frequency,--ro d&e a n be fitted in tketlean eiL
-\ Dlrfy otl ~n outlet to monitor the clean fuel for traces of water. If vlrater is present the bowl-
Stotrc ports

Clean ~ ~ l o u t (
cleaning mechanism is triggered. -
This type of electronic equipment is used on both separators and clarifiers.
(See Question 3 JO).

3.28 Describe a centrifugal separator used for the purification of fuel

ond lubricating oils
Dom rlng The main part of a centrifugal separator is the bowl, which is mounted on the
top of vertical spindle supported in two bearings. On the spindle between the
bearings is a multiple-tooth helical worm. This worm is driven by a helical-
toothed gear wheel connected to a driving motor through a centrifugally
(cI \ ' Rotating parts / operated clutch.
The bowl is cylindrical and closed at the bottom by a concave conical end.
Fig. 3.3 (a) Diagrammatic arrangement showing a centrifuge arranged as a The spindle fits within the concave space formed by the bottom. On the outside
purifier. Note. The specific gravity ring is sometimes called a dam ring. of the upper end of the cylindrical bowl there is a coarse thread or aibreech-
(b) Diagrammatic arrangement showing a centrifuge arranged as a clarifier. block type thread. The bowl cover nut screws on to this thread. A section across
Note th'at the bowl has a solid dam ring. (c) Dirty oil feed through centrally the diameter of the bowl resembles the letter 'W'.
located tube and discharge of oil and-water with stripping discs as fitted in
modern centrifuges. The stripping discs are static and the oil and water moving
The fuel or lubricating oil is led into the separator bowl by a distributor
wtth the bowl are p~ckedup by the outer periphery of the stripping disc. similar to an inverted filling funnel. Radial ribs on the inside of the conical end
give a uniform clearance between it and the end of the bowl. On the outside of'
60 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Fuels, Lubricants - Treatment and Storage 61

the distribution pipe are four or six longitudinal fins. The conical separator After entry into the bowl the mixture is subjected to a large angular accelera-
plates fit over the fins and are driven by them. Radial fins on the conical tion and then moves with the bowl. The speed of rotation subjects the liquid to
separator plates hold them equidistant. centrifugal force which breaks up the mixture into its constituents. The heavier
0ver.the conical separator plates a conical inner cover is fitted. This inner parts of the mixture, which include water and solids, move to the outer part of
cover keeps the separator plates in position. The radial clearance between the the bowl and displace an equivalent volume of water from t h e dam ring. The
outer edge of the conical separator plates and the cylindrical bowl sides is medium weight sludge and oil pass into the spaces between the conical separator
approximately 30 mm in small separators and increases with increase in bowl plates; the sludge breaks away from the oil and moves outwards, while the
size. The radial clearance between the inner cover and the sides of the b ~ wwill l purified oil continues to move towards the centre of the bowl and then upwards
be approximately 5 mm. A sleeve on the top of this inner cover and integral with to the purified41 outlet.
it surrounds the distributor pipe and extends upwards to some point lower than A stable state develops with the heavier material at the outer part of the bowl,
the top of the distributor pipe. The space between the sleeve and the distributor the lighter, purified oil surrounding the distributor pipe, and the mixture within
pipe is the purified-oil outlet., the distributor pipe. The process of separation is continuous as liquid is fed into
The top cover has a conical profile similar to the inner cover. Near its the bowl. The efficiency of purification will depend on the amount of foreign
periphery is a groove which houses an oil- and heat-resistant rubber O-ring. matter in the oil and the rate of flow through the separator. (Fig. 3:3(a))
This makes a seal between the cover and the vertical or sloping sides of the bowl.
The top cover is held in place by a ring-nut which screws on the thread on the
side of the bowl. On the top of the outer cover a thread is machined to take H,'3.29 How are high-viscosity fuels prepared for use in the older genera-
tions of diesel-propelled ships?
another ring-nut which holds the specific gravity rini or dam ring in place. A set
of these rings having different internal diameters is supplied with every purifier. Fuel is prepared for use in an engine by settling and purification, the objective
They are identified by a number or a specific gravity figure. being to remove the maximum amdunt of impurities.
Some separators are fitted with specific gravity plugs instead of dam rings After.receipt on board, fuel is stored in double-bottom tanks, wing bunker
and function in a similar manner. The impurities separated from the oil are spaces, thwartship bunker spaces or forward d e e tanks.
~ The fuel is transferred
discharged over the dam ring or through the specific gravity plug. from the storage space with a transfer pump of the positive displacement type.
As good balance is essential, the components of the bowl are designed so that It may be a steamdriven simplex or duplex pump, or a motordriven gear or
they can be assembled in one position only, in relation to one another. helix type pump. The fuel is heated t o reduce its viscosity and so facilitate the
The fixed p a r t s m the separator are the frame and the upper and lower pumping operation. The transfer pump discharges the fuel to a settling tank.
spindle bearings housed in it. The upper bearing bush is held in a flexible
h o u s g . The lower bearfnggTSarifgsk8tii%upPo3the weight of the bowl and
- --The fuel may be further heated in the settling tank and retained there for as
long as possible, which may be from twelve to twenty-four hours. While the fuel
thrust from the gearing. The frame also houses the bearings for the worm wheel is in the settling tank some of the solids, emulsions, and water separates out and
and has a flange to support the flange-mounted driving motor. collects at the bottom of the tank. The water can be drained off through the
The gearing is lubricated by splash from an oil bath and the bearings by drain connections which must be of the self-closing type. Separation takes place
forced lubrication from an oil pump driven by the motor. The frame also owing to the difference in thmpecific glrtvities of fuel oil and the foreign
supports a flange-mounted tachometer and a hand priming pump for bearing matter.
lubrication prior to start-up. The equipment used for cleaning the fuel will consist of two centrifugal
On the upper part of the frame is fitted a hinged cover with shallow conical separators associated with a stand-by- machine,
-- or two separators and one
horizontal partitions inside. The diameter of the hole and height of these parti- clarifier.
tions is arranged to suit the various parts of the bowl assembly. The top parti- The machines are connected up with pumps, heaters and associated piping
tion takes the liquid spun off from the distributor pipe if an excess amount together with piping used to connect the cleaning system with the settling tanks
causes overflow from the bowl. The second partition takes the purif3ed oil and clean oil or daily use tanks. The pumps in the cleaning system are usually of
which spins off from the upper end of the inner cover. The lower space accepts the gear type driven through gearing by the separators or clarifiers. The fuel
the water, sludge and solid particles discharged over the dam ring or through heaters are heated by steam and the correct outlet temperature of the fuel is
thapecific gravity plug. A centrally locited nozzle in the cover supplies liquid maintained by the thermostatic control.
to the purifier and extends downwards into the distributor when the cover is The separators can be used either singly or connected in parallel as in single-
closed. stage pdcation. In other cases a separator and clarifier may be used together.
In use, the separator is first run up to its operating speed and then water is fed The fuel is first treated in the separator to remove the water, sludge and the bulk
into the bowl until it discharges from the dam ring. This water provides a seal of the solid matter. The separated fuel is then treated in the clarifier to remove
and prevents discharge of oil from the dam ring. After providing the initial as much as possible of the remaining solid matter. This is referred to as two-
water seal the mixture of oil, water and impurities is fed into the bowl through stage cleaning, the separator and the clarifier being connected in series.
the distributor pipe. The fuel in the settling tank runs down by gravity flow through a filter to a
62 Oursfions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Enpine Fuels. Lubricants - Treatment and Storane 63

discharge pump which pumps it to the second heater (if fitted) and then to the
second centrifugal separator. This separator is fitted with a closed gravity ring
or plug and further impurities separated from the fuel are retained within the
bowl. A centrifugal separator fitted with a blank gravity ring or solid plug is
usually called a clarifier.
After the fuel has been treated in the clariker, the clarifier discharge pump
discharges the treated fuel to the clean-oil tank, where the purified and clarified
fuel is stored until it is required by the engine. The fuel will then flow by gravity
through a strainer to the fuel oil surcharge pump. This pump may be of the
centrifugal type. The surcharge pump discharges the oil through a steam heater
which will heat the fuel and give it the required injection viscosity. The viscosity
of the fuel leaving the heater. will be controlled by a viscometer which regulates
the flow of steam to the heater. After being heated to the correct viscosity the
fuel is passed through a fine filter t o tbe main engine.
Note Settling tanks and purifiers can only remove water and other impurities
that wrist as mixtures with the fuel. Impurities that are soluble in the oil, such as
the vanadium and.sodium compounds, will pass through the purifiers and not
be separated out.
The water, sludge, and solid matter removed during cleaning is collected in a
sludge tank and held there for disposal. The sludge tank is fitted with heating
coils and connectionsfer-pumping~uttkesludge~.Thc tank isaftenlsebta_
form the foundation for the separators and clarifiers.-(Fig. 3.4)
-
3.30 Describe how the techniques for handling and cleaning fuel should
Fig. 3.4 (a) Arrangement of two centrifuges in series.
be changed to accommodate the high-viscosity, high-density, high carbon
(b) Arrangement of two centrifuges in parallel.
content fuels now being supplied and expected i n the future.
a Dirty-oil tank or settling tank.
b Stop valve with remote closing control. The equipment required for handling and cleaning fuels having a high viscosity,
c Strainer - filter. a high density, and a high carbon content is similar to that fitted in older
d Pump supplying oil to heaters and centrifuges.
e Heater (see fig. 1 5 . 1 (c)).
- motorships (See Question 3.29) except in the areas mentioned below.
f Plate-type heater. The fuel system must be fully automated, monitored, and carefully designed
g Flow control valve. to cover all the control functions, cleaning functions and fail safe in the event of
h Centrifuge arranged as a purifier. failure or shut down of any part.
i Centrifuge arranged as a clarifier. This reduces the risk of any disastrous consequences that may arise if the fuel
j Clean-oil tank or day tank. cleaning system goes out of adjustment and allows improperly prepared fuel to
find its way into the main and auxiliary engines. Such problems can easily occur
in modem practice with reduced engine room staff and more particularly if
pump on the first centrifugal separator. The pump forces the fuel through the their time is fully taken up in dealing with some other crisis.
heater; it then flows to the first centrifugal separator, which is fitted with a Insulation to heated fuel storage spaces and piping must be increased. S t e m
gravity ring or gravity plug that allows water and other materials separated tracer lines must be fitted or their capacity increased on connecting pipe lines.
from the fuel to be discharged out of the separator. When a centrifugal The capacity of heaters and their fouling factors should be increased. The
separator is fitted with a gravity ring or gravity plug it is often referred to as a
purifier. While passing through the purifier the untreated fuel is subjected to
means to clean oil heaters easily and rapidly should also be provided. . -
Separately driven positive-displacement pumps should be provided for
centrifugalaction by rotation within the purifier bowl. This action considerably handling fuel taken from the settling tanks for passage through the cleaning '
increases he forces causing separation of the foreign matter and water from the system and each machine should have its own pump. The capacity of the pumps
fuel. should be carefully sized to suit the fuel requirements of the engine in conjunc-
The purified fuel leaves the purifier bowl and flows down to the purifier tion with the capacity of the individual pieces of cleaning equipment.
 64 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Fuels, Lubricants - Treafmenf and Storage 65

I f two or more separators are required to handle the maximum fuel require- again activated after the fixed interval measured from the previous dumping
ment of the engine, the discharge from each pump must not be brought into a cycle. When this cycle is completed the bowl is clean and a new cycle begins. The
common line to feed the separators. Each separator should have its own heater period between the bowl dumping or cleaning operation remains the same
or the fuel should be heated prior to being handled by the separator's own irrespective of what may occur during the time between cleaning cycles.
supply pumps. If water content in the dirty fuel is more than the purifier can handle, the
The lowestcost fuels supplied today have a high viscosity, density, and .computer measures the rate of change of water content in the clean fuel with
carbon content. These kinds of fuel require a high temperature when being respect to time, and if this is above some accepted value the control system will
treated in a fuel cleaning system consisting of separators and/or clarifiers. activate alarms and cause the water contaminated fuel to be bypassed back to
The maximum temperature for heating the fuel prior to cleaning treatment is the settling tank. - -
governed by the boiling point of water, which limits the preheating temperature One manufacturer's equipment monitors the fluid taken from the lower
to something a little less than 100°C. A figure given by separator manufacturers paring disc. Again, the time interval between clearing the solids, sludge and
is 98°C with a tolerance of two more degrees. water out of the bowl by opening it is fixed in the computer program and never
The manufacturers of centrifugal-type fuel cleaning equipment are well able alters in amount. I

to offer a wide variety of machines, well suited t o the fuels supplied today and When a centrifugal purifier of this type is started the bowl is completely filled
expected in the future. with oil. The oil is discharged from the lower paring disc outlet line and
These machines do not always come within the previously accepted definition monitored for conductivity before going through a two-way control valve and
of separator or clarifier as they are not always fitted with a dam ring in the case passing back to dirty oil feed to the purifier.
of a separator or a sealing ring in the case of a clarifier. As water is removed from the fuel it builds up in the periphery of the bowl
The main advantage of these modern machines is that they can be operated and will be discharged during the cleaning or dump cycle. If the water contained
without an internal water seal. In this respect they are similar to clarifiers. in,the dirty fuel is above a certain amount, the water will build up in the bowl
Control of the cleaning function is governed by monitoring the build up of and cause the oil water interface to move inwards to some point where water
solids, sludge, and water contained within the bowl. When solids, sludge and will be discharged from the paring disc outlet. When this occurs the change in
water build up within the bowl the interface between the water and the partially conductivity will be relayed by the sensor to the computer. The computer
cleaned fuel moves inwards and reaches a point where the cleaned fuel will control. will activate the two-way control valve and divert the water flowing
contain traces of water. through it away from the dirty oil supply and into the alternative route to the
One manufacturer uses a computer programmed to control the automatic water outlet from the purifier. When the time for the dump cycle is reached, the
cleaning or dump function of the purifier bowl in conjunction with a device solids, sludge and water, are discharged out of the bowl. in the normal manner
extremely sensitive to the smallest trace of water. This device is fitted in the and a new cycle commences when the purifier is filled with dirty oil again.
clean oil discharge from the purifier. During normal operation of the purifier The remaining parts of the fuel oil system are similar to those mentioned in
the sludge and water discharge coming from the dirty side paring disc is shut off the answer t o Question 3.28.
by a valve fitted in the discharge piping from the purifier. Normal separators and clarifiers can be used for cleaning very high-density
The computer program covers fuels having a wide range of water content. fuel oils, but the sealing water in the purifier must have a higher demity than the
When cleaning fuel containing limited amounts of water the dump cycle is fuel when both are at the operating temperature of the separator. If the density
programmed to act at regular fucd intervals. When the fixed interval expires of the fuel is equal to or higher than the density of the sealing water, the
the bowl-cleaning action is triggered by the computer and the solids, sludge and separator will not function correctly. Aliquid having a higher density than the
water are dumped out of the bowl when it opens. fuel must be selected to create an interface. Liquids having a density higher than
If the clean oil outlet shows traces of water before the normal time interval the density of the fuel oils now available can be obtained by dissolving one of a
has expired, the water-sensitive monitoring device relays a signal to the variety of salts in water for use as the sealing medium. This can provide a seal
computer and the closed valve in the water outlet is opened. Water is then with a density and boiling point higher than that of water.
discharged from the bowl through the water paring disc and dirty water line. If The material selected will have to be carefully chosen because of the possibili-
the device monitoring the water content in the clean fuel shows a sharp drop in ties of set* up corrosion within the fuel cleaning equipment, sludge tanks and
water content over a short time interval, the valve in the dirty water line remains system pipework. Corrosion inhibitors will have t o be used to give adequate
open for some giverperiod and then closes. Thi normal dump cycle is then
repeated at the set interval following the previous dump cycle.
- --
corrosion protection if it is shown to be necessary.
The sealing liquid and water removed from the separator can be recycled
-- If-tke-w8tet contentin rhe dirty fuel increases, the cycle of operations after testing for density and inhibitor content.
resulting in the discharge of water through the dirty water line is repeated and
will continue if any water content is shown in the clean fuel. The dump cycle is
66 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Fuels, Lubricants - Treatment and Storage 67

3.31 why are fuel and lubricating oils heated prior to treatment in a contained in a fluid. Generally strainers are of the full-flow type and are fitted
centrifugal separator? Show in a simple manner how the forces causing on the suction sides of pumps to prevent foreign bodies entering the pump and
-
separation vary in a settling tank & a centrifugal separator. causing damage. Filters may be of the full-flow or by-pass type and are fitted in
discharge lines. The filtering media are usually such that contaminants down to
It is necessary to heat fuel and lubricating oil prior to treatment in a centrifugal minute size are prevented from going into circulation. The pressuredrop across
separator to reduce the viscosity of the oil so that it flows easily into and out of a clean fdter will depend on the viscosity of the liquid being filtered, the size of
the separator and does not cause high pumping loads.
Heating the fuel or lubricating oil, which is a mixture of oil, water and solids,
the fdter, the size of particles being removed and the flow rate through the
filter. -
-
lowers the specific gravity of the constituent parts. The specific gravity~fthe oil --*-- - --
-.
A centrifugal separator separates foreign material from a liquid byvirtue of
is reduced at a greater rate than the specific gravity of the water and solids; thus the difference in the specific gravities of the parts to bemarated and the liquid
the difference in the specific gravities of the constituent parts is greater when the from which it is separated.
mixture is heated.
-
- - -

At 15°C At 70°C 3.33 What are simplex, duplex, by-pah and full-flow filters?
Viscosity in Viscosity in A simplexfilter is a single filter fitted in a line to remove contaminants from a
s.g. centipoise s.g. centipoise liquid by a filtration process. Dtcplexfilters are arranged in pairs so that one
Water 1 .OOO - 1.42 0.982 0.43 filter can be in use and the other ready for use or being cleaned. An arrange-
Oil 0.898 100.00 0.848 10.00 ment of valves or cocks is usually fitted to duplex filters so that as one filter is
- - opened to flow the other is closed. B y p m filters take a part of the flow from
Difference 0.102 0.134
a pump and return the filtered liquid back to the suction side of the pump.
The oil in this example is SAE 30 lubricating oil of 100 VI. Full-flow fiiters take the full amount of discharge from a pump for filtration.
Note Care must be taken with the change-over interlocking arrangements on
Separation of the constituents in a mixture of oil, water and solids takes place duplex filters to ensure that they are always in good working order. Extreme
in a settling tank due to the difference in the specific gravity of the various parts. care must be exercised in removing the cover of a shutdown filter. The air leak-
From the table it can be seen that heating the oil and water from lS°C to 70°C off and drain cocks must be opened to check that the filter case is completely
increases the.difference in the specif& gravity from 0.102 to 0.134, which is an isolated before slackening'the cover fastenings.
increase of more than 30%. The viscosity.of the oil has also been reduced by 90
centipoise. There will be considerable differences in the change in viscosity 3.34 Fuel with some definite viscosity value can be supplied. How is fuel
related to temperature for different kinds of oil. The change of the specific of this type obtained and what difficulties may be experienced in using it?
gravity i n a wide range of oils will be approximately similar to the values given '
in the table for the same range of temperature. Fuel supplied to motor vessels is usually of the high-viscosity type. This kind of
fuel is a blend of low-viscosity distillate and high-viscosity residual oils. The
. The forces causing separation between a mixture of oil, water, and solid
material will be many times higher in a centrifugal separator than in a settling bunker supplier has tables which give the proportional amounts of each kind of
tank. But to get this advantage the mixture must be heated. oil required to obtain some specified viscosity. After the proportions have been
The forces causing separation will also be related to the rotational speed of esitablished the blend is produced by using two pumps arranged to discharge
the separator, the bowl radius and the specific gravity of the constituents in the into a common pipe. The size of the pipe is such that turbulent flow takes place
mixture. Separation of the constituents becomes increasingly easier as the and the two kinds of oil become well mixed. The speed of the two pumps is set
differences between their specific gravities increase. For this reason it becomes so that the proportion of each kind of oil passing into the common discharge is
necessary to preheat contaminated fuel or lubricating oils. maintained correctly.
Distillates from one crude stock type do not always blend well with residuals
A fuel with a density of 1.005 g/ml at 15°C will have a density similar to that
from another. This occurs when the smaller part is not soluble in the larger part.
below that of water at thesame tempwature. -
of water at 50°C. When this grade of oil is at 98°C it will have a density just
- If incompatible oils are used to produce a blended fuel, precipitation will occur.
This shows itself in the operation of the centrifugal purifiers which quickly fill
with asphaltic material and extreme difficulty may be experienced in
3.32 What is the difference between a strainer and a filter? Where are maintaining an adequate throughput of fuel through the purifier for the
strainers and filters used and how does a filter differ from a centrifugal requirements of the engine. This problem is well known to fuel oil suppliers and
separator? they take every care to blend compatible types of fuel.
Strainers and filters are similar in that they both serve to filter out contaminants Normally fuels from different sources should not be mixed aboard ship. A
68 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine 1-uels, Lu/mcurr/.t 7rcu1nrm1und Storuge 69

blend that is compatible in itself may not be compatible with a blend from Ship classification societies such-as the American Bureau of Shipping,
another origin, and precipitation may occur. Lloyd's Register of Shipping, Det Norske Veritas, and others, together with
some commercial concerns, offer a fuel testing service. The ship's engineers
take samples of the newly received fuel. These are sent through accredited
3.35 What are oil-water emulsions? Where may they occur? agents by one of the available fast courier services to a laboratory for analytical
Oil-water emulsions are liquid mixtures of small amounts of water finely tests. The results are notified to the owner within hours of the samples having
dispersed through the oil. Although heavier than oil the water remains in been taken. The ship's staff are notified of the result and advised of any require-
suspension. ments that may be necessary to avoid problems and risk of damage.
Oil-water emulsions may occur in fuel tanks; for instance when bunker fuel is Fuel tests can also be made on boardby the ship's engineers when the fuel is
taken into a double-bottom tank which has contained water ballast and not receiva. TheE tests will give an early warning of likely problems. Testing
been properly drained prior to receiving the oil. Emulsions may also occur in equipment sets for shipboard use are sold by various organisations.
the crankcase of diesel engines when the system oil becomes contaminated with Problems with poorquality fuel have sometimes begun when the department
residues of treated cylinder oils from diaphragm or scraper box leakage and purchasing fuel opted for what appeared to be the lowest-cost fuel without
small amounts of water. consultation with the technical department (See Question 4.40).
If the emulsions, due to ship movement and pumping, become stable,
considerable difficulties may arise. 3.38 Are any specifications available covering quality of fuel oil?
Additives can be used to break up unpumpable fuel-water emulsions. This
may be useful when these emulsions occur in places awkward and costly to clean Specifications covering fuel oil standards and quality have been drawn up by
such as double bottom tanks and the like. These additives are sold under various organisations. Some organisations involved in this work are the British
Standards institution(BSL); Conseil International des Machines a Combustion,
various trade names and are often based on mixtures of the high boiling point
fractions produced in coal tar distillation. One such mixture is known as cresylic commonly known by its acronym CIMAC; the International Standards
Organisation (ISO); the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM);
-
acid.
the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), in conjunction with many
others including international and national ship-owning organisations and
3.36 What is grease and where is it used? major oil suppliers.
'.
Grease is essentially a material used for lubrication of moving parts of Standards, including the I S 0 standards for intermediate marine fuels
machinery. It is generally made from a lubricating oil and a metallic soap. The (blended fuels), are now available, but they have not been universally adopted.
soap acts as a thickening agent and is dispersed in the oil; the resultant grease
may be semi-fluid or solid. Additives may be used in conjunction with the
lubricant to give the grease more desirable qualities.
Sometimes materials other than metallic soaps and lubricating oils are used
to produce a grease having characterisiics to suit special requirements.
Molybdenum disulphide is used in many applications where loads are high and
speeds slow.
Greases are used in electric motor bearings, roller and ball bearings and in
applications not easily accessible such as rudder bearings. Grease may also be
used to exclude foreign matter from bearings in circumstances in which seals
would be costly or impracticable.

3.37 What is the probability of a ship receiving bad fuel oil leading to
problems with themain propulsion and auxiliary engines?
Studies made byrvario_usorganisatiomnshow that there are limited chances of
receiving a badly contaminated fuel, high in solids and other material, leading
to problems with combustion and erosion of parts. But this does not mean that
it will not happen. If contaminated fuel does come aboard unnoticed, the
financial costs of repairs and lost time could be disastrous. Use should,
therefore, be made of the means available for testing the fuel received on board.
 Combustion and Fuel-Injection Systems 71

oil supply line to the pump. Guard plates are fitted round the bottom of the ram
to prevent fuel oil leakages going into the engine lubrication system.
Some fuel pumps are fitted with delivery valves. Where delivery valves are
fitted the wings on the valve are not cut through to the valve mitre; this part of
the valve acts as a piston. When the delivery valve opens, a large lift is required
to give it opening area; when delivery stops, the volume of the space between the
COMBUSTION AND pump and the injection valve is increased rapidly as the pump delivery valve
closes. This sharp incr-heinPCtion - valve-te-ireate-
FUEL-INJECTION SYSTEMS and prevents dribble.
The parts of a fuel pump are very robust to withstand the discharge pressures
built up in the fuel System. These pressures may be up to 450 bars (approx.
6500 lb/in2 or 450 kg/cm2).
The rotation of the fuel ram to meter the volume of fuel delivered by the fuel
pump may be controlled by a governor, in generators and alternators, or by the
fuel lever, in propulsion engines.

4.2 Describe how the fuel quantity delivered by a fuel-iniection pump

4.1 Briefly describe the principle of the fuel-iniection pump and give can be controlled through the pump suction valve.
reasons for the important points of design.
The amount of fuel delivered is controlled by the clearance or.lost motion of a
There is one pump for each cylinder. Fuel is pumped by a ram working in a tappet positioned under the fuel pump suction valve. The tappet lever is
sleeve, the ram being operated on the pumping stroke by a cam, and on the connected into a collar or slot on the fuel pump ram. The lever fulcrum is a
return stroke by a spring. It works at constant stroke, and the amount of fuel section of a small shaft which is made eccentric to the shaft bearings; rotation of
delivered is varied by varying the point in the stroke at which the pressure side of the shaft alters the eccentric position and in turn varies the tappet clearance.
the ram is put into communication with the suction side. When this point is The shaft may be connected to a governor or to the engine fuel lever.
reached the pressure drops suddenly, fuel ceases to be delivered to the engine When the fuel pump ram is in the bottom position, the suction valve is held
cylinder, and for the remainder of the stroke of the ram.oil is merely pumped open by the tappet. Upward movement of the ram moves one end of the lever
back to the suction side of the pump. The means of putting the pressure side of (connected to the ram) upwards and the other end (connected to the tappet)
the ram into communication with the suction side is a helix-shaped groove on downwards, and the suction valve comes on its seat. Further upward movement .-
the side of-the ram, registering with a hole in the sleeve; according to the of the ram builds up pressure in the fuel line; the fuel valve opens and fuel is, ;
rotational position of the ram the helix-shaped groove will register with the hole injected into the cylinder until the pump comes to the end of its stroke. This type
early or late in the stroke of the ram. of fuel pump is fitted with a delivery valve on the top of the pump chamber.
The requirements that lead to fuel-injection pumps being of this design are as Downward movement of the pump ram allows fuel to flow into the pump
follows. through the suction valve as in a normal pump.
1 The need to build up to full pressure very rapidly at the beginning of
injection so as to ensure full atomization immediately. Cams lend them- 4.3 How can fuel be take? off a cylinder without stopping the engine?
selves to design for very rapid initial movement of the ram.
2 The need to cut-off ram pressure as suddenly as possible to prevent dribbie. If it becomes necessary to take fuel off a cylinder without stopping the engine,
The opening of a port does this more effectively than the ending of a the fuel pump crosshead is lifted until the roller is clear of the cam peak. The by-
(variable) stroke. pass on the fuel valve must be opened before lifting the crosshead.
3 The need to deliver extremely small quantities of b e 1 whep the engine is A lever is supplied by the engine builder which connects to the pump cross-
running light, withthe sam2 requiremenis of rapid build-up, rapid cut-off, head through a bolt and finger-plate. Lifting the bolt with the lever connects the
and full atomization. Cam drive and port cut-off is the most effective way finger-plate to the underside of the pump crosshead, and lifts it as the lever is
of achieving this. pushed downwqds or upwards depending on the linkage arrangement. After
lifting, the crosshead can be fastened in the lifted position.
When the cut-off point occurs and fuel discharge stops, the rapid drop of In some cases the pump crosshead is lifted by a small pin on an axle. The pin
pressure causes a shock on the inlet line to the pump. This may be damped out is eccentric to the axle axis, and movement 6f the axle connects the pin with the
bv n $hock absorber fitted on the side of the fuel pump and connected with the crosshead, lifting the roller clear of the cam.
 72 Questions ond Answers on the Morine Diesel Engine .

4.4 What do you understand by the terms 'atomization', 'penetration' and

'turbulence'? tapped at the end for the spring adjusting screw and may also house an adjust-
ment screw to control the fuel-valve needle lift. The lower end of the centre hole
Atomization is the break-up of the fuel charge into very small particles when it is counterbored to house the spring which holds the needle valve on its seat.
is in~ectedin!o the cylinder. The end of the fuel valve or nozzle may be made in one, two, or three pieces
Penetration refers to the distance that the fuel particles travel or penetrate into
depending on the design.
The valve needle and spindle are in one piece, and are lapped into a very
the combustion chamber. accurately machined guide. Valves produced for operation on diesel fuel or gas
Turbulence or swirl refers to the air movement pattern within the combustion oil have a very small clearance while valves made for operation on high-
chamber at the end of compression. viscosity fud have a slightly larger clearance- to allow for temperature changes
when werking with heated fuel.
4.5 Why are atomization, penetration and turbulence most important? The lower end of the valve spindle is of smaller diameter and has a conical end
which forms the valve. The conical end comes on to the valve seat, below which
Correct combustion of the fuel and economic engine operation are dependent is an open space. The sprayer holes are drilled through the tip and connect into
upon proper atomization, penetration and turbulence. the space below the needle.
If the atomization is excessive, particles of fuel will be smaller and will have The end of the valve spindle is of reduced diameter and forms an annulus
insufficient kinetic energy to carry them through the combustion chamber within the guide end, into which both fuel inlet drilling and priming valve
space. The compressed air, being very dense, has a high resistance to the motion drilling lead:
of the particles. They will tend t o cluster around the fuel injector tip and then On the umer end of the valve spindle is a disc on which the valve spring bears.
become oxygen starved during combustion. The rate of combustion will be A similar &c on the top of the spring bears on the spring adjustment screw.
reduced, which may lead to after-burning. The nozzle tip is cooled by the circulation of coolant through the space
.If the atomization is insufficient the particles will be larger and will have around the bottom of the nozzle, which is connected to the cooling services
more kinetic energy when entering the combustion chamber. They will through holes drilled to the top of the valve body. .
therefore travel further into the combustion chamber space and some may come The nozzle end is fastened to the body by the capnut. The faces between the
to rest on the cylinder wall. This will lead to a lower rate of combustion and the parts carrying high-pressure fuel are lapped together to make them oil-tight.
possibility of after-burning. A carbon build-up will occur around the top of the The valve is held in the cylinder cover by studs passing through the flanged
cylinder liner and the side of the piston crown. end of thevalve body. A rubber ring may be fitted around the top of the valve to
The degree of penetration is dependent on the amount of atomization. prevent fluids and dirt entering the valve pocket. Gas-tightness is made by a
Atomization is obtained only at the expense of penetration, provided sprayer lapped joint between the end of the valve and the cylinder cover.
hole size, injection pressure and injection viscosity do not change. The valve is opened by a shock wave and by oil pressure within the annulus
Atomization, penetration and turbulence all contribute to obtaining the best formed at the end of the valve spindle, where it is machined to a smaller
conditions for the combustion of the fuel. The aim is to get the particles small diameter. Once the needle valve lifts off its seat the effective area subject to oil
enough to burn in the short time available, and evenly distributed throughout pressure increases from the annular area to the full cross-sectional area of the
the combustion chamber so that adjacent particles do not become oxygen spindle. This gives the valve a good effective lift and prevents any bleeding
starved during combustion. The penetration and turbulence contribute to action occuring across the valve seat.
evenly spaced particle distribution. The number of sprayer holes in a fuel-injection valve tip varies between three
and dghtSlandthey may have a diameter of 0.075 mm to 1.0 mm. They will be
4.6 Describe a fuel-injection valve. What size are the holes in the located t o give the most effective spray pattern. Some valve atomizer tips have
sprayer tip? holes of two different sizes.
The body of a fuel-injection valve is normally flanged at its upper end. The Some high-speed engines fitted with an antechamber have a fuel-injection
lower end is threaded to accommodate the sprayer nozzle and nozzle capnut. valve with a centrally located hole. There is a small tip on the end of the spindle
The body of the @ve contains four holes. One is for the fuel inlet and below the valve scat. This fits into the centrally located hole with a small
another for the fuel priming valve; these two holes are connected through a clearance around it. The small piece on the end of the spindle is called a pintle
common space within the f u e l n a Y l e n a Y l e o ~ space.
u l a r The remaining - m d the injector i! known as a pintle injector. It is less costly to manufacture
pair of holes accommodate the fuel valve cooling service inlet and outlet than a valve with a multiple number of spray holes of very small diameter
connections. (Fig. 4.1). The fuel valves fitted on small engines do not have cooled atomizer
The centre part of the body is drilled through and along its axis. This hole is tips. The fuel valves fitted on modem, long-stroke, slow-speed engines are not
cooled in a conventional manner; a continuous circulation of fuel through the
 74 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
-
Oil

Fig. 4.1 Pintle-type fuel injector used in high-speed automotive engine where
fuel is injected into an ante chamber.

valve (except when 'injection occurs) keeps the nozzle tip cool (see
Question 4.37).

4.7 When a fuel valve i s being tested the spray coverage is much greater
than the cylinder diameter. If the injection test pressure and valve lift are
correct;what occurs in the cylinder to prevent the fuel particles coming
into contoct with the piston or cylinder?
When a fuel valve is tested the spray emerges into air at normal temperature and
pressure, wthch is less dense than the air in a cylinder at the end of compression.
Resistance to movement of the fuel particles in dense air is much greater than in
air at atmospheric pressure; hence the spray coverage will be much less when it
emerges into air at high pressure and temperature, as in the combustion
chamber.

4.8 What i s the shape of the spray extending from a hole in a fuel
atomizer during injection of fuel?
The spray pattern of the fuel is cone-shaped. The d&sity offhe fuel particles is
greater towards the centre or core of the cone.

1 4.9 Describe the oction that takes place in the fuel pump, piping and
injection valves just prior to and during injection of fuel.
Before fuel can be injected into a cylinder the pressure must rise to the point at
which thc fuel valvc lifts. Thc pressure required will depend on various
factors, but will be between 245 and 445 bar. In some of the latest generation of
engines the fuel-injection pressures may go up to about 1000 bar; in some
 Combustion and Fuel-Injection Systems 75

medium-speed engines using lowcost fuels, higher injection pressures going up

to about 1250 bar may be used.
While the pressure is rising the parts of the system including the fuel pump,
piping and valve will be subjected to an increasing total strain. The increase in
strain causes an increase-btkvoktfttdtkespaee containing the-ftid an8
requires some time period for the effect t? take place; the time period is very
small. -
The cam and fuel-pump design is such that the initial upward movement of
the fuel ram continues with increasing acceleration. During this initial
acceleration fuel is discharged back into the suction side of the fuel pump. and
by the time the inlet port or suction valve is closed the fuel-pump ram is moving
at high velocity.
The rate of pressure rise is very high and transmits a shock wave through the
oil contained in the fuel-pressure piping: this shock wave causes the injection
valve to lift, and injection commences. The fuel pressure continues to rise after
injection commences at a rate dependent on the rate of fuel injection. The time
taken for valve opening during the rising pressure period is referred to as injec-
tion lag. It may be given as a measurement of time or as a crank displacement
angle.
When the fuel pressure falls at the end of injection the material of the parts of
the fuel system reverts to its normal size.

1 4.10 Fuel can be metered by controlling the fuel-pump suction volve or

by helix and port control. What important difference in effect does each
system have on iniection timing with change of load? d

Fuel pumps fitted with only one suction valve may use this valve to control
either the beginning or the ending of the injection period. This will be
determined by the location of the fulcrum point on the lever.controlling the
valve tappet.
The fuel quantity is metered by placing the fulcrum point on an eccentric.
Turning the eccentric alters the clearance of the tappet controlling the suction
valve and holds it open for a longer or shorter duration during the pump stroke.
If the fulcrum point is such that the valve tappet moves upwards when the
pump ram is moving upwards, the valve will control the ending of injection.
When the valve is opened by upward movement of the tappet, fuel is spilled into
the suction line until the ram reaches the top of its stroke. The beginning of
injection will always take place at the same crank position.
If the fulcrum point is such that the valve tappet moves downwards when the
pump ram is moving upwards, the valve will control the beginning of the fuel
injection period and the ending will always occur at the same crank position. As
the pump ram is moving upwards, fuel is spilled back into the suction line until
the valve closes and injection begins. As the load on the engine increases the
suction valve will close earlier and the commencement of injection will be
advanced relative to the crank position, but the ending of injection will not be
changed.
It is possible to control both the beginning and the ending of the fuel-injec-
tion period when two valves are fitted with each having its own connection to
76 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Ennine Combustion and Fuel-injection Systems 77

the fuel inlet side of the injection pump, and lever fulcrum positions located so
that one valve moves upwards when the other moves downwards. Each tappet
lever will require the fulcrum to be fitted on an eccentric.
With fuel pumps constructed in this manner the valve controlling the begin-
ning of injection is the suction valve. The valve controlling the end of injection
becomes the spill valve. As the fuel quantity is increased to suit an increasing
load the suction valve closes earlier and injection commences earlier. By
arranging controls to cover both valves it is possible to vary the injection
timing. Fuel cannot be discharged while either the suction or the spill valve
remains open. By aitanging external controls for the eccentrics it is possible to
make small changes in the injection timing without altering the angular position
of the fuel pump cam on the camshaft. (Fig. 4.2)
Note In fuel-injection pumps having a single suction valve, it is common
practice to arrange for the suction valve tappet to move in thcopposite direction
to the pump ram. The ram then gains some velocity before the suction valve
closes. This gives the high rate of pressure rise necessary in the fuel system to
obtain a sharp opening of the fuel-injection valve.
In the Bosch type of fuel pump, commonly referred to as a 'jerk' pump, the
angular position of the helix relative to the suction and spill ports controls the
quantity of fuel injected into the cylinder during each working cycle.
The angular position of the ram relative to the position of the suction and
spill ports varies the effective length of the discharge stroke to suit the fuel
demand of the load on the engine.
Injection commences when the ram is moving upwards and closes off the
suction and spill ports; injection ends when the continuing upward movement
again opens the ports in the pump barrel.
The direction in which the helical-edged slot is cut in the top of the ram
determines whether the commencement of injection or the ending of injection
varies with the position of the crank.
When a left-handed helical slot is cut, injection always commences at the
same crank position. The top edge of the ram closes off the ports and injection
_-
commences. The helical slot opens the ports, spill commences and injection
ends. The end of injection occurs later as the engine load increases and varies
with the circumferential position of the pump ram and with the crank angle.
If a right-handed helical slot is cut the commencent of the injection period valves.
begins when the edge of the helical slot cuts off the spill and suction ports, the Fig. 4.2 Fuel pump fitted with suction and spill
ending of injection occurs when the circumferential groove at the lower part of
the helix opens the ports and spill begins. The ending of injection always occurs size is reduced. It is obvious that a sphere of fuel having a volume of one cubic
at the same crank position. Commencement of injection begins earlier with millimetre will bum quicker than a Cphere of fuel having a volume of one cubic
increasing engine load. (Figs 4.3 and 4.4) centimetre provided neither are starved of air or oxygen. Similarly one may say,
one thousand spheres of fuel each having a volume of one cubic millimetre will
4.1 1 Why is it necessary to atomize the fuel charge when it is injected bum in the same time-span as one sphere having a volume of one cubic
into the cylinder? millimetre provided that sufficient air is available.
As the number of particles in a fuel charge is increased by making them
The time available for combustion of fuel is very small and by atomizing the smaller the sum of the surface areas of the particles increases. The smaller
fuel it is possible tommplete combustion within this time. particles have a greater amount of contact with air and this enables the fuel
The rate of combustion of fuel in compressed air increases when the particle
- - .- - - -- -
-- -charge t o bum faster (see Question 4.34).
 Combustion and Fuel-Injection Systems 75

medium-speed engines using lowcost fuels, higher injection pressures going up

to about 1250 bar may be used.
While the pressure is rising the parts of the system including the fuel pump,
piping and valve will be subjected to an increasing total strain. The increase in
strain causes an i n c r e a s e - i i H k w k t f t t d t k e ~ econtaining the-ftie! an8
requires some time period for the effect t? take place; the time period is very
small.
The cam and fuel-pump design is such that the initial upward movement of
the fuel ram continues with increasing acceleration. During this initial
acceleration fuel is discharged back into the suction side of the fuel pump, and
by the time the inlet port or suction valve is closed the fuel-pump ram is moving
at high velocity.
The rate of pressure rise is very high and transmits a shock wave through the
oil contained in the fuel-pressure piping: this shock wave causes the injection
valve to lift, and injection commences. The fuel pressure continues to rise after
injection commences at a rate dependent on the rate of fuel injection. The time
taken for valve opening during the rising pressure period is referred to as injec-
tion lag. It may be given as a measurement of time or as a crank displacement
angle.
When the fuel pressure falls at the end of injection the material of the parts of
the fuel system reverts to its normal size.

1 4.10 Fuel can be metered by controlling the fuel-pump suction valve or

by helix and port control. What important difference in effect does each
system have on iniection timing with change of load?
Fuel pumps fitted with only one suction valve may use this valve to control
either the beginning or the ending of the injection period. This will be
determined by the location of the fulcrum point on the lever.controlling the
valve tappet.
The fuel quantity is metered by placing the fulcrum point on an eccentric.
Turning the eccentric alters the clearance of the tappet controlling the suction
valve and holds it open for a longer or shorter duration during the pump stroke.
If the fulcrum point is such that the valve tappet moves upwards when the
pump ram is moving upwards, the valve will control the ending of injection.
When the valve is opened by upward movement of the tappet, fuel is spilled into
the suction line until the ram reaches the top of its stroke. The beginning of
injection will always take place at the same crank position.
If the fulcrum point is such that the valve tappet moves downwards when the
pump ram is moving upwards, the valve will control the beginning of the fuel
injection period and the ending will always occur at the same crank position. As
the pump ram is moving upwards, fuel is spilled back into the suction line until
the valve closes and injection begins. As the load on the engine increases the
suction valve will close earlier and the commencement of injection will be
advanced relative to the crank position, but the ending of injection will not be
changed.
It is possible to control both the beginning and the ending of the fuel-injec-
tion period when two valves are fitted with each having its own connection to
78 Questions and Answers on the M a r F e Diesel Engine Combustion and Fuel-Injection Systems 79

particle/fuel vapour/air mixture, accompanied by rapid temperature and

lnject~malwoys pressure increase. The pressure increase is accentuated by upward movement of
commences at same
crank ongle the piston. This seconQbse-efcenrbustien isshown on the p r e s s u r e d _
displacement diagram as a turning-point in the compression curve, after which
the pressure rise is very rapid; this point marks the commencement of the
second phase of combustion.
Towards the end of the rapid pressure rise a point will be reached where the
rate of pressure rise falls away quickly, and the curve flattens out towards the
maximum-pressure point. The point where the rate of pressure rise changes,
near and approaching the maximum-pressure point, marks the end of the
second phase of combustion. This point usually occurs just prior to the end of
injection.
The third phase of combustion shows only a small pressure rise, as the rate is
Fig. 4.3 Fuel pump ram with left-hand helix.
decreased due to downward movement of the piston. The end of injection
occurs approximately at or slightly beyond the maximum-pressure point.
-- -- -

% fuel % total
Combustion Crank charge heat
phase rotation injected Liberated Remarks
One 3"-20" 40-80 Nil Ignition delay period.
Fuel injected undergoes
lnject~malways physical and chemical
ends at same changes. More volatile
crank angle constituents vaporize. "
Two 5"-10" 10-40 35-70 Ignition started.
'a-b=effecl~vestroke Volatile and gaseous
constituents bum.
Pressure rise very rapid.
Fig. 4.4 Fuel pump ram with right-hand helix. Three 5" or more 10-20 30-65 Completion of combustion
of remaining fuel
- constituents.
4.12 Describe how the combus%ionof fuel commences and proceeds in a
diesel engine cylinder. Note The individual values for each engine type will vary, and further
variations will occur in the figures with load and fuel changes.
Combustion of the fuel charge takes place in three distinct phases, which are
shown on a pressure-crank displacement diagram or an out-of-phase indicator
card. 4.13 What is after-bu'rning, and how is it caused?
The fuel emerges in@ the cylinder as small liquictparticks which are After-burning is said to occur when the third phase of combustion extends over
surrounded by hot compressed air. They receive heat from the air, and the more a long period. It may be caused by incorrect fuel grade, bad atomization, poor
volatile constituents of the fuel vaporize. The vapour formed surrounds each or excess penetration, incorrect fuel temperature, incorrect injection timing,
particle and leaves a trail as the particle moves into the combustion chamber. insufficient air supply, or any combination of these. .
The shape of the spray from each nozzle hole is conical and the particles are at Slow-burning, high-viscosity, highdensity, high carbon content fuels may
a greater density at the central core of the cone; the fuel particles on the outside also cause after-burning of a serious nature leading to engine damage.
of the cone therefore receive heat faster than those towards the core.
After the start of injection, self-ignition of the vapour occurs and com- 4.14 What effects does after-burning have on an engine?
bustion commences. The time-span between commencement of injection
and the start of ignition is referred to as the ignition delay period. During the After-burning creates high exhaust temperatures and may cause over-heating
ignition delay period a large part of the fuel charge is prepared for combustion. of the engine in severe cases. It is usually accompanied by some drop in
After ignition commences flame propagation proceeds very quickly in the fuel the maximum firing pressure. There is a loss of thermal efficiency when
80 Questions and Answers on the ~ a r i n ' eDiesel Engine - Combuition and Fuel-Injection System 81

after-burning occurs, due to a greater loss of heat to exhaust gases and the temperature increases the amount of after-burning. Eventually the point will be
transfer of larger amounts of heat to the cooling water. There is a risk of reached when fuel will come into contact with the piston crown, the sides of the
damage to exhaust valves and of scavenge fires. piston, and the cylinder walls, and will burn on the surfaces of these parts.
The fuel coming into contact with the cylinder walls destroys the lubricant
4.15 How does the viscosity of a fuel change with increase of pressure? and causes increased wear. Fuel on the piston sides enters the ring grooves,
forms carbon, and eventually seizes the rings in the grooves so that blow-past
As the pressure rises in the fuel system during injection there is a considerable occurs; finally the sides of the piston burn away in localized areas.
rise in the viscosity of the oil under pressure. The table shows the increase in While an engine will continue to operate with fuel at quite low temperatures,
viscosity of a fuel oil having the following properties: the consequences are disastrous and result is very costly repair work to correct
viscosity at 100°C = 25 cSt the damage.
densityat1S0C = 0.991g/ml
density at 100°C = 0.941 g/ml 4.18 Briefly describe the various causes of dark-coloured smoke in the
- -
exhaust gas of a diesel engine.
Pbar 0 150 300 450 600 Darkcoloured smoke is caused by fine unburnt carbon particles being present
P psi 0 2175 4350 6525 8700 in the exhaust gases owing to poor or incomplete combustion of the fuel. The
Vis, CP 23.5 29.8 37.8 47.9 60.7 shade darkens as the amount of carbon particles in the gas increases. Poor
Vis. cSt 25.0 31.7 40.2 50.9 64.5 combustion is usually due to faults in the fuel-injection equipment or to
The values given for the increase of viscosity are approximate calculated values insufficient air supply.
for a fuel obtained from a paraffinic base crude. Possible faults in injection equipment are dirty injector tips, incorrkt spring
setting pressures, incorrect valve lift, or incorrect timing of fuel-injection ,,>,
pumps. Leakage of fuel from individual fuel pumps, pipes and valves can cause;l?p
4.16 What is the fuel viscosity range within which fuel-injector volves ore 1

designed to work?
imbalance of power and overloading of the other cylinders.
Air supply may be insufficient because of dirty air filters, faults in turbo-
Sprayer hole sizes are interrelated with injection pressure requirements and blowers, worn-out inlet valve cams, or dirty scavenge ports.
penetration requirements, rate of injection and the type of fuel burned in the
engine. 4.29 How-would youinvestigate ond find the causes of an engine
For engines operating on marine diesel oil the injectors are manufactured to smoking?
operate with a fuel having a viscosity between 5.0 cSt and 15 cSt at injection
temperature. When starting to investigate the cause of smoke there may be some difficulty in
For engines burning heavy fuel oils the viscosity of the oil is controlled by the locating which engine is smoking, since wind may drift the smoke from one
temperature of the fuel leaving the oil heater. The viscosity of the fuel leaving exhaust pipe over another. When the offending engine has been identified it
the heater is maintained between 10.0cSt and 15.0cSt. Engine manufacturers must be investigated to find if one cylinder is causing the trouble or whether the
sometimes quote a maximum viscosity that should not be exceeded and this fault is in all cylinders.
figure is about the same as the maximum viscosity of diesel oil, that is 20 cSt. In The plugs or cocks that are usually found on each exhaust elbow or branch
all cases the engine builder's recommended figure for fuel viscosity should be leading into the manifold should be removed one at a time, and the exhaust
complied with. gases examined for smoke as they blow out. It is sometimes helpful to use a
It must also be remembered that overheating the fuel may lead to fouling or white surface with good light-repecting qualities and extra lighting to assist in
coking of the fuel oil heaters. the observati6ns. If all the cylinders are found to be-.smoking. the following
points should be checked.
-
4.17 What is the consequence of operating an engine on high-viscosity
Some engines are not fitted with plugs or cocks on the exhaust branches. In
fuel at too low o temperature? such cases the fuel may be shut off each cylinder in turn while the exhaust outlet
on the funnel or stack is kept under observation. The cylinder having the
If an engine is operated with a fuel of the high-viscosity type at too low a combustion fault is identified when the smoke clears after shutting off the fuel
temperature the injection viscosity will be too high. This will affect the degree to a particular cylinder.
of atomization and penetration. Engines operating on heavy fuel should have the fuel temperatures checked
With a small decrease below the correct fuel temperature poor atomization and corrections made if necessary.
and penetration will cause after-burning to occur. Further decrease of the fuel If the fuel temperature is correct and the engine is pressure-charged, the
82 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Combustion and Fuel-Injection Systems 83

air-inlet filters and downstream air pressure should be checked and related to trouble is usually caused by operating the fuel-valve cooling service at too high a
engine load and turbo-blower revolutions. A common cause of trouble is dirty temperature, in which case lowering the temperature of the coolant discharge
air filters, particularly if the atmosphere is dusty as can occur in certain parts of will solve the problem.
the world or when handling dusty cargoes in port. Dirty air filters usually A secondary cause is poor closing of the fuel valve, e.g. sluggish shut-off,
increase the exhaust temperature on all cylinders, but the rise may not be the which allows oil to bleed slowly at and towards the end of injection. If this
same on each. secondary cause is present with the first, serious combustion problems may
Most naturally aspirated engines are fitted with an air-intake filter to the inlet arise.
valve manifold, but it is not usual to find instrumentation on the manifold. If the fuel-valve cooling service is kept at too low a temperature, corrosion
Dirty air filters on these engines will show up on the induction pressure line on a may occur on the parts of the fuel injector having contact with combustion,
light-spring indicator card. If an indicator and spring suitable for the engine gases. If it is Kept at too high a temperature carbon trumpets may form on the
speed are available a light-spring card should be taken. If no indicator is avail- tip around the sprayer holes.
able the air filter should be temporarily removed and a check made to see if the
engines still smokes. In some cases the air filter can be removed without 4.21 What is the shape and angle of fuel-valve needles and seats?
stopping the engine, but if there is any danger the engine should be shut down to
remove the filter and then re-started to make the check, which must be made Fuel-valve needles and seats are now always conical, but in some older, slow-
with the engine on the same load as before. speed, two-stroke cycle engines flat-ended needles and seats may still be found.
Two-stroke port-scavenged engines may smoke when the scavenge ports In some cases modern needle-type fuel valves have been retrofitted where flat-
become fouled, but this fault will be indicated by a rise in scavenge pressure or ended seats were used.
turbo-blower discharge pressure. There is no set angle for the needle end of the valve, as manufacturers decide
Smoke from an individual cylinder is usually found to be due to a dirty fuel on the angle which they feel gives the best service. Generally the included angle
valve or valves. If, after the fuel valve has been changed, the cylinder unit is still of the needle used by the various makers is between 40" and 70".
found to smoke, checks will have to be-made on f i e fuelgump delivery When conical ends are used the outer end of the cone is ground to a slightly
pressure, fuel-pump delivery v5lves (if fitted), maximum firing pressures, and larger angle than the angle between the contact surface of the valve and seat.
exhaust temperatures. If the engine speed is such that an out-of-phase indicator This difference in angle provides an increasing linear clearance from the outer
card can be taken, the combustion pressure rise and compression pressure contact line of the valve and seat to the end of the needle seat. In practice it is
should be checked with the indicator by taking an out-of-phase card and a found that this clearance gives sharper closing of the valve and reduces any
compression card, which should be checked for abnormalities. tendency to dribble during the cut-off period. The clearance also allows for
When a fuel valve is changed the old valve should be checked for leakage, longer periods between fuel valve changes or overhauls.
setting pressure, and lift. The condition of the sprayer holes, hole edges and
diameter of the hole should also be carefully checked. If any condition is found 4.22 How does atomization and penetration occur during injection?
that might cause smoke it can be corrected when the valve is overhauled.
The fuel is at high pressure when it passes through the fuel-injection valve. The
lift should be adequate so that the pressure drop across the needle and needle
4.20 What is the cause of patterned carbon formations building up on seat is minimal, and should also be such that needle bounce does not occur.
fuel-valve nozzles? When the pressure wave moves up the fuel piping between the pump and the
This phenomenon may be found on any fuel-valve nozzle but is usually seen on valve, the wave and its reflection cause the needle to lift by first acting on
fuel valves using high-viscosity fuel. The carbon builds up into 'petal' or the annulus formed by the difference in the area of the needle and the valve
'trumpet' formations which interfere with the spray pattern and cause poor spindle. As soon as the needle lifts off its seat the pressure acts on the whole
combustion resulting in smoke, high exhaust temperatures, and increased fuel of the sectional area of the spindle and gives a very rapid needle opening.
consumption. Fuel passes into the fuel sac and first displaces the hot fuel remaining in the
Between the fuel-valve seat and the spray holes is a small space, sometimes sac from the previously injected charge, forcing it into the combustion chamber
called the sac. After fuel injection the sac contains fuel which can become space. This is followed by the new charge and discharge of fuel continues.
overheated. The fuel leaves the sprayer holes in the sac with a very high velocity and as the
This, in mild cases, causes some fuel to issue from the spray holes, which fuel issues from a sprayer hole it meets the dense air in the combustion
chamber. The fuel at the outer surface of the jet emerging from the hole is in a
burns or cokes and forms carbon around the edge of the holes. The carbon turbulent state from the eddies created within the sprayer hole. The friction
formation gradually builds up and interferes with the spray pattern, affecting from the dense air causes these fuel particles to separate from the outer layers of
atomization and penetration and consequently causing after-burning. In severe the jet. The fuel from the centre of the hole has much less turbulence and
cases the lighter constituents of the fuel may boil 2nd burn within the sac. The
84 Ouesrions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Combustion and fie/-Injection Systems 85

penetrates further into the combustion chamber. As the outer layers of fuel
break off into separate particles the inner parts of the jet become subject to air
-
to make. Engine instruction books should be consulted for information
applicable to the engine c o n m d .
friction. The diameter of the hole should be checked to see that it is not over-size to the
By the time this happens the pressure within the cylinder has risen owing to engine builder's limits. This check must be made carefully. First, the hole must
the heat and pressure rise from combustion of the outer layers, and the friction be cleaned, either by soaking in solvent o r by using the cleaning drills and hand
effects increase as the gas pressure in the cylinder rises. chuck provided by the engine builder.
Since the fuel in the centre of the jet has less turbulence, the density of the After cleaning with solvent the hole diameter should be checked with g o h o -
particles in the central core is greater than that of the particles at the outer layers go wire gauges or, if the valves are large, with the largest cleaning drill supplied
of the spray pattern. in the cleaning kit. In checking hole sizes care must be taken not to damage the
The degree of atomization and penetration is dependent on the viscosity of holes, or to break the gauge or drill in the hole. If the hole is oversize to the
the fuel. If the viscosity is too high atomization is reduced and penetration is maker's recommendation the nozzle should be scrapped.
increased; if the viscosity is too low atomization increases and penetration The condition of the outer surface of the hole is also an indication of fitness
decreases. or otherwise. If it is rounded-off and has lost its square edges it should be
scrapped. Comparison of the old nozzle end with a new unused nozzle by visual
4.23 What is the direction of fuel spray relative to air movement or examination under a good magnifying glass gives a good indication of whether
turbulence within an engine with an open combustion chamber? it is fit for further use, especially if that particular valve has been changed
Usually the spray direction is approximately 90" to the direction of air motion.
Some engines with two or more fuel valves inject the fuel tangentially to the
cylinder bore and in the same direction as the rotation of the air. There are no
clear formulae or rules on fuel-spray direction relative t o direction of air
movement. Generally a small amount of turbulence is preferred to large
amounts. Perfecting of combustion is conducted on the test bed during
b previously because of a tendency to cause smoking when the engine was on
load.
Fuel leakage across the seat is not usually a cause for scrapping a nozzle end,
as leakage can nearly always be rectided.
Sometimes fuel valves are returned to the makers for overhaul, and when this
is the case, any valve giving doubts as to condition should be suitably tagged
and the facts reported to the superintendent.
development of new engines, and sometimes very small changes have large
overall effects on combustion and fuel consumption. Note Most large, slow-speed engine fuel valves have the tip or nozzle portion
of the valve forming the needle seat and the sac made so that an old fuel-valve
tip may be removed and replaced by a new one.
4.24 What is the shape of the hole and the material section surroundlng
a fuel-valve sprayer?
The spray holes are drilled with small-diameter twist drills from the outer part 4.26 What is the difference between a fuel priming pump and o fuel
surcharge pump? For how long and whsn should each be used?
of the tip into the sac space. The transverse section of the hole is circular. & -
The thickness of the metal of the tip is arranged to give a certain ratio of A fuel priming pump is used to prime the fuel pressure pumps, pipe lines and
length of hole, to hole diameter, which is often of the order of 3 to 1, although fuel valves on engines fitted with a common-rail fuel system as found on some
wider variations may be found. An increased length of hole in relation to hole opposed-piston engines. The priming pump should only be used for a few
diameter increases the amount of fuel penetration. There is also a relationship seconds, and if no response is seen on the fuel-pressure gauge the cause should
between cylinder diameter and hole diameter. be investigated and found before the priming pump is used again.
The ends of the hole are usually left clean and square as any further work on The common-rail system should be checked for open drains and open bypass.
them greatly increases production costs. valves. The fuel-injector valves should also be checked with the hand fork lever
Some large-size fuel valves have the sac end of the sprayer hole machined to see that they are properly closed. If any are found open, or some doubt exists
with a radius to improve the coefficient of discharge. This allows the sprayer as to their being properly closed, the scavenge trunk doors should be opened
hole to be made with a smaller diameter and aids penetration and atomization. and the engine turned so that all the lower pistons can be examined for the
The back of the small hole may be machined out by a process known as electron presence of fuel oil. If any is present it should be cleaned out.
discharge machining. When the scavenge doors are off, the priming pump may be used again to
check the fuel valves for leakage, since any leakage can be seen through the
4.25 How would you decide whether a fuel-valve nozzle end was fit for scavenge doors and ports, as the leaking fuel usually runs down the cylinder
further service? . liner.
The cause of any lack of pressure response on the fuel-pressure gauges, when
The decision whether to scrap a fuel-valve nozzle or use it is sometimes difficult using the priming pump, must be found before any attempt is made to turn the
 86 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Combustion and Fuel-Injection Systems 87
/

engine on starting air. Before the engine is put on starting air it must be turned a supplied by the engine builder. After cleaning, the sac and holes should be
complete revolution with the turning gear, with the indicator cocks open for washed out with clean paraffin or solvent using a syringe.
observation and the scavenge drains being watched for the presence of fuel oil. The valve seating surface requires very careful examination. If the valve has a
Fuel surcharge pumps are used with high-viscosity fuel to keep the suction conical end, it should be given the lightest smear of blue marking and then put
side of fuel-injection pumps under pressure, thus preventing the hot oil from into the cleaned guide and seat and carefully rotated. After removal the conical
gassing and forming vapour locks within the fuel pump. end should be checked for indication of seating width. If the seating width is
In most installations the surcharge pump is kept in service from preparing the narrow and the valve was found to be leaking, it may be lapped with any one of
engine for standby, during manoeuvring and passage, and until after the the variety of special lapping compounds available or with jeweller's rouge.
'finished with engines order is received.
9 After lapping, a check should again be made for seat width and if in order the
The fuel surcharge pump is sometimes used only during standby and valve can be reassembled and tested. The condition of the seat should also be
manoeuvring periods if the head from the daily service tank is sufficient to checked.
prevent gassing of the fuel in th_esuction lines and fuel pumps., Flat-seated valves should be treated in a similar manner, with the exception of
Use of the fuel surcharge pump will be different if the engine is manoeuvred the blue marking check for scat width. The construction of a flat-seated valve is
on diesel fuel. After 'full away' the surcharge pump will be brought into use for such that the width remains very nearly constant. If the end of the flat-seated
the change-over to high-viscosity fuel and then kept in use or closed down valve is not counterbored it may be lightly lapped to prevent any small ridges
depending on the head of the daily service tank above the main engine fuel- forming, but lapping should be kept to a minimum.
injection pumps. If the valve was fuel-tight under pressure it should not be lapped but must be
If no surcharge pump is used during 'full away' operation the temperature of retested for fuel-tightness after assembly.
the fuel in the daily service tank must be kept sufficiently high to prevent When reassembling fuel valves the threads of the capnut should be lubricated
. pipeline friction becoming too much for the head available. If the temperature with the lubricant recommended by the engine builder. In the absence of any
of the fuel in the tank drops, the fuel viscosity increases and causes line drag. instructions molybdenum disulphide grease is often used, but with this grease
Gassing may than occur on the downstream side of the fuel heater and allow a care must be taken to avoid overtightening parts. If the parts are assembled and
vapour lock to form in thelfuel pumps. tightened t o rated torque figures the correct lubricant must be used; if the
correct lubricant is replaced by another giving much lower coefficient of
Note Surcharge pumps are also known as service pumps, booster pumps, friction the parts will be overstrained during assembly and tightening.
fuel-feed pumps and primary pumps. Some fuel valves are constructed in such a manner that the spray comes from
one side of the valve or must point in some special direction. These fuel-injec-
4.27 Describe the removal, overhauling procedures and requirements, tion valves have locating pins within the various parts to ensure that the spray
and replacement of large fuel-injection valves. direction is maintained correctly. Care must be taken during assembly to see
that the locating pins are fitted and that they are not damaged or bent.
Removal of fuel-injection valves. The local area around the fuel valve should Testing of fuel valves requires that the valve be set to the correct injection
first be cleaned to prevent any dirt or other material entering or draining into pressure and tested for tightness at a pressure just below the injection pressure.
the cylinder. The cooling services must be shut off. After all connections have The lift of the fuel valve should also be correctly set. Some fuel valves have
been removed the valve should be lifted out from the cylinder cover with a direct internal spacer rings which are used to limit lift; if the valve is so fitted the lift
lead so that the pull is in line with the axis of the valve. need usually only be checked and regulated when fitting new pans to the valve.
When the valve is removed from the cylinder the nozzle end must be capped The angle of the spray must also be checked. Some engine builders supply a
off to protect it during transport into racks or stores area. The opening into the gauge or shroud to carry out this test. This is fitted over the nozzle end of the
cylinder should also be protected- with a plug or blank to prevent ingress of valve and the jets from the nozzle must pass through the holes or slots without
liquids, dirt and solid objects.- wetting the surfaces around the hole or slots.
Overhaul of fuel valves. The external parts of the fuel valve must be cleaned, The cooling space of the tip is sealed from the pressure space by lapped
and the fuel valve tested first for lift and injection pressure, and then for surfaces or composition O-rings. If the valves are fitted with O-rings they
leakage or bleed at a pressure just beEG the lifting pressure. If the valve is should be renewed at each valve overhaul.
found to be fuel-tight it will be a guide to the amount of work required on the When the seal between the pressure space and the cooling space is made by
valve. lapped surfaces, difficulties sometimes arise through leakage of fuel into the
After testing, the valve must be stripped down, the internal parts cleaned with cooling space, thus contaminating the coolant. Testing for leakage into the
paraffin or solvent and a lint-free rag, and then carefully examined. Any edge- cooling space may be carried out by filling the cooling space with coolant and
rypc filters on the valvc .should also bc carefully cleaned. The spray holesand plugging one of the c o h c ~ e c ~ T side~ is cannected e r to a-
\ac \hould he cleaned either by soaking in solvent or cleaning with the kit pressure gauge which will register low pressures. Air must be removed from the
-
88 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Combustion ond Fuel-Injection Systems 89

cooling space before fitting the pressure gauge. The pressure side of the fuel In unmanned engine rooms, when the high-pressure fuel pipe connections
valve is then put under pressure with the test pump and the pressure held at a have been checked following engine operation, the screens and high-pressure
value approaching the injection pressure. Leakage will show by a lowering of pipe coverings must be replaced before the engine room is left unmanned. In
pressure on the fuelside and a rise in pressure an the coolant side. some cases the coverings must be fitted at the time the fuel pipes are connected;
Testing for fuel leakage into the cooling spaces requires the test pump to be in
fkst-~lrtffconditkm, - ~ ~ f u g L ~ Y ons the a fuel
~ g valve must be
- in this case the drain connections from the covering must be broken and the
- grain checked foi oil outflow from any high-pressure connections.
absolutely tight.
The working space where fuel valves are overhauled and tested must be kept
perfectly clean because of the precision required during fitting and assembly. 4.28 Describe the methods of checking maximum cylinder pressures.
Spanners and wrenches used to dismantle and assemble valves must be a good What effects are likely to be experienced-following operation with too
high and too low maximum igtrnder pressures? How con the maximum
fit on the part to be loosened or tightened, as any slackness causes damage and
cylinder pressure be increased or decreased?
raises burrs. This creates difficulties when subsequently working on the valves.
Fuel valves held in a vice should be protected with copper vice clamps. Maximum cylinder pressures can be checked with a normal indicator on a slow-
Fuel test pumps should only be filled with clean filtered oil from clean vessels. speed engine; on medium-speed engines they can also be checked with special
Tins of lapping compound should have the lids replaced so that the indicators which have low inertia, or by a piezoelectric transducer instrument
compound does not become contaminated with any coarse material which built into electronic circuits arranged for measuring and recording pressure.
might damage the valve.
When fuel valves are stored in racks after testing, the nozzle protecting caps Note An indicator should not be used on an engine operated at a greater speed
should be fitted in place and the fuel and cooling connections must be capped than recommended for the instrument. The inertia effects will cause the
off to prevent entry of dirt or foreign matter. measured pressures to be higher than the actual cylinder pressure.
Replacement of fuel valves. After removal of a fuel valve the pocket should be On high-speed engines the maximum cylinder pressures can be checked with a
carefully cleaned out and the landing seat in the pocket lapped with the lapping maximum pressure indicator which gives a reading of the cylinder pressure.
jig. Afterwards the seat must be cleaned and the pocket examined for condition. When an indicator is used to check maximum pressures, a paper should be
Prior to the fitting of the fuel valve the landing seat on the fuel valve must be fitted on the drum, the atmospheric line should be marked and the cord slowly
cleaned, and lapped if necessary. The seal rings used to prevent ingress of dirt pulled when making the pressure recordings. This will give a wave-formed line,
into the pocket must be fitted on the valve. the height of the wave peaks giving the maximum pressures when related to the
Examination of the cylinder space prior to fitting a valve must be done with spring number. If there are variations in the maximum pressures a mean value
the piston on bottom centre as this obviates blind spots and prevents any object must & >aken.
being hidden. After making certain nothing has fallen into the cylinder the fuel When taking maximum cylinder pressures the compression pressures should
valve should be immediately placed in the cylinder cover. The tightening and also be recorded. The difference between the maximum and compression
hardening up of the fuel-valve securing studs must be done carefully to ensure pressures gives the pressure rise from combustion of fuel.
that each stud is taking the same load. This prevents distortion of the valve, If an engine is operated with maximum combustion pressures in excess of the
which may cause difficulties in operation, and reduces the chances of gas designed maximum, the crankshaft will be subjected to greater stresses than the
leakage across the landing face of the valve and cover. design allows for. This may initiate fatigue cracks in the crankshaft or engine
After opening the plugged fuel and cooling-water connections, the service structure. With modern two-stroke engines, trouble may be experienced with
pipes to the fuel valves must be connected and any tests on them carried out as the crosshead bearings or gudgeon pin bearings owing to the excess load.
soon as possible. Normally cylinder relief valves should lift and give warning of excess pressure,
After the ship is under way the area around the fuel valve should be checked but if there is any malfunction of the valve serious damage may occur.
for any noise caused by leakage and any leakage rectified. This is sometimes Opefating an engine at a low maximum combustion pressure increases fuel
overcome by tightening the valve securing nuts a very small amount. If the valve consumption progressively asthe maximum combustion pressure falls.
is put down on a clean, properly lapped landing no leakage problems should be The maximum combustion pressure may be increased or decreased by
experienced. If leakage is present in only small amounts it can lead t o the danger advancing or retarding the fuel-pump cam relative to the crank position. Helix
of repeated false fire alarms being sounded. The landing faces on the fuel valve and port-control type fuel pumps can also be lowered or raised on their founda-
and cylinder head may be cut badly if leakage is allowed to persist. tion t o increase or decrease the maximum cylinder pressure.
The engine builder's instructions regarding allowable torque on fuel-valve In fuel pumps controlled by suction or spill valves, the cam can be advanced
studs and nuts should always be complied with. Many modern engines have a or retarded by means of a radial spline with very fine teeth cut on the side of a
set of Belleville washers fitted between the fuel-valve flange and the nuts. collar and the side of the cam, which is bolted to the collar. The bolts must be
90 Ouestions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Combustion and Fuel-Injection Systems 91

released and the cam eased away from the spline in order to advance or retard check that the firing pressure is correct, it is desirable to put the engine on to full
the cam as required; after adjustment the bolts must be tightened and locked. load conditions; this is easy to arrange with diesel auxiliary engines used for
Alteration of the cam position by advancing or retarding does not alter the electrical generating purposes. When the engine is on full load the maximum
amount of fuel injected. pressure and the compression pressure should be checked out for each cylinder,
Note Before removing a cam from its spline, reference lines should always be and the figures tabulated.
scribed on the cam and some fixed point on the shaft or collar so that the The maximum firing pressures obtained during the test should be compared
with the test-bed data for the engine in question. If they are low, the compres-
original position of the cam can be verified, and also -
advance or retard. - - -
to check the amount of
sion pressures can be checked t o ascertain whether- the low maximum firing
pressure is caused by low compression pressure.
With helix and port-control fuel pumps one method of advancing or retarding With high-powered, slow-speed, direct-coupled engines and multi-engined
commencement of fuel injection is to raise or lower the fuel pump. Pumps geared installations, it is not always possible to operate the main engines at full
designed for adjustment in this way have a machined plate fitted between the power (except in navigational emergency) because of Company's orders or for
fuel-pump base and the fuel-pump foundation or bracket. As wear takes place other reasons. In such circumstances it is necessary to obtain the engine charac-
on cams, bearings, and shafting, it is sometimes necessary to lift off the fuel teristics, which are a graphical record of the test-bed results plotted against a
pump, remove the plate and reduce its thickness by accurate machining. This base line of brake horsepower.
compensates for the wear which has taken place and restores the maximum If the propeller shafting is fitted with a torsion meter, the torsion meter
pressure to its original value. This method of adjustment is only used for should be used to obtain a brake horsepower. At the time the brake horsepower
making small pressure increases. is taken the maximum firing pressure and compression pressure should be taken
Lowering the fuel-pump body causes injection to commence earlier and also for each cylinder and the results tabulated.
to finish earlier. The actual stroke of the fuel-pump ram remains the same. The The brake horsepower obtained from the torsion meter should be marked on
effective stroke of the fuel-pump ram also remains unchanged. the base line against the corresponding brake horsepower figure, and a vertical
One type of engine using a helix and port-control type fuel pump has an line projected upwards to intersect the compression line and maximum-pressure
arrangement consistink of a thread on a circular projection of the fuel-pump line. Horizontal lines drawn through the intersection of the vertical line and the
cover which fits into the pump casing. A cage is screwed on to the threaded curve of compression pressure and maximum pressure will give the values for
projection. The outer portion of the cage has a gear cut on it which is matched these on the scale at the side corresponding to the power at which the pressures
to a pinion on a spindle passing through the cover. Turning the spindle causes were taken.
the cage to turn and move up or down on the thread. The cage is cut with ports The values obtained from the engine may then be checked against those
which connect through to a suction valve fitted circumferentially within the obtained from the engine characteristics.
pump barrel. The pump barrel fits against the lower edge of the movable cage. If there is no torsion meter, indicator cards must be taken and the indicated
An axial slot is cut in the outer edge of the barrel and this engages with~adowel horsepower of the engine obtained.
screw. From the characteristics of the engine it will be possible to obtain a value for
By slacking off the pump cover nuts it is possible to turn the sleeve or cage mechanical efficiency corresponding to the engine speed (rev/min). The
and move it up or down. Up-and-down movement of the sleeve forces the pump product of the mechanical efficiency and the indicated horsepower gives the
barrel up or down and the dowel screw prevents rotation of the pump barrel. A brake horsepower. The characteristics of the engine can then be used as
true axial movement of the p u a barrel is consequently obtained without described earlier.
altering the circumferential relationship of the helix and port. Easy control of It should be noted that large ships in ballast condition will have a higher
the maximum pressure is obtained as movement downwards causes injection to engine speed, for the same power output, than in loaded condition. While the
take place earlier without altering the period of injection, since the effective curves can be used as a check they will not be absolutely true.
stroke and the actual stroke of the fuel pump have not been altered (see Fig. 4.7 With multi-engined, geared-propulsion installations the compression pres-
and Question 18.51). sures and maximum pressures can be checked as described for slow-speed,
direct-coupled engines, but all engines must be working and connected to the
propeller. - - --- . - . - - - - --

4.29 Describe how you would determine whether fhe maximum firTn2 5 If the engine is connected to a controllable-pitch propeller, there is every
combustion pressure was correct for propulsion engines and auxiliary likelihood that the engine governor control progresively reduces engine speed
engines. to some idling speed at zero pitch. If the characteristic curves for the engine
are drawn up according to the cube law as for solid propellers (power varies as
Modern turbo-charged engines show a considerable rise in compression the speed cubed), the propeller pitch control should be brought to hand control
pressure and firing pressure as the load on the engine is increased. In order to and the pitch adjusted to give a power and speed (revlmin) corresponding to
the engine characteristics. This will usually bring the propeller to approximately
the maximum pitch position.
Note Some ships can manoeuvre with bridge controls by controlling propeller
pitch. In such cases the propeller pitch control is from the bridge while the vessel
is at sea, and the pitch control must not, therefore, be switched from the bridge
to the engine room or local control without arrangement and agreement from
the bridge officer, and the master and chief engineer.
If maximum fir]- pressures are found to be low due to low compression
pressure, the condition will usually correct itself when pistons are lifted and new
piston rings are fitted; - -- -
If all the maximum firing pressures are low it is usually due to wear and tear
of working parts such as tooth wear on geared fuel-pump drive, chain link wear
and stretch, and chain wheel sprocket wear on chain drives.
Before any change is made to fuel pump settings the causes must be fully
investigated and the reasons established. The tests should also be conducted
with fuel obtained at different bunkering locations.
A check of indicator card records will also show if the change has been slowly
progressive.
n
4.30 what do you understand by the term 'variable injection timing'?
Variable injection timing is a form of fuel pump control enabling an engine to
operate with the designed maximum cylinder firing or combustion pressure
% Fig. 4.5 Cylinder pressure plotted against engine load.
from approximately 75% power output to maximum power. This improves
thermal efficiency and lowers fuel consumption.
The fuel consumption for an engine at any load will be related to the gives a higher ratio of expansion over a wider load range, thus increasing
expansion ratio of the combustion gases from their maximum pressure to the thermal efficiency.
pressure at the commencement of exhaust blowdown.
The maximum cylinder pressure is a factor used in the design of the crank-
shaft and other important engine parts. In a normal engine the maximum
4.31 Describe how variable injection timing is effected. .
cylinder pressure is reached only at full power operation, whereas with variable If a fuel pump fitted with a suction valve and a spill valve is considered, it can be
injection timing the maximum cylinder pressure is reached at about 75% of the seen that the injection timing can be altered by changing the positions on the
full load. The expansion ratio is therefore increased when the engine is eccentrics controlling the suction valve and the spill valve.
operating under light loads right up to full load. If the position of the tappet controlling the suction valve is lowered, injection
In a normal engine the cylinder pressure plotted against the engine load is is commenced earlier but the fuel quantity will be increased. If the tappet
nearly a straight line sloping upwards and reaching its maximum value at controlling the spill valve is raised, the end of injection is made earlier and the
maximum load. increased quantity of fuel delivered is reduced and may be brought back to its
If the cylinder pressure is plotted against the engine load in an engine with original level. The timing of fuel injection is now advanced without any change
variable injection timing, the maximum allowable pressure is seen to be reached in the quantity of fuel delivered.
at approximately 75% of the full load and then remains at a constant value for The timing of the injection can be retarded by reversing the direction of
the remaining part of the graph. This increase in efficiency flattens the specific eccentric movements.
fud consumption (sfc) curve and reduces the fuel consumption at part loads on Control of the eccentrics can be effected by mechanical means, but in modern
the engine. engines it is done through the computer controlling the operation, speed and
It might also be said that the strength designed into the crankshaft and other manoe~vringof-the engine.. -
important parts is better utilised. Fuel pumps with helix and ports controlling the fuel quantity can have the
The diagram in Fig. 4.5 illustrates this, showing how variable injection timing timing of injection advanced by lowering the pump cylinder or barrel relative to
allows the engine to operate with the maximum designed firing pressure. This the highest and lowest points of the ram movement. The top position and
94 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Combustion and Fuel-Injection Systems 95

the bottom position of the ram and the ram stroke do not change. The move-
ment of the ram is controlled by the fuel-pump cam and return spring. Com-
mencement of injection occurs when the ram moves upwards and closes off the
inlet and spill ports.
If the pump cylinder is lowered the inlet and spill ports are cut off earlier and
injection commences earlier. In a similar manner the inlet and g i l l ports are
opened earlier due to their loweied position, and the end of injection takes place
earlier with no change in the quantity of fuel delivered, provided the ram is not
moved circumferentially.
When it is required to retard the injection period the pump cylinder is raised.
Raising and lowering the pump cylinder is brought about by putting a thread
on the lower part of the cylinder and engaging the thread in a nut located
between two thrust faces in the pump body. On the outer circumference of the
nut a toothed gear is cut. The toothed gear engages with a rack held in a guide
located in the pump body. Movement of the rack forward or backward
advances or retards the injection period relative to the position of the crank by
raising or lowering the pump cylinder.
The fuel cam is used to adjust the timing of the commencement of injection in
a normal manner so that the maximum allowable firing pressure is reached at
about 75% of full load. The timing of the commencement of injection will then
be retarded as the quantity of fuel injected is increased. The amount of retarda-
tion necessary to hold the cylinder pressure constant at the desired maximum PoslIKNlsensor
value will be designed into the control system.
The checking procedures and timing adjustment instructions will be found in
the engine builder's instruction books. These must always be referred to before
checking or starting any adjustments. Fig. 4.6 Fuel injection pump showing variable injection timing (VIT) controls.
Regular checking of the maximum cylinder pressures should also be carried (MAN B&W L-MC VIT System).
out to check the actual pressures and to check the returns given by the cylinder
pressure monitoring equipment. This is necessary to safeguard the integrity of
the crankshaft. (Figs 4.2 and 4.6) between the two flat surfaces. The air assumes a rotary motion as it is
compressed into the piston crown pocket, and a very high degree of turbulence
4.32 How is turbulence created-within the engine cylinder? known as squish is obtained. Squish is nsessary with high-speed engines having
direct injection, as it gives the necessary mixing of air and fuel to complete
It is known that a considerable amount of air movement takes place at the end combustion in the very limited time available.
of the compression stroke due to piston movement. If more movement of air or
turbulence is required in some particulapl?hginedesign, it is obtained by sloping
the scavenge ports away from a radial direction so that the air moves into the 1 4.33 A propulsion engine is capable of developing 28 000 brake horse-
cylinder tangentially, causing the air to rotate within the cylinder. power at 100 rev/min. The engine is of the two-stroke type and has eight
The same effect is achieved in engines with air-inlet valves by means of a cylinders. Calculate the volume of fuel injected per stroke at full power
shield or deflector fitted on one side of the valve. Where shields or deflectors are and at 32 rev/min. The specific fuel consumption is 155 and 200 g/bhp h at
100 and 32 tev/min r e s m the specific gravity of the -fuel is 0.96 ot -
fitted, care must be exercised when assembling the valve to ensure thatihe
deflector is properly located and that the means to prevent the valve turning is lS°C.
-
correctly fitted.
Some high-speed engines with open combustion chambers are designed with
a very small clearance between the flat circumferential surface surrounding the weight of fuel/hour = 28 000 x 155 g
pocket on the top of the piston and the flat bottom face of the cylinder cover or weight of fuel/min = (28 000 x 155)/60 g
cylinder head. weight of fuel/engine
When the piston is nearing the upper part of its travel, air is forced out from revolution = (28 000 x 155)/(60 x 100) g
96 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Combustion and Ifuel-fnjecrion Systems 97

weight of fuel/stroke = (28 000 x l55)/(60 x 100 x 8) g The diameter can now be used to find the surface area ( S ) using the formula
= 90.41 g S=dY -
specific gravity = weight of fuel/weight equivalent volume
water D is equal to 57.59 mm. Therefore
volume of fuel/stroke = weight of fuel/specific gravity
= 90.4l/O.96 ml
= 94.18ml To find the surface areaof the same volume of 20 microns spherical particles
This is the volume of fuel at 15°C; at injection temperature there will be an first find the number of particles. The volume of the particle ( v ) is given by
increase in volume. -
It is now necesswy to calculate the brake horsepower at 32 rev/min; this can
be&aiRed by using t k & W tkepqxh, i.e. the power P varies as
(rev/min)'. The number of particles is given by V (100 cm3)divided by u i.e.
PI -
- p2
(rev/min# (re~/min,)~
p2 - P,(re~/min3~ Next find the surface area ( $ z o n e spherical particle which is
(rev/min,)'
. Power at 32 rev/min = (28 000 x 323)/1W
- .-
= 917.5 brake hkrsepower The total surface area ST is
At 32 rev/min
weight of fuel/stroke = (917.5 x 200)/(60 x 32 x 8) g
= 11.95g
volume of fuel/stroke = 11 .95/O.% ml
= 12.45 ml at 15°C The surface area is therefore increased by a factor of
It will be seen that the fuel-injection pumps has to meter fuel over a wide
volume range between full-power and slow-speed operation.
The method of calculating the brake horsepower at slow speed should only be
considered as approximate. In practice, factors such as wind from forward or The diameter of a sphere having a volume of 100 cm3is
from aft can cause wide variations in the brake horsepower value.

4.34 Find by what factor the surface area of a spherical volume of oil of
100 ml is increased when it is atomized into spherical particles having a = (190.9612)%= 5.7586 crn
diameter of 20 micron.
To find the surface area of the large sphere first find the diameter (D) of the
sphere using the formula for the volume (0 of a sphere Surface area of a sphere having a diameter of 0.0576 rn
Surface area = rd2
= 3.1416 x 0.05762
which is equivalent to = 0.0104 m2
Volume of particle

V is equal to' 100 cm3: Therefore

Number of particles =
1000000
 98 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Combustion and Fuel-Injection Systems 99
+PC= 263 + 70 = 333 bar or 4830 psi
P,= P,,
-
Surface area bf partiE~e= 7r(0.000&2)2 4.36 What are the advantages of manoeuvring engines ,on a low-cost
100 blended fuel?
Total surface area of particles = x(O.MMo02)
1 000 000 (0.000002) The advantages are of an economic nature and are related to the cost differen-
tial between different fuels and the number of hours spent under manoeuvring
Increase = 288.46 times. conditions. For purposes of comparison a period of operation covering a
financial year is usually used. The amounts saved in a year can be quite large
It can now be seen that atomizing the fuel into small particles gives an
enormous increase in the total surface area of the fuel particles. A much greater
and make a xery valuable reduction in the ship's operating cost. .
surface is then in contact with air so the rate of combustion is increased. There are no real technical difficulties associated with manoeuvring engines
on lowcost fuels provided that the injection viscosity is kept at the required
value at the point where the fuel enters the cylinders. This requires the use of
H 4.35 Find the theoretical velocity of the fuel passing through the injector steam tracer lines and the continuous circulation of heated fuel during the time
sprayer holes if 100 crn3 of fuel is injected over a period equal to 25 the engine is stopped.
degrees of crank rotation when the engine is turning at 80 rpm. Assume
there are eight sprayer holes of 1.0 mm in diameter and the coefficient of
discharge is 0.75. After finding the velocity find the theoretical injection 4.37 Show with the aid of a sketch how fuel can be continuously
pressure. circulated through fuel-injection valves on large engines while the engine
is operating or under standby conditions.

The quantity of fuel injected is 100 cm3 ( = 100 x 0.0001 m3). The time Modem fuel valves are manufactured with a sliding sleeve fitted around a part
for injection (T) is of the needle push rod and held down in place by a lightly loaded spring. The
push rod is hollow and fuel passes down from the top of the fuel valve through
T=-80 x -
25
= 0.0926 sec the hollow push rod.
60 360 When the sleeve is in the lower position, holes drilled in the bottom of the
push rod are uncovered and fuel passes out through these holes, up around the
so the rate of injection (R) is outside of the push rod, through a port in the valve body and back to the low-
presswe part of the fuel system.
When the injection pump commences to deliver fuel the load on the spring
holding the sleeve down is overcome by the rapid pressure rise. The sleeve is
-
The effective area (A,) of the sprayer holes is lifted, blocking off the holes in the lower part of the push rod and allowing fuel
to pass into the annular space around the fuel-valve needle. The pressure rise
overcomes the force exerted on the needle by the push rod and heavy valve
spring. Fuel then passes into the cylinder. When the end of injection is reached
The velocity ( V )is given by the pressure drop allows the heavy spring to reseat the needle, then the light
spring pushing on the sleeve forces it downwards and the holes in-- the
--- --- -- , - -
bottom
.-
of -
the push rod are opened.
Fuel again passes up the valve body and returns i&o the low-pressure part of
the fuel system. When the engine is in operation ard fuel is not being discharged
The head is given by by the fuel-injection pump, the pump ram is in its lowest position and the roller
is riding on the base circle of the cam. In this position the surcharge pump
pressure causes the fuel to pass through the inlet and spill ports and pass over
the top of the pump ram into the fuel piping and through the fuel injection
Head pressure (P,) is 267.7 kgf/cm2 or 263 bar. Injection pressure (Pi)is given valve.
by the addition of the compression pressure ( P C ) and the equivalent head When the engine is stopped, circumferential movement of the pump ram
pressure (P,,)which is assumed to be 70 bar (or 1015 psi). Injection pressure Piis brings the vertical slots in the top of the ram in line with the inlet and spill ports.
tllereforc The fuel now circulates through the inlet and spill ports, through the vertical
100 Ouesrions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Endm

slots and up to the fuel valve. Fuel will circulate only when the surcharge pump
is in operation and maintaining the pressure required to overcome friction
through the pipe lines, pumps, valves, etc.
I
I
.
. 4.38 H o w does cornbustlon change between o fuel with good combustion
characteristics and a fuel with high viscosity, high density ond high carbon
content?
The circulation of fuel when injection is not taking place maintains the fuel at I
A fuel with good combustion characteristics will have an ignition delay period
the correct temperature to suit injection viscosity and allows the engine to be that is compatible with the rate of fuel injection and the rate of combustion of
manoeuvred on heavy fuel. The circulating fuel also prevents overheating of the \ both the faster-burning cutter stock and the residual constituent. The rate of
valve. (Fig. 4.7) pressure rise within the cylinder from the beginning of ignition through the
i early part of combustion will also be at an acceptable value and the later stages
of combustion will be completed without the problems associated with after-
I burning.
The first problem likely with high-viscosity, high carbon content fuel is the

Valve

Flg. 4.7 (b) Internal parts of fuel Injection valve showing circulating
Flg. 4.7 (a) Fuel injection valve. (MAN B&W) connection when open for circulation and when closed for fuel injection
102 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Combustion and Fuel-Injection Systems 103
- - w-

effect of the high boiling point of the cutter stock. Fuels with a high boiling occurred in a few hours of operation with an appaiently low number in parts
point have a longer ignition delay period than those with a lower boiling point. per million of contaminant. It must be remembered, however, that a small
When the ignition delay period is extended and the rate of injection is amount of contaminant can equate to a large amount of abrasive material
normal, the quantity of fuel injected into the cylinder during the extended delay passing through a fuel pump and injectors in a 24-hour period.
period is greater. When ignition occurs the rate of pressure rise with a large Consider the case of an engine developing 3500 horse power per cylinder,
amount of fuel present in the cylinder may be increased and lead to very high having a specific fuel consumption of 140 g/hp hr, and an abrasive content of
maximum pressures. 50 mg per kg of fuel. Fuel used per day equals.
Much of the residual stock is slower-burning so the problem of excessive rate
of pressure rise does not always occur, but it is a possibility and will to some
extent be related to engine speed. The abrasive matter passing through pump in kg per day equals
When the residual portion of the fuel is high in asphaltenes or other slow-
burning material, the rate of combustion of the slow-burning material will most
likely extend into the region where after-burning is experienced. It has also been noticed that this abrasive material causes rapid wear of the
Problems associated with after-burning are a rise in exhaust temperatures, sprayer holes in fuel valves and accelerated wear in cylinder liners and piston
increase in fuel consumption, increased cylinder wear, increase of cooling water rings.
temperatures, and higher thermal stresses. In extreme cases the slow progress of In some cases rapid wear of cylinder liners and piston rings has occurred with
combustion on the relatively high temperatures involved have depleted the oil fuels that have had an acceptable analysis except in the matter of alumina and
film and the cylinder liner surfaces and caused liners with limited wear to be silica content.
ready for scrapping in a matter of two or three hundred hours of operation.
Fouling of the turbo-blower and the exhaust system, including the heating 4.40 What are the possible ways to reduce the risk of damage from
surfaces of exhaust gas boilers and economizers, may also occur, and more contaminants and deleterious matter contained in fuel supplied to a ship?
particularly so if the fuel has a high Conradson carbon value.
The way to avoid a problem is to be aware of it, then take steps to prevent the
problem arising or to lessen its consequences.
4.39 What are the likely consequences of carry over of fluid catalytic Subscription to one of the fuel analysis services by the shipowner is the best
cracking fines from the separator and clarifier into the clean oil system? way to get accurate information to the engineer officers on the ship, regarding
- -
The effects of any catalyst and catalytic cracking fines contained in the fuel oil the possibility of problems arising out of the constituents in newly supplied fuel.
passing through to the engine will to some extent be dependent on the clearances Early warning of possible problems can be given by onboard testing of fuel at
of the parts in the fuel pumps and fuel v w s . The clearances between the fuel- the time of delivery (see Question 3.37).
pump ram and pump barrel, Zind the fuel-valve needle and guide, will be depen- Fresh stocks of fuel should not be mixed with fuel'lready on board. Mixing
dent on the viscosity of the fuel used, the sizes of the parts, and the operating cannot always be avoided, but every effort, within the possible limits of segre-
temperature. gation, should be made to prevent it.
The dimensions of the catalyst and fines are known to be generally in the - Fuel cleaning by separators and clarifiers should be carried out at the highest
possible temperature ad?hsl~_\~estpossiblethroughput, with the correct size
order of 3 micron up to about 35 micron. For propulsion machinery
clearances between pump ram and barrel and valve needles and guides start at
--- the
gravity ring installed in the separator.
-

approximately 5 micron for the smaller needles and guides and go up to about Some separation systems have been made to operate with gear-driven, fixed-
20 or more micron for the largest-diameter fuel-pump rams. capacity, positivedisplacement pumps driven by the separator. A degree of
Any catalyst and fines that can enter into the clearance spaces of parts of fuel- automation is given by fitting the overflow from the daily use tank into the dirty
injection equipment can lead to accelerated wear of those parts. The wear may oil tank. In such cases the capacity of the pumps driven by the separator
be very extensive in a few days of operation with contaminated fuel. Some matches the throughput for the best grades of fuel. This throughput is too great
engines normally manoeuvred on diesel oil have been unable to start after when cleaning lower grade fuels requiring a reduced throughput. Systems such
changing over to diesel fuel when entering port. as this will need retrofitting of flow controllers to reduce fuel throughput when
Excessive leakage through the _enlarged clearances was the cause. This cleaning the lowest grades of fuel the separator is designed to handle. The flow
lowered the pump discharge pressure to below that required for the lifting controller should be of a type that does not throttle the flow and cause eddies
pressure of the fuel-injection valves. It was then necessary for the engines to and foaming in the separator supply.
change back to heavy fuel operation to manoeuvre and enter port.
In the cases investigated no clear pattern seems to emerge from the data
collected. In some cases extensive wear of fuel-injection equipment has
104 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

4.41 How does an electronic fuel injection system operate?

I I
Electronic fuel injection systems are controlled by electronic means. The electronic controls
pressure required to inject fuel into an engine cylinder is obtained by surcharge
pumps, cams, ram-type injection pumps, etc., in a normal manner.
Control is effected by inputs into a computer. These inputs are from the
manual fuel control lever position, the governor, crank position from sensors,
maximum cylinder pressures, exhaust temperature and the like. The computer
is programmed to suit the engine operation characteristics and give output to
the fuel pump for the control of injection. Monitoring functions can also be
incorporated in the program to cover maximum and minimum allowable
temperatures and pressures and to give an alarm call or shut down the engine if
any deviation goes beyond an allowable norm.
Control of injection at the fuel pump can be effected through suction and
spill valves controlled by hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, or magnetic means.
There are problems in the design of the mechanical or electrical parts of the
equipment controlling the fuel pump. The problems in this area are associated
with obtaining s&tisfactory response times. (Fig. 4.8)
- - - - - - - -- - --

4.42 What proportion of oxygen is required to cause.perfect combustion

of (a) carbon and (b) hydrogen?
One kilogram of carbon requires 2.6 kilograms of oxygen, and one kilogram of
hydrogen required 8 kilograms of oxygen to bring about perfect combustion,
i.e., the liberation of the whole of the heat in the fuel.
Note The amount of air necessary for the complete combustion of one
kilogram of liquid fuel is, theoretically, about 14 kg (air required=oxygen
required/0.235). In practice, however, it is not possible to work with only the
amount of air theoretically necessary, and a certain excess of air must be
available to secure perfect combustion under varying conditions. About twice
the amount of air theoretically required is allowed ,in marine oil engines. .

4.43 When carbon and hydrogen are burnt perfectly, what are the
resulting.-temperatures, and how many heat units are liberated?
When carbbn is burnt to form CO, the temperature of combustion is 2749OC
(4980°F), and the heat liberated is 34 069 kilojoules per kilogram of carbon
(14 647 BtuAb). When hydrogen is burnt to form H 2 0 the temperature of
combustion is 2482OC (4500OF) and the heat liberated per kilogram of hydrogen (C I
is 144 444 kilojoules (62 100 BtuAb). i Eqina layout

Note When carbon is burnt to give carbon monoxide, the heat produced per
kilogram of carbon is only 10 269 kilojoules (4415 BtuAb). The importance of a i Fig. 4.8 (a) Schematic arrangement of electronic fuel injection system, using
I ISOlR1219 symbols. (b) Control system for electronic fuel injection - spill valve
sufficient amount of air to bring about complete combustion to CO, will,
1 detail. (Lucas Bryce Ltd, Gloucester, UK)
therefore, be appreciated. When it is stated that the heat produced by one
kilogram of hydrogen is 144 444 kilojoules (62 100 BtuAb) when combined with
a sufficient amount of oxygen, it is assumed that the product of combustion
(H,O) is in the liquid state. When hydrogen is burnt in oil-engine cylinders or
under boilers, the product passes away at a temperature above the boiling point
of water and, therefore, is in a gaseous state. Consequently the latent heat of
vaporization is lost a'nd the available heat produced by the combustion of one
kilogram of hydiogen is 121 626 kilojoules (52 290 BtuAb).
SCAVENGE, EXHAUST,
4.44 What is the average composition of the products of combustion of
ordinary diesel fuel?
PRESSURE-CHARGING
The composition is approximately:
Carbon dioxide (COJ 11 .O%
SYSTEMS
Water vapour (H,O) 4.0%
Oxygen (03 1 1 .O%
Nitrogen (N3 74.0%
Sulphur dioxide (SOJ trace 5.1 Descrlbe briefly the type of pump or blower used to supply scavenge
alr to older, non-supercharged two-stroke engines?
Note The presence of so much oxgen is due to the necessity of burning the fuel
in a large amount of excess air in order to complete combustion in the limited Pumps used to supply air to non-supercharged two-stroke engines may be
time available. In modern engines with combustion taking place at higher normal reciprocating pumps of the double-acting type, or Roots blowers; they
temperatures, some of the nitrogen joins with the oxygen to form nitrogen are driven by the engine.
oxides (NOx). These are considered10 be harmful emissions and in some places Reciprocating scavenge pumps. The pump consists of a light-weight piston
a limitation is put on the allowable amount of the various nitrogen oxides that working in a cylinder. Each end of the cylinder has covers fitted with suction
may be discharged into the atmosphere. and delivery valves, with a baffle or division plate between the suction and
-
Is It posslble to burn frel wlth a high water content wlthout causing
delivery valve groups, making two separate spaces. The suction valve space is
4.45 open to the atmosphere, and the delivery valve space is connected either directly
trouble with engine operation? or through air trunklng to the scavenge trunk. The valve plates are made from
If the water has a salt content similar to the content of sea water, trouble can be thin steel sheet, and bend or deflect off the seat to open. For standardization,
expected to occur. One of the problem areas will be deposits in the exhaust the suction and discharge valve plates are usually identical. They are bolted on
system, e.g., exhaust valves and turbo-blowers. If there is a high vanadturn their seats.with a c o v e r i n ~ ~ ~ ~ u scontrd e d ttheo opexiinflt of t h r
content in the fuel the sodium in the salt water will exacerbate hot corrosion valve. The valves have Carge opening areas, so that-only a small valve lift is
problems. necessary to accommodate the air flow.
A diesel engine can handle a large amount of fresh water contained in fuel, The pump piston and piston rod are attached to a crosshead which works in a
but it is necessary to homogenize the water so that it is evenly distributed set of guides. The motion of the crosshead is obtained from rocking levers
throughout the fuel. linked to an engine crosshead, or from a separate crank and connecting-rod.
There is some evidence to suggest that small amounts of water in a When the scavenge pump is driven by rocking levers, the pump may be fitted on
homogenized mixture of fuel and water may lower fuel consumption. This the side of the engine frames, and in this position does not increase the engine
comes about due to water particles in the fuel flashing off to superheated steam length. The width of the engine is increased, but space is usually available in the
when injected into the high-temperature air in the combustion chamber. thwartships direction. If a separate crank and connecting-rod are used to drive
It is thought that the flashing off of the water gives better atomization of the the scavenge pump, the crank is directly connected to the engine crankshaft; the
fuel. There is also the possibility that some of the superheated steam may be length of the scavenge pump thus increases the overall length of the engine.
converted to oxygen and hydrogen by dis,sociation, and aid in combustion Reciprocating scavenge pumps, when driven by a separate crank, are sometimes
before the dissociation process is reversed. arranged with two scavenge pumps, one above the other in tandem formation.
The addition of water to the fuel lowers the temperature of combustion and Each pump has its own suction and delivery valves and the two pumps work in
helps in reducing the NOx content in the exhaust gases. Homogenizers are used parallel. The stroke of a scavenge pump is usually less than that of the engine in
in those localities where there is a limitation on exhaust gas emissions. order to keep down the piston speed of the scavenge pump; this increases
pumping efficiency.
108 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

Roots blowers. Blowers of this type are also driven by the engine, either through 5.2 What effects do dirty scavenge ports have on positive--displacement
gearing or by roller chains. They can be driven at much higher speeds than the scavenge pumps, and on the engine as o whole?
engine and they take up less space than reciprocating scavenge pumps, but are
noisier. As the scavenge ports become dirty the resistance to air flow through the port
The moving parts of the blower consist of two rotors, each mounted on its increases, causing a pressure rise in the scavenge air system. This pressure rise
own shaft, and connected to each other through a gear. The rotors may have increases the discharge pressure of the scavenge pump, so that more work is
two, three or four lobes. The lobes mesh during rotation but never make done in compressing the air. Since the scavenge pump requires more work to
contact with one another. The clearance between lobes is always very small, drive it, the mechanical efficiency of the engine is reduced and the fuel
usually just greater than the gear-tooth clearance or backlash. The rotor shafts consumption per brake horsepower is increased.
are parallel, and supported by bearings in the end covers - ball bearings at one
end, to locate the shafts axially, and roller at the other end, to allow for 5.3 Are reciprocating scavenge-pump pistons fitted with piston rings?
expansion. How is air leakage past the piston prevented or controlled? What effects
As there is no contact of the lobeq, the mechanical efficiency of Roots do piston rings have, if fitted?
blowers is high.
The rotors work within a casing, the design of which depends on the number Piston rings are found in the scavenge-pump pistons of some older engines. In
of lobes on the rotors. Suction is on one side of the casing and discharge on the modern practice they are not used.
other. When piston rings are not fitted, air leakage past the piston cannot be
When the lobes are rotated the volume of the space on the suction side prevented. It is reduced to a minimum by allowing only a very small clearance
between adjacent lobes and the casing increases, drawing air into the casing. between piston and cylinder wall. Labyrinth grooves may also be machined on
Continued rotation traps the air between the casing and the lobes; this iur is the piston sides. As the piston is made of light-weight soft alloy, no serious
passed around with the rotor until it reaches the discharge side of the casing. As damage is done should wear on the guides allow contact between piston and
the lobes mesh on the discharge side the volume of the space between adjacent cylinder; even so, guides should be adjusted, as their clearances increase, to
l o b e s reduced, and t h e a i r i s - d m - t m m i n g . ? w e n t piston contact.
If the direction of rotation of the rotors is reversed, the air flow through the If piston rings are fitted, they must be lubricated. Even the small amount of
blower is also reversed. When this type of blower is used on reversibleengines, a oil used increases the rate of scavenge-trunk fouling. The friction between
reversing arrangement must be fitted on the blower so that air is always piston rings and cylinder wall is considerable, the scavenge pump therefore
discharged to the scavenge trunk. This arrangement consists of a large requires more power to drive it, and consequently the mechanical efficiency of
rectangular, box-shaped casing, inside which a butterfly-type flap is fitted, the engine is reduced. Scavengcpumps with plain pistons, with or without
extending from comer to corner. The flap is mounted vertically, and keyed to a labyrinth grooves, do not require as much power to drive the pump, and
vertical shaft located centrally in bearings at the top and bottom of the casing. consequently the engine has a higher mechanical efficiency.
Two triangular ports are cut in h e base of the casing. Each triangle has its - '-
base along the opposite sides of the casing and its apex at the flap shaft. One end 5.4 How are scavenge pumps lubricated? What attention must be paid to
of the casing is connected to the air inlet filter and silencer, the other through an the lubrication system?
air trunk to the scavenge trunk. When the engine is running ahead, the air is
drawn in through the silencer and filter, and passes up to the flap in the revers- The parts driving the scavenge pump, such as rocking-lever bearings, link
ing casing. It enters through the triangular port on one side of the blower, and is bearings, connecting-rod bearings, and guides, are lubricated from the engine
discharged on the other side of the blower through the other triangular port into pressure-lubricating system. The scavenge-pump rod packing is lubricated by a
the air trunk connected to the scavenge trunk. When the engine operates astern small pump of the type used for engine cylinder lubrication. If piston rings are
the reversing gear swings the flap over. The blower operates in the opposite fitted they are lubricated by a similar pump. To prevent fouling, the lubricating
direction and the air flow through the blower is reversed. oil supply to the packing and piston rings must be kept to the minimum
On large slow-speed engines the mass of the rotating parts of the blower is necessary for the parts.
large. In order to reduce shock caused by the inertia of the parts when starting, a When an engine has been stopped in port and it is safe to open the crankcase
spring-loaded coupling is introduced into the drive to the blower, and a damper doors, the oil flow from the parts of the scavenge-pump driving gear should be
coupling, so that cyclic variations in the engine torque are damped out and not inspected to see that each bearing is supplied with oil. After the engine
transmitted to the blower. lubricating-oil pumps have been shut down, the driving gear, oil pipes, pipe
Reciprocating scavenge pumps and Roots blowers are of the positive- clips, pipe unions, and any other associated fittings must be checked to see that
displacement type. nothing is loose. Oil pipes from lubricators to rod packing glands and cylinders
must also be inspected for leakage, and loose fittings or clips.
110 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine 1 Scavenne. Exhaust, Pressure-Charninn Systems 1 1 1

5.5 What are the factors governing the amount of air or exhaust gas pressure, the air in the scavenge trunk forces open the non-return valves, air
flow through scovenge and exhaust ports? flows into the cylinder, and scavenging commences. The piston continues its
downward movement, passes bottom centre, comes up and covers the exhaust
These factors are as follows. ports. At this point scavenge ends, but air continues to flow into the cylinder
1 The pressure differences across the ports, which in turn govern the flow until the upward movement of the piston covers the scavenge ports.
velocity. (The pressure difference across the scavenge port is the difference By arranging the exhaust ports and scavenge ports in this manner more air is
between the scavenge pressure and the pressure in the cylinder; the pressure retained in the cylinder when compression commences than in cross-scavenged
difference across the exhaust port is the difference between the cylinder two-stroke engines. This increased amount of air enables more fuel to be burnt
pressure and the exhaust manifold pressure.) As the pressure difference per working stroke, thus increasing the power developed. The power increase
increases, the velocity of flow increases. obtained when scavenge valves are used is approximately 20%.
2 The area of the port. An increase in area allows more gas to pass. Note Some cross-scavenged engines have two horizontal rows of scavenge
3 The shape of the port entry. Rounded entry edges allow air or gas to pass ports in the cylinder, only the upper row of ports being fitted with non-return
through without turbulence. ' valves. Some cross-scavenged engines have only one row of ports, and all the
4 The degree of surface roughness in the port. Smooth, polished ports ports are fitted with non-return valves.
improve air-flow.
5 The period of time that the ports are open.
5.8 Describe the construction of scavenge valves and state where this
type of valve is used. State the precautions that must be taken when
5.6 In simple two-stroke cross-scavenged engines the top edge of the assembling and fitting this type of valve.
exhaust port is higher than the-top edge of the scavenge port. Why is this
necessary, and'what are the obiections to engines of this type? Scavenge valves are assembled from a number of identical valve plates, made
from thin flexible steel, and identical light-weight alloy castings, which function
The top edge of the exhaust p0E.t is higher than the scavenge port, so that the both as a valve seat on one side of the casting and as a lift guard on the other
exhaust port is opened first. This allowsthe pressure in the cylinder to fall side. The parts are held together by two or four through-bolts to make the valve
slightly below the scavenge pressure before the piston uncovers the scavenge assembly.
ports. The valve plates have slots at each side, through which the through-bolts
Engines of the simple two-stroke type are used in places where there are pass. The material between the slots forms the valve, and is slightly deformed so
limited service facilities. The objection to their use is that some scavenge air is that it fits tightly on its seat, which is formed from the periphery of the flat side
lost into the exhaust system during the period between the closure ~ f - t h e of the light-alloy casting. A division is formed in the casting which runs
scavenge ports and closure of the exhaust ports. This loss of air limits the diagonally from the f r o n t ~ p p epart
r to the back lowerqart. Air enters through
amount of fuel that can be burnt per stroke, and thus limits the mean effective the back lower part and pressure lifts the flexible steeLplate off its seat. Air
pressure at which these engines can operate and still maintain a clear exhaust. leaves the front of the valve to enter the scavenge port. This type of valve is also
used as suction and delivery valves on many scavenge pumps.
5.7 What design improvements were made to older, cross-scavenged When assembling the valves, care must be taken to see that the parts are all
two-stroke cycle engines to increase the power developed? correctly positioned. If care is not taken during assembly, some parts could
easily be fitted the wrong way round, because of their near-symmetry. ,
In cross scavenged two-stroke engines the relationship between the height of the When fitting the scavenge valves to the trunk on the side of the cylinder, care
scavenge ports and exhaust ports is such that during the period between the must be taken to see that the correct side of the assembly is fitted against the
closure of the scavenge port and exhaust port some air is lost into the exhaust cylinder. Mistakes can be prevented by marking the side of the valve assembly
system. The design improvement was to increase the height of the scavenge with an arrow in felt-tip pen, chalk or crayon showing the air-flow direction
ports to above the exhaust ports, and to fit non-return valves (referred to as through the valve. The arrow must point into the cylinder.
scavenge valves) on the inlet side of the scavenge ports in the scavenge trunk. The valve assemblies should be marked in a similar manner when they are
When the engine is operating, downward movement of the piston first being fitted in scavenge pumps. The arrow should point into the scavenge pump
uncovers the scavenge ports; at this point the gases in the cylinder are at a on the suction side and out of the scavenge pump on the discharge side.
pressure higher than the scavenge pressure, and they fill the port as far as the This type of valve is used in all the loop-scavenged engines including the last
non-return valves, which prevents further backflow into the scavenge trunk. generation of engines built in the early eighties.
Further movement of the piston uncovers the exhaust ports, and blowndown
occurs; whcn thc prcssrlrc in thc cylindcr has fallen just bclow the scavenge air
 1 12 Questions and'Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Scavenge, Exhausf, Pressure-Churging Sysferns 1 13

5.9 What difficulties arise in two-stroke engines with valve-controlled s e n that if the exhaust valve of the second cylinder is opened when the exhaust
scavenge ports? from the first cylinder has created a vacuum in the pipe, the exhaust from the
second cylinder will be discharged more easily.
The main difficulty iS fouling of the scavenge ports and valves. This principle isused in a tuned exhaust Qstem. By making the exhaust pipes
When the piston uncovers the scavenge ports, the gas pressure in the cylinder a suitablelength and arranging for two or three cylinders with suitable exhaust-
is higher than that within the port, and gases flow into the scavenge port as far valve timing to exhaust into the same pipe, the partial vacuum created by the
back as the scavenge valve. These gases carry in small amounts of oil which exhaust from one cylinder is used to help exhaust expulsion from the following
settle on the port surfaces and on the insides of the scavenge valves, eventually cylinder.
fouling the valves. Some of the oil deposited on the surfaces of the scavenge
ports forms hard carbon, which reduces the port area, consequently increasing
the scavenge pressure. Detergent cylinder lubricants help to lengthen the 5.12 What limits the power that can be developed in a diesel engine
periods between cleaning, but regular cleaning of scavenge valves and ports is cylinder of a given size? What would happen if attempts were made to
necessary to hold an engine at peak operating efficiency. obtain greater power output by increasing the amount of fuel injected at
each cycle?

5.10 How is it possible to pressure-charge a loop-scavenged type two- The power output of a diesel engine is limited by the weight of air in the
stroke cycle engine where the exhaust ports are located higher in the cylinders when fuel is injected. Injecting more fuel in order to iaise the power
cylinder liner than !he scavenge ports? How is loss of scavenge and output without a corresponding increase in the weight of air would result in
chorge air prevented? some of the fuel being incompletely burnt owing to lack of air. Incomplete
combustion would cause the mean temperature of the cycle to be increased and
The scavenge and charge air pressure is related to the exhaust gas pressure in the lead to serious mechanical troubles, such as fouling of piston rings, inefficient
exhaust gas manifold. The exhaust gas pressure drops in its passage through the lubrication of the cylinder, burnt exhaust valves, and temperature stresses so
turbo-blower. The pressure of the exhaust gases in the exhaust gas manifold is great that cylinder heads, pistons and other parts subjected to the higher gas
controlled by the passages leading from the manifold into the turbo-blowers. temperatures might be fractured.
The passages are so designed that the flow of gases to atmosphere is restricted at
this point. This builds up the pressure in the manifold, and the pressure in the
manifold prevents the free flow of scavenge and charge air without a large mass 5.13 How can the power of a diesel engine be increased?
of the air going to waste. The power loss from the cylindersdue to restricting the The power of a diesel engine is dependent on the amount of fuel used, and this is
air flow is shown as a gain of energy in the exhaust gases. This energy is not lost, limited by the amount of air available to burn the fuel. If more air can be
but is put back into the system by the turbo-blowers in the form of higher introduced into the cylinder, more fuel ettn beused and the power of the engine
pressures in the scavenge and charge air system. will be increased. -
Note Some older loop- and cross-scavengedengines had rotary valves fitted in When contemplating the possibilities of power increase, care must be
the exhaust ports between the cylinder and the exhaust gas manifold. The rotary exercised because of the attendant problems of thermal stress which usually
valve reduced air losses to a minimum. lead to early failure of engine parts subjected to high temperatures.

5.1 1
-
What do you understand by a tuned exhaust system?
When the exhaust yalve of a diesel engine opens, the gases in the cylinder
5.14 How can more air be introduced into the cylinders of a diesel
engine with a view to increasing its power? -

-
raplB4y expand, and gain velocity and kiReticcnergy as they pass into the -miour-stroke engines, more air can be introduced into the cylinder during the
exhaust pipe. The kinetic energy of the mass of exhaust gas carries it along the suction stroke by connecting the air inlet valve to an air supply above
exhaust pipe, and causes a pressure build-up ahead of the mass of gas and a atmospheric pressure. In two-stroke engines, the same result will be obtained by
partial vacuum behind it. increasing the scavenge pressure. In order to get the requisite air into the
The action may be likened to putting a close-fitting cylindrical plug in a pipe cylinder the'timing is altered to increase the length of the air inlet period.
and capping one end of the pipe. If the capped end of the pipe is raised the plug If the pressurized air is obtainMrom a p u s p or blower driven by the engine,
will slide down the pipe. If the speed of the plug is high enough, the air in the some of the extra power gained will be lost in driving the pump or blower. The
pipe will be compressed just ahead of the plug, while a partial vacuum will be mechanical efficiency of the engine is reduced but considerable net gain in the
created behind the plug. If the cap is removed after the vacuum is formed, air power output can be achieved. - -
will flow into the pipe behind the moving plug. In four-stroke cycle engines the air entering the cylinders under pressure
Similarly, if two cylinders are connected to a common exhaust pipe, it can be pushes the piston downwards; this reverses the effects of pumping losses
 114 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

experienced in naturally aspirated engines where power is lost during the inlet the turbine rotor at high velocity. The passage of the gas through the rotor
and exhaust strokes. blades causes a change of direction in the gas flow, resulting in a change of
The strength of the parts and the cooling must be adequate for the increased momentum, which exerts a force on the turbine blades. This force causes the
mechanical and thermal loads. - ' - rotor to revolve at high speed. The exhaust passes from the rotor into a circular
space c o ~ e c t e dto the exhaust-gas outlet branch.
The &-blower casing is fitted with filters at the air inlet to the casing. The
5.15
-
What is meont by the term 'supercharging' or 'pressure-charging'?
When the piston of a normal oilengine is beginning the compression stroke, the
entry passages after these filters are usually fitted with splitters to guide the air
through the passages and reduce the draught losses caused by a change in the
cylinder should be full of air at atmospheric pressure. If means are adopted to air-flow direction. Sound-absorbent material is used to cover the inside of the
cause the pressure at this point of the cycle to be greater than that of the air passages and the splitters, to reduce wind and blower noise.
atmosphere the engine is said to be supercharged or pressure-charged. The two At the end of the inlet passage just before the blower impeller, curved air-
terms are synonymous. guide vanes are fitted, so that the air enters the impeller without shock. The
--- impeller takes in the air - ; t y . - - --
The air is discharged from the blower impeller into -the diffuser at high
5.16 How are modern two-stroke and four-stroke engines pressure- velocity. During its passage through the diffuser the air gives up much of its
. charged? velocity and in so doing builds up pressure. From the diffuser the air passes into
Modern diesel engines are pressure-charged by utilizing the energy in the the discharge casing, which is volute-shaped and fitted with a flanged outlet
exhaust gases to drive a gas turbine connected to a rotary blower. The blower connection.
compresses air so that it is delivered under pressure to the engine cylinders. The casings for the turbine and blower are built up from full circular sections
. Because the air is under pressure, a greater mass can be contained in the cylinder held together with circumferential joints. Building the casings in this manner
and so more fuel can be burnt per stroke, which increases the power developed. obviates the need to split the casing longitudinally, and reduces design problems
Engines pressure-charged in this way with exhaust-gas turbo-driven blowers are and manufacturing costs. The turbine casings are usually water cooled, and
often referred to as turbo-charged engines. connected with the engine cooling system.
The rotor is usually made up of a hollow shaft on which the turbine rotor and
air impeller are mounted. The impeller is often made in two sections to make
5.17 What do you understand by the terms 'boost pressure ratio' and 'air production easier. Three labyrinth gland sections are built into the rotor: one,
density ratio'? at the turbine end to seal the shaft and prevent exhaust gas leakage; another, at
The term boost pressure ratio (often known as pressure ratio) refers to the the blower end to prevent oil being drawn from the bearing. A third is built up
pressure rise across the air section of the turbo-blower. between the turbine rotor and impeller, forming a labyrinth gland in the casing
The term air density ratio refers to the change in density which occurs when division plate between the turbine and blower spaces. The labyrinth glands are
the temperature of the air rises when undergoing compression. supplied with sealing air from the blower discharge.
When graphs of boost pressure ratio are plotted against the mass air flow, the A thrust bearing is fitted at one end of the rotor to balance the thrust set up by
ambient conditions under which the compressor is working should be stated. the difference in gas and air pressures within the casings.
In other cases, when performance curves are plotted, two ordinates may be In marine practice sleeve-type bearings or ball and roller bearings may be
used; one glves the boost pressure ratio while the other gives the air density used. In practice today the use of each type of bearing appears to be equally
ratio. The abscissa on which the ordinates are plotted is the blower rpm or divided. Some manufacturers prefer to use ball and roller bearings because the
percentage of maximum rpm. cooIing and lubrication of these bearings is simpler and enables the turbo-
charger to be independent of an external oil supply. Ball-type bearings take up
the rotor thrust and roller bearings allow for rotor expansion. In some smaller
W 5.18 Describe an exhaust-gas turbo-blower or turbo-charger. turbo-charger units ball bearings may be used at each end of the rotor shaft or in
A modern exhaust-gas turbo-blower is essentially a single-stage impulse turbine the centre of the shaft between the air and exhaust gas sections. This arrange-
connected through a common shaft to a centrifugal-type air blower. The ment allows for easy access to the rotor when dismantling the turbo-charger.
turbine and blower are housed in a circular casing divided into two separate When ball bearings are used one bearing must be free to slide in its housing in
spaces by a circular division plate, which may be water-cooled, or protected by order to accommodate the differences between rotor and casing expansion. The
heat insulation on the exhaust-gas side. The section of the casing which houses bearings are often fitted into spring-mounted supports.
the turbines is fitted witl~oneor alorc flangedexhaust-gainlcts, which lead to There are three generally accepted methods of lubricating the turbo-blower
thc nonle-hladc ring asscmhly. The exhaust gases pass through this ring and are
bearings. One method utilizes the lubricating oil from the engine lubrication
directed on lo the turbine rotor blading. 'She gases enter the moving blades of system. The oil is supplied under pressure to the bearings, from which it drains
 116 Questions and Answers on rhe Marine Diesel Engine Scavenge, Exhaust. Prc,.s.scrrc.-Churging .~ystems 1 1 7

back into the engine system. The second method consists of a complete
lubricating-oil system used only for the turbo-blower bearings. The system
comprises a pump, which takes lubricating oil from a drain tank and pumps it
through an oil cooler up to a gravity supply tank. From the gravity tank the oil
passes through filters to the turbo-blower bearings, and then runs down to the
drain tank. The third method used with ball and roller bearings is to make the
lower part of each end cover into an oil reservoir and attach a gear oil pump t o
each end of ihe rotor Shaft. Lubricant and coolant is then pumped by each gear
pump from its reservoir into its adjacent bearing. The oil after passing through
the bearing drains back to the reservoir. Cooling is effected by air passing into
the compressor over the reservoir at the compressor end and from a cooling
water jacket at the exhaust gas end. It must be remembered that ball and roller
bearings will operate satisfactorily at much higher temperatures than sleeve
bearings.
The rotor revolves at high speed, and it must therefore be dynamically
balanced after all the parts of the rotor are assembled. The balancing will
normally be carried out on a balancing machine. (Fig. 5.1)

5.19 How are the exhaust pipes arranged in a constant-pressure

exhaust-gas turbo-charging system?
- In constant-pressure exhaust-gas turbo-charging systems the exhaust branch or
pipe from each individual cylinder is led into a common manifold. As the
exhaust gas blows into the manifold, eddies are set up which help damp out any
pressure wave caused by the influx of the exhaust gas. The volume of the
manifold must be large enough to accommodate the gas flow from individual
cylinders without causing any localized pressure rise in the manifold as exhaust
gas leaves the cylinder. The exhaust gas is led from the manifold into the
exhaust-gas turbo-blower at a constant pressure.
If the exhaust manifold is made too large the response of the turbine to engine
load change is slowed up due to the manifold volume taking longer to bring to
the higher exhaust pressure. The discharge pressure from the turbine must be
higher than the exhaust manifold pressure. When the engine is operated with a
low load the air discharged from the compressor may be insufficient; a separate
electrically driven blower is then brought into operation.

5.20 What do you understand by the term 'pulse system' of exhaust

turbo-charging?
In the pulse system maximum use is made of the energy in the exhaust gas
during the blowdown~riod,by designing the exhaust valves so that they have
- the
-
largest possible Port area. The exhaust cams are designed to give the most
rapiCpTssible opening o f t h e e ~ h a i t ~ v e w h e n i exhaust
he valve opens, the
blowdown of the exhaust into the exhaust pipe causes a pressure wave or
impulse to pass down the exhaust pipe to the nozzle plate in the exhaust turbine.
The static pressure of the exhaust gas during the impulse period is greater than
the air charging pressure; therefore no cylinder should be exhausting at the time
 11 8 Ouestions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Ennine Scavenge, Exhaust, Pressure-Charging Systems 119
- -
-. -
the impulse passes in the exhaust pipe, otherwise exhaust gas may blow back
into the other cylinder.
Engines turbo-charged on t_he i m p u l s w t e m must have the exhaust pipes
carefully grouped according to the engine exhaust-valve timing. Each group of
exhaust pipes has a separate entry into the exhaust turbine, and each entry leads
to its own nozzle group (see also Question 5.1 1.).

5.21 Describe any turbo-charging system other thanathepulse or -- -

constant pressure systems.
Other turbo-charging systems are sometimes known as quasi-pulse systems.
These systems utilize a system of exhaust pipes similar to the pulse system. The
turbine nozzles are made larger and two groups of pipes will be joined together,
Fig. 5.2 Turbocharger turbine blade fastening, fir pee root type.
the common pipe from the two groups being led to a group of turbine nozzles. A
variant of this is to lead all the common pipes from each group to a single entry
into the turbine and feed all the nozzles from the common entry point. The
object of these arrangements is to increase the efficiency of the turbo-charging When the rotor is moving at high speed, the flexibility of the binding wire
system and reduce the size of the turbo-charger. is such that the action of centrifugal force causes it to bear against the outside
of the holes through which it passes. If the turbine rotates at a speed at which
the blades would vibrate, the friction between the binding wire and the sides
5.22 How are the turbine blades of an exhaust turbo-blower attached to of the holes in the blade tips damps out the vibration and prevents ultimate
- the rotor disc? Are the blade fastenings a loose or tight fit in the rotor? failure.
The roots of the turbine blades, where they are attached to the rotor, are Some turbo-blowers used in engines running at constant speed, such as diesel
machined to what is referred to as 'fir-tree' shape - because it bears some generators or alternators, do not have binding wires.
resemblance to the shape of a fir tree. On the rotor are correspondingly shaped
slots into which the fir-tree roots of the blades slide. Machining tolerances are 5.24 What is the reason for using a fir-tree form of blade root for turbine
extremely tight. blades?
In small turbo-blowers used for constant-speed diesel engines, such as diesel
generators, the blade root can be a tight fit in its slot. The fir-tree root form is superior to other blade fastenings because there is less
In large turbo-blowers with long rotor blades, particularly those used for stress concentration at the junction between the root and the blade. Because
propulsion engines where a wide range of operating speeds is met in service, the there is a more even distribution of stress at the blade root there is less chance of
fit of the blade is such that it can move slightly. When blades are fitted loosely in blade failure in this region.
this manner, a segmented binding wire is fitted through holes near the blade
tips. a 5.25 Describe how you would determine whether exhaust turbo-blower
The blades are held in their slots by upsetting or raising a caulked edge on the air filters were clean or dirty.
rotor at the innermost part of the root slot; this edge prevents the blades sliding
out. (Fig. 5.2) Small engine filters of the renewable type must be visually examined. In larger
blowers with removable filters, a vacuum gauge or U-tube gauge is fitted on the
suction side of the blower, so that the air pressure in the inlet space between the
5.23 Why ore turbine blade roots sometimes made to be a sliding fit in fdter and blower can be measured. As the air filter becomes dirty, its resistance
the rotor? What is the purpose of the binding wire? to air flow increases and the pressuredrop across the filter is increased. This is
The sliding fit of the blade root in large turbo-blowers gives a l a r p amount of indicated by a lowering of the air pressure downstream of the filter. A
damping to the blade to reduce the risk of blade vibration. comparison of this pressure with the figures recorded at the engine test bed trial
The binding wire is made in short lengths, each of which extends through will indicate whether the filters are dirty. Sometimes specific pressures at which
four to six blades. All the blades are connected in this way. The binding wire filters must be cleaned are given in the engine instruction book.
passes through holes near the tips of the blades. It is not a tight fit in the holes.
Eilch scgniclit of binding wirc is Kastcncd by welding i t to the first blade of the
group in which it is fitted.
 120 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

5.26 What are the materials used for the filters on the air inlet side of an The pressure of the oil supply is monitored and any fall i n pressurc gives rise to
exhaust turbo-blower? an alarm condition and call out.
Turbochargers with sleeve bearings and external oil supply may also be fitted -
The materials used for air filters on small engines may be special porous paper with thermometers on the oil-drain outlets from the bearings together with .
elements which are renewed when they become dirty. These elements are usually temperature sensors giving a bearing temperature reading at the control station.
wound in a corrugated form, so that a large area of filter is obtained in a small Oil flow indicators may also be fitted on the inlet oil line to the bearings.
space. This type is found on smaller engines, as used, for example, for In turbochargers fitted with ball and roller bearings and internal oil supply
emergency electrical generators. For larger engines air filters on the blowers from reservoirs in the end covers, a sight glass is fitted in the reservoir to
have removable elements. The filtering medium within the element may be indicate fluid height. Visual examination and feel of the bearing casings or oil
plastic fibre or a non-rusting metallic 'wool' material. Filters made with these reservoirs also give an indication of satisfactofy operation or possible trouble.
materials can be cleaned when they become dirty. -
5.31 What do you understand by the term 'two-stage turbo-charging'?
5.27 Describe the cleaning of turbo-blower air filters.
When air is compressed its temperature rises and the compression may
Most engine builders supply a cleaning pan of the proper size to accommodate approach adiabatic conditions. If air is compressed in two stages the air can be
the air-filter element. The Ar filters are placed in the pan and soaked in alkaline cooled between each stage of compression and the amount of work done in
solutions or special solvents. During the soaking period the dirt adhering to the compressing the air is reduced. Compression then approaches isothermal
filtering medium detaches itself and sinks to the bottom of the pan. After the
conditions.
filters are removed from the pan, they should be allowed to drain. Some
Two-stage turbochargers are generally built up from two separate matched
filtering media may be back-washed with fresh water. standard size turbochargers. The rotor of each stage is on a common polar axis
. Note Care must be taken to use the cleaning material recommended by the or centre line. The rotors are not mechanically connected and are free to move -
engine builder; some solvents dissolve the plastic fibre material of which some independently of each other. The exhaust gas stages are usually arranged back
filters are made. Care must be exercised in the use of many cleaning materials, to back so that the gas passes direct from the outlet of the first stage into the
to prevent skin infections and possible damage to eyes. This is particularly inlet of the second stage. This reduces loss of heat from the gas in passing
important when using compressed air for final removal of cleaning material or betwan each stage.
rinsing water. The second-stage turbine drives the low-pressure compressor. Air is cooled
after passing from the low-pressure stage and then enters the high-pressure
5.28 What effects will dirty air inlet filters in turbo-blowers have on the stage which is driven by the first-stage turbine. The air is again cooled after
operation of the engine? leaving the high-pressure stage.
Two-stage turbocharging allows higher boost pressure ratios and imparts
Dirty air filters reduce the amount of air passing into the engine. As the quantity much higher overall efficiency to the turbo-charger unit. (Fig 5.3)
of air is reduced, so the exhaust gas temperature is increased. The degree to
which this occurs depends on the restricting effect of the dirt on the passage of
air through the filter. 5.32 Where are air coolers fitted on pressure-charged engines? What is
their purpose? Name the cooling medium and explain why it is used.
-
5.29 Why are large amounts of lubricant supplied to turbo-blower Air coolers are fitted on turbocharged engines to cool the air after it has been
bearings? compressed in the turbo-blower. Cooling the air reduces both the temperature
and the volume, and the mass per unit volume is therefore increased. Colder air
As the rotor revolves at high speeds large amounts of heat are generated in the also cools the internal parts of the cylinder more effectively during the scavenge
bearings due to friction. period; a greater mass of air can therefore be present in the cylinder when
The friction may be caused by fluid friction as experienced in sleeve bearings
or rolling friction as experienced in ball and roller bearings. The lubricant compression commences.
Sea-water is the usual cooling medium. The temperature of sea-water is much
supplied serves both as a coolant and a lubricant. Generally larger amounts of lower than the temperature of the fresh water used for cooling the engine, and
lubricant are requird in sleeve bearings.
- ---
therefore has a better cooling effect.
- 1 5 . 3 What indicotiom willbegiven o t u f ~ y ~ l u b r i c a t i n g - osupply
il to
the turbo-blower bearings? 5.33 What causes fouling of the air-side of air coolers?

The lubricant supplied to turbo-charger bearings is supplied under pressure. Fouling of the air passages in an air cooler forming part of a turbo-charging
d
122 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

Oil vapour will then be drawn into the blower and eventually pass and condense
in the blower discharge lines.
The remedy is to clear the air supply to the blower labyrinth packing. If the
air supply is normal, it is usually indicated by a small amount of oil vapour
wafting from the air breather.
When turbo-blower cas-epGnted,cGe muiibe taken to prevenrthe air -

Air In from
breather becoming sealed -with paint.
-
tntercooler
5.35 How will fouling of air coolers b e shown on an engine during its
operation?

When air coolers become fouled, less heat will be transferred from the air to the
cooling water. This is shown by changes in the air and cooling-water tempera-
tures. Changes will also occur in the pressure drop of the air passing through the
cooler. The amount of change will depend on the degree and nature of the
fouling. .

Alr out tooftercooler

and englne
v Atr out to ~ntercooler
The symptoms of air-side fouling are as follows.
1 Decrease of air temperature difference across cooler.
2 Increase of air pressure drop across cooler.
3 Risingscavenge air temperature.
Fig. 5.3 Two-stage turbocharger. The lubrication system, labyrinth packings, 4 Rising exhaust temperature from all cylinders.
cooling jackets and other details have been omitted for the sake of simplicity. 5 A smaller rise in cooling-water temperature across the cooler.
Fouling of the cooling-water side is shown by the following symptoms.
system is usually due to 071 and oily-water films collecting on the sides of the 1 Rising scavenge temperature.
tubes and tube fins. Lint and similar material adheres to these films of oil or 2 Reduction in the difference of the air temperature across the cooler.
emulsion. The presence of oil may be caused by faulty air filters, or by 3 Reduction in the temperature rise of the cooling water across the cooler if
improperly pra?ed filters which allow the air to pass by the side of the filter the fouling is general on all tubes.
element. Sometimes the oil is drawn from the bearing at the blower end of the 4 Rising exhaust gas temperature from all cylinders.
turbo-blower. 5 Increase in the temperature rise of the cooling water if fouling or choking
The presence of moisture is usually the result of high humidity, when the materially reduces the amount of water flow.
engine is operating in warm air temperatures in conjunction with low sea-water
temperatures. The temperature and pressure differences recorded should be compared with
those obtained from the engine when on the test bed.
5.34 What are the usual causes of oil being found in the air passages
between the turbo-blower and the air cooler? 5.36 What is the purpose of the drain cocks or valves on the air side of
air coolers?
If large amounts of oil are found in the air system, the usual cause is faulty oil
seals at the blower bearing; another reason may be that t_he sealing air pipe to The purpose of these cocks is to check the tightness of the air cooler against
the compressor labyrinth-packinghas become choked or shut off, in which case water 1eakage.from the cooling side, and to drain off any condensation that
oil or vapour will be drawn through the labyrinth packing. may occur.
The air breathers on the ends of the turbo-blower end covers must be kept If a leak occurs it can be found by continuing the circulation of water when
clean. These air breathers connect through to the bearing oil drainage space and the engine is stopped, and leaving the drains open. If water is found to drain in
allow the air leak-off from the labyrinth packing to escape. The air breather can any appreciable quantity, it indicates a water leak.
be used to check the air flow into the labyrinth packing, and the leak-off. If a The cocks should be regularly used at sea and left open in port when the
strip of paper is held in front of the breather and is blown away, air is passing engine is shut down.
from the leak-off; if thc paperstrip is drawn towards the breather it indicates The presence of water may indicate that condensation is occurring in the
that air is being drawn into the labyrinth packing owing to lack of sealing air. cooler. This may happen when the atmosphere is humid, and the sea-water
 124 Questions arid Answers on the Murine Die.sel E ~ ~ i n t !

cools the air below the dew-point temperature. This condition is most likely to . and vanadium compounds, which may be oxides. Some additives used in the
be met when the air is warm (warm air holds more water vapour than cold air) cylinder lubricant may also be found in the ash.
and the sea-water is cool. Condensation can be prevented by opening the If combustion is dirty. sooty deposits and carbonaceous materials may be
cooling-water bypass on the cooler, or reducing the amount of water passing found. These deposits may be due to impurities in the fuel, or to poor
through the cooler. combustion. Sometimes poor combustion is caused by operation of the engine
Note Some engines are not fitted with a cooling-water bypass on the air at low loads for lengthy periods.
coolers. If other heat exchangers are in a series circuit with the cooling water When nozzle and rotor blades become dirty the engine symptoms are rising
exhaust-gas temperature at the turbine inlet, accompanied by a fall in the speed
from the air coolers, care must be taken if the amount of water flow is restricted (rev/min) of the turbine. The exhaust-gas temperature rises because more
because it will also reduce the cooling-water flow to the other heat-exchangers. kinetic energy is given up by the gas before it enters the nozzle blades. This
kinetic energy is converted into heat and consequently increases the
temperature. Dirt in the nozzles and blades changes the velocity pattern of the
5.37 How are air coolers cleaned?
gases passing through them; this prevents the turbine working efficiently, and
The cooling-water spaces can be cleaned with the cooler in place. The connect- the speed of rotation falls. When the turbine operates at a lower speed the air
ing pipes to the cooler are removed, and the lower cooling-water branch is delivery is reduced and this in turn causes
- the cylinder exhaust temperature to
blanked off. The cooling-water space is then filled with the cleaning liquid. rise. " -
Sometimes a stand pipe is fitted on the upper branch to provide a pressure head
on the cooler. The air spaces on smaller coolers can also be cleaned in place by 5.39 Describe how turbine rotor blading should be cleaned.
fitting blanks, and filling the air space with cleaning fluid.
It is of the greatest importance to keep the air coolers clean, and engines are Turbine rotor blading can be cleaned by water-washing while the turbo-blower
- designed with a view to facilitating this job as far as possible. is in service, or the turbo-blower can be dismantled to clean all parts
Air coolers on large engines are designed so that the tube stack or nest can be thoroughly. Water-washing of the blades while the turbo-blower is in service
quickly dismantled and lowered into a cleaning bath. The bath is made of glass- requires special apparatus and connections on the turbo-blower exhaust-gas
fibre reinforced plastic, which is light in weight and stores easily. After the stack inlet spaces. This apparatus consists of a probe which passes into the gas space.
is lowered into the tank, it is soaked in cleaning fluid to remove dirt. After the The probe is in effect a water sprayer which fits into the gas inlet space. The
requisite soaking period the cooler should be rinsed clean. Care must be taken outer end of the probe is fitted with connections for compressed air and water,
in the final examination to see that all the spaces between the tube fins are clear. which are taken through flexible pipes from the supply points at the side of the
Note Engine builders usually give instructions for cleaning air coolers in the
blower. An automatic cock is fitted into the probe. when opened, it allows -
water and compressed air to flow to the sprayer. The compressed air atomizes
engine instruction book. the water as it is blown into the gas space. The usual cleaning time is 10 to 15
minutes, depending on the amount of dirt.
The cleaning materials or chemicals that can be used without causing damage The ash found in the nozzle blading is usually water-soluble. The finely
are usually also listed. If no instruction is given, the cleaning material must be atomized water breaks down the ash formations, which then pass up the
carefully selected, since some cleaning materials may actively corrode some of exhaust pipes with the exhaust gases to the atmosphere.
the metals used in coolers. Cleaning fluids having any content that may create While the blades are being washed the turbine blower speed must be consider-
flammable vapours must be used discreetly and any chance of vapour entering ably reduced, and the water drain cocks from the exhaust spaces must be left
the engine at the first start must be obviated. This is done by wefully rinsing open. After washing, the speed of the engine and the turbo-blower must be
away all traces of the cleaning fluid. increased gradually, and the water drain cocks left open until all the water is
Care must be exercised if the coolers are cleaned in situ, as the supports for cleared.
the cooler may not be strong enough to support the cooler when it is full of Some turbo-chargers are fitted with an arrangement to inject small particles
cleaning fluid. of broken walnut shells into the exhaust-gas passages before the nozzle blading.
The sharp edges of the broken shells have a good scouring action on the nozzles
and blading without damaging the smooth surfaces required for the high-
5.38 After o period of service the gas inlet nozzles and blading of the
velocity gases to operate the turbine in an efficient manner, with only minimum
turbine in exhaust turbo-blowers become dirty. What causes the dirt, and
how would you know that the nozzles and blading were dirty?
losses from blade and nozzle friction.
When a turbo-blower is dismantled to clean the turbine rotor blades, the
When combustimis clean, the deposits found _withinthe nozzles and blading of rotor is set up on a pair of wooden V-notched trestles that allow part of the rotor
the exhaust tu*ine are usually sodium compounds, in the form of sulphates, disc and blading to soak in a water bath. During the soaking period the rotor
-
.-- - -
 126 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Scavenge, Exhaust, Pressure-Charging
- - Systems 127
--- -
must be regularly and frequently turned, so that the deposits are completely If this occurs the pressure falls rapidly and air flows hack from the scavenge air
removed. Incomplete removal may leave the rotor out of balance. trunk to the diffuser. The increase in pressure then causes an increase in the air
flow. As the engine cannot use this air the pressure starts to fall again and the
5.40 What do you understand by the term 'surge', when applied to the action is repeated. This condition will continue until the air demand is increased
centrifugal-typeblower used for pressure-charging diesel engines? and the turbo-charger is allowed to operate under stable conditions again.
To prevent these conditions arising the scavenge trunk capacity should be
If the curve of the quantity of air discharged by a turbo-charger plotted against large enough to reduce pressure fluctuations, and the capacity of the turbo-
the pressure ratios is examined, it will be seen that a line is drawn from the charger must be carefully matched to the engine. It will then operate in the
intersection of the axes. From the righi-hand side of this line curves are shown stable range under normal conditions.
giving the quantity of air discharged against the pressure ratio. No points are
plotted to the left of the line. The points plotted on the right-hand side are in the
region of stable operation. Instability occurs if the turbo-charger operates on W 5.41 What are the symptoms when a turbo-blower surges, and how
would you rectify the condition? If you had a turbo-blower surge how
the left-hand side of the line. The line separating the two areas is referred to as
the surge line. (Fig. 5.4) would you prevent the trouble repeating itself?
The surge line passes through the points where the pressure ratio is very near a The symptoms of a surge condition are a repeated, irregular violent thud from
maximum value; as the amount of air discharged increases the pressure ratio is the air intake to the blower, and rapid surges in the scavenge-air pressure. If you
seen to fall away. were standing by the air intake t o the blower you would sense that the air was
Under stable operating conditions, any change in the amount of air taken being taken into the blower in a series of 'gulps'. If surge occurs the engine
into the turbo-charger is accommodated by a change in pressure; one change is speed must be reduced immediately; easing the scavenge-trunk relief valves will
balanced by another. help t o reduce the shocks from air-flow surges. d

. When the turbo-charger operates under unstable conditions any reduction of In an engine with a correctly matched blower, surge is caused by a combina- ,
- air demand on-the discharge side of the compressor causes the pressure to fall. tion of two factors. The first is dirty air-intake filters, which restrict the flow of
air to the blower and the amount of air discharged. The second is the pressure
pulsations, created by the opening and closing of the scavenge ports, and the
irregular air flow from this cause.
Dirty air filters alter the discharge pressure ratio of the blower, and, in effect,
change the blower characteristics. The pressure pulsations, when felt at the
blower discharge, cause the blower to become unstable and consequently to
surge. ,
On engines with two or more blowers discharging into a common casing, the
air movement in the scavenge casing may bounce from one blower to the other,
causing each blower to go into and out of surge conditions in an alarming
manner.
To prevent the trouble recurring, the air filters must be immediately cleaned
very thoroughly, so that the blower can work within the stable range.

5.42 What are the main advantages of the impulse and the constant-
pressure exhuust turbo-charging systems?
The main advantage of the impulse system is that at low loads it is more efficient,
than the constant-pressure system. It does not require assistance from scavenge
curve pumps, except at very low-power operation.
The advantage of the constant-pressure system is that the exhaust-pipe
arrangement is more simple. At high engine loads, the constant-pressure system
Moss flow becomes more efficient than the impulse system. At low loads, scavenge pumps,
under-piston pumps, or electrically driven blowers are necessary to supply the
Fig. 5.4 Compressor performance curves showing the effect of speed changes required air.
on mass output and pressure. The surge line is also shown.
 ,
5.43 What provision is made for running turbo-charged propulsion I The efficiency of the gas turbine is obtained from the values of the tempera-
engines at very low power? 'ture and pressure of the exhaust gases entering and leaving the turbine.
When a propulsion engine is running at very low power, the air output from the I These values can be set up on a heat-entropy chart for exhaust gases (also
known as an enthalpycntropy chart or a mollier chart). From this chart the
turbo-blower is insufficient for the requirements of the engine. The air supply
can be augmented by the following methods. i1 adiabatic or isentropic heat drop is obtained; dividing this by the heat input
gives the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine. The efficiency of the air
compressor can be found in a similar manner by setting up the compressor
1 Some engines are fitted with an electrically driven blower that will give pressure and temperature values on a heat-entropy chart for air.
enough air for slow-speed operation, or for emergencies when the turbo-

i
The efficiency of the turbocharger can then be found by taking the product
blower is out of service. of the turbine and compressor efficiencies, then multiplying the value found by
2 Other engines retain scavenge pumps, which are connected in series with the the mechanical efficiency. This efficiency is not the true efficiency of the turbo-
turbo-blower, and at slow speeds these scavenge pumps will supply charger but is accurate enough for comparative purposes.

I
sufficient air: An expression giving the isentropic efficiency of a turbocharger can be
3 In crosshead, loop-scavenged two-stroke cycle engines the space between developed from basic thermodynamic statements as shown. The turbocharger
the underside of the piston and the diaphragm can be fitted with suction and efficiency is equal to the product of the turbine efficiency, the compressor
delivery valves so that it acts as a reciprocating scavenge pump at low engine efficiency, and the mechanical efficiency of the complete unit.
speeds. At higher engine speeds the pumping action reduces the mechanical I
efficiency of the engine, but it is possible to open a butterfly valve and, in
effect, increase the volume of the clearance space. This reduces the pumping 1 Turbocharger - Turbine x Compressor x Mechanical
efficiency efficiency -efficienyy efficiency
load, increases the mechanical efficiency of the engine and so lowers its fuel
consumption. - I
- VTE
- =~ T X
U VCOX ?MS~
I
5.44 How is the efficiency of a turbo-charger obtained? The turbine efficiency and the Compressor efficiency are now treated
I separately.
The true efficiency of a turbocharger is difficult to obtain. It is noi easily
adaptable to instrumentation, consisting as it does of a gas turbine and an air 1 Turbine dficiency qTu. The efficiency of the turbine may be obtained from a
compressor combined into a single unit and driven by the power obtained from 1
study of the heat given up by the exhaust gases on their passage through the
the exhaust gases of a diesel engine to which it is,attached. turbine. The gases passing through the nozzles and blading are subjected to
Turbo-charger manufacturers have their own test stands and testing facilities ,
I friction, this causes a temperature rise in the gases above the temperature rise
used both for research and testing for efficiency; due to commercial considera- expected if expansion had been isentropic (adiabatic). This is known as
tions regarding secrecy they do not usually publish details of their work. !
reheating and causes an increase in the entropy of the gases, -
A basic statement for efficiency is given by
I
Efficiency = (Energy in - Energy out)/Energy in
.-. i mass flow x sp. heat x actual fall in temperature of gases
~ ~ x sp. heat x isentropic fall in temperature of gases
q T u = m aflow
but this statement gives only the thermal efficiency; it will have to be multiplied
by the mechanical efficiency to obtain the overall efficiency.
The energy input must cover both the kinetic energy and the heat energy If the specific heat and mass flow are constant, they may be cancelled. Then:
contained in the exhaust gas. The energy utilized covers the difference between
the energy input from the engine exhaust and the energy contained in the actual temperature drop in exhaust gases
compressed air discharged from the compressor. There is no problem in dealing )Iru 'isentropic temperature drop in exhaust gases
with the heat content in the exhaust gas and the compressed air because these
values can be obtained from standard tables and charts, but a problem arises in
deciding the datum point for the other forms of energy and whether stagnation
enthalpy considerations should be brought in.
From this it is seen that an academic approach to finding the true efficiency T, = temperature of gases entering turbine at pressure p,
of a turbo-charger by thermodynamic analysis raises many questions. T, = actual temperature of gases leaving turbine at pressure p,
For simplification the efficiency of the gas turbine and the air compressor are T, = temperature of exhaust gases at pressure p, based on fall of temperature
considered separately. when expansion is isentropic.
 - Scavenae. Exhaust, Pressu7e-Charaina Systems 13 1

The following equation may be used to find the value of T,: the efficiency should be the same in each case otherwise a fair comparison will
w t be obtained.
Note The thermodynamic analysis of turbo-chargers is beyond the scope of
this book. This matter is covered in books on advanced thermodynamics and
specialist papers from technical institutions.

5.44 How does the timing of the air-inlet and exhaust valves differ
7, is the ratio of the specific heats CJC, for exhaust gas.
between naturally aspirated and pressure-charged four-stroke engines?
Compressor efliciency qco The efficiency of the compressor may be found in a What is the reason for the differences?
similar manner, then:
In giving valve opening and closing times, it must be remembered that
considerable differences occur in different makes of engine. These differences
depend t o some extent on the speed of the engine, and also on the degree of
supercharging.
T4 = Temperature of air entering compressor at pressure p4 The following table gives the valve timings for four-stroke, medium-speed
T, = Actual temperature of air leaving compressor at pressure p, engines. ,
T, = Temperature of air at pressure p, based on isentropic compression
,;
The following. -equation may be used to find the value of T,: Naturally aspirated Pressure-charged
Inlet valve opens up to 20° b.t.d.c. up to 80' b.t.d.c.
Inlet valve closes up to 25" a.b.d.c. up to 45" a.b.d.c.
Open period 20°+1800+250=2250 80°+1800+450=3050
Exhaust valve opens up to 45O b.b.d.c. up to 50' b.b.d.c.
Exhaust valve closes up to 20° a.t.d.c. up to 60" a.t.d.c.
o~en RCdod 45' + 180" +20° -245" 50" + 180°+600=2900
y, is the ratio of the specific heats C,,/C, for air. By substituting the expressions
for the turbine and compressor efficiencies into the general equation given It will be noticed that the period for which each valve is open is much longer in
above an expression for the turbocharger efficiency may be obtained. Then: the pressure-charged engine.
When examining the valve timing for each engine, it will be noticed that the
inlet valve is opened before the exhaust valve is closed. The period when both
valves are open is referred to as the overlap period.'In the naturally aspirated
engine, the overlap is (20" b.t.d.c. +2O0 a.t.d.c.) = 40°; in the pressure-charged
engine, it is (80" b.t.d.c. +60° a.t.d.c.)= 140".
The large overlap period in the pressure-charged engine allows the exhaust
gases to be expelled from the cylinder, except for a small amount of exhaust gas
that is mixed with the incoming air. During this period a large amount of air
passes through the inlet valve, the cylinder, and the exhaust valve, cooling the
parts in the process.
This cooling helps to keep the surface temperatures of these parts at a lower
\ All pressures and temperatures must be absolute values. This expression may be value, which in turn reduces thermal stresses.
further refined by substitution and simplified. After the exhaust valve closes, less heat is passed into the air that follows into
The efficiency of the turbo-charger can then be found by taking the product the cylinder, and a greater mass of air is therefore present when compression
of the turbine and compressor efficiencies, then multiplying the value found by begins.
the mechanical efficiency. This efficiency is not the true efficiency of the turbo- The overlap period, when both the exhaust valve and air-inlet valve are open
charger but is accurate enough for comparative purposes. In studying technical together, is sometimes referred to as the scavenge period in pressure-charged
literature covering efficiencies of various turbo-chargers, the method of finding four-stroke engines.
 1 32 Questions and A nswcrs on the Marine Diesel Engine
-
In constant-pressure turbo-blown systems, the gas inlet to the disabled
5.46 What pressure-charging system is used on modern slow-speed two-
turbine and the air discharge from the blower should be blanked off with blind
stroke uniflow-scavenged engines, fitted with exhaust valves? Give the
flanges. If the engine is fitted with scavenge pumps it may not be possible to
crank angles at which the exhaust valves open and close, and the angles
blank off the air outlet from the turbine, as this would shut off the supply air to
at which the scavenge ports open.
the scavenge pumps. In this case the rotor must be locked, or the emergency air-
All modern slow-speed, two-stroke cycle engines operate on the constant- inlet branches to the scavenge pumps opened. The engine will be operated on
pressure turbo-charging system. The number of turbo-chargers used depends the remaining turbo-blower. The speed of the engine must be restricted so that
on the size of the engine. Because the efficiency of a turbocharger increases the allowable turbine speed is not exceeded.
with an increase in its physical size and output, the number of turbochargers is Generally, engines with two turbo-blowers can operate at 60% to 80% of full
kept to a minimum. power when one turbo-blower is disabled.
Scavenge ports open at approximately 35 degrees before b.d.c. and close 35 When a blower is isolated from the exhaust by the fitting of blind flanges or
degrees after b.d.c.. The exhaust valve will open ahead of the scavenge ports to emergency exhaust pipes, the lubricating oil and cooling-water services can be
give a blow down period and close at some time to leave the correct amount of shut off.
air in the cylinder for the combustion of fuel. The open period for the exhaust
valve will be about 80 to 90 degrees of crank rotation and the valve will open 5.48 What has been the overall effect of increasing turbo-charger
about 45 degrees before b.d.c.. It should be noted that considerable variation , efficiency?
may be found in valve timing figures for various engines. The figures used in
any valve-timing checking work should be taken from the engine instruction The overall effect of increased turbo-charger efficiency has been and will
book. These figures will take into account lag from hydraulic operated valves continue to be shown as a decrease in fuel consumption.
and valves with hydraulic lifters. This has fitted in well with the new generation of slow-speed, two-stroke cycle
long-stroke engines. The increased turbo-charger efficiency has reduced the
heat input requirement making it possible to open the exhaust valves later and
5.47 What pressure-charging system is used on modern medium-speed, get a seater amount of work from the fuel due to a greater expansion ratio of
four-stroke V-engines? Give the timing angles for the air-inlet and
the combustion gases.
exhaust valves.
As about fifty per cent of the energy in the fuel passes through the turbine of
This type of engine is operated with the impulse pressurecharging system. the turbo-charger there is still plenty of heat available for exhaust gas boilers
although in the future the heating surfaces of the boiler will have to be increased
Air inlet valves open SO0 b.t.d.c. to accommodate the lower-temperature gases.
Air inlet valves close 45O a.b.d.c.
Exhaust valves open 40" b.b.d.c. Note Schemes are available to utilize the energy in exhaust gases either to
Exhaust valves close 60° a.t.d.c. generate electrical power through an exhaust gas-driven turbo-alternator or
generator, or to connect an exhaust gas turbine to the propeller shaft through a
clutch and reduction gearing.
5.48 What are the provisions for operating impulse and constant As a point of historic technical interest, similar schemes were used very effec-
pressure exhaust turbo-charged engines with a disabled turbo-blower? tively with reciprocating marine steam engines from the early 1900s until well
, Impulse pressurecharged engines can have the rotor locked, and the blower into the post-war years, to utilize some of the waste heat in the exhaust steam
outlet blanked off with a blind flange, if the period of operation under before passing into the condenser.
emergency conditions is not long. The second blower can be left in operation, One scheme connected an exhaust steam turbine on to a centre-screw shaft in
and the electric blowef brought into use. In certain cases, reducing orifice plates twin reciprocating engine installations, making the ship a triple-screw ship.
must be fitted into the electric or turbo-blower, to balance the discharge Another scheme connected the exhaust turbine to the screw shaft through a
pressures and prevent surge. hydraulic clutch and double reduction gearing. A third scheme used the exhaust
If the engine is to be operated under emergency conditions for a long period, steam to drive a rotary compressor used to compress the steam between expan-
the emergency exhaust pipes must be fitted, so that the exhaust gases bypass the sion stages. A fourth scheme used the exhaust steam to drive an electrical
turbine. This prevents damage to the labyrinth packings and the turbine rotor. generator. The current produced was used in a set of resistance elements to
It will still be necessary to blank the outlet from the blower, to prevent air reheat the steam between expansion stages.
backflow from the scavenge receiver.
When operating on one turbo-blower with the exhaust gases from the other
bypassed, it is still necessary to use the electric blower as mentioned previously.
134 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Scavenge, Exhaust, Pressure-Charging Systems 13 5

5.50 What precautions must be taken to minimize thermal stresses in expansion; the casings will have to be very effectively heat insulated to prevent
modern, highly rated, turbo-charged engines? or reduce the risk of fires and accidents to engine-room personnel.
The modern, highly rated engirle requires large amounts of cool air to pass Note Small engine turbo-chargers normally did not have water-jacketed
through the cylinders during the overlap period of the inlet and exhaust valves, casings.
in four-stroke engines; and during the period that scavenging is taking place, in
two-stroke engines. To maintain this air flow at a maximum it is necessary to 5.52 State what can be done to continue operation with a turbo-charger
keep a careful watch on the air suction pressure to the exhaust turbo-blower. having water leakage into the exhaust gas space.
Any reduction in this pressure from normal indicates that the suction filters
need to be cleaned. If the water jacket on a turbine casting leaks, the problem is usually due to
The turbine speed and exhaust temperatures must be carefully watched and corrosion on the cooling-water side of the jacket in the hotter regions of the
any indication of fouled blading should be investigated and rectified. water space. This is more likely to happen when sea-water is used as the cooling
The temperature of the air entering and leaving the cooler must be observed, medium and proper attention has not been givln to the corrosion protection
and any decrease in the difference rectified by cleaning the coolers. anodes fitted in various locations in the cooling-water spaces.
The grids fitted in the gas passages to the turbine may also require cleaning if When leakage occurs it has been the practice in the past to remove the plugs
combustion has been poor at any time. on the cover plates, or the cover plates covering the core holes in the cooling
Most engine instruction books give both normal values and the values which spaces. The aim is to set up a thermo-siphon action and cause air to flow,
indicate that corrective action should be taken. Automatic valves fitted in through the cooling space to hold the casting at a safe operating temperature
scah enge receivers and under-piston scavenge pumps also require careful atten- until a new casting is obtained and fitted.
tion and regular cleaning, to prevent restriction of air flow. In some engine rooms where ventilation around the gas side of the turbo-
charger is inadequate, the cooling may have to be augmented with an air hose
connected to an air supply, or by leading air through a temporary duct from a
5.51 What attention do exhaust gas silencers require? . ventilator outlet.
The internal spaces and the baffle plates of exhaust gas silencers become fouled This form of temporary operation has been carried out many times, but it
after a period of service. The dirt on the baffle plates increases the back pressure should not be attempted without the cognizance of the Company's technical
on the engine exhaust system, and must therefore be cleaned off at regular department and the turbo-charger's manufacturer.
intervals so that the back pressure is kept at a minimum. The silencers are fitted The operation is more easily carried out where owners operate their engines at
with doors at the sides or bottom of the silencer outer casing to facilitate some value below the maximum continuous rating. (Fig. 5.5)
cleaning.
Accumulations of dirt are also dangerous. I f the dirt ignites, burning carbon
particles and sparks may be discharged with the exhaust gases from the funnel.

5.52 Why are some turbo-charger manufactures dispensing with water

jackets on the exhaust gas side of turbo-chargers.
Water jackets hold the temperature of the castings of the turbine casings at
reasonable values, but they have the following disadvantages also.
They cool the exhaust gases and reduce the turbo-charger efficiency.
They arc more expensive l o produce than non-jacketed castings due to the
complications of coring, cost of cores, the possibility of defective casting due
to core shift, and the costs of removal of core material when castings are
cleaned. .
Problems may arise when leakage occurs from the water jackets into the
exhaust gas spaces.
air duct I
L A r from
enq1nermm

These factors are prompting some manufacturers to consider dispensing with Exhaust gas
inlet flange
jackets; others are producing turbo-chargers with no water-jacketed spaces.
0 1 1 I I I C dctrit sick f o r c.orlsidcr;ltiori. hettcr ma~criniswill be required for Fig. 5.5 Emergency air cooling arrangement for turbocharger turbine water
casings without jackets i n order to withstand h i g h temperatures without jacket when leakage occurs across waterlgas space boundary.
 I Construction Materials, Welding, Materials Testing 137

I combinations are chrome-nickel, nickel-molybdenum, and nickel-vanadium.

Sometimes high-quality cast-irons arc made in the electric furnace.
Nodular cast-iron is made by alloying iron with an alloy containing either
magnesium and copper, or nickel and cerium, (a 'rare earth' metal). The alloy is

CONSTRUCTION I added to the molten cast-iron prior to pouring. The added alloy causes the
graphite to take up a spherical form, thus increasing the strength and ductility
of the iron. Nodular irons also are modified by heat treatment. The processes
for producing nodular iron, also known as spheroidal graphite iron, are
MATERIALS, WELDING, I protected by patents.
Meehanite is the name given to a group of cast-irons produced by inoculating
the iron with calcium silicide in controlled processes; these processes are also
MATERIALS TESTING covered by patents. Malleable iron castings are produced by heat-treating

I
a
castings made from iron of a suitable composition.

W 6.4 Name the steel-making processes and the types of steel produced.

6.1 What ore the factors which influence the choice of materials used for
the manufacture of the various parts of a diesel engine?
I Open-hearth process. This process produces either acidic or basic open-hearth
steel, depending on whether the furnace lining is acidic or basic.
Bessemerproces. The Bessemer process uses a converter; air is blown through
' '

The parts of a diesel engine play a different role, and are subjected to constant
or varying stresses. Certain parts must withstand high temperatures and/or a
corrosive environment, while other parts may be subjected to wear. The
material chosen must be able to withstand the stresses to which it is subjected. If
I the molten charge which oxidizes the impurities and liberates heat. After the
charge is blown, deoxidation and recarburization are carried out by the
addition of a l l y s containing carbon,mangarrese, and silicon.

I
a part has to work at high temperatures or withstand corrosive attack, the Electric furnaces are used to produce small amounts of high-quality steels or
material must not undergo physical or chemical changes under these alloy staels.
conditions. If it has to resist wear, the surfaces must be sufficiently hard to give Oxygen steel is produced by blowing oxygen on to the surface of the molten
low wear rates, and it must be compatible to work in conjunction with the metal in a furnace similar to a k s e m e r converter.

I
material of its mating part. Material and manufacturing costs are also factors to Killed steel is produced by deoxidizing molten steel, which is afterwards cast
be considered when alternative materials are available. in special moulds to produce ingots. Pipes, blowholes, and slag inclusions are
then reduced to a minimum. This produces an ingot that is less likely to develop
faults later during the forging or rolling processes. The deoxidants used are
6.2 Nome the various ferrous materials used in the construction of a

I.
ferro-manganese, ferro-silicon, ferro-titanium, and aluminium.
diesel engine.
The ferrous materials used are: cast-iron, alloy cast-irons, nodular cast-iron,
The type of steel used for important forgings for engine parts is usually killed
open-hearth steel. -. -
, steel of various grades (classified by their carbon content), and alloy steels.

6.3 How are the various forms of cost-iron manufactured? I

I
6.5 How Is steel affected by its carbon content and by impurities?
The carbon content of a steel controls its internal structure. As the carbon
Cast-iron is produced by reducing iron ore in a blast furnace. The resultant pig content increases the steel becomes stronger but its ductility is decreased.
iron can then be further refined to reduce imparities, or remelted to make
castings. In the form used for castings, cast-iron is essentially an alloy of iron,
carbon, and silicon, in combination with smaller amounts of manganese,
sulphur and phosphorus. If the carbon is in the form of flakes of graphite, in
I Impurities slso affect the internal structure and alter the strength and ductility
of the steel.

the presence of silicon, the grey irons are produced. When the silicon content is
low the carbon will combine with the iron, if the metal is chilled, to produce
white irons.
Alloy cast-irons are produced by alloying with other metals. Common
I W 6.6 What do you understand by the term 'heat treatment'? Name the
heat-treatment processes.
Heat treatment is the name given to the process of heating metal above the
I critical temperature, at which intemal changes occur, and then cooling the
 138 Questions and Answers on [he Marine Diesel Engrne
I Construction Materials, Welding, Materials Testing 139
metal slowly or rapidly to give it more
- desirable physical and'mechanical
properties. The names of the various surface-hardening-processes
. are as follows.
The heat-treatment processes are normalizing, annealing, hardening, and I
tempering. Carburizing processes cyaniding - pack method
nitriding - gas method
i
6.7 How is steel normalized and what is the .purpose
. of normalizing?
- 1 Heat treatment processes flame hardening
induction hardening
Steel is normalized by heating it slowly- to -just above the temmrature at which
changes in the internal structure take place; it is then soaked at this ternpera-
ture. After the'soaking period, the steel is cooled slowly in air. Air cooling is W 6.12 Many diesel engine parts are subject to wear. Give examples of
referred to as medium cooling. some parts that are surface hardened, and name the process used.
Normalizing refines the grain structure of the steel.

6.8 What does the term 'annealing' mean? How is steel annealed? What
is the purpose o f annealing?
I pw
Mediumand high-speed engine
crankshaft journals and pins .
Surface-hardening process

Nitriding
-
,'

Annealing is similar to normalizing. Different rates of cooling are required for

different materials. Steel is annealed by heating to the required temperature at
which its internal structure changes, and then soaking at this temperature. After
soaking, the steel is cooled slowly in a furnace. Furnace cooling is referred to as
!
i
Spacial alloy cast-iron cylinder
liners
Gear wheel teeth
Gudgeon pins
Cams
Nitriding
Flame hardening
Induction hardening
Flame hardening
slow cooling. Annealing refines the grain structure, reduces hardness, and
- increases ductility.
! (Different engine manufacturers may favour different vrocesses for some of the
parts given in the example.)
6.9 How is steel hardened? What effect does hardening have on the
steel?
The method adopted must be suited to the steel used. Care must always be
exercised during treatment, since if the treatment is not correct, exfoliation of
Steel is hardened by heating to a specified t e m p e r a t u r ~ f o l l o wby
~ rapid the hardened surface may occur.
cooling. The cooling may be in air, or by quenching in oil or water: the method
used depends on the type of steel and the properties required. A gain in hardness
is accompanied by a loss of ductility. In the fully hardened state steel is brittle.
Steels containing very small amounts of carbon cannot be hardened.
1 W 6.13 What are austenitic steels and where are they used?
Austenitic steels are a group of alloy steels that exhibit a particular structural
form. They have high resistance to the changes which occur in normal steels
6.10 How is steel tempered? What is the purpose? Give an example. I1 when subjected to high temperature. They are therefore used where strength is
required at high temperatures. This type of steel may be used for exhaust valves,
Steel is tempered by heating hardened steel and then cooling it by air or exhaust turbo-blower turbine nozzle blading, and turbine rotor blading,
quenching. The temperature to which it is heated and the quenching ratecontrol
the degree of hardness, strength, and ductility.
Steel is tempered to obtain special mechanical or physical properties.
Important engine parts such as coupling bolts, bearing bolts, and parts
iI depending on the prevailing temperature and stress conditions that the part has
t o work under, whether corrosive conditions are present, and whether a high
creep resistance is necessary.
subjected to alternating stress, are tempered to increase their strength and resis-
tance to fatigue failure. 1 W 6.14 Where is Stellite used in diesel engines? What is it composed of and
how is it applied?

1 6.1 1 What is surface hardening? Name the surface-hardening processes. Stellite is the trade name of an alloy consisting of cobalt, chrome, molybdenum,
Surface hardening is a process whereby the structure of the surface of a material
is changed to give it better wearing properties. The process may increase the
carbon content of the steel by carburization or, in the case of steels with higher
i tungsten, and iron. Varying proportions of some or all the metals are used to
produce alloys with various characteristics. These alloys resist loss of strength
at high temperatures. Stellite is extremely hard and corrosion-resistant and is
often used for metalcutting tools. In diesel engines, Stellite is used to surface
carbon contents, by heat-treating the surface concerned. the valve faces and seats of exhaust poppet valves. It is applied by welding
processes on to the valve face and seat, which must be preheated.
 140 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
- -
6.15 How are the large, heavy, moving, steel parts of a diesel engine Phosphorus 0.3%
manufactured? Is hammering or pressing preferable for working large, Manganese 1.0%
heavy sections? Nickel 1 .O%
The steel used for the heavy, moving parts of an engine is produced in the form Chromium 0.4% - ' -

of an ingot. In the cast state the steel ingot has a coarse crystalline structure and, Balance iron to 100%
being brittle, would be unsuitable for use.
The ingot is therefore hot-worked; this consists of heating the ingot in a gas
furnace and working it under a hydraulic press, so that the part is gradually 6.18 Name the non-ferrous metals and their alloys that are used in
'squeezed' to the shape and dimensions shown in the forging plan. The hot- engine construction (exclude bearing metals).
working refines the structure of the steel so that the grain is less crystalline and
has a finer and more uniform structure. The ductility of the steel is also greatly The non-ferrous metals and their alloys are mainly copper. zinc, tin,
improved. The amount of hot-work is governed by the shape and sections of the aluminium, nickel, and chromium.
forgings, but it must be above a minimum value. Copper is often used in pipe systems, while aluminium or aluminium alloys
Pressing is more suitable than hammering for large heavy parts, because the can be used for various castings.
hydraulic press works the material right through to the centre of the ingot so Copper when alloyed with zinc and small amounts of tin, in various propor-
that grain refinement occurs throughout the section. Hammering of large pieces tions, forms the range of alloys known as brass.
disturbs or hot-works the material only on the surface. It does not produce a Copper alloyed with tin and small amounts of zinc forms the bronzes and
uniform structure right through the section of the forging. gunmetals.
After the parts are forged they must be annealed or normalized, and Aluminium bronze is an alloy with 80 to 90% copper and up to 10%
tempered. aluminium, with small additions of other metals.
Phosphor-bronze is the name of a range of tin-copper alloys containing small
amounts of phosphorus.
6.16 If steel ingots must be hot-worked to produce steel of the right Manganese bronzes are produced by additions of up to 2% manganese to
quality for heavy parts, explain how it is possible to use steel castings for approximately 60/40 copper-zinc alloys.
crank webs.
When steel castings are used for crank webs, the moulds for the castings are
made with large spaces that form bossings on the castings. These bossings form 6.19 Name the metals used in the production of onti-friction bearing
reservoirs of metal which are pulled into the main part of the casting as it cools. alloys.
This reduces the internal stresses set up when the metal passes from the liquid -
into the solid state. Anti-fiction 5etals are ;so referred to as white-metal or Babbitt's metal.
After the casting has cooled it is removed from the mould. The risers and There are two classes of white-metal: one is tin-based, the other is lead-based.
discards are removed. The casting is grit blasted and examined for surface and Tin-based white-metals contain tin, antimony, and various amounts of copper
internal defects. If it is found in order, the casting is heat-treated under and cadmium. Lead-based white-metals are not normally used in marine diesel
carefully controlled conditions. engine practice. Some tin-based white-metals do contain very small amounts of
The heat treatment may consist of full annealing or normalizing, followed by lead, either by addition or as an impurity.
tempering, depending on the size and proportions of the casting. The heat
treatment refines the grain structure so that the crank web has the required
strength and ductility. The test pieces are not removed from the casting until the 6.20 Name the metals used in the manufacture of thin-wall bearings.
heat treatment is carried out.
Copper, tin, zinc, lead, nickel, and manganese are used to produce alloys
1 6.17 Give the analysis of a cast-iron suitable for the manufacture of of varying proportions which are bonded on to a thin-steel backing strip
,' piston rings. which forms the bearing shell. Selected metals are used to form the following
alloys:
Nickel-chromium cast-iron is often used for piston rings.
lead-bronze alloys
Analysis Carbon 3 .O% copper-lead alloys
Silicon . 1.5% tin-aluminium alloys
Sulphur 0.1 % aluminium-bronze alloys
 ,
142 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Construction Materials, Welding, Materials Testing 143
I

6.21 Give the analysis of a cast-iron considered suitable for cylinder 6.24 What are the special requirements of the white-metal used in
liners. State the mechanical properties of the cast-iron. What impurity crosshead bearings?
must be kept to a minimum? How can the tensile strength be increased The loads placed on the crosshead bearings of modern engines are extremely
and the resistance to wear be improved? heavy. The requirements of the white-metal depend on the design of the
Analysis Carbon 3.0% bearing. For example, very stiff crosshead assemblies with a thin white-metal
Manganese 1.0% layer require a different metal from a more flexible assembly with a thick layer.
The requirements of each bearing must be formulated initially from previous
Silicon
Phosphorus
0.7%
0.4%
experience, and then possibly modified following service experience to give the -
Sulphur 0.1% desired characteristics.
For modem, slow-speed, highly rated crosshead engines, a white-metal
The silicon content should be kept as low as possible: silicon promotes growth known t o give reasonably satisfactory service is analysed as shown.
in cast-iron when subjected to continued heating. Cast-iron having the above .
Anabsis Tin 8870
analysis has a tensile strength of approximately 216 MN/mZ(14 tons/in2). Antimony 870
The tensile strength of cast-iron is sometimes increased by the addition of Copper 4%
mild steel scrap to the pig iron charge put in the furnace. Alternatively, small Cadmium trace
amounts of chrome and nickel may be used. The wear resistance can be
improved by small additions of vanadium.
6.25 What are plastics? Where is use made of plastics in diesel engines
and ancillary equipment? Name the plastics used.
6.22 Describe the behaviour of the constituent parts of bearing white-
metals. - - Plastics, a product of the organic chemist, are made up of long chains of
identical molecules, i.e., they are polymers. The constituent molecules are
The tin content forms what is ca1le;d the matrix. This matrix is sufficiently soft carbon and hydrogen compounds and may also contain a wide range of other
to accommodate, the small changes in alignment between the journal and the elements. The raw materials used to produce plastics are obtained from coal or
bearing surfaces. petroleum oils.
The antimony forms cubes or cuboids, which are very hard. These cuboids Plastics are not wed in any of the major pans of diesel engines. Their use is
take the load from the journal or pin and transmit it to the supporting matrix. limited to instruments and electrical fittings.
They also have a high resistance to wear. When the bearing is being cast and the The materials mainly used are as follows.
white-metal is in the molten state, the antimony cubes tend to float and
conglomerate, a process referred to as segregation. Nylon. This material is used for bearings and small gearwheels in instruments.
The copper constituent prevents segregation. The copper has a high melting It is tough, has a low coefficient of friction, and can be machined from rod or
point and solidifies first, forming long needles which interlace in a criss-cross plate sections. It is also made into fibres.
pattern through the liquid tin. The interlaced copper needles hold the antimony ~ o l ~ m e t h ~ l m e t h a c r ~(Perspex).
late This is a clear plastic used for instrument
cubes in an evenly dispersed pattern through the tin matrix. glasses, level gauge tubes (not boiler or steam service), and bearing-oil-well
When the white-metal ingots are melted prior to casting, extreme care must sight glasses.
be exercised to prevent overheating the metal. Care must also be exercised when
Polytetrqfluoroethylene (PTFE or Teflon). This material has a very low
bearings are centrifugally cast to prevent separation of the constituents.
Cadmium improves the toughness of the bearing metal and helps prevent coefficient of friction and resists heat; it also has good chemical resistance in the
fatigue. presence of oil. It is used for gland packings or for coating conventional soft
packing. Due to its low frictional resistance it may be used as a packing for
shafts with high rubbing speeds. PTFE is supplied in mdulded O-rings, or in
6.23 Give the analysis of white-metal suitable for diesel engine main sheet or shredded form. It gives good service in fuel pump and valve glands.
and bottom-end bearings.
Phenolic resins. These resins are normally bonded with linen or other fibrous
Analysis Tin 85-88% materials. They are used for bearings in pumps and on screwshafts. They swell
Antimony 8-10% in water, a'n action to be considered when calculating bearing clearances. One
Copper 4-5% material which gives excellent service in water-lubricated bearings is Tufnol.
Normally the white-metal used for diesel engine bearings is produced by metal A wide range of other plastic materials are used to make paints and
refiners and sold under various brand names. compositions, thermal insulation, sound absorbents, bonding cements, etc.
 rum uriu
v~~~~ A NS w m on the Marine Diesel Ennine Construction Materials, weld --in^. Marerials Testing
--. --
I 45

6.26 What are elastomers, and where are they used? Zirconium dioxide is also known as zirconia and is used in applications for
the manufacture of special glasses, piezoelectric crystals and ceramic-metallic
An elastomer is a rubber-like material. The term covers both natural products materials (cermets). Zirconium oxide can withstand very high temperatures. A
and synthetic materials which are elastic or resilient. considerable amount of research work has gone into trying to improve the effi-
Elastomers are used to make O-rings, jointing material, and packings. For ciency of diesel engines by using it to coat the piston crown, cylinder head, valve
service at low temperatures, vulcanized or treated natural rubber can be used heads and cylinder walls with zirconium oxide. The purpose is to increase the
for joints, O-rings, and similar packings. Treated natural rubber will pot operating temperature range in the cylinder and raise the thermal efficiency of
withstand oil. Where there is contact with oil, the elastomer Neoprene is used. the engine. The oxide coating protects the metallic parts of the engine from the
Neoprene is produced from acetylene, which is-converted to chloroprene and higher temperatures and reduces the amount of heat passing into the cooling
then polymerized, water. The engine then operates on a higher range of temperature and so
Nitrile rubber (a bUh-at:iybRitrife-mpdymer) is a synthetic material increases the thermal efficiency.
used for service at high temperatures. It is used for the sealing rings fitted A secondary consideration is to increase the life of parts by protecting them
between cylinder liners and jackets, and in the exhaust and scavenge port belt of from wear.
a two-stroke engine cylinder liner. The coating of the partsharried o u e y the plasma flame spraying process.
In this process the ceramic is fed in powder form into a spraying torch, an arc is
6.27 Name some of the materials known as technical or engineering struck between a cooled central electrode and the nozzle, but is not transferred
ceramics. on to the work. The nozzle forms an orifice and constricts the arc, increases its
Some of the engineering or technical ceramic materials are listed below. temperature and causes ionization of the plasma gas. The plasma gas is usually
argon. This is fed into the nozzle and emerges at an extremely high temperature
Aluminium oxide Al,O, and melts the powdered ceramic. The velocity of the gas carries the melted
Silicon carbide Sic particles on to the work being coated.
Silicon dioxide SiO, Composites of different ceramic materials and ceramic materials and metals
Silicon nitride Si,N, are made up to give the necessary properties of strength and make them
Zirconium dioxide ZrO, isotropic, to increase resistance to mechanical and thermal shock loading,
Many of these materials are able to withstand very high temperatures before balance the thermal expansion between parts of different materials, improve
melti~gor change of state occurs. The list is by no means complete, but covers corrosion resistance, and the like.
I
some of the more important materials likely to be met in diesel machinery Note Extremely hard, sharp abrasives should not be used in abrasive blast
practice. I cleaning processes on materials subjected to cyclic stress variations; the micro-
The production of new ceramic materials and their use and application in the scopic abrasions left on the surface will form nucleation sites for the
field of diesel engine technology must still be regarded as in its infancy, commencement of fatigue failure.
although progress in the last few years has been rapid, particularly in the I

automotive engine field.

6.29 Name the processes by which two pieces of metal can be ioined
(excluding mechanical means such as bolting and riveting). Give an
6.28 State where some of the ceramic materials listed in the previous example of where the processes can be used.
I
question can be used.
1 The processes by which two pieces of metal can be joined are soft soldering,
Aluminium oxide is used in the manufacture of electrical insulators, abrasive brazing, welding, or with adhesive or bonding materials.
I
materials such as grinding wheels, grinding powders, pastes, and the like; it may
also be used in the manufacture of refractory cement. In certain hydrated forms
it can be used as a gas adsorbant. It is also used in abrasive blast cleaning
1 Soft soldering is mainly used for tinplate work or electrical connections.
i Brazing is mainly used for non-ferrous pipe work such as joining slip-type pipe
processes (see Note). Silicon carbide is used in the manufacture of electronic flanges to copper pipes, or steel flanges to steel pipes. The filler material can be
circuit components such as light-emitting diodes and in the manufacture of a low melting-point brass or a silver solder; it is drawn into the joint by capillary
-
abrasives. It is used in abrasive blast cleaning processes.
Silicon dioxide is used in glass manufacturing, abrasives, and foundry
1 !
action.- -
Welding processes vary considerably, from blacksmith's hammer welding and
moulding work. Silicon nitride is sometimes used in the manufacture of gas
turbine components operating at extremely high temperatures such as stator gas welding processes to the mechanized electric arc and resistance welding
blading. It has a high resistance to thermal shock. It can sometimes be used for processes.
cutting tools as it is extremely hard. In diesel engine manufacture and repair work, the most common form of
146 ~uesrr& and Answers on the Marine Diesel Ennine Construction Materials, Welding, Materials Testing 141

welding is the manual electric arc process. This process is used in the 6.32 What type of welding equipment and tools are likely to be found on
manufacture of fabricated bedplates, engine columns, steel pipework, and motor ships?
starting-air reservoirs or receivers. Single-operator, transformer-type welding machines are used on ships with an
Gas welding processes are used on small size pipework and thin sheet metal alternatingcurrent supply. They are connected to the high-voltage supply. The
work. transformer can be.used with a rectifier to supply direct current for welding. In
When welding some metals by the electric arc method, it may be necessary to older ships with direct-current supply a motor generator set can be used. Direct
shroud, or envelop, the location of the arc with inert gases such as argon or current is considered to be safer for use in ships, where welding may be done in
helium. hot, damp conditions. The tools used are a welding hood, a hand shield with
Adhesive and bonding cements, Plastic adhesives and Tondingcements are coloured and transparent protecting glasses, insulated rod tongs, welding
available, but their use is mainly limited to instruments, the fastening of current supply and earthing cables, a slag hammer, wire brush, gloves,
nameplates, and the like. In some cases their use requires heat. fireproof apron, and a welding bench.
The protective hood, hand shield, and gloves are to protect the operator from
ultraviolet and infrared ray burns. The apron is to protect the clothing of the
6.30 Describe how two pieces of mild steel are ioined by the manual operator from being ignited by weld spatter. The hand shield protects the eyes
electric arc welding process. of the operator, and enables him t o see the welding arc and pool of metal. The
After the two pieces of mild steel to be joined have been suitably prepared, they slag hammer and wire brush are used to' remove slag from the weld metal, and
are brought together until they touch (or a gap may be left, depending on the help prevent inclusions between the various runs.
thickness and length of the welded joint).
The electric current can be direct or alternating, with a voltage of 80 to 6.33 Name and briefly describe the types of joints made by electric arc
100 volts. The metal being joined is connected to one pole of the current supply, welding processes.
while a coated electrode or rod is connected to the other pole.
The electrode is used to make the arc, which is then kept as short as possible. The joints made by electric welding may be of the following types.
The heat from the arc melts the metal being joined, the metal in the electrode, Butt joints. In butt joints, the joint is formed by placing two pieces of metal
and the coating on the electrode, so that a small pool of molten metal forms. As with their edges side by side and then welding the edges together.
the pool of metal is formed the electrode is moved along with a series of small
sideways movements, extending the molten metal pool; the metal in the pool Lap joints. This type of joint is made by placing one piece of metal on the other
furthest from the arc cools and solidifies. The continued movement of the arc so that they overlap. The edge of the upper piece is then welded to the surface of
and the solidifying molten metal gradually create the joint. The electrode is held the lower piece on which it rests, forming a weld fillet. It is usual to weld lap
at approximately 30" from the vertical with the hand in advance of the electrode joints with fillets on both sides.
tip in the direction of movement along the joint.
The metal in the electrode is sometimes referred to as the filler. To create a 6.34 Which type of welded joint has the highest resistance to fatigue
good weld, the filler and the sides of the joint must melt and mix together, failure?
referred to as complete fusion. The coating must be allowed to float to the top
of the pool before the metal solidifies; if the slag formed by the coating is Full-penetration. butt-welded joints give the best resistance to fatigue failure.
trapped in the joint, a weakness Witf result which may cause the joint to fail in In fillet-welded lap joints, the forces acting on each section are not in line and
service. When joining thick metal sections two or more runs must be made to a bending moment is set up in the joint. The edges of the fillets also act as stress
complete the joint. raisers or notches.
When multiple-run welded j ~ n t ares ma&, the first runs are sometimes cut In T and cruciform joints made with fillet welds, the lack of penetration
out from the back and then rewelded. between the fillets creates a stress raiser or notch.
T and cruciform joints subject to fluctuating stresses, such as in engine
bedplates and A-frames, are made with full-penetration welds.
6.31 What is the purpose of the covering on the electrodes used in hand
electric arc welding? --- 6.35
.- .-

Define weld penetration, weld reinforcement,throot, root, and toe.

The coating on an electrode serves several purposes. There are: the creation of
gases to stabilize the arc. the formation of slags to protect the molten metal Weldpenetration is thedepth to which fusion occurcn the two pieces of metal
oxidatiori, mid
ag:~i~ls! I ~ pr-ovision
C or I~UXL'S. being joined.
 148 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Construction Materials, Welding, Materials Testing 149

Weld reinforcement is the metal contained within the convex surface of a 70". The edges and profiles formed may be flame-cut or planed off in an edge-
welded joint. planing machine. -

Throat is the term given to the thickness of the weld metal. In butt welds, it is
equal to the thickness of the weld metal minus the reinforcements, or the thick- 6.40 Describe what occurs when a heated piece of metal is prevented
ness of the plate. In fillet welds, it is the diagonal distance between the corner of from contracting during the period in which it cools. Whot is weld
the joint and the surface of the weld, minus the reinforcement. restraint?

The root is the b o t t m of the welded joint. If a piece of heated metal is prevented from contracting when it cools, the metal
will be increasingly strained as cooIing proceeds. The total amount of strain will
- The toe is the edge between
- - the weld
-- deposit
- . -. and
- the parent metal in fillet joints.
- -. ,--be equal to the difference between the length of the hot metal and the
u n r e s k h d cold length. From Hooke's Law we know that stress is propor-
6.36 Name the positions in which welding operations can be performed. tional to strain; therefore as the restrained metal cools it will in effect be
Which position is the easiest, and which the most difficult? subjected to a tensile stress which increases as cooling proceeds. Similarly, if a
welded joint is prevented from contracting when it cools, a tensile stress will be
The welding directions are downhand, vertical, and overhead. The downhand
position is the easiest as gravity holds the pool of molten metal in place. The -
created within the weld and parent metalup to the anchor points forming the
restraint.
overhead position is most difficult as gravity tends to cause the pool of molten Weld restraint sets up stresses within the welded jdint and adjacent metal
metal to drop out. It calls for considerable skill. Special electrodes are available during cooling, which remain when cooling is completed. They are referred to
for overhead welding. Vertical welding is usually done in an upwards direction, as residual stresses. The residual stresses form a complex pattern, and increase
but special electrodes are available to make vertical welds with a downward as the number of runs required to make a joint increases. The stress in the
direction. direction of the joint is referred to as the longitudinal stress, and that across the
joint as the transverse stress. Generally the number of runs to form a joint
6.37 What is undercut, where does it occur, and what detrimental effects
should be kept to a minimum by using the largest possible electrode; this
does it have?
reduces the complexity of the stresses in the joint.
The fact that restraint causes stresses is sometimes used to control distortion.
Undercut occurs at the toe in fillet welds and at the side of the weld Restraints are created by tack welds and clamps to hold the parts rigid in one
reinforcement in full-penetration welds. It is most common on the upper toe in direction. The locked-up stress created in one direction is used to control and
a fillet weld, and is caused by the parent metal melting at the fillet edge and cancel distortion in another direction.
running down into the fillet. Undercut, in effect, creates a notch, with a
concentration of stress adjacent to the notch. 6.41 How is weld distortion prevented or controlled?
The factors controlling distortion caused by welding are the initial design, the
6.38 How may a badly welded ioint fail? preparation of the joint, the correct root gap, and the sequence of welding the
Welded joints may fail in one of three ways. various parts forming the structure. Even when all the factors are correctly
interrelated, some unavoidable distortion may occur.
1 Failure of the weld metal, due to internal stresses set up when the weld metal Distortion is sometimes controlled by presetting the parts to be welded in
cools. The cause is usually excessive restraint. what appears to be misalignment. As the parts cool after welding, the resulting
2 Failure at side of weld metal, due to lack of fusion. Insufficient current, too shrinkage gradually pulls the misaligned parts into correct alignment. This
rapid heat conduction, or too long an arc, are the usual causes. minimizes the residual stress in the joint. Presetting, however, can be used only -,
3 Failure of base material in side of metal near joint, due to heat affecting the for simple assemblies.
steel. Failure takes place at the boundary of the heat-affected zone. Distortion can also be controlled by restraints as mentioned in Question 6.40.

6.39 What-do you understand by the term ioint preparation (or edge 6.42 Why is a restriction put on the maximum carbon content of the steel
preparation)? castings and plates used in the cons_tructionof welded engine bedplates
andzther: important engine structures?
Joint or edge preparation is the name given to the profiles formed on the edges
of the sections of butt joints. The profiles may be single or double Vs, or single The reason for the restriction on the carbon content is that as the carbon
or double Js. The included angle of the V should not be less than 60". prefe\ably content increases it becomes more difficult to make a sound and reliable weld.
150 Ouestions and Answers on the M a r i n e Diesel Engine Construction Materials, Welding, Materials Testing 15 1

or in other words the weldability decreases. Generally the carbon content is not Note Materials used in engine construction are tested to ensure that the
allowed to exceed 0.23% unless special welding techniques are used. material is of a quality known to give satisfactory results in service.
The thickness of the sections being welded also influences the weidability:
thicker sections conduct the heat away faster, which has a quenching effect on
the hot zone. Heavy sections ace therefore preheated. - - 6.45 How is the tensile strength of a metal determined? What other
information is obtained when a tensile test is made?
Note The weld metal bears some resemblance to steel in the cast condition. The tensile strength of a metal is found by breaking a specially shaped test piece
The heat from the weld will also harden the parent metal adjacent to it; if this under a tensile load. The test specimen is placed in a tensile testing machine
steel has a high carbon content, cracks are more liable to occur. which records the load applied and the extension, or strain, of the specimen
under the load. The load may be applied through a system of levers or by a
6.43 Why are important welded engine structures, such as bed-plates hydraulic pump.
and columns, heat-treated after all the welding is completed? Is the hear The maximum load shown on the stress-strain diagram, divided by the
treatment carried out before or after machining? original cross-sectional area of the test piece, gives the ultimate tensile strength
of the material; this is usually referred to as the tensile strength. When the
Welded engine structures such as bedplates through which the firing load is specimen is being tested, the yield point and the percentage elongation are also
transmitted must be heat-treated. The heat treatment usually consists of heating found.
the welded structure in a furnace; the heating is 'slow so that the welded In the design of many machinery parts the value of the yield point is of more
structure is uniformly heated throughout all its parts. The structure is raised to importance than the tensile strength.
a temperature of 580-650°C (1080-1200°F) and it is soaked at this temperature The ductility of the metal is characterized by the percentage elongation. The
for a period dependent on the thickness of the thickest parts. After soaking it is actual value of the percentage elongation figure for the various grades of steel
slow-cooled in the furnace. used in important engine parts is carefully studied. If the figure is not up to the
This type of heat treatment refines the grain structure of the metal in the necessary requirements, the material is rejected.
welds and the adjacent metal, and also relieves the residual stresses within the
welded structure. Heat treatment is carried out after welding is completed and
prior to machining. 6.46 What is an impact test? What is its purpose?
In an impact test a square section specimen is prepated and one side is notched
6.44 What are the mechanical properties of a metal and how are they with a slot cut to a particular form. A common form is a V-shaped notch with a
found? radius at the bottom, the angle of the V being 4S0, the bottom radius 0.25 mm,
the depth 2 mm, and the specimen section square with 10 mm sides.
The mechanical properties of a metal are found by tests so that the behaviour of The specimen is subjected to a shock load in, for example, an Izod impact-
the metal under stress can be predicted. The mechanical properties which give testing machine or a Charpy pendulum machine. A weight on an arm swings
these indications are: the tensife sfrength of the metal; the value of the yield through a certain distance and strikes a hammer blow on the notched test
stress; the elongation up to the yield point, and the total elongation up to specimen, with a known amount of kinetic energy. The specimen is fractured,
hardness. - -
failure; the contraction in the area of failure; the shear strength; and the and the weight continues its movement until the swing is completed. The energy
required to fracture the specimen is recorded on a dial.
The mechanical properties of a metal are found by destructive testing of Impact tests are made on test specimens to indicate whether their metal-
metal test pieces in testing machines, the most common being the tensile testing lurgical properties are up to the required standard. The test is applied to test
machine. pieces taken from heat-treated castings, forgings, the weld metal taken from
The mechanical properties are as follows: welded joints, and steelphtesmedfor pressure vessels and irnportaRt engine--
Tensile strength structures. -
Yield strength Note In the Charpy machine the test piece is suppTrted at two points like a
Elongation (%) beam. The hammer blow is taken at the centre of the test piece, with the notch
Reduction in area ( V o ) on the opposite side to the point of impact. In the lzod machine the test piece is
Hardness held in a vice and projects upwards like a cantilever. The notch faces the
Shear strength hammer blow and is set at a fixed height above the jaws of the vice.
Also included are Young's modulus, the modulus of.rigidity, and Poisson's
ratio, which nlav be ohti~inedfrom-the various tests.
 152 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Construction Materrak.
--
Welrlrn~,
- - -
Maferralr
- - - _
_ - I --_---
Tertrn~ 153

8 6.47 How is the fatigue resistance of a material found? Tester, the Brinell Hardness Testing Machine, and the Rockwell Hardness
Testing Machine.
The fatigue resistance is found by subjecting a sample specimen of the material The hardness value is expressed as a number with a prefix indicating the
to periodic stress changes until fracture occurs. The number of cycles up to machine used, such as BHN (Brinell Hardness Number) or DPH (Diamond
fracture and the stress pattern give an indication of the fatigue resistance of the Pyramid Hardness). The indentation made is very small, and in the Brinell and
material. Vickers machines it is measured with a microscope. A formula is then used to
By conducting a series of tests with decreasing stress values, the number of calculate the hardness number from the load applied and the size of the
cycles up to fracture increases. A point is eventually reached when the stress is impression. Rockwell machines show the hardness number on a graduated dial.
insufficient to cause fracture irrespective of the number of cycles applied. This Tables are available which give approximate conversions from the hardness
stress value is referred to as the fatigue limit. number on one machine to that of the dthers.
The results of the various tests are plotted on a graph called a stress-number The Rockwell and Brinell machines use a hardened stccl ball to make the
or S-N diagram. The S values denote the stress range and are plotted as indentation or impression. The Vickers machine uses a dinmynd shaped like a
ordinates; and N values denote the number of cycles, and are plotted as pyrmid. -
abscissae. The curve flattens as N increases. By plotting the values of log S and
log N, the fatigue limit is shown as a welldefined turning point.
The results from fatigue tests require careful interpretation when deciding on 6.50 Name the non-destructive tests used during the manufacture and
the allowable design limits for a material. service of diesel engine components and associated equipment. Give an
A considerable number of machines are available for fatigue testing. One example of where each test is used.
type uses magnetic means to create a fluctuating load cycle of tensile stress. Nondestructive testing methods include radiography, ultrasonic testing,
Other machines use a hanging weight on the specimen, as in a cantilever; when magnetic particle testing, eddy-current testing and dye penetrant testing. These
the specimen is molved, it is subjected to a stress cycle which alternates tests enable the engineer to decide whether a part is likely to be reliable in
between numerically equal values
- - - ---
of- tensile stress andcompressive stress. - --
service.
Radiography is usually confined to the testing of welds in pressure vessels such
1 6.48 What is the purpose of creep tests.and as starting air reservoirs. Large reservoirs for high-pressure use may require
Creep is a form of slip which occurs when metal is subjected to a tensile load at complete examination of all welds, smaller reservoirs may require only spot
high temperature. Creep tests are used to find the safe working stresses for the tests to be taken. X-rays or gamma-rays are used to expose the emulsion on the
materials working at high temperatures. Creep tests, to be reliable, must be radiographic film. Welding defects give a greater exposure of the film and show
conducted over long periods, as darker areas. The use of radiographic equipment and interpretation of the
In creep-testing machines constant tensile load is put on the specimen by a negative requires considerable training and skill.
system of weighted levers, while the specimen is kept at constant temperature. Ultrasonic testing is performed by equipment that transmits high-frequency
The strain is measured at set time intervals and a graph is plotted of strain vibrations through the material to be tested; the vibrations are reflected back
against time. The test are repeated at the same temperature but with increasing from the opposite surface or from any discontinuity in the material. Ultrasonic
loads, and further graphs are plotted. From these graphs, values are obtained methods can be used to measure the thickness of materials or to detect internal
for creep rates which are used to find the safe stresses. The results require or surface defects in welds, castings, or forgings. either during manufacture or
careful interpretation. when in service. Defects are shown as extra pulses to the transmitted and
Creep tests are mainly made on materials used for turbo-blower turbine reflected pulses, on a cathode ray oscilloscope.
blading.
Magnetic-particle testing methods can be used for detecting surface and near-
surface defects in materials that can be magnetized. When a magnetic field is
8 6.49 How is the surface hardness of a material measured? Name the induced in the part to be tested, defects allow a flux leakage to occur. This
machines used to test surface hardness. causes the magnetic particles used in the test to congregate at the leakage,
The surface hardness of a material is found by measuring the resistance of the indicating the location of the defect.
surface to penetration by a very hard, specially shaped indenting tool, when it is Magnetic-particle testing is used mainly for checking the condition of engine
pressed into the material by a known load. parts and shafting, which are liable to fatigue-failure. The use of this type of test
The size of the indentation gives a measure of the resistance to penetration equipment requires skill and experience.
and therefore the surface hardness of the material.
The machines used to measure hardness are the Vickers Pyramid Hardness Eddy-current testing metnods are used mainly in production line work during
154 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Construction Materials, Welding, Materials Testing 155

the manufacture of small ferrous material parts for use in either large or small 6.52 Where are strain gauges used?
engines. A coil is used in the tester, any defects present causing a change in the
impedance of the coil. The change of impedance is utilized in various ways to Strain gauges of the electric-resistance type are used in research and develop-
call attention to the presence of a defect. ment projects on prototype engines to find the actual working stresses on fixed
or moving engine parts. They are also used by engineers to investigate
Dye-penetrant tests are used to detect surface defects such a fatigue cracks in operational difficulties or the causes of material failures. By wiring the strain
crankshafts and screwshafts. The part to be tested is throughly cleaned, and a gauges in various patterns, complex strains and stresses can be investigated. The
dye penetrant is sprayed on the cleaned area. If any surface defect is present, gauges can be used in most places, provided that electrical connections can be
capillary attraction draws the dye into the crack. The dye is cleaned off (but made between the gauge and the instruments. For example, four strain gauges
remains in the cracks), and absorbent material is spraycoated on the test area. could be wired up in square formation and cemented on the surface of a shaft
The absorbent draws out the penetrant dye from the crack, showing a coloured axis to provide a torque measurement. The electrical connections to the strain
line which indicates the presence and location of the defect. gauges for input and output would be made with slip-rings and silver-graphite
brushes.
6.51 How can the actual working stresses on engine components be Strain gauges are usually incorporated into an impedance bridge, and
meosured while the engine is operating? Name the type of instrument operated with either dc or ac current. The latter offers some advantages, at the
used and state the principle of its opeylfion. expense of some complexity in the circuitry.
&
In work involving moving parts where the changes in stress values must be
The working stress on fixed or moving engine parts can be found by accurately studied, such as in a crankshaft or moving parts in similar locations, a battery is
measuring the strain and then calculating the stress by the application of fastened to the moving part to supply current to the strain gauge circuits. The
Hooke's Law. changes in current flow from the battery are monitored, amplified and changed
Stresdstrain = a constant = Young's modulus E into a radio signal w h i c h k t P a ~ a e r i a orl antennaimackeQ-
---
Therefore the moving part. The signal is received by a stationary aerial and transformed
Stress = E strain into some form where it is usable for the analysis of the strains and the
associated stresses to which the moving part is subjected.
The instrument used to measure the strain on the engine component is an The input signals are filteied and fed into a computer that will give plots of
electrical-resistance strain gauge. The principle of its operation is associated stress on a time base or the cyclic frequency and amount of the stress changes.
with the phenomenon of the change in electrical resistance which occurs in an
electrical conductor when it is deformed.
The electrical-resistance strain gauge, usually referred to as a strain gauge. 6.53 When and how is polarized light used to determine the true stresses
likely to be met in diesel engine components?
consists of a grid of wire cemented to paper or thin card which acts as a dielec-
tric. The card is fixed with adhesivecement to the engine component, so that the Polarized light is used in photoelasticity experiments to analyse the action of
wire grid is shortened or lengthened by the same amount as the surface of the complex stresses and find the true stress. The stresses may be parts of two- or
part to which it is attached. The linear strain on the engine component is thus three-dimensional systems. In photoelasticity experiments, use is made of a
exactly equal to the linear strain or deformation on the strain gauge. polariscope which produces polarized light to investigate thin transparent
By applying a voltage to the strain gauge the change in resistance that occurs models or shaped forms of the part being tested. When the model is stressed and
may be related to the linear strain, from which the working stress can be placed in the field of polarized light, patterns become visible; from these stress
calculated. patterns the magnitude of the stresses can be determined.
The circuits into which a strain gauge is wired vary according to whether the Special plastics are available for three-dimensional studies. These plastics are
stresses are static or changing, and whether the effects of temperature must be held in a state of stress at a high temperature, and then allowed to cool slowly to
compensated for. If transient stresses are present they can be shown on an normal temperature. At normal temperature the photoelastic properties are
oscilloscope or recorded using suitable instrumentation. frozen in the plastic, allowing the model to be broken down to plane sections for
Note An oscilloscope is a device which uses a cathode ray tube to produce in testing. ..
graphic form a representation of a variable electric quantity, usually with Experiments using photoelastic methods are made during the design stage of
rz\pcc't I Q frme. A record can be made by photographing the oscilloscope , prototype engines. They allow the engineer to determine if any stress concentra-
tions are present. If any are shown, modifications are made to bring the ratio of
maximum stress to nominal stress within acceptable limits.
The present knowledge available on fillet forms at bolt heads, surface
 . .

156 Questions and ~ n s i e r son the Marine Diesel Engine

changes made at the edge of shrink fits, transitional forms at changes in

sections, etc. is derived from the results of photo-elasticity experiments.
Note The principles governing the photoelastic properties of transparent
materials, and polarized light, can be found in any physics book dealing with
optics under the subject headings of: double refraction, temporary double
refraction (double refraction is sometimes termed birefringence), mono-
chromatic light, the polariscope or polarimeter, polarization of light, circular BEDPLATES, FRAMES,
and elliptical polarized light forms, and molecular optics.
GUIDES, SCAVENGE
TRUNKS, CYLINDER
JACKETS
7.1 Describe briefly the construction of bedplates used in slow-speed
propulsion diesel engines. Is there more than one type of bedplate, and
are different materials used? What are the advantages of each?
There are two types of bedplate in general use in slow-speed engines, both of
which are completely enclosed on the underside in order to form an oil sump,
while the bearings for the crankshaft are supported by cross girders which form
part of the bedplate. The trestle type sits upon two parallel stools or raised
portions of the ship's structure located in a fore-and-aft direction. The other
type of bedplate is the deep box pattern with a flat bottom which enables it to be
bolted to the ship's flat tank top. Propulsion engine bedplates are usually
fabricated from mild steel plates and steel castings, welded together; smaller
engines may have cast-iron bedplates. The majn advantage of the fabricated
bedplate is lightness in weight and lower construction cost. ,
- -- Bedplates made of cast-iron have a desirable quality of being able to absorb
vibration better than fabricated bedplates, due to the good internal damping
characteristics of cast-iron.
Generally large engine bedplates are of the deep box pattern with a flat
bottom, those for smaller power engines being either of the flat-bottom type or
of the type that sits on stoals4orming paft of the ship's structure. (Fig. 7.1)

7.2 Which parts of a modern, slow-speed propulsioq engine bedplate ore

strength members? How are the s t ~ e ~ gmembers
th formed?
All parts of an engine bedplate contribute to its strength. The parts are made
from mild steel plates and steel castings which are assembled and welded
together so that the bedplate is strong longitudinally (fore-and-aft) and trans-
versely (port and starboard) with good resisrance to twisting along its length.
The longitudinal strength is obtained by making each side of the bedplate in the
form of a girder. These girders may be box formed with two flanges and two
webs, or as a normal girder with one web and two flanges. The cross girders in
158 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Bedplates, Frames, Guides, Scavenne Trunks. Cylinder Jackets 159

\
(0 ) Cost steel piece Weldmg lme ,

Fig. 7.1 Tranverse section through:

(a) older type slow-speed engine bedplate;
(b) modern slow-speed engine bedplate;

Fig. 7.1 (c) section through modern medium-speed engine showing the
which the main bearings are housed give the bedplate its transverse strength. bedplate (MAN B&W)
The cast steel cross girders are welded to the sides of the bedplate and the
assembled unit has good resistance to twisting along its length.
The weight of the static engine parts is transferred to the bedplate through the side girders. This has caused costly engine repairs often involving removal of
A-frames, and it is therefore necessary to stiffen locally the sides of the bedplate the crankshaft and consequent loss of earnings during repair time. Fabricated
in the way of the A-frame landings. Part of the stiffening comes from the cross cross girders are difficult to weld due to difficult access, and problems
girder. In bedplates with box girder type sides, diaphragms are fitted inside, sometimes arise in the assembly and junction welds. Generally cast steel cross
between the webs and the flanges. In bedplates with a single plate web forming girders have proved to be more reliable in service.
the side girders the stiffening is carried out by fitting brackets between the
flanges in line with the junctions of the cross girders, additional tripping 7.4 How is the cylinder firing load transferred to the bedplatkin single-
/

brackets being fitted to prevent localized buckling between the girder flanges acting propulsion engines?
and the web.
The firing load from the cylinder covers is transferred through the cover studs
to the cylinder beams. The beam transfers the load through the tie bolt nuts and
7,3 Why are bedplate cross girders, cross members or transverse tie bolts to the bedplate cross girders.
members now usually s t e d castings whereas previously they were usually . The gas pressure on the piston acts downwards. The force created is trans-
fabrications?
mitted through the piston, piston rod, connecting rod, crankpin, crankwebs
Fabricated cross girders have often shown failure of welding around bearing and journals on to the lower halves of the main bearings supported in the
pockcts :tnd at the junction wclds becween the fabricated cross girder and the bedplate cross girders. The upward acting force on the cylinder cover is trans-
160 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

mitted through the cover studs into the cylinder beam. It is then transferred into - Some single-acting engines with casf-iron bedplates and A-frames are not
the tie bolts and the bedplate cross girder where the downward acting force is fitted with tie bolts. In such cases the cylinder beam is held on to the A-frames
balanced at the main bearings. The downward acting force is not identical in by a transverse row of studs and nuts between the cylinders. Flanges on the base
magnitude to the upward acting force, the small differences are shown as of the A-frame fit to corresponding flanges on the bedplate, and are bolted
stresses in the engine structure. (Figs 7.2 (a) and 7.2 (b)) together. When firing occurs the firing loads are transferred to the bedplate
through the studs holding the cylinder beam to the A-frame, through the A-
frame and through the bolts holding the frames to the bedplate. At the time of
firing all these parts are subjected to a tensile load. (Fig. 7.2)

7.5 Which parts of the structure of a medium-speed V-engine ore

.strength members?
--
V-engines are made in two basic structural forms. One form has a conventional-
-
type bedplate with the crankshaft main bearings housed in cross girders, and the
cylinder beam is often pentagonal in section and houses the cylinder jackets,
etc. The crankcase sides are integral with the cylinder beam and join on to the
bedplate with flanged joints. In this form the strength members are the bed-
plate sides, the main bearing cross girders and the cylinder beam.
The other structural form for the V-engine is fundamentally a pentagonal-
shaped cylinder beam with heavy side plates forming the side of the crankcase,
these heavy side plates being fastened to a heavy base-plate with areas cut out to
allow crank rotation. The crankshaft main bearings are fastened into
diaphragm plates forming part of the engine structure, and the crankshaft is
under-slung in the housings and supported on the main bearing keeps. The
heavy base-plate of the engine structure sits on fore and aft supports or stools
built into the ship's structure. The l m r side of the engine structure is made oil-
tight by the oil pan which is light and does not make any strength contribution.
The strength members of this structural form are the heavy inverted V plates
forming the apex of the pentagon and the heavy base at the bottom which, in
effect, form flanges of a girder. and the sides of the pentagon and the crankcase .
which form the webs. The diaphragms give rigidity to the sides forming the
webs. Tie-bolts may be used in either of the structural forms. (Fig. 7.3)

-A -7.6 Which other engine part, or parts of the hull structure, assist in
supplementing the longitudinal and transverse strength of a n engine
bedplate?

Fig. 7.2 Diagrams showing how the gas pressure acting upwards on the The cylinder jackets are accurately machined on the ends and bolted together so
cylinder head is transferred through the cylinder head studs (tensile stress) and that an assembly the length of the engine2 formed. A considerable number of
into the cylinder beam. The upward acting force on the cylinder beam is then the bolts joining the jackets= of the fitted type so making the assembly rigid
transferred into the tie rods (tensile stress) and down to the transverse beam and preventing relative movement between jackets. This assembly of cylinder
supporting the main bearings. The tensile stress in the tie rods tends to lift the jackets is sometimes referred to as the cylinder beam.
transverse beam, but this is resisted by the downward-acting force from the gas The tie-bolts passing through the A-ftames also pass through the sides of the
pressure on the piston. This downward-acting force puts a compressive load on cylinder beam at the corners of each jacket, and hold the jackets firmly on the
the piston rod; this is transferred through the crosshead bearings, down through
A-frames.
the connecting-rod and into the bottom end bearing and crankpin. The
downward-acting force on the crankpin is transferred down each crankweb and
The engine bedplate is supported by the foundation plate which forms part of
on to the main bearings; it is then balanced by the upward-acting force from the the inner bottom plating or tank top of the hull double bottom. The hull
tie rods. structure under the engine is made very stiff, longitudinally by fitting additional
Note. The A-frames are in compression. intercostals on each side of the centre keel plate, and transversely by making all
 --

162 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Ennine . Bed~lates.Frames. Guides. Scavenge Trunks, Cylinder Jackets 163

Note In ships with engines aft the localized stiffness under the engine is
usually continued right through as far aft as possible.
The hull structure under the engine and the cylinder beam both add to the
longitudintd strength of the bedplate. The transverse strength of the bedplate is
increased by the hull structure and the A-frames. The increase in strength of the
Camshaft bedplate is considerably reduced if holding-down bolts, tie-bolts or A-frame
gallery
bolts are allowed to become slack.
The stiffness of the hull is always greater than that of the engine structure and
shafting. It follows, therefore, that the engine structure and the shafting will
Crankcase ~ C Y I L
follow any changes in the hull which come about due to the vessel working in a
seaway, or due to changing amounts and positions of cargo, bunkers or ballast.

Machined surface for 7.7 H o w a r e tie-bolts tightened? What control is exercised during
sightmg cmnkmsealignment tightening t o ensure correct tension?
-- -. - -

Large tie-bolts are tightened with an adaptation of a hydraulic jack which loads
the tie-bolt in tension. The tie-bolt nut is usually drilled to take a toggle bar or
slotted to take a hook spanner, and when the correct pull is on the tie-bolt the
tie-nut is pulled up hand-tight; the pressure in the jack is then released leaving
the tie-bolt tight. The load placed on the tie-bolt by the hydraulic jack is
controlled by the hand-pump pressure, which is indicated on the pump pressure
gauge. The pump pressure to be applied is given in the engine instruction book
and this pressure should not be exceeded.

7.8 H o w would you find loose tie-bolts while the engine is in operation?
H o w often would you m a k e a search?
If tie-bolts are not taking their proper load due to slackened nuts, the cylinder
jackets adjacent to the slack tie-bolts can be seen lifting when the piston is
nearing the end of compression, or on firing. If no movement is visible the
thumb can be pressed on the cylinder jacket, with the thumb nail in contact with
the tie-bolt nut. Small movements, too small to be visible, can be felt with the
thumb nail. If washers are fitted between tie-bolt nuts and cylinder jackets, a
washer may sometimes be twisted at the end of the firing strokes in each
cylinder adjacent to the slack tie-bolt. Dial indicator gauges can also be used to
Fig. 7.3 Sections through V-engine frames and bedplates. detect relative movement between the tie-bolts and cylinder jackets. d

(a) Section through fabricated engine frame built from cast steel sections and In mediumspeed engines the tie-bolts are sometimes hidden from view by
steel plates i ~ i n e dby welding processes. valve rocker-arm covers and casings. Their locations should be found and tie- '
( b ~Section through V-engine showing bedplate, frame, running gear and bolt nuts should be checked when changing exhaust or fuel valves.
bottom of tie rods. (MAN B&W) Tie-bolts should be kept under observation at all times, particularly when
running at reduced power in bad weather and following power increases during
moderating weather.
floors solid. The stiffricss is also increased by making the depth of the double
bottom under the engine to the maximum possible dimension. The localized Note When first making searches for slack tie-bolts, care must be taken to
stiffness under the engine is tapered off gradually towards the sides of the hull, avoid mistaking the natural movement and 'spring' of the various parts during
and forward and aft, so that stress raisers are reduced to a minimum between firing for slackness. Care is also necessary in the interpretation of dial-indicator
the very rigid cellular \rructurc under the main engine and other parts of the gauge readings. Tie-bolts must be tightened carefully and close watch kept on
hull. crankshaft alignment or crankweb deflections (See Question 18.51).
 I64 Qtrcwions and Answers o n the Marine Diesel Enxinc*

7.9 If fretting is occurring at landings of the cylinder beam on the A- . structure. The holding-down bolts pass through holcs i n the bedplatc, chocks
frames and at top tie-bolt nut landings, what indications are usually and foundation plate. When all the holding-down bolts are tightened the
shown? bedplate is held fast to the hull structure. The chocks are fitted in placc after the
engine has been aligned to the intermediate shafting. The spacing between
Fretting of a surface (particularly at the places mentioned in the previous the chocks is approximately 250 to 400 mm, and they are more closely spaced
Question) is often indicated by a rust-red powder being present at the outside of in the location of the cross girder so that good support is given to the area
the faces that are fretting. If the location is dry and free of oil the red powder of the bedplate which is supporting the main bearings and the engine A-frames.
looks as if it has been dusted on the surfaces, being thickest at the joint. If the This prevents any localized distortion or sag in the bedplate and so makes the
location is oily the powder mixes with oil and it looks as if a reddish coloured support from the chocks almost continuous in effect.
grease is exuding from the joint formed by the landing faces. The reddish, rust-
coloured product from the fretting action indicates that the tie-bolt nuts have
The name 'holdingdown bolts' is a carry-over from reciprocating steam-
engine days; a more suitable name now would be stud bolts. The bolts used are
- ,
been slack for some time. between 25 and 75 mm diameter, they are threaded at each end, and the upper
ends have two flats or a square machined on them to take a spanner. The plain
7.10 What a r e the consequences of running an engine with slack tie- part of the stud bolt is machined down on the centre shank to a diameter just
bolts? slightly less than the bottom of the thread, thus providing a stretching length
If an engine is run with slack tie-bolts the cylinder beam flexes and lifts at the betwewl the threaded sections and preventing a stress concentration at the
location of the slack tie-bolt. In time the landing faces of the tie-bolt upper and bottom of the last thread. If a stretching length is not machined on the bolt it is
lower nuts, and the landing faces of the cylinder beam on the A-frame, fret and more likely to fail in service.
the machined faces are eventually destroyed. The fitted bracing bolts between The foundation plate is tapped to accommodate the thread on the lower end
the cylinder jackets will also slacken and the fit of the bolts will be lost. of the holding-down bolt, and the bolt is screwed into the tapped hole with a
If fretting has occurred in an uneven pattern where the cylinder beam lands, spanner applied to the square or tw'o flats on the upper end of the bolt. Self-
curing plastic sealing tapes are sometimes used on the lower threads, to prevent
and the tie-bolts are tightened. the alignment of the cylinders to the line of the
leakage of fluids from the tank top into the space below and also to protect the
piston stroke is destroyed. After fretting has occurred nut landing faces may be
thread of the bolt and the foundation plate from corrosion. In other instances
out of square, and if tie-bolts are tightened on faces which are out of square a
the locking nut fitted under the foundation plate is machined to take an O-ring
bending moment will be induced in the tie-bolt. This, in turn, causes an uneven
stress pattern in the tie-bolt, which could lead t o early fatigue failure. or grommet, which then makes a seal.
In some cases long plates having a slightly tapered cross-section are tack and
seal welded to the foundation plate supporting the engine. (Tack and seal-
7.1 1 How are A-frames or columns constructed?
. welding prevents ingress of water and rust growth that may lead to later
misalignment.) The long plates run the length of the engine. The engine is set up
A-frames are fabricated from flat steel plates welded together with full-penetra-
tion welds in critical places. The plates are grit- or shot-blasted and given a coat on chocks machined with the same angle of taper. The chocks and the plate then
of priming material before cutting. Various attachments are welded to the become in effect a set of folding wedges. This makes it easier to align the
frames. These attachments form the mountings for the crosshead guides, main bedplate and saves a considerable amount of time for alignment and chocking.
crankcase covers, pjston cooling supply pipes, piston cooling return drains and The hand fitting of chocks is obviated.
the like. Flanges are mounted at the upper and lower ends of the A-frames. This form of chocking system will require careful examination at regular
After fabrication and welding, the A-frames may be heat treated. Following intervals to check for any possible rust growth between the foundation plate,
heat treatment, machining operations are carried out on the upper and lower the long plate, and the chocks, which could affect the engine alignment.
flanges and the guide-plate mounting face. The bolt holes for the upper and (Fig. 7.4)
lower flange bolting are drilled undersize. When the A-frames are erected on the Another chocking systlin extensively used involves the use of synthetic resin
bedplate and brought to the correct alignment, the bolt holes in the flanges are materials cast with the engine in situ after alignment of the bedplate is
reamed to the correct size for the fitted bolts. completed (see Question 7.18 and Ei. 7.5).

7.12 How is the bedplate fastened to the hull structure? What are chocks 7.13 What a r e the consequences of running an engine when the holding-
and holding-down bolts? down bolts a r e slack?
The engine bedplate is supported on a series of chocks fitted around the If an engine is operated with slack holding-down bolts it may quickly be
underside of the periphery of the base of the bedplate. The chocks sit on the apparent by a change in the vibration pattern and thwart-ship movement at the
foundation plate which forms part of the inner bottom plating of the hull upper part of the engine. Sometimes, however, there may be no such indication.
 I

--- Bedplate* ~ r a Guides,

G Scavenge Trunks, Cylinder Jackets 167
166 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine .1
-
the hull through the holdingdown bolts and the foundation plate. As a
safeguard against holdingdown bolts slackening, which would allow the engine
to slide backwards and forwards on the tank top with ahead and astern
movements, the holdingdown bolts at the aft end transverse of the bedplate
and around the thrust block casing are made as fitted bolts. After the engine is
chocked to the correct alignment the holes for the holding-down bolts are
brought to the size of the fitted bolts with a reamer, and the fitted bolts are
placd and tightened.
Normally, with all holding-down bolts tight the propeller thrust is taken up
by the friction between the bedplate, chocks and foundation plate; if the
mat
ered
holdingdown bolts slacken, the fitted bolts around the thrust casing sustain a
shear stress and the propeller thrust will be transmitted through the fitted bolts.
The thrust from the propeller is then taken by the foundation plate which
transmits it to the hull through the welded attachments of the foundation plate
to the intercostals and floors.

7.15 How often would you check holding-down bolts to ascertain that
they a r e tight? What methods a r e used to check tightness?
A requirement of classification societies(Lloyd's Register of Shipping, ~ o r s k "6
Veritas, American Bureau of Shipping, B.V., etc.) is that holding-down bolts
be checked by a surveyor within each survey cycle or four-year period. In
practice this period of time is too great and the bolts should be checked at
&monthly intervals unless there is a case history of the bolts going slack more
frequently, in which case the period must be related to experience. In new
vessels the bolts should be checked within one month of the commencement of
the maiden voyage, or earlier if possible. The interval may then be gradually
increased if all is found in order. After a vessel has been through bad weather
the bolts should be checked as the weather moderates.
Holdingdown bolts are hammer tested to ascertain if they are tight. The
method is to hold the tip of the thumb on one side of the nut face and strike the
- -- nut on the opposite side. If the nut is slack, the n-ut-and stud spring against
Fig. 7.4 (a) Section threugh a cast-iron or steel chock placed on tapered plates the thumb and then retract. The movement can be felt against the thumb. If a
running the length of the engine. The taper is shown exaggerated for clarity. holdingdown bolt is of the fitted type this test is ineffective, and either a
(b) Section through hand fitted chock. spanner or the hydraulic jack must be used. Due to bilge water and other slack
water being on the tank top at various times, the holding-down bolt nuts may
rust and sdze on the studs; if this occurs care must be taken not to be misled by
Continued operation with slack bolts allows fretting to occur on the rpating the seized condition of a nut when checking for tightness. The hammer testing
surfaces of the bedplate, chock and foundation plate. If the fretting occurs in method, however, stands up well in finding nuts which are not tight down on
areas covering a number of adjacent chocks the crankshaft may be seriously the landing face even when they are seized on a stud.
through misalignment.

Many slow-speed engines hove the thrust block housing 7.16 What are the methods used to tighten main engine holding-down
with the engine bedplate. In such a case how is the propeller
to the hull? I bolts? How are chocks fitted?
Main engine holding-down bolts on modern motor ships are tightened with an
adaptation of the hydraulic jack in a similar manner to the tightening of tie-
\ bolts (see Question 7.7). In older ships they are tiph~enrtlw i t h h a m m e r hlows on
168 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Bedolates, Frames, Guides, Scaveng~Trunks. Cylinder Jackets 169

to a heavy 'star' spanner supplied for this purpose. A hammer of 2 kg weight is 8 . 7.18 Describe the work involved in making permanent repoirs to main
normally used. engines with badly fretted chock landings and chocks.
Chocks are fitted in place after the engine has been aligned to the inter-
mediate shafting, and the bedplate has been brought to the same degree of In carrying out permanent repairs the aim is to bring the bedplate back to its
flatness as it had during erection on the test bed. The engine at this stage is original alignment to reduce stresses on welds. and then correct any crankshaft
supported on a series of folding wedges around the periphery of the bedplate. misalignment that may have developed. The method of repair is to discard the
The chocks are machined in the workshop to sizes taken from the ship (with original chocks and replace them with a resin chocking system. The landing
some allowance for hand fitting). After machining, chocks are lightly driven surfaces on cast-iron or steel chocks are approximately 30 to 36 mm wide over
into place so that 'hard' bearing marks are made on the machined surfaces of the length of the chock, which may be about 150 to 250 mm. The landing
the chock. The chocks are then backed out and the hard spots are eased by draw surfaces are also referred to as the fitting strips; there are two fitting strips on
filing. The process is repeated and the bearing surfaces on the chock faces the upper face of the chock and two on the lower face.
increase. By the time the chock is about 75 mm from its final position there is a When fretting occurs the surfaces of the underside of the bedplate in contact
good bearing surface on the chock. At this stage it will be driven home with a with the fitting strips become recessed, and in a similar manner the tank top
2 kg hammer, after which the holding-down bolt will be fitted. becomes recessed and the chock becomes thinner. The sum effect of this is to
allow the bedplate to sag in the areas where fretting has occurred and then the
crankshaft becomes misaligned.
17.7 If, soon after joining a motorship, you found a number of holding- To effect repairs, the holding-down bolts are slackened off. in and on each
down bolts slack, and fretting to have occurred in the areas of the slack side of, the damaged areas. The bedplate is lifted with a series of steel wedges,
bolts, describe how-you would handle the situation. duringwhich time the top surface of thebedplate (surface where A-frames land)
When chocks and their mating surfaces on the bedplate and tank top have is kept under observation with optical alignment equipment. The bedplate is
fretted, the chocks cannot properly support the engine. If the holding-down lifted until the line of the bedplate is brought back to its original position. The
bolts are tightened the crankshaft alignment may be seriously affected with damaged area of the bedplate and tank top is cleaned with chemical solvents
lesser effects being felt on crosshead guide and cylinder alignment. The down to bare metal. By using rubber or neoprene moulded strips a mould is
seriousness of the situation will be proportional to the amount of fretting that formed between the wedges, the bedplate and the tank top, in a similar manner
has occurred. to the shuttering for a cement box. The holding-down bolts and the rubber
Before any tightening of the holding-down bolts is carried out, the alignment strips are lightly greased so that the chocking resin does not adhere to them. The
of the crankshaft should be checked by the crank deflection method with a dial steel surfaces of the bedplate and tank top are sprayed with a very thin coat of
gauge. If the crankshaft alignment is satisfactory the slack chocks can be chemical which prevents the resin adhering.
removed and smoothed on the mating surfaces and then replaced. Slotted slip The volume of the mould is calculated so that the correct amount of pourable
liners can then be made and fitted between the chock and bedplate. The bolts resin is mixed. The resin is supplied in two packs which when mixed begin to
can then be tightened to harden the chock. After all the bolts and chocks have cure. As soon as the base and catalyst are mixed they are pb'ured into the mould
been tightened the crankshaft alignment must be rechecked. If the crankshaft so that contact is made between the bedplate and the tank top; this is done by
alignment is satisfactory the engine can be operated. making the outside mould rubber strip higher than the thickness of the chocks.
If the crankshaft alignment is found to be unsatisfactory on the check made A slight head is then created so that the resin completely fills the chock cavity.
before tightening of bolts, it may be necessary to lift the bedplate in the region The resin is then allowed to cure completely, taking about 48 hours when the
of the fretted chocks. This can be done by using slow-tapered folding wedges or temperature of the surroundings is 16°C (60°F) and proportionately longer if
box wedges, but not without difficulty. In order to get the necessary mechanical the temperature is lower.
advantage it will be necessary to use three or more sets of wedges. When the After the resin has completely cured, the supporting steel wedges are removed
crankshaft alignment is satisfactory the chocks can be treated as mentioned and the holding-down bolts are tightened. The bedplate is then again checked.
earlier and then fitted with slip liners or shims, after which the crankshaft The crankshaft alignment is checked and any necessary correction is made by
alignment must again be checked. remetalling or machining the lower halves of the main bearings.
After carrying out corrective work such as that described, the engine should The area of the resin chocks supporting the engine must be greater than that
be tested, preferably at a berth or by operating at low power, until it is of the cast-iron chocks. The area can be calculated from the weight of the
established that no bearings are running hot. engine and the initial stress in theholding-down bolts, and the load-bearing
Repairs of this nature could only be considered as temporary to get a vessel characteristics of the resin used. The resin used must be approved by the
back to home port. Permanent repairs would then be necessary. appropriate Classification Society. (Fig. 7.5)
170 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Bedplates, Frames, Guides, Scavenge Trurrks. Cylinder Jackets 17 1

-\ I I
Plastic
. ~b
Crankcase

L Cast iron bedplate

foam dam
Dam Cast resin Chock
Resin-bonded
d \+
/

ihin
elastomer

.-
-
Fig. 7.5 Pourable continuous cast resin chocks.

7.19 What is the purpose of resilient chocks?

metal slee:q

When an engine is operating, forces are set up in the moving parts and these
+
Rg. 7.6
Support structure

Resilient engine mounting.

forces are transferred to the engine bedplate. When the engine is on solid chocks gauge. ShOuld it be necessary to retighten holding-down bolt nuts, the specified
movements from these forces are transmitted to the hull structure as a form of torque must not be exceeded, and crankshaft alignment must be checked before
vibration. When resilient chocks are used the vibratory movements of the and after tightening the nuts to see that it has not been adversely affected.
bedplate are damped out within the chocks and littk or no vibration is (Fig. 7.6)
transmitted to the hull; They are mainly used on medium- axid high-speed
engines where vibration may cause damage or be asource of annoyance in other
parts of the ship. 7.21 How is the crankcase oil pan connected to the double-bottom drain
tank?
7.20 Some medium- and high-speed engines are set on resilient chocks. The lubricating oil in circulation drains through a pipe connection jointed on to
Describe how the holding-down bolts are tightened; what are the the bottom of the oil pan or lower part of the bedplate and the tank top.
precautions that must be taken? Normally the pipe is of a large diameter and fitted with a normal flange at the
A fairly common form of resilient chocking system is to use a bonded cork upper end where it is jointed to the crankcase oil pan. At the lower end the
chock set between two steel plates. The cork is chemically impregnated to make flange is fitted within the pipe. The section of pipe and flanges then follows a Z
it resistant to breakdown in the presence of oil. In some cases a binding strip of form. Where the bottom of the crankcase is stiff one or two bellows convolu-
metal plate is fitted around the cor'k layer to help it resist compressive loads and tions may be fitted within the pipe length to give it the necessary flexibility for
prevent it 'barrelling'. In other instances an elastomer is used in place of cork. temperature changes and thermal movement.
With resilient chocks of this form the holding-down bolts are tightened with a The drain pipe is made after the engine is chocked: a pipe template is lifted
torque spanner to some required load. The load placed on the bolt is fairly light. and the pipe is made to match it. The flange distance then coincides with the
After tightening, the nuts must be carefully locked with lock nuts. Normally, distance between the oil pan and tank top joint faces. The drain pipe is jointed
once set, the holding-down bolts should not be tightened further. up and assembled to the tank top from within the crankcase. A perforated plate
When the nuts are initially hardened down the crankshaft alignment is kept is fitted over the drain outlet to prevent rag and the like getting into the drain
under observation using the crank deflection method with the aid of a dial tank.
168 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

to a heavy 'star' spanner supplied for this purpose. A hammer of 2 kg weight is

normally used.
Chocks are fitted in place after the engine has been aligned to the inter-
mediate shafting, and the bedplate has been brought to the same degree of
.
'
Bedplates, Frames, Guides, Scavenxc. Trunks. Cylinder Jackets

7.18 Describe the work involved in making permanent repairs to main

engines with badly fretted chock landings and chocks.
I69

In carrying out permanent repairs the aim is to bring the bedplate back to its
flatness as it had during erection on the test bed. The engine at this stage is original alignment to reduce stresses on welds, and then correct any crankshaft
supported on a series of folding wedges around the periphery of the bedplate. misalignment that may have developed. The method of repair is to discard the
The chocks are machined in the workshop to sizes taken from the ship (with I original chocks and replace them with a resin chocking system. The landing
surfaces on cast-iron or steel chocks are approximately 30 to 36 mm wide over
some allowance for hand fitting). After machining, chocks are lightly driven
into place so that 'hard' bearing marks are made on the machined surfaces of the length of the chock, which may be about 150 to 250mm. The landing
the chock. The chocks are then backed out and the hard spots are eased by draw I surfaces are also referred to as the fitting strips; there are two fitting strips on
filing. The process is repeated and the bearing surfaces on the chock faces the upper face of the chock and two on the lower face.
increase. By the time the chock is about 75 mm from its find position there is a When fretting occurs the surfaces of the underside of the bedplate in contact
good bearing surface on the chock. At this stage it will be driven home with a with the fitting strips become recessed, and in a similar manner the tank top .
2 kg hammer, after which the holding-down bolt will be fitted. becomes recessed and the chock becomes thinner. The sum effect of this is to
allow the bedplate to sag in the areas where fretting has occurred and then the
crankshaft becomes misaligned.
17.7 If, soon after joining a motorship, you found a number of holding- TO effect repairs, the holdingdown bolts are slackened off, in and on each
down bolts slack, and fretting to have occurred in the areas of the slack side of, the damaged areas. The bedplate is lifted with a series of steel wedges,
bolts, describe how'you would handle the situation. duringwhich time the top surface of thebedplate (surface where A-frames land)
When chocks and their mating surfaces on the bedplate and tank top have is kept under observation with optical alignment equipment. The bedplate is
fretted, the chocks cannot properly support the engine. If the holding-down lifted until the line of the bedplate is brought back to its original position. The
bolts are tightened the crankshaft alignment may be seriously affected with damaged area of the bedplate and tank top is cleaned with chemical solvents
lesser effects being felt on crosshead guide and cylinder alignment. The down to bare metal. By using rubber or neoprene moulded strips a mould is
seriousness of the situation will be proportional to the amount of fretting that formed between the wedges, the bedplate and the tank top, in a similar manner
has occurred. to the shuttering for a cement box. The holding-down bolts and the rubber
Before any tightening of the holding-down bolts is carried out, the alignment strips are lightly greased so that the chocking resin does not adhere to them. The
of the crankshaft should be checked by the crank deflection method with a dial steel surfaces of the bedplate and tank top are sprayed with a very thin coat of
gauge. If the crankshaft alignment is satisfactory the slack chocks can be chemical which prevents the resin adhering.
removed and smoothed on the mating surfaces and then replaced. Slotted slip The volume of the mould is calculated so that the correct amount of pourable
liners can then be made and fitted between the chock and bedplate. The bolts resin is mixed. The resin is supplied in two packs which when mixed begin to
can then be tightened to harden the chock. After all the bolts and chocks have cure. As soon as the base and catalyst are mixed they are pb'ured into the mould -
been tightened the crankshaft alignment must be rechecked. If the crankshaft so that contact is made between the bedplate and the tank top; this is done by
alignment is satisfactory the engine can be operated. making the outside mould rubber strip higher than the thickness of the chocks.
If the crankshaft alignment is found to be unsatisfactory on the check made A slight head is then created so that the resin completely fills the chock cavity.
before tightening of bolts, it may be necessary to lift the bedplate in the region The resin is then allowed to cure completely, taking about 48 hours when the
of the fretted chocks. This can be done by using slow-tapered folding wedges or temperature of the surroundings is 16OC (60°F) and proportionately longer if
box wedges, but not without difficulty. In order to get the necessary mechanical the temperature is lower.
advantage it will be necessary to use three or more sets of wedges. When the After the resin has completely cured, the supporting steel wedges are removed
crankshaft alignment is satisfactory the chocks can be treated as mentioned and the holdingdown bolts are tightened. The bedplate is then again checked.
earlier and then fitted with slip liners or shims, after which the crankshaft The crankshaft alignment is checked and any necessary correction is made by
alignment must again be checked. remetalling or machining the lower halves of the main bearings.
After carrying out corrective work such as that described, the engine should The area of the resin chocks supporting the engine must be greater than that
be tested, preferably at a berth or by operating at low power, until it is of the cast-iron chocks. The area can be calculated from the weight of the
established that no bearings are running hot. engine and the initial stress in theholding-down bolts, and the load-bearing
Repairs of this nature could only be considered as temporary to get a vessel characteristics of the resin used. The resin used must be approved by the
back to home port. Permanent repairs would then be necessary. appropriate Classification Society. (Fig. 7.5)
172 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Enaine Bedplates, Frames, Guides, Scavenge Irunks, Cylrnder Jackets 173

To drain tank In engines where the guide plate is made of mild steel (forming part of the
column) cooling is effected by the lubricant supply carrying heat away from the
slipper and the guide face, and some of the heat generated is transmitted by
conduction through the material of the A-frame.
1 Bottom of crankcase
Some cast-iron guide plates are cast with a hollow space in their back. When
Flange
- top
the guide is bolted on the A-frame a cavity is formed between the plate and the
A-frame. This cavity is connected to the lubricating oil pressure lines and lubri-

I stminer plate \ cating oil is circulated through it. The oil flow is controlled by a small needle
valve fitted in the outlet line, and the flow is kept under observation by leading
the outlet through a tundish with a hinged cover.

7.24 How is the space around the scavenge ports in the cylinder liner
formed and made airtight?
The space around the scavenge ports is annular in uniflow-scavenged engines
Fig. 7.7 Section through flexible crankcase drain. Drain connections of this and approximately semicircular in cross- and loop-scavenged engines.
form can be removed in order to renew the upper and lower joints or gaskets. In uniflow-scavenged engines the space may be formed by continuing the
sides of the cylinder jacket down below the cooling water space, or by steel
plating fitted and welded to and around the tops of the A-frames. The bottom
A flexible type of bellows piece is shown in Fig. 7.7. This type of bellows is of this space is sealed off from the crankcase with a cover in which the piston-
fitted from inside the crankcase. It may be unbolted to renew leaking joints or rod seals are mounted, and through wbich thepiston rod passes. The cover is
gaskets. referriSa to as Kdiaphragm and the piston-rod seals as the diaphragm packing.
The drain can be a source of lubricating oil loss and if the joint on the tank In cross- and loop-scavenged engines, the scavenge space about the scavenge
top leaks it may be a source of water contamination. In searching for points of ports forms part 04 the cylinder jacket casting. This section of the casting forms
oil loss and sourqes of water contamination, careful attention should be paid to a passage through the cooling water space, or just below it.
the crankcase oil drain, including, if fitted, the bellows section.
7.25 To what parts of a cylinder jacket would you give ottention after
7.22 How is the oil for lubricating the cylinders of a crosshead-type removing an old cylinder liner prior to fitting a new one?
engine prevented from draining into the crankcase?
The parts of the jacket coming into contact with the cooling water should be
The oil draining down from a cylinder liner drains into the scavenge space cleaned and examined for corrosion, and if any corrosion is present the
around the bottom of the cylinder liner and is collected on the diaphragm. The corroded area should be cleaned out and filled with an epoxy filler. The inside
diaphragm is sloped to one side of the engine so that the oil drains downwards,
towards a scavenge space drain fitted on the lower side of the diaphragm, and
of the jacket should be painted with one of the pints- produced for this -
purpose, unless corrosion inhibitors used in the cooling water render painting
the oil is discharged from the drain connection. unnecessary. In some engines the cooling water is given a high velocity at the
The piston rod metallic packing prevents the scavenge air blowing into the upper parts of the cylinder liner. Where the high-velocity cooling water is in
crankcase, and a set of scraper rings below the packing prevents oil from the contact with the jacket, erosion sometimes occurs. Erosion is usually caused by
crankcase being carried up into the scavenge space by the piston rod. The piston air within the cooling water, and if erosion is present an examination should be
rod packing and scraper rings are fitted in a housing which is held in a boss, the made to locate the point of air ingress. The air bleed-off points at the upper
upper surface of which is brought above the level of the diaphragm space, thus parts of the cooling system should also be checked to see that they are not
preventing any oil from the cylinder liner draining directly on to the piston rod. blocked.
The landing recess in the top of the jacket must also be cleaned and the joint
7.23 What material are guide plates made from, and how are the guides face checked. Sometimes lapping plates are provided to lap the joint face in the
cooled? recess to a smooth surface. The bell mouth entries for sealing rings often lose
their taper due to sludge settling out and going hard. The tapers must be cleaned
Guides plates, in some engines, are made of mild steel and form part of the to their original shape.
structure of the A-frame. In other engines the guide plates are made of cast-iron If leakage tell-tale holes are drilled in the lower belt of the jacket in cross- and
and are bolted to the A-frame. loop-scavenged engines, the hole must be cleaned out and blown through with a
174 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Bedplates, Frames, Guides, Scavenge Trunks, Cylinder Jackets 175

ncw return manifold

Tell-tole
hole

Fig. 7 . 8 ~ o w e seals
r between the cylinder liner and water jacket showing the
bell mouth entry for leading in the O-rings without causing damage. The bell
mouth space usually fills with sediment from the cooling water treatment and
must be carefully cleaned out before renewing sealing rings. The O-rings must
be lubricated with a soaplwater solution before fitting the liner in place. Many
engines are not fitted with 'tell-tale' holes for indicating jacket water leakage
through the upper sealing rings.

jet of compressed air. The surfaces in the lower part of the jacket which contact
the copper and the rubber sealing rings must also be carefully cleaned and
smoothed down with emery cloth. The surfaces in this area must o_n n o account
be chipped at with a chisel or chipping hammer as these tools may cause damage
which could lead to water leakage across the rubber seal.
Prior to renewing o r replacing a cylinder liner in its jacket, the bell mouth
entries for sealing rings must be carefully cleaned to remove hard sediment
build-up. If the sediment build-up is not cleaned and the bell mouth properly
restored, the sealing rings will become damaged when the liner is lowered home.
The sealing rings must also be lubricated with a soap-water solution prior to
fitting a liner. If the rings are not lubricated they twist and become damaged
when passing through the bell mouth. Oil should not be used as its presence in
the cooling water may later lead to localized overheating and cause serious
damage. (Fig. 7.8).
If the cylinder lubricating oil quills pass through the jacket, o n the top face of
the jacket will be found the engine builder's transverse centre-line markings
which are put there for marlin g -out purposes and to line up the cylinder liner so
that it comes into the correct position for fitting the oil quills. These marks
should be found and chalked up o r re-marked with a light centre-punch mark if
necessary. The holes in the cylinder jacket through which the oil quills pass Rg. 7.9 (a) Sketch showing h o w upper part of V-engine cooling water space
should have sediment removed and be throughly cleaned. may become air locked.
If the enginc is of the cross- or loop-scavenge type the ports in the jacket (b) Sketch showing air release connection. The connection is held in place with
should be cleaned to bare metal. t w o 8crewa not shown.
 176 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Bedplutes, i~iumes,Guides, Scu venge l rurrks, Cylinder Juckefs 1 77
-
7.26 At what points on the jacket does the cooling water enter and up-rated without sufficient attention being given to possible problems. In some
leave? cases failure to study this problem at the design stage has led to serious cracking
of the cylinder beam and jacket area.
The cylinder cooling water enters at the lowest point on the jacket and leaves at Some medium-speed engines have extended the cylinder stud or bolt
the uppermost point. This arrangement prevents air locking or air pockets fastening well down and away from the_critical-areas mentioned. (Fig. 7.10)
forming at the top of the cooling space. An arrangement of cylirider head fastenings is shown in Fig. 7. lqa). In this
V-engines require special air release holes in the uppermost point between the arrangement the dowhward acting force on the cylinder liner acting through 'B'
liner and the jacket to prevent air locks forming in any space above the main is resisted by the upward acting force 'C' at the liner support in the jacket. As
cooling water outlet from the cylinder. The air release arrangement may take the two forces are not acting through a common line a bending moment is
various forms; it is essential that it be checked to ensure that it is clear when created. The cross-section at a-b has to resist a tensile load set up by the forces
removing cylinder heads, or cylinder heads and liners. (Fig. 7.9) acting through 'A' and 'B'. Thermal stresses are also created in these parts
when they come up to operating temperature and the location is said to be in a
7.27 How can the cooling spaces within a cylinder jacket be examined state of complex stress. If the radial clearance between the top of the liner and
without withdrawing the cylinder liner? jacket is insufficient excessive tensile hoop stresses are produced in the top of
the jacket.
Inspection openings are arranged round the bottom of a cylinder jacket, Figure 7.10 (b) shows the way failures occurred in the cylinder jacket due to
normally covered by blank flanges. To examine the cooling space when the the older form of fastenings. -.
engine is shut down, the cooling water supply and outlet valves on the jacket are Figures 7.10 (c) and (d) show the designs adopted tp prevent the failures
closed and the jacket is drained through the drain connection. Drainage is facili- shown in Fig. 7.10 (b). See also question 8.9. In some engines the cylinder jacket
tated if an air release connection has been fitted on the engine in which case it is made separate from the engine frame as shown in Fig. 7.10 (c).
. should be opened. When the cooling space has drained, the inspection covers
can be removed tq give access.
7.29 What periodic attention must be given to the scavenge air space
7.28 Which parts of a cylinder jacket are machined to accommodate the and piston-rod pocking at the bottom of a cylinder liner?
cylinder liner? The scavenge air space, although designed to be self-draining, does collect oily
The uppermost surface of a cylinder jacket is first machined flat. A circular sediments on the diaphragm, which must be cleaned periodically. The interval
recess is then machined in this surface and the liner flange fits into this recess. In between cleaning operations is a variable which will be dependent upon the
some modern engines a ring is fitted into this recess and the liner flange then fits amount of cylinder lubricant used, the effectiveness of the piston-rod packing
on to the top of the ring. and scraper rings, and the effectiveness of the air filters to the turbo-blower
In cross- and loop-scavenge engines a wide belt is cast towards the lower end inlets. When the scavenge space is cleaned, the drain connection must be blown
of the jacket. This belt has passages passing through it which take the scavenge through with compressed air.
air and the exhaust gases. The belt is smooth-bored out to'match the exhaust The attention given to the metallic packing consists of opening up and
and scavenge belt on the outside of the cylinder liner. The upper end of the belt cleaning the packing. The clearance on the butts of the ring segments must be
in the jacket is bored to a taper over a depth of 10 to 15 mm. This taper forms checked and corrected to take up the wear which occurs. As the rings wear the
what is called a bell mouth. Its purpose is to give an easy entry for the sealing load on the garter spring around the packing is reduced and this sometimes calls
rings on the cylinder liner when the liner is fitted into the cylinder jacket. for shortening of the spring length. The scraper rings are treated in a similar
The lower part of a cylinder jacket for a uniflow-scavenged engine is manner, and the width of the scraper surface will also require narrowing down
machined in a similaymanner with a bell mouth f6r easy sealing ring entry, and if the design of the packing allows it. In other instances the scraDers must be
--
in some engines the sealing ring is fitted into a stuffing box on the lower outside - -renewed when the width of the scraping surface exceeds the figwigken by the
p m o f the jacket, a g K n 3 f r i n g ~ n gu i i o x g h t e n the sealing ring. engine builder. The gallery round the scraper ring, and the oil drain holes,
In those engines fitted with Oil quills which pass through the cylinder cooling require careful cleaning. If drain pipes are fitted to the scraper packing drain
space, the bossings for the quills are bored and faced. Around the upper face of space the pipes should be checked to see that they are clear.
the jacket the holes are drilled and tapped for fitting the cylinder cover studs. The piston-rod packing does not normally require attention every time the
Modern design arranges for the cylinder head fastenings to be fitted away scavenge space is cleaned. The-frequency oT overhauling packing is therefore
from the top face of the cylinder beam or jacket. This is done to reduce the much less than the frequency of cleaning the scavenge space. In some engines it
stresses in the region of the stud holes which may become quite complex in is more convenient to attend to piston-rod packing at the time the pistons are
nature in older-design engines, pqrticularly if the engine has been improperly removed for overhaul. - - A
 Cmdts between stud
holes Inadjacent cylinders
bottom of thread

Fig. 7.10 (a) Sketch showing older arrangement of cylinder cover or cylinder head fastenings. The lines of action of loads B
and C create a bending moment i n the liner flange. The stresses arising out of this bending moment are additivq t o the thermal
stresses in the flange. The stresses in the jacket are created by the upward force A in the stud and the reactioq in the threaded
section of the hole. The location is in a state of complex stress due t o the various forces A, B and C. (b) Sketcp showing
location of failures in older type cylinder cover fastenings.

Fig. 7.10 (c) Cylinder cover fastenings with studs fastening lower down in cylinder jacket. Development from that shown in
la).
(d) Modern design of cover fastening with water jacket separate from engine frame and cylinder liner. The spherical washer at
the cover nut prevents a bending moment coming on to the stud if the nut landing face is not square with the cylinder cover.
, \
 I HO Quevlions und Answc~rson rhr Marine 1)icwl I S n ~ i r ~ r

7.30 How are the guides arranged on modern single-acting engines? The lubricating oil then flows from a hole i n thc slipper face. A lubricating oil
groove is cut horizontally fore and aft from this hole. The edges of the groove
On modern single-acting engines guides are fitted on the columns or A-frames are scraped off with a scraper and an 'oil wedge' is created above and below the
to accommodate the slippers fitted at the forward and aft ends of the crosshead.
Each A-frame, except those at the ends of the engine, has four guide plates,
groove according to the direction of the piston movement. The upper and lower -
edges of the slipper are also machined off to a slight angle to further lubricate
while those at the ends have two. the slipper.

W 7.31 What is the reason for arranging the guides of crosshead engines in 7.34 What is the amount of clearance between the guides and slippers
the manner described in the answer to Question 7.303 on a modern single-acting crosshead engine?
The reason for arranging guides in this manner is in order to achieve a standard- The maximum and minimum figure for the guide clearance is given in the
ization that will errable engines to be arranged to run ahead in any direction i n s t r d i o n boGk supplied by the engine builder: the amount is very small when
without reversing the side of the engine to which the guidesare fitted. Manufac- the engine is cold. When the jackets are warmed through by circulating warm
ture of right-handed and left-handed A-frames as would be required in twin- water prior to starting the main engines, the guide clearances tend to increase,
screw ships is then obviated. and are subsequently reduced again slightly when the engine is operating and
Notes Controllable pitch propellers are usually made to turn left-handed the slipper comes up to its working temperature. On some modern engines no
(clockwise) when viewed from the after end of the ship, whereas solid cast provision is made for adjusting the guide clearance. In engines where adjust-
propellers for use in single-screw ships are made to run right-handed when ments are possible it is good to have records of the change which occurs in the
going ahead and left-handed to go astern. clearance under various conditions. In the absence of any ship records the guide
Controllable pitch propellers are unidirectional; when going astern with a clearance can be checked when the engine is cold, after preheating the jackets
left-handed controllable pitch propeller the stem of the ship will swing in the when preparing the engine for sea, and again at the end of a passage while the
same direction as if fitted with a conventional, solid cast right-handed running heat is still in the engine. The three sets of figu~eswill give a good ,
propeller. indication for estimating minimum guide clearances.

7.32 How are the guides arranged on opposed-piston engines fitted with 7.35 What i s the purpose of the guides mentioned in earlier questions?
crossheads? When an engine is in operation and the connecting rod and piston rod are not in
Each cylinder unit on an opposed-piston engine has three guides. The centre the same straight line (not on TDC or BDC) the angularity of the connecting rod
guide of the three accommodates the slipper thrust from the lower piston and to the line of the piston stroke causes a thrust to be set up. The thrust force
lower piston or centre connecting-rod. The guides on each side of the centre created is transferred from the crosshead pins to the crosshead slippers, it is
accommodate the thrust from the upper piston side rod crossheads and then accommodated by the guides.
connecting-rods. As the stroke of the upper piston is less than that of the lower The force acting on the guides may be quite large and causes or tends to cause
piston the working length of the centre guide is noticeably longer than the side- the engine to rock or vibrate in a transverse direction.
rod guides. The guide plate of an opposed-piston engine is cast in one piece and
bolted between the A-frame on each end of a cylinder unit. Each crosshead 7.36 What is the direction of the guide thrust on the engine?
works within a slot which constrains any forward or aft movement of the -
crosshead. The crosshead is held in its slot by the guide bars which also take up The thrust from the guides acting on the engine frames is found from the
slipper thrust. triangle of forces drawn up from the force acting downwards from the piston
rod along the line of the piston stroke and the reaction from the upper part of
the connecting rod.
W 7.33 How are crosshead slippers and guides lubricated?
The force acting in the horizontal direction represents the guide and slipper
In some engines the oil is fed to the guide by a line piped to the lubricating oil load. This force completes the triangle and represents the magnitude of the
main. The line connects to a drilled hole (on the top of the guide plate) which is equilibrant or resultant of the forces from the pistpn rod and the connecting rod
connected to a holeia the guide face. The oil f l w s on to the guide face. The reaction.
slipper surface is white-metal lined, and upper and lower edges of the slipper are - - - The free body or space diagram and the triangle of forces are shown in
machined to a slight angle s s t W a & d wed& is created between the slipper Fig. 7.11. In the triangle of forces a-b is the vector representing the amount and
and guide when the engine is operating. In other engines the oil supply passages line of action of the force on the piston, a-c is the vector of the force in the
to the crosshead bearings are also connected through to the crosshead slippers. connecting rod. b-c is the vector representing the value of the guide thrust. It
182 Questions and Answers on fhe Marine Diesel Ennine Bedplates, Frames, Guides, Scavenge Trunks, Cylinder Jackets 183

should be noted that when the line of the connecting rod is identical with the line
of stroke (when 9 and 4 are zero) the l o a o n the guides is zero.
At these points in the piston stroke when the piston is on the top or the
bottom dead centre the direction of the load on the side of the cylinder liner or
the guides is reversed.
The thrust arising out of connecting rod angularity is exerted on the sides of
the cylinder liner by the piston skirt in trunk piston engines. ---
When the piston is moving downwards under the action of the forces from
the expansion of the combustion gases (the expansion or working stroke), the
magnitude of the guide and slipper load will vary and act in one direction; when
the piston is moving upwards during the compression stroke the guide load
varies but acts in the opposite direction. This is illustrated in Fig. 7.11. Note
+
that when the piston is on top and bottom dead centre 9 and are zero and the
slipper or piston side thrust is zero. b

The magnitude of the guide load will be related to the gas pressure in the
cylinder, the inertia of the moving parts and the angularity
. of the connecting
rod to the line of the piston stroke. (Fig. 7.1 1) Expansion

7.37 What parts take the place of the guides and crosshead slippers in
trunk-piston engines?
Whenever the centre line of the connecting rod is not coincident with the line of
the piston stroke, a side thrust will be set up, irrespective of whether the engine
is of the crosshead type or the trunk-piston type.
In trunk-piston engines the side thrust from the piston pin or gudgeon pin is
transferred to the side of the piston skirt or trunk. The thrust from the side of
the piston skirt is balanced by the reaction of the cylinder liner.
The piston skirt must be carefully designed and machined so that the effective
area of the skirt coming into contact with the cylinder liner is adequate for the
loads it has to meet. The design aim is such that when the piston comes up to its
working temperature a circumferential arc of contact covering approximately
90' is made between each side of the piston skirt and the liner. The arc of 90"
should extend over the length of the piston skirt.
Compression
7.38 The bedplates, columns or A-frames and the cylinder beam on
modern longstroke, slow-speed engines appear different from the older
generations of engines. What a r e these differences and how did they
come about?
An examination of the details of the bedplates and A-frames-on a modem
engine show them to be-generaliy lighter in Construction than on older engines
of the same power and speed. The cylinder beam may be made heavier in
construction than on older engines.
These changes have come about due to a better understanding of the magni-
tude of the stresses placed on these parts and the stress variations that occur
over a cycle of operations. This better understanding stems from finite element
analysis studies made with the computer and the programs drawn up for these Fig. 7.1 1 Forces coming on to crosshead guides and the sides of a cylinder
studies. liner due to angularity of the connecting-rod.
184 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

With the use of a projected indicator diagram showing the cylinder pressures
throughout the cycle, together with the masses of the moving parts to calculate
the inertia forces, it is possible in a relatively short space of time to obtain the
ranges of loads and their respective stresses. From the values found it is possible
to make a more balanced design for these parts without the risk of fatigue
failure. This in turn has made it possible to reduce scantlings and the weight of
an engine. CYLINDER LINERS,
It is usual to confirm the finite element studies by statically loading
manufactured parts and finding the stresses in the critical areas with the aid of
strain gauges. When manufacture of the prototype engine is completed, further
CYLINDER HEADS, VALVES
studies will be carried out on an engine in service. Strain gauges will be fitted on
the parts being studied and the testing will be carried out under actual service
conditions.
A heavier and stiffer cylinder beam will spread the firing loads over a greater
number of tie-bolts and allow them to be made smaller in diameter.

8.1 Why is it usual to cast the cylinder liners and cooling water jackets of
large diesel engines separately?
There are four main reasons for casting these large, heavy parts separately.
When the cylinder liner and jacket come up to their working temperatures
the liner is at a much higher temperature than the jacket. The thermal
expansion of the liner is therefore greater than the jacket. When the two
parts are made separately, the increase in length and diameter of the liner is .
unrestricted. If the two parts were cast as one piece the stresses, set up due to
restricting expansion of the liner, could cause fracture of the parts and
consequent failure.
In normal service the cylinder liner wears and must be renewed, whereas the
cooling water jacket nvrmally lasts for the life of the engine. When the parts
are made separately it is necessary only to renew the liner.
By casting the parts separately there is less risk of defects, and if there are
any they are more easily found. The residual stresses left in a casting after
solidification are much less when the liner and jacket are made separately.
The material required for the cylinder liner casting, due to the demands
made on it, is more costly than that required for the cooling water jacket; by
making the parts separately material costs are reduced.
Note The cylinders of small high-speed automotive-type engines are often cast
in one piece with the cylinder block. In such engines the cylinder walls are
comparatively thin and operate at a much lower temperature than thick marine
engine liners; consequently the difference in expansion is small. Furthermore,
the jacliet walls of small engines are also thin and sufficiently resilient to take
care of slight differences in expansion between cylinder wall and jacket.
In other cases it is desirable to fit renewable cylinder liners without increasing
the costs by making watertight landings at the top of the liner and fitting
- --
elastomer sealing rings at the bottom.
In such cases;the casting of the cylinder barrel and jacket is in one piece. The
186 Questions and AnswFrs on the Marine Diesel Engine
I Cylinder Liners, Cylinder Heads, Valves 187

cylinder barrel is machined out to suit the outside diameter of the renewable 8.4 Draw a simple sketch showing the lines of constant temperature
cylinder liner. The liner is then reduced in diameter by 'freezing' it before fitting .through a cylinder liner from--
a four-stroke cycle engine.
- -.--- - -- --
it in the barrel. When the liner comes up to ambient Qmperature it bewmesan
interference fit or a shrink fit and has an acceptable heat transfer rate to the The lines of constant temperature are also referred fo as isotherms.
cooling water through the thickness of the cylinder liner and barrel. The lines of highest temperature are experiend in the corner of the liner
This gives rise to the descriptive terms Integral Cast Cylinder; Dry Cylinder formed by its inside diameter and the landing of the cylinder head or cover. This
Liner (as just mentioned); and Wet Cylinder Liner, as is the normal practice in line runs at an angle; as lower temperatures are found, the isotherms move
larger engines where the cooling water is in direct contact with the liner when outwards and become nearer to the vertical.
circulating through the jacket. As heat flows from regions of higher temperatures to regions of lower
temperatures it is seen that a quantity of heat flows downwards from the thicker
section of the liner to the thinner sections lower down. (Fig. 8.1)

8.2 What forces are cylinder liners called upon to resist? 8.5 How is it possible for bending moments to be set up in the upper
The internal gas pressure within the cylinder liner causes a tensile stress, part of a cylinder?
referred to as a hoop tensile stress. The cooling water pressure on the outside of If a sectional view of the upper part of a cylinder liner, jacket and cover is
the liner causes a hoop compressive stress which, however, is so small that it has examined it will be seen that the liner is supported by the lower face of the flange
no appreciable effect.
When the engine is in operation the mean temperature on the inside surface
(gas side) of the liner is much higher than on the outside (cooling water side).
This produces a temperature gradient across the section of the liner. As the
LSOGBCylinder liner isotherm
temperature across the thickness of the liner is different, being hotter on the gas
side and cooler on the water side, the hotter inside part of the liner tries to
expand more than the outer part in contact with the cooling water. This
temperature difference and expansion restriction causes a thermal stress. The
thermal stress reduces the hoop stress (from gas pressure) on the inside of the
liner (gas side) and increases it on the outside (cooling water side).
At the upper part of the cylinder liner in the region of the flange, bending
moments are set up when the cylinder cover is hardened down.
As the gas pressure in the cylinder is changing throughout a cycle it follows
that the hoop tensile stress is also changing, so the material of the cylinder liner
is subjected to cyclic stress patterns. Care has therefore to be taken in the design
of the liner to combat failure due to fatigue.

8.3 Cylinder liners are generally thinner at the boaom thqn at the top.
Why is this?
-
'l'tie hoop stress on the liner is dependent on the gas pressure within the cylinder;
as the piston progresses downwards the gas pressure decreases. Any section of
liner has therefore to be strong enough to resist gas pressure above the top
piston ring as the piston descends on the power stroke. The liner may therefore
be made progressively thinner in sectional thickness to suit the lower gas
pressures towards its lower part.
By making the liner progressively thinner, the rate of heat transfer from the
thicker section is increased as the heat flows downwards to the thinner section Computer plot bused onmeasurementson
which is cooler, both by reason of the gas temperature and because the thinner 6L90GBot MCR lood
wctio~itransfers ticat marc cxily to thc cooling water. Fig. 8.1 Isotherms in a cylinder liner. (MAN B&W)
188 Questions und Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

over a small width at the outermost radius. The joint face between the cylinder In many uniflow-scavenged engines [he thickcncd section of thc liner ia
cover and the top surface of the liner is usually at or near the bore of the liner. formed about halfway down its length and fits into the lower part of the
When the cylinder cover is hardened down a downward force is exerted on cylinder beam which also forms the jacket. This thickened section houses the
the joint face and an upward reaction is given on the outer landing face of the scavenge ports through which the scavenge air passes.
flange. As the force and reaction are not in the same line, a bending moment is
created on the liner upper flange and the cylindrical part of the liner adjacent to Opposed-piston engines. The combustion space is formed when the two pistons
the flange. come tp the inner dead centre. This section of the cylinder liner must therefore
be stronger than the ends.
Reinforcing rings and a cast steel jacket are shrunk on to the centre part of the
liner. The thickened centre part is machined with circumferential grooves and
8.6 What are the considerations that limit the diameter of diesel engine longitudinal slots to allow passage of the coolant from the lower to the upper
cylinder's? cooling spaces. The lower section of the cast steel jacket has a flange which rests
The factors that govern the maximum possible diameter of a diesel engine on the top of the scavenge trunk and is held in place with studs and nuts.
cylinder are as follows. The upper section of the cylinder liner is machined circular in the way of the
exhaust ports. A water cooled exhaust box fits over this section of the cylinder
1 The maximum working pressure within the cylinder. liner. The exhaust box is fitted with four corner lugs which are bolted to the top
2 The strength of the cylinder liner material. The maximum pressure and the part of the engine framing.
strength of the material govern the thickness of the cylinder liner which must
be sufficient to keep the hoop stress within acceptable limits.
3 The thickness of the cylinder liner governs the rate of heat flow from the hot 8,9 Why must cylinder covers be carefully hardened down? What is
side of the liner to the cooling water. The heat flow must be sufficient to likely to occur if the cover is excessively hardened?
keep the working side of the liner cool enough to prevent lubricant break-
down and hold the thermal stresses within safe limits. Cylinder covers are held in place and hardened down by tightening the nuts on
the cylinder cover studs. The nuts can be tightened by various means according
to the size of theengine. They can be tightened b-y torque spanner, spanner and
hammer, spanner and toggle bar of recommended length, or by hydraulic
8.7 What factors limit the temperatures of the cylinder liner on the gas jacking.
side? The engine builder gives details of the allowable stresses which can be put on
The working part of the liner, in which contact is made with the piston rings, the cylinder cover studs, or specifies the forces which can be applied to the tools
must be kept at a temperature sufficiently low so that breakdown of the oil film or hydraulic jacks. The instructions must be strictly adhered to when hardening
does not occur. In the area of the liner above the piston rings the temperature down cylinder covers. If the cylinder cover studs are overstressed during
must also be kept low enough to prevent high thermal stresses. tightening, excessive stresses will be put on the cylinder cover and dangerous
stresses may be set up in the upper part of the cylinder liner. These high stresses,
when combined with the thermal stresses, are a common cause of failure of
cylinder liners, and may also lead to failure of the cylinder cover. Sometimes the
8.8 How are cylinder liners held in place in four-stroke cycle engines, deformation produced by the high stresses causes gas leakage
two-stroke cycle engines, opposed-piston engines? cover and liner joint (see Question 7.28).
-. from the cylinder
Four-stroke cycle engines. The upper end of the liner is formed in the shape of a Modem engines of both slow- and medium-speed types use hydraulic
flange which is cast integral with the liner. The underside of this flange rests on tightening devices to harden the cylinder cover or cylinder head on to the gas-
and is supported by the cylinder beam or jacket. The cylinder cover holds the tight joint on the liner top. Errors in the pressure gauge used on the hydraulic
liner in place (at its upper end) when the cover studs are hardened down. pump may lead to over-tightening or under-tightening of the cover and the
At the lower end of the liner one section is made thicker to form a belt, this cover studs. It is therefore essential to regularly test the pressure gauge and
thicker section being located in the lower part of the cylinder beam or jacket protect it from mechanical damage when moving the pump about the engine
which holds it in place. This is where the lower sealing rings are located. room.
With older engines, torque wrenches may be used to harden cylinder cover
Two-stroke cycle engines. The upper part of the cylinder liner is held in place in studs; torque wrenches or controlled torque spanners should also be regularly
the same way as in a four-stroke cycle engine. The ported section of the two- tested to prevent possible engine damage when tightening a cylinder cover with
stroke liner fits into the lower part of the cylinder beam which also forms the a faulty wrench.
jacket in many two-stroke loop- and cross-scavenged engines. In one case where an investigation was being carried out by the author into
190 Ouesrions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Enpine Cylinder Liners, Cylinder Heads, Valves 19 1

problems with a highly rated engine, it was found that the torque wrenches gave
excessively high torque values when being used and this led to some of the
problems being experienced.

8.10 What is a flome or fire ring?

Flame or fire rings are fitted in the upper part of a cylinder liner which forms
part of the combustion chamber space. The purpose of these rings is to protect
the cylinder liner from the high temperatures which occur when injection and
combustion of fuel take place. The upper part of the liner is recessed and the
flame or fire ring fits loosely in the recess. The bottom of the recess is kept
above the uppermost position of the top piston ring. Flame rings are made from
alloy steel which will withstand the high temperatures without burning or
scaling.

8.11 How hos it been mode possible progressively to increase the

diameter of diesel engine cylinders taking into account the factors
mentioned in earlier questions?
Research using modern instrumentation has made it possible to measure
temperatures within the critical areas of the upper part of a single-acting engine
cylinder liner.
The knowledge gained from this research has made design changes possible
to increase both the cylinder diameter and the maximum firing pressure.
This has been done by increasing considerably the thickness of the upper part
1 Fig. 8.2 Bore cooling holes in the top flange of a cylinder liner.

of the cylinder liner in order to decrease the hoop stresses due to internal
pressure. The thickened section ~f the cylinder liner is drilled with a series of sections. The weakening effect would be considerable because of loss of
closely spaced holes around its circumference. The holes go from the bottom of strength in way of the drilled holes. The cross-section of the hole is a rectangle
the thickened section through to the top of this section and are drilled on a equal in area to the product of the height of the thickened section and the
diagonal line a little away from the vertical. The holes pass relatively close to the diameter of the hole.
working surface of the liner. It is then kept at a safe temperature to maintain When the holes are drilled off the vertical, the section through a drilled hole
effective lubrication of the upper working surface. becomes an ellipse. The number of holes made in a section is dependent on the
If the hot surface side of the liner is kept relatively cool, the thermal stresses angle at which the holes are drilled. The loss of strength from material
in this critical area are reduced. represented by three or four ellipses is less than that of the section through a
Due to the reduction in area for the cooling water flow through the drilled vertical hole and the stress is more uniform around the circumference.
holes, the velocity of the water increases. The increase in water velocity gives Figure 8.3 shows the geometrical development of angled and parallel bore-
much better rates of heat exchange between the surfaces being cooled and the cooling holes. The horizontal projection of the angled bore-cooling holes shows
cooling water. the hole is tangential to the working surface of the cylinder liner and passes

.
This form of cooling has been given the name 'Bore Cooling' i n d is close to it. This is shown by the location of the elliptical holes on the right hand
illustrated in Fig. 8.2. The outlet holes (not shown) usually come out of the side sketch.
of the liner and then connect with the cooling bore in the lower part of the
cylinder cover or cylinder head. I 8.13 How is cooling water prevented from leaking from the cooling
spaces around a cylinder liner?
8.12 Why ore the cooling woter holes in bore cooled cylinder liners The flanged part of the top of a cylinder liner and the surface of the cylinder
drilled on o slight diagonal instead of the vertical? beam or jacket on which it sits is a metal-to-metal joint, and the mating surfaces
I f the holes were drilled on the vertical there would be a considerable difference are usually lapped with a tool or jig using grinding compound. In some designs
between the strength of thc liner in way of the drilled holes and the undrilled varnishes or pastes are used on the metal surfaces. I t is important that they be of
 the slow-drying type, bccausc i f thcy h n r d c ~ Iwfotc
l (tic l i r w is pullcd I ~ o r ~ l c ,
severe stresses may be set up or leakage caused.
The lower part of a cylinder liner is thickened-up for some distance to form a
belt, in which grooves are turned to accommodate nitrile rubber rings; the rings
are compressed on their contact surfaces with the liner and the jacket so that a
water-tight seal is formed.

8-14 What is t h e shape o r section of t h e grooves used f o r f i t t i n g sealing

rings a t t h e l o w e r e n d o f a cylinder liner? What is the relationship o f t h e
cross-sectional a r e a o f t h e groove t o t h e cross-sectional o r e a o f t h e r i n g ?
Different shapes of groove are used by different engine builders. The groove
must, however, be such that the distance between the bottom of the groove and
the jacket is less than the diameter of the nitrile rubber ring. When the liner is
fitted in the jacket the rubber ring is then compressed and reduced in sectional
diameter, so that a good seal results.
The cross-sectional area of the groove must be greater in amount than the
cross-secthnal areaof the rubber ring. ThiSis to alrow distortion of the ring to
take place and effect a good seal without the ring becoming volume-bound in
the groove (see Fig. 8.4).
Note The bulk modulus of solid rubber is very high so it is virtually impossible
to compress it and reduce its volume.

Fig. 8.3 Diagram showing how the bore holes pass very close t o the cylinder
liner inner surface. The loss of strength can be gauged by noting the section
area loss from the vertically drilled holes when compared with the sectional area
loss from the seven elliptical holes. Fig. 8.4 Various sections through O-ring grooves. Note. In all cases the cross-
sectional area of the groove is greater than the cross-sectional area of the O-ring
t o prevent the ring becoming volume bound.
194 QuesIIons ana Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine --- Cylinder Liners, Cylinder Heads, Valves 195
-
8.15 What is likely to occur if an oversize nitrile rubber ring is used In trunk-piston engines leakage from the rubber seal rings may go into the
when fitting a cylinder liner? crankcase and cause deterioration of the lubricating oil. When the engine is
It will be very difficult to pull the cylinder liner home due to the rubber stopped lubricant remains in bearing oil pockets and oil grooves. Water then
completely filling the ring groove. If excess pull is placed on the liner drawing separates from the retained lubricant and causes etching or pitting on the highly
gear the load exerted on the rubber may fracture the jacket. In some instances polished working surfaces of the pins and journals, and corrosion of the
when oversize rings have been fitted, fracture has occurred after the engine has beiring metal leads to rapid bearing wear.
been started and come up to workIIlg temperature. Cooling water leakage in trunk-piston engines may also be the start of
degradation of lubricating oil through bacteria growth and build up (see
Questions 3.15, 3.16, 3.17 and 3.18).
8.16 How are the jacket sealing rings protected from heat in way of the
exhaust ports in cross- and loop-scavenged engine cylinder liners? 8.19 How can leakage from cylinder liner rubber sealing rings be found?
Narrow grooves are machined circumferentially round the thickened section of Often it can be found only by visual inspection when the engine is stopped. The
the liner, one just above and one just below the exhaust ports. A copper ring is cooling spaces should be kept under pressure during the examination. The
caulked into each groove and machined down so that it makes light contact with design of the engine dictates the places that must be examined. The usual places
the jacket, or has a very small clearance between it and the jacket when cold. are the crankcase and bottom of the cylinder liner in trunk-piston engines, and
Exhaust gases are then prevented from making contact with the rubber sealing the scavenge spaces in two-stroke engines. In cross-scavenged engines the
rings by the barrier created by the copper ring. exhaust and scavenge ports can be visually inspected from the exhaust manifold_
or trunk. Some engines are fitted with leakage tell-tale holes so that leakage
when it occurs in inaccessible places is indicated by leakage at the tell-tale holes. , '

8.17 If the copper sealing rings are found to have too large a clearance 8.20 What precautions must be taken to prevent damage when lifting
what can be done to rectify the fault? pistons?
In minor cases the copper rings can be expanded with specially shaped caulking After removal of the cylinder cover and freeing the piston rod from the
tools which deform the copper and swell it out, thus increasing the external crosshead, the space above the top ring must be cleaned of all deposits to bare
diameter of the ring. If the clearance is too large to respond to caulking the metal.,This prevents the piston rings jamming the piston within the liner during
copper ring must be removed and a new ring fitted. The old ring can be cut from the lift. The cylinder liner must also be fastened down with finger-plates fitted
its groove with a cross-cut chisel or machined out. A new copper ring is made by over the cylinder cover studs. The plates are held down with the cover nuts and
caulking a copper strip of the correct size into the groove. Sometimes the strip is pipes to make up the thickness of the cylinder cover.
machined to make a good surface. In opposed-piston engines the centre part of the liner must be cleaned to bare
If the belt in the jacket which fits against the new copper strip kcorroded the metal before attempting to remove the lower piston. If the fuel valve tips or any
liner can be put into thejacket and lowered down so that contact is made with of the cylinder valves extend into the combustion space these valves must also
the copper sealing ring, causing it to be marked. The marked areas are then be removed.
hand dressed with a file until a good fit is obtained. The liner must be lowered in
its correct position circumferentially so that the oil quills and ports are correctly
located. 8.21 How is the cylinder oil fed into the cylinders of large diesel
engines?
The cylinder oil is forced in against the gas pressure in the cylinder by a small
8.18 What effects will leaking nitrile rubber seal rings have on engine pump. The oil passes through a fitting whi'ch is called the oil quill or cylinder
operations? quill. The quill is usually screwed into a hole tapped into the cylinder liner.
Some oil quills are fitted with a non-return or check valve within the quill,
If leakage from rubber rings occurs into spaces external to the engine and the others have the non-return valve fitted external to the quill. (Fig. 8.5)
leakage is small it will have only a nuisance value from the mess it makes.
In some two-stroke engines if leakage occurs the water may be carried into
the cylinder by the scavenge air and settle on the'cylinder walls. The water has 8.22 What is the difference between wet and dry oil quills?
the effect of breaking down the lubricating oil film, and over-heated pistons Dry quills are fitted into cylinder liners external to the cooling water space, or
;11id lilicrs I I T ; ~result
~ 1.10111 I tic Icnkagc. they may pass through the cooling space but are jacketed so that cooling water
 . does not touch the quill. Wet oil quills pass through thc cooling water space and
cooling water contacts the oil qllill. I t is not I I S I I I I ~to find wet oil quills on
modem engines due to the difficulties _of makicg an oil and watertight joint at
the junction between the quill and the liner. Non-return valves are fitted at the
inlet to the quill. Many engines are, however, still operating with wet quills.
(Fig. 8.6)

-
Tocylinder
liner
4 8.23 What chain of events is likely to occur in engines fitted with wet
quills if the ioint face between the quill and cylinder liner becomes
defective?
If the joint face between a wet quill and the cylinder liner becomes defective, the
results may be disastrous and the damage costly to rectify. When an engine is in
operation the pressure exerted on the cylinder oil to cause it to enter the cylinder
liner is greater than the cooling water pressure. If the joint face between the-
Ld quill and the liner becomes defective cylinder oil leaks into the cooling water.

I Cylinder lubricant
The small oil globules which leak into the cooling water are carried around the
cooling system and settle on or adhere to the various surfaces within the cooling
spaces, coolers and piping.
When oil enters the cooling system some of the globules settle within cylinder
Fig. 8.5 (a) Cylinder lubricating oil quill.
- 4 covers and on cylinder liners. The minute oil film created within the cylinder
(b) Cylinder lubricating oil quill with a diaphragm-type accumulator.
cover and on the liner surfaces causes the heat flow from the gas space to be
seriously affected so that the temperature of parts is greatly increased. These
higher temperatures, which may be localized in way of tire oil film, cause the
cylinder cover and liner to distort so that difficulties are experienced in
maintaining the cover joint gas-tight and the cylinder liner joint watertight.
If leakage persists the whole of the surfaces within the cover and liner is
affected. This causes the cylinder liner to run at much higher temperatures on
the gas side and difficulties are exBrienced with cylinder lubrication. In turn
this causes extra heat to be passed to the pistons. The general effect is to cause
deterioration of the nitrile rubber sealing rjngs within the piston and at the
bottom of the cylinder liners.
In order to get the engine in proper working order again it is necessary to
draw all liners and thoroughly clean them of the oil films and also to clean
chemically the inside surfaces of cylinder covers. If overheating has caused
warping so that difficulties are experienced in maintaining the cylinder covers
, -gas-tight at the liner joint, the joint faces on the cylinder cover must be
,
machined true again.
When water enters the quill during the time that the engine is stopped the
water can affect the additives in the cylinder oil and cause them to solidify
within the quill so that eventually blockage takes place in the quill. This in turn
causes difficulties to be experienced witb the pipe lines and indicator glasses
associated with the cylindeffubricators.
The extra heat passing into the pistons usually causes failure of the sealing
rings and consequent coolant leakage.
In loop- and cross-scavenged engines hterioration of the rubber rings at the
Fig. 8.6 Wet and dry oil quills used to carry cylinder lubricant on to the lower end of the cylinder liner first occurs above the exhaust ports and causes
working surfaces of the cylinder liner. water leakage at this point.
198 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Cylinder Liners, Cylinder Heads, Valves 199

'8.24 Why do cylinder liners wear internally mostly at the combustion liner. A series of horizontal chalk marks is made in the liner corresponding to
ends? the position of the micrometer locating holes. The locating gauge is then placed
on the opposite side of the liner, the extension of the internal micrometer is
The principal reason is that the combustion ends of liners are exposed to the placed in the top locating hole and the micrometer head is swung in a horizontal
high-temperature burning gases adlubrication of this part is not so efficient. arc on the level of the chalk mark until the right 'feel' is obtained on the
Also it is at this part of the liner that the piston rings exert the greatest outward micrometer head. The micrometer is then read and the measurement recorded.
pressure. A further contributory factor is that the combustion ends of liners The process is repeated down the liner and the various diameters of the
operate at a much higher temperature than the remainder of the liner and at the cylinder are obtained in the port and starboard or athwartships plane. Similar
higher temperature cast-iron has less resistxce to wear and the corrosive effects measurements are made in the fore and aft plane of the cylinder liner bore.
of very hot combustion products. In taking measurements down to hundredths of a millimetre or thousandths
Note The causes of cylinder liner wear can best be appreciated by imagining of an inch a high degree of accuracy is required. In the first place this requires
what takes place during the pressure period in the cylinder. Assume the piston is very delicate handling of the micrometer and adjustment of the head when it is
about to begin the compression stroke. The piston rings -are then in the sm-dies' being screwed out to measure the wo-m we diameter. Other essential precau-
diameter of the cylinder, which is well lubricated, and the radial pressure tions are the setting up of the micrometer extension pieces andbehg awareof
exerted against the Ii,ner is equal only to the spring in the rings. As the piston the relative temperatures of liner and micrometer,_
moves inward the cylinder pressure rises, and since the rings are resting on the The micrometer must be adjusted at the time the extensions are fitted to give a
bottom face of the grooves, gas will leak between the top of the piston ring and correct reading preferably in a standard cylinder bore gauge. If a gauge is not
the upper face, and the pressure behind the rings increases and presses the rings available a spare unused cylinder liner can be used. but it shouid be noted that
against the liner with increasing force. The friction between the rings and the some variation occurs in cylinder bore sizes of different liners due to the
liner increases owing to this, and also owing to the fact that the lubricating oil maker's allowable machining tolerances, and this may introduce discrepancies
film on the upper part of the cylinder, which has been exposed to high- in measurements that are barely acceptable.
temperature gas, has had its lubricating properties impaired. The temperature of the micrometer should be stabilized at engine-room
temperature. For example, if the micrometer is normally stored in an air-
conditioned office, it should not be brought from the office and immediately
8.25 Name the tools required for measuring cylinder liner wear. State used in a hot engine room. Similarly during use it should not be placed in warm
how they are used and the precautions taken to obtain accurate or hot places. During extended use the heat of the hand will also affect the
measurement. accuracy of the measurements. Some micrometers have a plastic insuIating tube
The tools required are a suitably sized internal micrometer and a micrometer which is slipped over the extension pieces for handling purposes. If this is not
locating gauge. The micrometer locating gauge is nothing more than a long flat available the extension piece should be rag wrapped and taped where it is held.
bar covering the length of the liner. A series of holes is drilled in the bar. The Cylinder liners should always be at similar temperatures when measurements
holes are located at the points where the diameter of the liner is measured. As are taken, and this may be difficult to achieve due to the trading dattern of
the maximum wear is usually found at the upper part of the liner, the holes are ships. As much as possible should be done to achieve this, such as circulating
so arranged that the bore of the liner is first measured at the point where the adjacent cylinders with cooling water at some temperature which can be easily
lower edge of the top piston ring comes when the piston is on top centre. Two obtained over widely differing ports or places.
other measucing-point holes are Jocated at approximately 50 to 75 mm and 100 If these precautions are conscientiously observed it will save the waste of tim;
to 1SO mm from the first for large engines. that comes about when a cylinder liner is measured and comparison with earlier
In smaller engines the distances between the upper gauging points will be less measurements shows that it is apparently getting smaller in bore!
and are usually arranged so that the three upper measurements cover the
distance between the positions of the top and bottom piston rings when the
piston is on top dead centre. 8.26 After measurement of cylinder liners, how are the results put into a
There are two other holes in the micrometer locating gauge, one to locate the useful form?
micrometer for gauging the liner at midlength and another to gauge the liner at
the lower end of the piston travel. The actual bore diameters'at the various locations are recorded on a form
supplied by the Company's technical department or an engine builder. The,
Note In opposed-piston engines the micrometer locating gauge is arranged to differences in the latest measurements and those last recorded are noted in order
cover the travel of both the upper and lower pistons. to ascertain that maximum wear is still occurring in the same location. The
:\i'rcl thc z\lindcr cmw or 11ppcr piston has been removed a& the liner has
difference in the latest maximum diameter and the original size of the liner is
t w r ~.lr;r~lcil,
~ rhc IOL.;IIIII):
g;iujic is pl;tced on tlw port or starboard side of thc also noted.
200 Queslions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
) r r ~ R s c e s f A l ~ tarnraaly porriibk.~ o these
r reasons cylinder \ h e r wcar i s usuaby tdatcd to the
*Z*~AWW*-T UmwrcnrSnerr~,
In order to put these figures into useful form for comparison purposes, they
are related to time, in the form of diameter increase per thousand running
hours. This gives a time wear rate. 8.28 lf a change is noted in the wear pattern or rate of the central and
The following simple equation shows how the wear rate is obtained: lower cylinder gauging sizes, what is it likely to indicate?
wear rate since increase in diameter since last record Any increase in the wqir rate or pattern at the centre or lower end of a cylinder
last recorded = x lo00 liner is usually indicative bf the beginning of some piston alignment change, or
measurement running hours since last record the start of misalignment. It could also indicate slackness in the crosshead
guides or the running gear of that cylinder unit.
wear rate since -
- total increase in diameter x lo00
new total running hours since new
8.29 In service cylinder liners wear internally and the practice is to
The units will be: wear mm/1000 hr or wear inches/1000 hr depending on the renew them periodically. What form does the wear take? What are the
units of measurement used. objections to reboring the liners when they become worn to the permis-
The values obtained are plotted as co-ordinates on a graph with the time in sible limit and (a) bushing the liner to return it to its orhinal internal
thousands of hours as the abscissa or base and the wear rate as the ordinate or diameter, or (b) boring to a larger size and fitting an oversize piston?
vertical.
The maximum wear generally occurs at the upper end of cylinder liners, so that
Note If measurements were taken during the early life of a cylinder liner it after a time the bore assumes a decidedly tapered form, the enlargement at the
would be seen that the wear rates in the first few hours of use were relatively lower end being from one-tenth to one-fifth of the enlargement at the top.
high. The wear rate would then fall away and remain fairly constant over the Bushing the liner is a costly operation and not altogether satisfactory from an
life of the liner until the wear amount became large. With large amounts of wear operational point of view, because the bush must of necessity be relatively thin,
it becomes increasingly difficult to maintain correct lubrication and the wear and thm is a tendency for it to distort due to the intense heat to which it is
rate increases. exposed in service. Merely to rebore the liner and fit an oversize piston is costly
The length of the bedding period will depend on the hardness of the liner also, and even if the liner is strong enough to resist the internal gas pressure the
material and the lubricant used during this time. It is followed by a uniform results will not be satisfactory, because rebored liners wear at a greater rate than
wear rate. new liners owing t o metal so far below the original surface of a casting being
comparatively soft and therefore less wear-resistant.
8.27 Why is cylinder liner wear related to the maximum increase in
diameter of a cylinder bore rather than to the amount actually worn off
the surface of a cylinder liner? 8.30 How is it possible to make a worn cylinder liner fit for further use?

If the wear that takes place on a cylinder liner was always concentric to the Worn cylinder liners are sometimes brought back to original bore sizes by
centre of the cylinder bore, it would be an easy matter to divide the increase in chrome plating processes. The worn liner is cleaned and examined for defects
the diameter by two. This would then give the amount worn off the cylinder such as fractures which would render it unfit for further use. If the casting is
liner surface. In actual practice the wear never takes place concentrically; sound, the internal bore of the liner is first plated with a 'sandwich' layer of a
further, the wear in the port and starboard plane israrely the same as in the fore ferrous material that has good bonding properties with the parent material and
and aft plane. - with electro-plated chromium. Chromium plating follows, and is so controlled
These differences corntrahtrt from nrhs-eatlses, such as heel and trim of -that more chromium is deposited on the more worn parts of the liner, thus
the ship in service and the effective guide clearances. In trunk-piston engines the converting the oval and tapered shape of a worn liner to the round and parallel
wear pattern of the cylinder liner can be completely different from that of a shape of a new liner. Finally, the surface of the chromium is treated to give a
crosshead type engine. matt finish that will retain an oil film on the working surface.
It can easily be seen that for tankers and bulk carriers, where long ballast Note The economics of t s operatioawould have to be carefully studied
passages are made with the vessel trimmed by the stern, the maximum wear in a before proceeding with the process of chromium plating.
cylinder will be in the fore and aft plane and most of this wear will come on the The cost will depend on the cost of the chromium plus the labour and over-
after side of the cylinder liner. In any one engine, a study of liner wear is further heads. This can then be compared with the cost of. a new cylinder liner.
complicated by the fact that no two cylinder liners have the same wear rates, Generally the number of running hi3ars between overhauls with chromium-
even when all the factors influencing wear have been equalized as far as plated liners and plain cast-iron piston rings is greater than with a
202 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

chromium-plated top piston ring together with plain cast-iron rings operating in so when working under conditions as far removed from metrological I
a plain cast-iron liner. Provided that other problems do not arise necessitating laboratory conditions as it is possible to get.
removal of the pistons, the number of times pistons are lifted during the life of - Although we may assume in prediction work that cylinder liners wear at a
the ship must be brought into the economic study. Reducing the number of uniform rate, this is far from the actual truth as in any one engine the maximum
times pistons are lifted reduces the number of times an engine is put at risk fol- wear in any two cylinders is never identical in amount or location.
lowing overhaul of cylinder unifs'. - Differences in fuel quality may also account for wide variations in the wear (
rate over any one period of time.
8.31 What is the maximum amount ofwear allowed on a cylinder liner? Some scatter must then be expected when recording the wear amount
Is the liner renewed when th7s maximum wear is reached, or earlier? measurements against a time base in a graphical form. The method for finding,
the average value of the plotted points is referred to in mathematics as 'curve
The maximum amount of wear normally allowed on a cylinder is one per cent of fitting'. This can be a quite complex process when trying to find the equation
the diameter. For example the maximum amount of wear on a 600mm bore governing the values of experimental data plotted in graphical form. In order to
liner would be 6mm. Some of the ships' classification societies and engine simplify the finding of the equation governing the rate of cylinder liner wear,
builders recommend figures lower than this. -- - -
we can assume that i h e ~ T e T r a t e T s S u n ~ o r for
m all previously recorded,
Cylinder liner renewal is normally a matter of Company policy based on the measurements.
economics of ship operation. It is usually related to the expected life of the hull, The plotted values of the wear against the correwnding running hours can'
cylinder liner life periods being made a whole factor of the expected hull life, or then be assumed to form a straight line. From this we then know the equation o r ,
the period that a ship will be kept in service before sale. the graph will be of the form:
For example, if the expected life of a ship is twenty years and the life of
cylinder liners is eight years the liners might be renewed at eight years and y=mx+c
sixteen years. or wear = mxunning hours/ 1000+ c
When the ship is subsequently disposed of at twenty years, the cylinder liners where m the coefficient of 'x' gives the rate of Iiner wear. As the initial high
will have four more years of life remaining. Or, they could be renewed at just wear rate of liner during the bedding-in period occurs over a very short time-
under seven years which gives the same number of liner renewals but better and span the value of the constant 'c' can be made equal to zero. The plot of the,
less costly operation of the engine over the ship life. values will then pass through the origin of the axes. .
An example of the plotted values of wear against time is shown in Fig. 8.7;the
8.32 It is common practice to plot in a graphical form the wear of a method for obtaining the wear rate from the data given in the figure and in the
cylinder liner against the number of hours it has been in operation. When table below is as follows.
this is done it is often noticed that some scatter exists between the
plotted points after a few wear figures have been recorded. What is the Hours 4800 9500 14750 15900 19370
reason for the scatter and how can the wear rate be shown in a more Wear(mm) 0.65 1.20 1.75 2.10 2.35
acceptable form? How would you forecast the length of life for a cylinder
liner? Let x= total running hours/1000 and y = wear measurements in mm. Record
When wear rate figures are plotted in graphical form it is common practice to their values in a table as shown below with columns for the x values, the y.
record the wgar value in millimetres as an ordinate and the running hours as an values, the product of the x and y values and the value of 2.Total each column.
abscissa. In order to make the running hours a convenient figure to work with it
is usual to make the unit of running time as one thousand hours. For deep'sea
vessels this is the number of running hours spent at sea on a 'full away' to 'end
of passage' basis divided by one thousand. For coastal vessels and ferries a x Y x times y x2
different basis may be adopted to suit the operating conditions. 4.80 0.65 3.12 23.040
Steps to improve the accuracy of measurements are covered in the note at the 9.50 1.20 11.40 90.250
end of Question 8.25, but it must be remembered that a high degree of sensiti- 14.75 1.75 25.8125 217.5625
vity is required when taking cylinder liner measurements, and no two engineer 15.90 2.10 33.390 252.810
officers have the same level of sensitivity in their fingers. Another cause of
variation or scatter in the recorded results is due to the wide variations in the -
19.37 2.15
- 41 A455 375.1969
64.32 8.05 1 19.2420 958.8594
- - -
conditions under which the measurements are taken. This is most particularly
where n is the number of pairs of liner gaugings plus 1. Since there are five pairs
of readings, n = 5 + 1 =6. To find rn substitute the C values and then value into
the equation. This gives

For 25 000 running hours the total wear will be

The 'fair straight line' can be plotted by marking up an ordinate of 3.06 mm

at 25 000 hours and drawing the line from this point through to the origin of the
axes.
If the maximum wear is allowed to go up to 6 mm the life of the liner can be
found by substituting the value of 6.0 in the equation

Therefore

The expected life of the cylinder liner is nearly 50 000 hours. If the ship averages
6 000 running hours per year the expected life would extend over a period equal
to 50/6.0 years which is approximately 8 years.
You would expect to renew the liners after about 8 years of operation on the
basis of the figures recorded so far.
It is the practice of some companies to build up a reserve fund for cylinder
liner renewal. his will depend on the policy of the company and the taxation
laws of the country they are operating from.
The formula given to find the value of 'm' may form part of a programmed
set of calculations found under the term 'Linear Regression' given with pocket
calculators programmed for statistics. It is more convenient to use a calculator
or a computer when many pairs of values must be used.
LW ~ U ~ S I I O I IaSn a ~ n s w e r son m e marme u ~ e s e cnmne
i 1 Cylinder Liners, Cylinder Heaa3, Valves ZU7
. --- - - - - - - - - - -

8.33 When copper rings are fitted as cylinder cover ioints or as ioints f o r 6 All locking devices must be made good and fast. The parts requiring lubrica-
cylinder head valves, what attention do they require? tion must also be oiled with the correct grade oflubricant.
Before new copper ring joints are fitted they should be annealed; similarly, if 7' After overhaul, valves must be carefully stored to prevent damage from
used joints are to be re-used they should be annealed immediately before they water or dirt. All open ports and gas passages must be plugged.
are fitted. The clearances between the edges of the ring joint are also important
to ensure easy subsequent renewal. Ewhatlst valves. The precautions to be taken for exhaust valves are similar to
For cylinder cover joint rings there should be adequate clearance on each those for air inlet valves. Additionally, special care is necessary to ensure that
edge of the joint ring. When the joint is hardened down after annealing it is any gummy or hard deposits on the valve spindles are completely removed. The
squeezed, made thinner so that its outside diameter is increased and its inside cooling spaces must be examined for cleanliness, water hardness deposits, and
diameter is reduced. Giving adequate clearance to each edge of the ring ensures signs of erosion and/or corrosion.
that it never jams in its slot or fossette and is always easily removed. If the spaces show water hardness deposits a check must be made on the
When copper joint rings are used with cylinder head valves the clearance cooling.water condition, and the point of ingress of the contaminant must be
between the outside edge of the ring and the valve pocket is important. Giving discovered. This could be due to'cooler leakage, poor evaporator and distiller
good clearance to the outside diameter of the ring ensures that it never performance, water condition in storage tanks, etc. The scale found must be
squeezes out to thi point that it jams within the valve pocket. removed by acid cleaning.
If the clearance between the inside diameter of a joint ring and the spigot If corrosion and/or erosion is present the amount of additive in the cooling
forming the end of the valve is kept small the joint ring squeezes on to the valve water must be checked; other points to check are de-aerating leak-offs in the
end and lifts out with the valve when it is removed. Exhaust valves must upper sections of cooling-water lines, and ingress points if any parts of the
sometimes be re-hardened down after the engine is stopped. cooling system are at subatmospheric pressure under operating conditions.
If erosion is present it is usually the result of some foreign object in the system
Generally copper ring joint thickness should be kept minimal. The actual
thickness will depend on the size of joint but it seldom exceeds one and a half causing cavitation and bubble impingement. -
millimetres. . - It may come from a badly cut pipe joint where the hole in the joint is too
small, or if the hole is not correctly aligned in the flanges.
8.34 When air inlet valves, exhaust valves and air starting valves are Air starting valves. The precautions for air starting valves are similar to those
being overhauled what particular care is required in the procedures to for air inlet valves. In addition, the bore of the air operating cylinder must be
prevent difficulties in service? examined for ridges at the stroke ends. Any ridges found must be removed. If
Air inlet valves new piston rings are fitted the end clearance at the ring gap must be checked.
Old piston rings must be radiused off on the edges of the working faces of the
1 When a valve is dismantled careful examination must be made of all parts to ring, and the ring compression checked if the valve has been leaking or become
note whether the visual appearance is normal. Anything abnormal should overheated. The compression of the closing spring must also be checked.
be followed up to ascertain the cause. When air starting valves are fitted with wings on the valve end, the inside ends
2 Careful attention must be given to the cleaning of the parts so that in the of the wings must be checked after valve grinding to ensure that the wings do
matter of cleanliness the condition is as new. not foul anywhere and prevent proper valve closure. After assembly the valve
3 The lubrication points to valve spindles arid valve-spindle gukes must be should be tested for tightness with compressed air. -
thoroughly cleaned to allow unrestricted passage of lubricant. Some air starting valves are fitted with bursting cartridges or discs which
Note The lubrication channels to the valve spindle and guides may, i<large burst if a pressure build-up occurs in the starting air manifold. During overhaul
valve bodies, be through a series of holes and an annular space, or in smaller of an air starting valve any safety devices fitted on the valve should be examined
valves a simple bell-mouth end at the top of the valve-spindle guide. for corrosion which could lower the bursting pressure to that of the working air
pressure in the system. This is important on a main engine: a burst cartridge or
4 When grinding the valve and valve seat, any ridges, however small, formed disc could make an engine inoperative at a critical period of manoeuvring or
during grinding must be removed either by machining, use'of a small cause starting to be very sluggish with consequent early loss of starting air. The
portable hand grinder, or hand tools. The tools used will depend on the size bursting disc or cartridge should also be examined to ensure that it is of the
of the valve and the hardness of the valve materials. correct thicknets and of a type that will burst at the correct pressure without
5 Heavy parts must be handled carefully to avoid any risk of mechanical damage to the starting air manifold and air lines.
damage in the form of indents or burrs.
8.35 In one form of exhaust valve the burnt gases pass through the valve vanadium content in the fuel. Under some circun~stancesat high temperatures
and leave by an opening external to the cylinder head, while in the other the sodium and vanadium content in thc exhaust gilscs is very corrosive. Thc
form the gases enter the valve and leave by a passage through the cooling space for the seats is sometimes adjacent to the valve seat. (Fig. 8.8)
cylinder head. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each form? Valve rotators also help in maintaining exhaust valves tight over longer periods
of time.
In the form first described the necessary gas-tight joint between the valve and
the cylinder head can be situated at or near the top of the cylinder head. This
allows the part of the valve below the securing flange 'to hang, as it were, in the ,Cooling water
cylinder head; and, not being under stress due to excessive tightening of the
securing nuts or expansion due t o increase in temperature when the engine
begins operating, the ground faces to the valve head and its seat are less likely to
distort and do not require to be ground together so frequently. The
disadvantage of this form of exhaust valve is that it is heavy for a valve which
requires to be removed frequently for overhaul. The other form of valve is of
smaller weight but has disadvantages due to the running hours between
overhauls being somewhat less. The valve or cylinder head must consequently
be removed for valve overhaul more frequently.
Note When the burnt gases enter the exhaust manifold direct, as in the first
form of valve, there is no need for a large-diameter passage through the cylinder
head, and the construction of this casting is simplified. It is also claimed that
owing to the elimination of this passage, through which high-temperature gases
pass while being circulated on the outside by relatively cold water, there is less
likelihood of the cylinder head cracking owing to temperature stress. Foundry
practice, however, has advanced so much during recent years that under normal
operating conditions cylinder heads rarely, if ever, crack, irrespective of the
form of exhaust valve used.

8.36 Why is it usval to provide the form of exhaust valve which lands
near the bottom of the pocket in the cylinder head with two exit ports,
when there is always only one passage through the cylinder head?
~ i g8.8
. (a) Slow-speed engine exhaust valve seat cooling.
The object is to preserve &nmetry of the part of the casting exposed to the (b) Highly rated trunk-piston engine exhaust valve seat with a heat shield.
high-temperature gases leaving the cylinder, and avoid possible distortion of (c) Highly rated trunk-piston engine exhaust valve seat without heat shield
the seat, with consequent leakage between the valve seat and the head. If part of
the valve between the landing and the securing studs was weaker than the
remainder, distortion would result when the part becomes heated and expands. 8.38 What are the indications that an exhaust valve is leaking? How
would you confirm that a valve was leaking?
8.37 Since the exhaust temperature of a small oil engine is the same as The first indication of exhaust valve leakage is a rise in the exhaust gas tempera-
that of a large engine, why should the exhaust valves of large engines ture measured at the exit from the exhaust valve. The temperature will be above
only be water-cooled? that usually shown for that particular engine load. The leakage can be
confirmed by taking an indicator card from the cylinder with the leaking
If the heads and seats of exhaust valves become overheated they soon begin to
exhaust valve. The card should be taken with the fuel on and off the unit. If the
distort and burn. To prevent this, conduction of the heat away to the
valve is leaking the compression pressure and maximum pressure will be low.
surrounding media is relied upon; consequently, with large valves there are Air starvation due to very dirty scavenge ports will also give similar indica-
greater thickness of metal, the rate of cooling by conduction is slower and the
tions on indicator diagrams, but in the absence of any abnormal scavenge air or
process must be accelerated.
supercharge pressure increase, it will usually be found that the exhaust valve is
Note The cooling of exhaust valve seats becomes very necessary in engines at fault. In four-stroke naturally aspirated engines similar indications will be
burning high-viscosity fuel. This is due to the combination of the sodium and given on the indicator diagram if the air inlet silencers become dirty,
210 Queslions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Cylinder Liners, Cylrnder Heads, Valves 21 1
-- - - . -

Indicator cards cannot normally be taken on medium- and high-speed

engines. In these circumstances the maximum pressure indicator should be used
and the maximum firing pressure and compression pressure checked and
compared with normal values.

8.39 If a n exhaust valve burns on t h e ground and lapped sealing faces,

what a r e the probable causes? Explain how the burning of t h e metal
occurs. -
The most likely causes of exhaust valves burning are as follows.
' .-a correct o p e n q
Cylinder power in excess of design rating. b- b restrcted opening
Poor combustion of fuel, which may be due t o dirty fuel injection valves,
incorrect injection pressure, incorrect fuel temperature, late timing, air
starvation, badly tightened-down fuel valves, o r impurities in fuel not
I Fig. 8.9 Effect of excessive manual grinding leaving the exhaust valve seat and
valve head shrouded. Note The effect of the shrouding is to reduce the effective
brought out during fuel centrifuging or separation. Usually poor combus- area for gas flow even though the proper valve lift is maintained.
tion leads to after-burning o f the fuel. ,
Valve not closing completely, through incorrect tappet or roller clearance, the surrounding material and a step is formed circumferentially. Although the
or build-up of deposit on exhaust valve seat from fuel impurities o r excess actual distance that the valve opens remains constant the effective opening area
lubricating oil, or valve spindle becoming sluggish due to dirty oil and across the valve and seat face is reduced by .the amount of the shroud. Even
carbon build-up in valve spindle guide. The exhaust valve spring may then
I small amounts of shrouding can seriously affect the air or gas flow across a -
fail to close the valve sufficiently rapidly o r the valve may remain slightly valve, both by virtue of the reduction in effective opening area and the flow ,
I
open. -- I eddies created by the shroud causing a loss of streamlined flow. (Fig. 8.9)
In the case of water-cooled valves insufficient water flow or cooler malfunc-
tion may cause the valve to overheat, with consequent build-up from
8.41 Where is shrouding most commonly found? How is shrouding
impurities in the fuel.
removed?
Incorrect hardening-down of exhaust valve in the cylinder head, which may
lead to valve seat distortion. Shrouding is often found in the smaller sizes of diesel engines where the air inlet
Once a valve has started to leak, from any cause, the passage of hot gas over a and exhaust valves are non-removable and form part of the cylinder head. It
small area of the seat causes distortion which then increases the amount of may also be found o n exhaust valve seat rings fitted in the cylinder head.
leakage. The temperature of the valve and seat in the area of the leak rises Shrouding is removed from large valves in themanner described for removal of
considerably, the strength of the metal is impaired, and its resistance to the ridges in Question 8.3. In smaller valves a shroud formed on the seat body can
erosive effect of the hot gases is seriously reduced. During the combustion be removed with a valve seat cutter that is larger than the valve. If special hard
period gases at high pressure in the cylinder expand a c r o z the 1oc"ation of the steel seat rings are fitted directly into the cylinder head the shroud must be
leakage at very high ve1ocities:At this stage, the leakage across the valve seat carefully 'swept' away with a small hand-held portable grimder, or a new seat
(during the combustion period) increases very rapidly and large burned areas ring must be fitted.
occur in the seat and valve. When shrouds are formed in the head of a valve, it is usual practice to set up
the valve in a lathe with the head on the back centre. The excess material
forming the shroud can then be turned off, or if the valve is of hard material the
8.40 What d o you understand by the term 'shrouding' in relation to shroud can be ground off with a grinding attachment on the tool rest.
cylinder head valves?
Note When machining o r grinding off the shroud on a valve it is better to use a
Shrouding occurs if mitred valve seats are repeatedly ground and the fixed o r solid back centre rather than one of the revolving type.
consequent ridges are not removed. I f the material of the valve is harder than
the valve seat the shroud builds up in the seat. If the seat is harder than the
8.42 State how t h e exhaust valves on modern slow-speed engines a r e
valve, shrouding occurs in thc valve. Takcn to its extrcme the shroud builds up
in bot ti valvr and seat. attuated. How is t h e valve rotated and returned to its seat on closing?
\\'IICII a \.;~l\.c a11c1\ C A I ; I I L.gl o u 1 1 ~ I1O ~ - I I I C I \ v i t l ~gt i l ~ d i ~0 1 ~. lapping
g paste, The exhaust valves on these engines are opened by oil supplied from the
\ ; O I I I Z I I I ; I ~ ~ I I : i I\ ~ r c ~ ~ ~ ( , ;111d
\ , r d~~\~~11111;111v I ~ ~C c ; ~ t I';ICCSi ~ l ~ I~CCOIIIC
, lower t l l n ~ l camshaft lubrication system. The oil is supplied to a hydraulic pump operated
21 2 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
213
Cylinder Liners, Cylinder Heuds, Valves

is fastened to the valve spindle. The high-velocity exhaust gases passing through
this space act on the fan; the fan then rotates the valve. (Figs 8.10 and 8.1 1)

8.43 How are the seats and valves ground on modern slow-speed
engines and what is the purpose?
Formerly valves were ground into their seats by putting grinding paste on to the
seats, replacing the valve and then grinding both seat and valve together. The
seat and the valve eventually had the same angle and a gas-tight surface was
obtained.
Today the seats and valves are ground at slightly different angles by a high-
speed grinding wheel adapted specifically for grinding the valve seat attached to
the valve body and the seat landing face of the valve head.
The seat of the valve and the valve body can be considered as the curved
surfaces of a frustum of a cone. The apex angle of the seat in the valve body is at
a slightly greater angle than the seat on the valve head. When the valve is cold
and in @e closecJ position the outer diameter of the seating surfaces will be
slightly open.
The combustion chamber side of the valve head at operating temperature is
hotter than the opposite side. This causes the head to become slightly convex on

-7-
Airspring

Fig. 8.10 Modern slow-speed two-stroke engine 'exhaust valve. The valve is
opened by hydraulic pressure and closed by air pressure. (MAN B&W - M C
exhaust valve)

by a cam fitted on the camshaft. The oil is delivered under pressure to a cylinder
mounted on the top of the exhaust valve. Inside the cylinder is a piston which is
actuated by the oil supplied under pressure from the exhaust valve hydraulic
pump. The oil under pressure forces the piston down; the piston being in
contact with the exhaust valve spindle forces it down and causes the exhaust
valve to open.
Within the casing above the exhaust valve body is another cylinder arranged
concentrically; this surrounds another piston fastened on the exhaust valve
spindle. The space under the piston is supplied with compressed air at a pressure
of the order of 6 bar (87 psi). The air under pressure causes the exhaust valve to
i
close when the pressure in the hydraulic pump discharge drops on the
downward or return stroke of the pump piston.
Within the outgoing exhaust gas space above the head of the valve a small fan
1 Camshaft (a)

Fig. 8.11 (a) Hydraulically actuated exhaust valve system. Engine shutdown
and air off system. The valve opens when air is shut off. (Sulzer)
-
2 14

Dompmg plston ---,

Actuator p~ston,
+Td/-.I.
Questions and Answers on t h e a r i n e Diesel Engine

m
De-oerat~on
Cylinder Liners, Cylinder Heads, Valves

the.combustion chamber side and the open space between the seats closes; the
2 15

effect of pressure in the combustion chamber space tends to open the space very
slightly. The combined effect leaves a seat wide enough to give a good life
period between valve overhauls. Valve rotation gives a more uniform
temperature to the valve seats. The purpose of obtaining the combined effects
of differing seat angles, valve rotation and cooling of seats, is to extend the
period between valve overhauls. Up to as many as 10000 hours of operation
between overhauls has been obtained and longer times have been reported. The
period between overhauls however, must be related to operating results and the
related costs of valve overhaul. (Fig. 8.12) d

8.44 Older-type exhaust valve operation could be observed by visible

moving parts. Exhaust valves operated by hydraulic and pneumatic
pressure have no moving parts visible. How would you check the
movement of the valve while the engine is in operation?
Indicators fitted to the valve can be engaged during engine operation. These
indicators when engaged contact the pneumatic piston used for closing the
Actuator plmp valve. The movement of the valve when opening and closing is shown by
the identical upward and downward movement of the indicator which follows
011 supply the movement of the pneumatic piston and hence the valve. The amount the

Camshaft

De-aerat~an

Actuator plston

Hydroul~cPushrod

valve
Operot lnq

22
hot cond~t~ori

Temperature d~fferenceacross valve

causes lower s~detofarm convex curmture

Fig. 8.12 Change in exhaust valve shape due to temperature variation across
valve head. The effect has been exaggerated in the sketches.
2 16 Qurstions artd Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

valve is opening and closing can be measured. After use the indicators can be
lifted off the piston and disengaged.

8.45 Certain types of cylinder liner must be aligned circumferentially so

that scavenge and exhaust ports are correctly positioned. How is this
done? What checks and tests must be made at the time a new cylinder
liner is fitted? PISTONS, PISTON RODS,
Cylinder liners of loop- and cross-scavenged engines, and those fitted with
quills that pass through the cylinder jacket casting, need careful alignment
circumferentially to ensure that liner parts match up with jacket ports and to
PISTON SKIRTS, PISTON
avoid difficulties in fitting oil quills. If the new liner is examined before fitting,
a scribed line and centre-punch marks will be found on the side of the top
flange. Sometimes lines are put in two places, diametrically opposite. Similarly,
RINGS
a scribed line and centre-punch marks will be found on the top of the jacket
casting; this line is on the transverse centre line of the cylinder at the front of the
engine. In some engines the transverse line will also be found on the top of the
jacket on the back of the engine (see Note at end of answer).
The new liner, after preparation for fitting, is then lowered into the jacket 9.1 Of what materials are diesel engine pistons mode? Which material is
until the bottom rubber sealing ring is just entering the bell mouth entry of the most commonly used in marine practice? State'the advantages and
transfer port belt. At this point the liner is lifted slightly so that it can be disadvantages of the various materials employed.
revolved on the crane lifting hook. The materials used in the manufacture of pistons are pearlitic cast-iron, flake
A square is set up at the scribed mark on the jacket, and the mark on the graphite cast-iron, spheroidal graphite cast-iron, and alloy cast-irons con-
flange of the liner is aligned with the square. The liner is then lowered again and taining nickel and chromium. Forged or cast alloy steels, and aluminium alloys
pulled home with the drawing gear. While it is being pulled home frequent particularly aluminium-silicon alloys, are also used. The factors which
checks must be made on the marks to ensure that they match correctly with the determine the selection of a material are its strength at the maximum operating
square. temperature, and its thermal conductivity. The cost of the material and its
Prior to the fitting of a cylinder liner into a jacket, leakage tell-tale holes must processing are also studied. None of the materials named is used universally
be cleaned and proved clear with compressed air. throughout marine practice, but each material might be said to be commonly
I f any corrosion is found which could possibly allow leakage past the sealing used with specific engine types and particular engine ratings.
rings, the corroded area must be completely cleaned out and the wasted space The pistons in large, highly rated slow-speed engines are usually
built up with a suitable plastic metal. manufactured from steel forgings or castings of nickel-chrome steel or
When the cooling spaces, transfer ports, rubber ring sealing surfaces, etc. are molybdenum steel. Pistons of this type require intensive and efficient cooling to
satisfactory the liner can be fitted. enable the material to retain its strength and to hold the thermal stresses within
After the liner is fitted, the edges of the cylinder liner ports must be checked satisfactory limits. As they are used in slow-speed engines the weight of the
with their corresponding transfer ports in the cylinder jacket. Any small steps material is not a critical factor, but nevertheless it is considered.
should be carefully 'washed' away with a small portable grinder or rotary file. Pistons used in highly rated, medium-speed and high-speed engines are of the
The cooling water outlet from the jacket must be blanked off and the cooling trunk-piston type, where weight is an important factor, and a material
space hydraulically tested. Care must be taken to see that the top of the cooling commonly used is aluminium alloy, both by reason of weight and high thermal
space is not air locked. If the cylinder has wet quills fitted they must also be conductivity. In order to keep thermal stresses reasonable,and to reduce wear ,
carefully examined for tightness at the interface between liner and quill. Slight rate of piston ring grooves, cooling tubes are cast in the piston crowns and cast-
leakage is seen by a gradual build-up of moisture which forms a water globule at iron or alloy-steel inserts are fitted in way of piston ring grooves. The coolant
the cylinder oil outlet into the cylinder liner. circulated through a piston of this type is lubricating oil.
Note In earlier days, going back to steam reciprocating engines, the front of Some medium-speed engines use composite-construction pistons having
the engine was where the controls were located and the back of the engine was aluminium-alloy or cast-iron skirts with cast alloy steel piston crowns; in other
where the condenser was located. On marine diesel engines the back of the types cast-iron may be used for the skirt material. Lightly rated medium- and
engine is usually accepted as the side on which the exhaust pipes are located and slow-speed engines may use pistons made from flake graphite or spheroidal
the front is naturally the opposite. In twin-screw installations the front sides of graphite cast-iron. If the thermal conductivity is insufficient for a particular
the engines are the inboard sides. purpose, an alloy of cast-iron containing nickel and chromium may be used,
2 18 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Pistons, Piston Rods, Piston Skit fs, Piston Rings 2 19

which has both better thermal conductivity and greater strength. The cast-irons conjunction with the fuel-injector-nozzle spray pattern so that good combus-
have the advantage of low material and manufacturing cost; if a n alloy cast- tion is encouraged within the form of combustion chamber produced.
iron is used because the technical demands on the material are greater, this will
only increase the cost of the material, processing costs remaining about the Note The effectiveness of a curved o r dished surface to be self-supporting is
same. readily seen if the dished ends of a water-tube boiler drum are compared with
Where weight is an overriding consideration because of engine speed, inertia the end plates of a Scotch marine boiler. In order t o prevent the end plates of the
loads, and balance, aluminium alloys must be used because of their light Scotch boiler buckling when subjected t o the pressure in the boiler, the ends are
weight. As these alloys have excellent thermal conductivity the arrangements tied together by longitudinal a n d other stays, whereas the end plates or dished
for cooling the piston crown can be simplified, and in smaller engines are often ends o n a water-tube boiler drum have n o such longitudinal stays. ..
omitted. Some large, slow-speed, highly rated two-stroke cycle engines have only a ,
In large. highly rated, slow-speed engines alloy-steel castings have advantages small amount of convex curvature o n the outer periphery of the piston crown.
due to considerations of strength and cost. If forgings are used, the manufac- This convex curvature is closed by a fairly extensive flat area supported by
turing costs increase considerably without a corresponding increase in technical brackets which also assist in cooling and reducing the compressive load on the
advantage. side walls of the piston. The brackets also support the bottom flange of the
piston where it is mounted o n the piston rod.
Some aluminium-alloy pistons have a flat crown on the upper surface but
9.2 During manufocture it is usual to anneal the forgings or casting from have a deep concave surface o n the underside'.
which pistons are made. Why is this done?
Such castings and forgings generally have a combination of parts of varying 9.4 Diesel engine pistons are subjected to various stresses. Name the
thicknesses. When the hot forging is worked, or the castings cool in the mould, nature of the stresses and describe how each arises when an engine is
the thinner sections cool more quickly than the thicker parts and stresses are set operating normally.
up at the change o f section. Annealing and similar heat-treat6ent processes
The stresses t o which a piston is subjected are compressive and tensile caused by
reduce the internal stresses set up from uneven cooling between thick and thin
sections. In castings, annealing also refines the grain structure in the material, bending action due to gas pressures, inertia effects, and thermal stresses. When
as well as reducing the internal stresses (see Question 6.8). the crown of a piston is subjected t o gas pressures the top surface of the piston is
under compressive loading and the lower surface is under tensile loading. The
piston crown'is then behaving somewhat like a uniformly loaded beam.
9.3 Why ore the ends or crowns of pistons in contact with the burning When the piston is moving upward towards the end of its stroke, retardation
gases mode either concave or convex instead of flat? occurs and the inertia effect tends to cause the piston t o bow upwards so that the
top surface of the piston, together with the sides, is under tensile loading and
There are various reasons for shaping pistons in this way. Flat surfaces are not the lower surface of the crown is under compressive loading. The pressure on
self-supporting if subjected to a pressure on one side, as occurs when an engine the top of the piston nullifies the inertia effects when the piston approaches top
piston is loaded. An unsupported flat surface takes a concave form on the side centre position in the upward direction.
which is loaded and as the load or gas pressure increases, the curvature of the
concave surface incrcases, the amount of curvature being dependent on the Note The inertia stress on a four-stroke cycle engine may not be nullified at
pressure applied. Thus, if' the piston top were flat, it would go through a pattern the end of the exhaust stroke in the same manner as at the end of the compres-
of' varying concavity, increasing as the pressure in the cylinder increased, and sion stroke, due to the gas pressure at the end of the cshaust stroke being much
decreasing as the pressure diminished. This regular and cyclic change of form lower.
which would occur in a flat piston crown would cause it to suffer from fatigue. When the piston is retarded on its approach downwards to bottom-centre,
Early failure would occur at the point where the greatest variations in stress the piston crown tends t o bow downwards, a n d its upper surface and the piston
occurred, no matter how well the other parts of the piston were designed. walls are in compression. The lower surface of the piston crown is then in
Curved surfaces such as the curvature of convex or concave piston crowns are tension. As the stresses from inertia effect are in the same direction as those
very nearly self-supporting when loaded on one side. As these curved surfaces caused by gas pressure on the piston crown the two stresses become additive;
are self-supporting they d o not change their shape o r move to any degree with thus when the piston approaches bottom-dead-centre the inertia stresses
the changes of pressure over a working cycle in the engine. Consequently the increase the stresses caused by gas pressure.
risk of fatigue failure is so reduced that it now rarely occurs. The thermal stresses set up in a piston are caused by the difference in
The upper part or crown o f a piston also forms the lower part of the combus- temperatures across a section. The free expansion o f the hot side is resisted by
I W I I ~ I I ; I I I I ~ ~.C'I'hc
I ccwc~~vc
or co~lvcscurvature nlusl thus illso he arranged in the Cold side which does not want to expand so ~ n u c h;I.;. i~ is coolcr. This section
:"- . .. - .
then sets up thermal stresses in the material of the piston, these stresses being remove more heat than lubricating oil. This car1 be sccrl l'roni the fact that the
grcatcst where the difference in temperature of the material across any section is specific heat of water (in SI units) is approxiniatcly 4 wliilc tllc spccific hcul o f
greatest. lubricating oil is about 2. Fysther, the temperature range (1,- I , ) of cooling
water passing through a piston may be of the order of 14°C while for cooling oil
9.5 The pistons of some engines a r e cooled internally by oil or water. it will be 10°C for a similarly rated engine. Let
Why is internal cooling necessory in some cases and not in others, in view Q = quantity heat removed in- any given time
of the fact that the combustion temperature is practically Then
engines? Q =weight of coolant used in time T x ( t , - t , ) x specific heat
Assume the weight of water passing the piston in a time Tis equal to unity. Then
All pistons, in effect, are cooled when heat flows from the combustion side of I
the piston crown to anything in contact with it which is at a lower temperature. Q,= 1 . 0 14x4
~
In small engines the heat flows from the upper part of the piston crown to the. Assume the weight of oil passing the piston in time T is W<,.Then
lower side of the crown and the walls or sides of the piston. The heat is taken
away partly through the cylinder liner by conduction, and partly into the air in Qo= Wox 10x2
the crankcase by radiation and conduction. Oil splashed off the bearings on to If the same amount of heat is removed from the oil-cooled piston as from the
the underside of the piston removes a large amount of heat by conduction. The water-cooled piston in the equivalent time T then
amount of heat removed by radiation is small. The heat passing into the piston
crown is dissipated at a rate such that the temperature of the piston material
does not rise to the point at which its strength is reduced below allowable limits, and Wox 1 0 x 2 = 1 . 0 14x4
~
or cause breakdown in the lubrication of the piston and piston rings. It can be
seen that a four-stroke engine piston will have to transmit only half the heat of a
two-stroke engine piston having the same bore, stroke and speed.
As the size of engine is increased, the weight of the fuel-charge per working From this it can be seen that for the same cooling effect, the amount of cooling
cycle increases; consequently the amount of heat liberated by the combustion of oil circulated will be nearly three times the amount of water. In actual design
fuel increases although the maximum combustion temperature remains practi- practice there are many other factors to be taken into account when designing
cally the same. When a greater amount of fuel is used during a working cycle, and comparing the relative merits of water or oil for piston cooling systems. -
the heat liberated is greater and consequently in order to keep a piston at a safe
working temperature, a larger amount of heat must be transmitted through it, Fresh water
and this heat transmission is governed by the difference in temperature across Disadvantage
the section of the piston. Contains hardness salts which could form scale on internal surface of pistons.
By the circulation of a coolant to contact the underside of the piston crown Advantage
and its inside walls the temperature of the cooler side of the piston is reduced, Relatively easy to obtain, and does not-require special reserve storage facility.
thus increasing the heat transmission rate across the piston and preventing the Distillell w a t e r
hot side of the piston crown from rising to too high a temperature. Thus when Advantage
the heat liberated by the fuel is so great that the temperature rise of the piston Absence of scale-forming matter.
material would cause loss of strength and failure, the piston must be circulated Disadvantages
with a coolant to keep its temperature within safe working limits. The strength
of the piston material is thus retained and satisfactory lubrication of the piston 1 Must be produced by evaporation of fresh or salt water and condensation of
and rings is maintained. vapour produced.
2 Strict supervision of evaporation control necessary to keep the contami-
Note Pistons that do not have an internal coolant are made with thicker nants carried over to a low order - in parts per million.
crowns and side walls. As well as being stronger, the thicker material aids in
increasing flow of heat away from the piston crown. Materials having good hedt Fresh- and distilled-water piston cooling systems
conductivity are favoured. Advantage
Themain advantage of cooling pistons by water is the abiliry of water :o absorb -,

9.6 What are the media generally employed for cooling pistons? State large amounts of heat.
the advantages and disadvantages of each. Disadvantages
The coolant used for removing and conveying the heat from a piston may be 1 The pistontooling water conveyance pipes and attendant gear must be kept
either fresh water, distilled water or lubricating oil. Water has the ability to out of the crankcase as far as possible, because of the danger of
222 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Pistons, Piston Rods, Piston Skirts, Piston Rings 223

contamination of the crankcase lubricating oil by water leakage. Because of ably reduced compared with that of a crosshead engine of similar power and
possible contamination of the jacket cooling water with oil, the jacket cool- speed. The engine-manufacturing costs are also reduced.
ing-water system must be made separate from the piston cooling system.
This necessitates duplication of cooling-water pumps, piping, motors, wir- Note A common belief is that trunk pistons are used only when the speed of ,

ing, starters, coolers and control equipment. an engine is high, or when headroom is limited. Actually there is no reason why '
2 When an engine has water-cooled pistons the piston cooling system should low-speed engines should not be fitted with trunk pistons provided that there is
be drained of water after the engine is shut down for an extended period. A no objection to the disadvantages they possess. In engines with a large
drain tank is necessary to hold the piston cooling water. This is often stroke/bore ratio, the reduction in height is not marked, since the connecting
incorporated with a cascade type filter for separation of oil and scum from rod must be unusually long in order not to foul the piston trunk when the crank
the piston cooling water. is passing the quarter position.
3 Generally, water cooling of pistons makes for added complication, and a
higher risk of contamination of the crankcase lubricating oil system.
,9.8 Why are some two-stroke cycle engine pistons fitted with trunks or
Lubricating oil piston cooling systems
Advantages skirts?

1 The piston-cooling oil pump is combined with the lubricating oil pump and Two-stroke cycle trunk engine pistons have a trunk for the same reasons as do
the piston-cooling oil cooler Is combined with the IubCcating 03cooler. This four-stroke cycle engines of the trunk-piston type.
makes for overall simplicity in ancillary pumping and piping systems, and in In older loop- and cross-scavenged two-stroke cycle engines the piston trunk
the control equipment associated with these systems. has a further purpose - to blank off scavenge and exhaust ports during the part
2 Internal stress within the material of the piston is generally less in oil-cooled of the cycle when the piston is high in the cylinder. Piston trunks or skirts are
pistons than in water-cooled pistons, but good design in a water-cooled also fitted to some crosshead type two-stroke cycle engihes for the same reason.
piston can negate this advantage to some degree. Note The terms trunk and skirt are synonymous, but the term trunk piston is
3 No risk of crankcase-system oil contamination, even when piston-cooling usually used when referring to pistons of a specific type as used in an engine
oil-conveyance piping is fitted in crankcase. without a crosshead. The trunk or piston extension is usually called a skirt
4 Simpler arrangements for cooling-oil conveyance piping with less risk of irrespective of its actual function.
'hammering' in piping and bubble impingement attack.

9.9 What may happen when wide load changes occur instontoneously or
1 Larger power requirements for pumping cooling oil.
over a short time period in highly rated trunk-piston engines?
2 Larger amounts of lubricating oil required in lubricating oil system, if
oxidation is to be kept down. The contact between the piston skirt and the cylinder liner where the piston side
3 Increased period o f time to cool down after stopping main engine, if coking thrust is taken up can extend only over a limited part of the circumference of the
in piston is to be avoided. cylinder liner. This is due to the fact that some clearance must be allowed.
If the piston skirt diameter were machined to a size equivalent to the diameter -
Note Each system coolant has its advocates; of the two largest main engine of the cylinder bore minus the required clearance, the contact between the
builders, one favours oil cooling and the other water cooling. piston skirt and the cylinder would only be a line contact. This would be insuffi-
I f simplicity is an objective, as it should be, then oil cooling of pistons is cient to accommodate the side thrust and the piston skirt would overheat.
desirable. Piston skirts, then, must be machined in a special manner so that an arc of
approximately 90' extending over the depth of the skirt makes contact with the
9.7 Why are some four-stroke cycle engine pistons fitted with extension cylinder liner when at operating temperature.
pieces or trunks os they are called? When a large instantaneous load increase occurs the side thrust from the
piston skirt on to the cylinder liner increases and the temperature of the piston
The extension piece or pistm.twrtk gives rise to the name trunk piston. The skirt increases in way of the contact area (due to the increased side thrust load).
purpose of this'extension piece or trunk in four-stroke cycle engines is to act in a The temperature of the skirt then ceases to be uniform around its circumference
similar manner to a crosshead. It takes the thrust caused by connecting-rod and the arc of contact changes. If the arc or arcs of contact are insufficient and
angularity and transmits it to the side o& cylinder liner, in the same way as leave the contact area between the piston skirt and cylinder liner inadequate to
t h C mwshcnd slippcr tr;~nsm?s the t h r w to the crosshcad guide. With such take the increased side thrust load, the result may lead to overheating of the-
engines, which are tcr~ncdtrunk-piston engines, the engine height is consider- piston skirt during the time the temperature of the piston skirt is stabilizing.
 -
W 9.10 Describe the changes designers and manufacturers have made to - - -.Some of these co.mpanies covcr the full rarlgc 01 p ~ s t o l lS I I C ~Irorn :~tr~omobilc
safely aceommodate h g e mstORtmeeteewtgine load changes in modern engine pistons to the largest composite pistons i ~ I\ I \ C111~I11gI11ytilted 111edilm-
trunk-piston engines. speed propulsion engines burning heavy fuel.
Finite element analysis used in the studies of stresses, strains, and heat
The design changes made cater for increased combustion pressures, wear rate of transfer, has made it possible to forecast the effect of design changes in the early
upper piston ring grooves, ease of manufacture, and the selection of materials
to ensure that materials having optimum characteristics are used in strategic
-
stages of design and is used in the designaf pistons. (Fig. 9.1)
locations. Note The pistons in many small engines are still made in one piece. These are
This had led to making pistons in two-part form, sometimes called composite not designed in the same manner as larger pistons, but within certain ratios and
pistons. The piston crown is made of cast alloy steel to give the necessary proportions appropriate to their dimesions. In order to accommodate side
I
strength to resist excessive distortion under load, good heat transfer
characteristics, enabling the piston ring grooves to run at a satisfactory
temperature, and absence of growth.
Careful attention is given to the location and design of the landing of the
piston crown on to the piston skirt and the clearance between the outer part of
the crown and the skirt to accommodate the thermal expansion of the ring belt.
The transfer of the gas pressure load on the piston crown through to the
connecting-rod via the piston skirt and the piston or gudgeon pin is also
carefully studied and often results in stepped gudgeon-pin bosses.
Piston skirts are now manufactured without internal brackets and supports.
Their thickness tapers from a thicker section at the top to a lesser thickness at
the bottom with a uniform thickness around any circumferential line. The
material is usually an aluminium-silicon alloy. This has good strength
characteristics, good heat transfer capability and is light in weight.
The shape of the skirt is made similar to a barrel having elliptical cross-
sections. The minor axis is in the same plane as the gudgeon pin. This gives a
good arc of contact between the skirt and the cylinder liner; the barrel shape
accommodates the temperature differences between the upper and lower parts
of the cylinder skirt, which gives a good contact line in the vertical direction.
The combined effects of the shape give an adequate area of contact between the
skirt and the liner when at operating temperature to take safely the side thrust
load. The heat transfer capability of the aluminium-silicon alloy and the
absence of internal stiffening maintains a more even temperature around the
skirt, allows it to come up to a stabilized condition more rapidly, and takes care
of transient conditions due to rapid changes in engine loads.
In the event of an aluminium-silicon piston skirt overheating the damage is
usually only of a minor nature. In many cases it is not noticed until a piston is
lifted for overhaul and renewal of piston rings. If a skirt of cast-iron overheats
it can sometimes lead to engine seizure. Aluminium-silicon alloys do not scuff
and score in the same manner as a cast-iron skirt in a cast-iron liner.
The fastenings between the piston crown and skirt are made with long studs.
These are made as long as possible with a reduced diameter between their
threaded ends to give a good resistance to fatigue failure. Belleville washers are
sometimes used to maintain tightness of the fastenings over a wide temperature
range. Locking plates are sometimes fitted to the studs to hold any broken part
of a stud in situ if stud failure occurs; this prevents engine damage.
Today, many engine builders do not make pistons. They contract this work
out to firms specializing in the design and manufacture of trunk engine pistons.
Fig. 9.1 Modern two-part piston for a four-stroke cycle trunk 3 1 s ? o nengine of
high output. (MAN B&W)
. A

-
226 Quesfions and Answers on [he Marine Diesel Engine Pistons, Piston Rods, Piston Skirrs, Piston Rings 227

thrust the depth of the piston is made greater over an arc approaching 90' on the piston or skirt. As the wear ring is not subjected to heat in the same manner
both sides of the piston at a position 90" to the gudgeon pin. The parts of the as the upper part of the piston it allows some reduction in allowable working '
plston oker the other two arcs house the gudgeon pin and are of much lesser clearance.
depth. The skirt on many of these pistons is split and is flexible to some extent, In trunk-piston engines the use of wear rings allows the detrimental effects of
in order to accommodate the temperature changes due to changes in engine trunk distortion, caused by the interference fit of gudgeon pins in the piston
load. trunk, to be minimized. They are fitted above and below the gudgeon pin
Friction-reducing coatings may also be used on piston skirts of all sizes and location.
different materials. Wear rings are fitted into circumferential machined grooves. The edge of the
groove is then lightly caulked or upset so that the ring is retained in the groove.
They are usually fitted in two pieces with good clearance at the butts to allow for
9.1 1 Some trunk engines are built with pistons or piston skirts that thermal expansion.
revolve during engine operation. How is the revolving action obtained and
what i s its purpose?
- - 9.13 How would you decide whether wear rings require renewal?
There are two differenftypes of this form 0-f piston. In one, the whole piston
revolves, in the other only the skirt can revolve. The latter type has the skirt When a wear ring is just about flush with its parent material in the piston it
fastened to the piston crown in such a manner that it is free to float to any should be renewed. If the cylinder liner is also to be renewed in the not too
circumferential position it may wish to take. The hotter parts of the skirt distant future, no real damage should be caused to the old piston if wear-ring
increase in radius locally, the forces coming on to the skirt then tend to move the renewal is held over until the cylinder liner is renewed. If bad blow-past occurs
larger radius part around until a location with a lesser radius is taking the side and the cause is piston slackness in the bore of the cylinder, renewal of the wear
thrust. The gudgeon pin is housed in an inner skirt which does not revolve. rings must not be delayed.
The other type of revolving piston is made to revolve with a circular ratchet Wear-ring renewal should always be reviewed when piston ring grooves are
and pawl arrangement. The pawls, two in number, are spring loaded and fitted being reconditioned to bring them to original size.
in the upper part of the connecting rod. The circular ratchet is fitted in the inside
of the piston skirt. 9.14 Why is it usual to taper that part of pistons above the rings, i.e.
When the connecting-rod moves through an arc due to the rotation of the progressively reduce the diameter from the top piston-ring groove
crankpin, the pawls engage with the circular ratchet and cause the whole piston upwards?
(crown and skirt) to rotate.
The portion above the piston rings is the hottest part of the piston and greater
There is no gudgeon pin fitted in this type of piston. The upper part of the
allowance must be made for expansion radially. I t is at this point that the
connecting-rod is made spherical in form. The spherical portion at the top of
greatest mass of metal occurs, and as it is the least effectively cooled part of an
the connecting-rod is fitted into a spherical-shaped housing. This allows the
internally cooled piston the expansion of this part is relatively great and due
piston to turn during engine operation. allowance for this must be made.
The purpose of revolving pistons and revolving piston skirts is to give a
uniform temperature around the circumference of the skirt and reduce the risk Note ~ h & is e no material advantage in making that part of the piston above
of overheating and possible damage. the piston rings a good fit in the cylinder. The body of the piston must be a
reasonably good fit in the cylinder in order that the piston rings have a
minimum of overhang. If the rings project too far out of the groove when all
9.12 Some pistons hove circumferential bands of a different metal fitted
parts are in the working position, the gas pressure as well as the friction between
in them. Whot is the purpose of these bands? How are they held in place?
the rings and liner will tend to tilt the rings, and such action causes excessive
The bands fitted round a piston,or a piston trunk, are referred to as wear rings wear of the rings as well as of the piston grooves.
or rubbing bands. They are usualiy made of a bronze alloy, but for engines
operating on heavy fuel, steel or special cast-irons are sometimes used. Wear 9.15 State some values of the piston and cylinder clearance for
rings have a dual purpose in that they provide a rubbing surface with low crosshead-type engines.
frictional characteristics, andcthey p r e v e m e hot upper side wall of the piston
making contact with the working surface of the liner. This is achieved by All crosshead-type engines have internally cooled pistons. The clearance
increasing the radial clearance between the piston and liner and maintaining the allowed depends on the actual engine type and rating. A common figure for
working clcarancc in way of the wear ring. This gives a further advantage as I diametral clearance of piston and cylinder in way of piston ring location in two-
thc working clearance is o11 the wear rmg which is always in a cooler section of stroke and four stroke cycleengines is as follows.
.-- - I
 Pistons, Piston Rods, Piston Skirts, Piston Rings 22g
228 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
..
Two-stroke cycle engine On the other hand, the further the uppermost groove is from the top of the
Piston clearance in cylinder bore = 0.2% of cylinder bore. For example, if .piston the greater must be the overall length of the piston in order to
bore diameter = 750 mm accommodate the requisite number of piston rings. The objections to increasing
the length of pistons are that the length of cyli~dersand overall height of the
750 engine are correspondingly increased and the reciprocating mass is increased.
Clearance = 0.2 x -
100
= 0.2 x 7.5 = 1.5 mm
There is also an objection to fitting the top piston ring low down. This is
because the space formed between the side of the piston crown and the cylinder
Four-stroke cycle engine liner above the top piston ring is an area where carbon and ash from lubricating
Piston clearance in cylinder bore = 0.1 % of cylinder bore. oil may encrust and build up.
These figures may be increased when wear rings are fitted. The working If the carbon and ash deposit flakes away it can cause rapid abrasive wear
clearance for a new piston and new between the upper piston ring landings in the piston ring grooves and on the
set by the engine builder.
- cylinder ljner must bgwithinrhe standards piston ring landings.
From this it can be seen that the selection of a suitable cylinder lubricant, the
cooling of the piston, and the location of the piston ring grooves are very
9.16 State some values of the piston and cylinder clearance for trunk-
important factors. (Fig. 9.2)
piston engines.
The running clearances of trunk pistons are usually found by the engine builder
from previous experience and experimental work on a prototype engine, and
later confirmed by service experience. The actual diametral clearance then Carbon and osh bu~ld-up 7
found will be dependent on the operating temperature of the piston, which will
in turn depend on the way the piston is cooled. The piston and piston skirt
material and the amount it expands from cold relative to the-cylinder liner
material will also have some influence on the clearance. For trunk-piston
engines the diametral clearance of the piston at the upper part in way of the top
piston ring will be approximately 0.4% to 0.5% of the bore for cast-iron
pistons, while for aluminium-alloy pistons a clearance of double this amount
may be necessary.
At the top of the piston skirt the clearance will be approximately one quarter
of that already given; thus it will be 0.1 Vo to 0.125% of the bore diameter for
cast-iron piston skirts and up to three times this figure for aluminium-alloy
skirts. At the bottom of the skirt the clearance will be less again. For cast-iron
piston skirts this will be approximately 0.075% of the bore diameter and double
this figure for aluminium alloys.
Note The engine builder's recommendations in this respect should never be
departed from without a full assessment of all pertinent and relevant factors.
The figures given in the answsr are representative of those found in most
engines, but wide departures from these figures are not uncommon.

9.17 What determines the distance f r m h e top of the piston to the

uppermost piston-ring groovec?
Piston rings give the best results when their working temperature is the lowest
practicable. It is necessary therefore that the uppermost piston ring, which has
the severest duty to perform, should be well clear of the hottest part of the
piston or the large mass of metal at the junction of the piston crown a n d q i i r r
drical wall. This then imposes a limit to the minimum distance from the top of
111c~ I \ I O I I to 111cI I ~ ~ I ICI OI ~ I p~oovc:111dC ~ I ~ S C ~ I I C I I ~;dl
I V ollux piston gr0ovc.s. Flg. 9.2 Effect of upper piston ring position on carbon and ash build-up.
230 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Pistons, Piston Rods, Piston Skirts, Piston Rings 23 1

.
9.18 Some pistons have circular ribs cast on the inner side of the crown.
What IS the object of these ribs, which are not attached to any other part
of the piston and cannot, therefore, give any support to the crown?
- In water-cooled pistons solid material similar in appearance to very fine
gravel or coarse sand may be found in the lower part of the cooling water space.
It will usually be more in evidence in fresh-water-cooled pistons than in those
cooled by distilled water, particularly if sludges formed by chemical additives to
The object of such ribs, which extend from the crown to the interior of the the cooling water are not regularly cleaned out. .,
piston, is to facilitate the transfer of heat from the crown to the cooling
medium. The heat flows into the ribs which, being of thin section, quickly give 9.21 What types of piston ring are generally used on diesel engines?
it up to the cooling water or oil.
1 Rings for sealing the gases above the piston and preventing gas leakage,
called compression rings or pressure rings, those most commonly used being
9.19 What is the flow pattern of the coolant through an internally cooled of the Ramsbottom type. This is a ring made of cast-iron with a uniform
piston? Why is the flow direction arranged in this way? section, either square or rectangular, the inside of the ring being
The flow pattern is generally sue) that the caolant enters-at the lewest part of 'hammered'.
2 Rings for controlling the amount of lubricating pi1 passing up or down the
7,
the cooling space and leaves from t e uppermost part. It should move in such a
manner that ihe upward movement f the coolant is uniform on opposite sides
of the piston to give even cooling without causing distortion due to unequal
cylinder wall, or spreading the oil evenly around the cylinder, called oil-
control rings or scraper rings.
expansion. The flow direction is arranged in this manner so that the piston is 3 Rings used for spreading oil evenly around the circumference of a cylinder,
always full of coolant and the underside of the piston crown is always in contact called oil-spreader rings.
with it. This is particularly important in slow-speed propulsion engines, because Some medium- and high-speed engines use piston rings having a different cross-
when the engine is running at dead slow speed the coolant in the piston is not section from the rectangular section of the Ramsbottom ring. (Fig. 9.3)
'shaken up' as when running at full speed. If the coolant flow took place in the
opposite direction, it would be possible at very slow speed for the coolant to
drain from the piston, and lose contact with the piston crown; the piston could 9.22 Sometimes piston rings are made eccentric, i.e., the radial
then become overheated even though the engine was operating at low power. thickness is least at the gap and greatest at a paint diametrically
Some water-cooled pistons have the outlet for the water at approximately opposite. What are the advantages of this form of ring?
half the cooling-space height. When running slow, the piston is half full of Concentric rings exert the greatest pressure at each side of the gap and at the
water and piston movement agitates the water in the piston so that it is splashed point diametrically opposite, and the effect of thinning the ends or making a
on the underside of the piston crown and up the inside wall of the piston; heat is ring eccentric is to reduce the outward pressure at these points and thus produce
transferred to the water droplets. The 'cocktail shaker' action may be further a more uniform pressure all round.
increased by a ported inverted cone baffle fitted within the cooling space. The
baffle acts in a similar manner to the air vessel on a reciprocating pump. Note This can be proved as a mathematical e'xercise. See any textbook on
When the engine is stopped a jet action from the piston cooling pipe nozzle strength of materials dealing with curved uniformly loaded beams. Eccentric
directs cooling water on to the piston crown, thus removing residual heat and form piston rings are not normally used today.
catering for an emergency stop at full speed. The splash method of cooling is
sometimes referred to as 'cocktail shaker cooling'. 9.23 How is the pressure or load between the rubbing surface of a piston
ring and a cylinder liner made uniform around the circumference of the
9.20 What attention do the internal parts of an internally cooled piston ring?
require? Piston rings are 'hammered' to give them the required outward spring so that
. .. . -*.- -
The internal surface of the piston, which transmits heat to the coolant, must be they exert a pressure on the cylinder wall when placed in the cylinder. By
kept clean and free of scale formations and oil films in water-cooled pistons. varying the amount of hammering in any particular location the amount of
Oil-cooled pistons must have their internal surfaces kept free of carbon build- outwqd spring will also be varied, producing a piston ring of uniform section
up. The internal fittings withisthe coolin'gspace, and their fastenings, must be having similar characteristics to an eccentric ring. If the amount of hammering
carefully examined when exposed after removing a piston from the piston rod. is gradually increased from small amounts on each side of the piston ring gap to
The points to look for are corrosion and erosion of the coolant directors, a maximum amount opposite the gap, the ring when sprung into the cylinder
t'unncls and similar parts used to direct the coolant flow through the piston. The will exert an even pressure on the cylinder walls.
irltcr~~al ioints arid t'nstcninps must also be carefully checked, because a bad Some piston rings are machined in what is ,known as the 'cam turning'
101111 01 slack 01 ~ ~ ~ r l o c hI';~stc.ning cd could allow t l ~ ccooling mcdia to k1y process. In this processficrirrgk-machincd so that it has varying radii+-
l u ~ \ c J~I Il ~ IIC.I(I 1 0A I I ~ ~ \ C I I I C . I I C ~I I) I \ I ~ I I I .
-
different angular positions around its circu~ilfcrer~cc' relative to the location
232 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
-
Cam-turned piston rings can bc idcntificd hv thr ;~lrscnccof hi~nlnlcrilarks
(Question 9.38).

9.24 How much force does a piston ring exert on the cylinder liner woll?
Is this force variable and how is it me_osured?
-
The force exerted by a piston ring on the cylinder is measured as a specific
pressure in kN/m2 (or Ibf/in2 or kgf/cm2). The value for this specific pressure
when the ring is inserted in the cylinder will vary over a wide range, being high
for small-bore engines and low for large-bore engines. This pressure is referred
to as wall pressure.
Wall pressure - compression rings
For 150 mm (6 in approx.) bore cylinders it will vary between 98 and 147 kN/m2
(1 to 1.5 kgf/cm2 or 14 to 21 Ibf/in2).
For 900mm (35in approx.) bore cylinders it will vary between 35 and
46 kN/m2 (0.36 to 0.47 kgf/cm2 or 5 to 7 Ibf/in2).
Fig. 9.3 Various types of piston ring.
I
Wall pressure - oil-control rings
-. -
(a) Square section iron piston ring. The wall pressure for oilcontrol rings will vary according to the type of scraper
(b) Rectangular section piston ring. I ring used, and whether it is used in a trunk-piston engine or crosshead engine. In
(c) Wedge-shaped piston ring (sometimes referred to as a Keystone section trunk-piston engines, scraper ring wall pressure may be 70% more than that for
ring). I compression rings, while for large crosshead engines it may be the same as for
(dl Rectangular section piston ring with inside bevel. the compression rings. The specific wall pressure exerted by the ring when it is
(el Rectangular section piston ring with elliptical or barrel-shaped working face.
(fl Chromium-plated barrel-shaped piston ring with plating on working face.
I sprung into the cylinder is fixed during manufacture by the material of the ring,
, the proportions of the ring section, and the degree of hammering. The actual
(g) Piston ring with copper or bronze insert to give rapid bedding-in.
(h) Piston ring with chromium plating on working face and lands.
wall pressure can be measured only in special test equipment used by piston-ring
(i) Rectangular section piston ring with chromium-plated working face. manufacturers. The wall pressure is, however, related to the forces which would
(j) Piston-ring grooves showing various methods of leaving a fillet at the bottom 1 have to be exerted on a piston ring at diametrically opposite points (90"round
of the ring groove. The bottom sketch shows a groove for a wedge-shaped the circumference of the ring from the gap) to close the gap. This force is
piston ring. referred t o as the diametrical closing load or gap-closing force, and is more
Note. Chromium-plated pistons rings are fitted only in the top piston-ring easily measured than the wall pressure. For lSOmm bore engines with
groove. 1 rectangular-section rings the gapclosing force will vary between 62 and 89 N
(14 and 20 Ibf) while in a large-bore slow-speed engine the gap closing force
where it will be split. The outside circumference of the ring then has a shape could reach 785 N (176 Ibf).
somewhat similar to a hammered ring. When it is in place in a cylinder it gives a Note It is virtually impossible to find the actual wall pressure exerted by a
uniform pressure against the cylinder wall around its circumference. piston ring during its operation in an engine, either by test apparatus or calcula-
Note If a new pisten ring is examined around its inside, the 'hammering' will I tion. In any calculation the range of the variables would be such that the degree
of accuracy in the final result would be in doubt.
be seen as a seriesgf marks similar in appearance to those that would be made
by a blunt cold chisel. Thesgmuksde-~et-@the way across a section. I 9.25 Should a piston-ring material b e harder or softer than the cylinder
The hammering action on the ring material sets up a localized internal
compressive stress adjacent to the hammer mark inside the circumferential material i n which i t works?
surface of the piston ring. This internal stress is greatest opposite the ring gap Generally piston-ring materials are made considerably harder than the material
and least adjacent to it. The initial internal compressive stress caused by of the liner in which they w z k . This hasthe advantage of giving the piston ring
hammering on the inside of a piston ring aids in preventing permanent distor- a long working life by reducing the radial wear rate consequent upon reduction
tion and breakage when the ring is sprung open to pass it over a piston and into of the amounts of wear debris, which acts as an abrasive. An exception to this is
the piston ring groove. the case of hardened or chromium-plated cylinder liners.
. -
.I. I
234 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine ! Pistons, Piston Rods, Piston Skirts, Piston Rings 235
I

9.26 Give details of the checks or controls made when fitting new piston i
rings during a cylinder unit o v e ~ a u lWhy
. are these checks necessary and I
where is failure likely to occur if the unit overhaul and checks are not
properly carried out?
The piston, piston-ring grooves, piston r d , cylinder liner, cylinder-liner ports i
l
and combustionchamber belt must be brought to a 'clean-as-new' condition
and all loose dirt must be removed from the engine and working areas. Wear
ridges formed in the cylinder liner, particularly at the top of the stroke, must be
removed by carefully grinding with a portable grinder. In a similar manner wear
ridges on piston skirts and piston rods from scraper-ring action m&sL&
carefully filed off. These points must be checked before piston rings are fitted.
Any new piston rings to be fitted should first be rolled round in the groove
where they will be fitted. This gives a check that the radial width of the groove is
deeper than the radial width of the piston ring (see Figs. 9 4 a ) and (b) ), and an
indication that the clearance between the upper surface of the ring and groove is
adequate. Any jamming found in the 'roll-round' test must be investigated and
the cause removed or the ring changed.
If the working face of any new piston ring is found to be proud of the side of Fig. 9.4 Testing piston rings in their grooves.
the piston as shown in Fig. 9.4(c) the radial width of the piston ring should be (a) and (b) show grooves with the correct amount of depth for the radial width
checked for correctness or the cause of the ring being proud must be found and of the piston ring.
removed. (c) shows a piston ring with excessive radial width causing the working face to
be proud of the side of the piston. Do not use ring.
The piston ring is then entered into the unworn portion of the cylinder liner (dl Checking top clearance of piston ring with feelers.
and the gap checked. After checking the gap and making any necessary ( 6 ) Shows a common pattern of piston-ring groove wear.
rectification the piston ring will be ready for fitting on to the piston, using a
piston-ring expander. If an expander is not available, narrow width tin plate or
brass strips can be used to pass the lower piston rings over the upper piston-ring
grooves.
-
Piston rings fitted with insufficient vertical clearance will stick when they
When all the rings are fitted each ring should be pushed sideways to the inner come up to working temperature. In turn they may break, jam in the groove on
side of its groove and rolled around the groove. The working face of each ring one side, and eventually allow blow-past which could lead to piston seizure on
should be below the side of the piston or flush as shown in Figs. 9.4(a) and (b) trunk-piston engines and two-stroke cycle crosshead engines with large piston
for its full circumference. If any used ring is found to have its working face skirts. It can 3 s o lead to scavenge fires in two stroke-engines of any type. The
proud of the side of the piston as shown in Fig. 9.4(c) the groove should be re- common pattern of piston ring groove wear is shown in Fig. 9.4(e).
examined arid the cause removed. The cause is often found to be hard carbon
left behind during cleaning. When each ring is pushed over in its groove the 9.27 What factors would you consider in deciding whether to open up a
vertical clearance must be checked with a feeler gauge at the location shown in cylinder unit for overhaul? After opening the unit and preparing for
Fig. 9.4(d). The check is repeated in four or more positions for small-bore assembly, how would you decide whether to renew or re-use piston
engines and six or more for large-bore engines. The feeler gauge should be set at rings?
the requisite clearances and used as a 'goho-go' gauge. For record purposes,
the actual clearance should be measured at two places diametrically opposite. If the engine is operated under a planned maintenance programme, cylinder
The process is then repeated for each ring irrespective of whether the ring is new units should not be opened up until the required number of operating hours has
or being re-used. \
been achieved. If, after taking indicator cards, or checking cylinder pressures
Failure is likely to occur in various ways if a fault is missed in checking. If the with a maximum pressure indicator, it is established that the compression
ring gap is inadequate the ring may break due to a restriction on its free pressure is low due to leaking piston rings, overhaul of the unit should be
expansion when coming up to working temperature. Whether a k g breaks or arranged at the earliest opportunity. Failure to overhaul may lead to scavenge
not, it may scuff the lin& due t o the very heavy wall pressures causing the oil fires, smoking exhaust, and increased cylinder-liner wear rate.
film to break down, or at least causing a large increase in liner wear. Scuffing In deciding whether to re-use piston rings removed from a piston, the wear
~ i i r r ybe such that the liner Iiiirst be condemned. rate of the piston ring must be known. It is then compared to the maximum
236 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Pistons, Piston Rods, Piston Skirts, Piston Rings 237

wear allowed in the piston ring to establish the expected life remaining. If this is without a radiused profile,ubrication-would be impaired because the ring
found to be less than the programmed hours between overhaul of the cylinder would act somewhat like a scraper ring.
units, the ring must be scrapped.
Note It is essential for this radius to be restored to a partially worn piston ring
Scrapping is also necessary in the following instances. if it is to be replaced in a piston forfurther use.
1 If a piston ring is found stuck in a ring groove and, as is likely, it is worn
more on one side than another. W 9.30 Give some values for the vertical or axial clearance, and gap
2 If the axial height of the ring is reduced so that a large clearance is found. openings of diesel engine piston rings.
3 If preformed piston rings having pressure variations around their circum-
ference are fitted in any groove and micrometer measurements show varia- The vertical clearance of a piston ring in its groove must always be sufficient to
tions in the radial width of the ring. allow the piston ring to remain free in the groove from the time an engine is
4 If the chrome layer on chromium-plated piston rings is worn through or started cold through to working on overload conditions. The upper piston rings
worn very thin. work at a higher temperature than those in lower positions. Consequently in
I large slow-speed engines the vertical clearance of the upper two piston rings is
These remarks show that a considerable number of man-hours could be spent in I made larger than the remaining lower compression and scraper rings. For large,
deciding whether to re-use a piston ring or to scrap it. As very few man-hours I slow-speed two-stroke engines the original vertical clearance of the upper two
can be spent before the cost of a set of piston rings is covered, it is generally I compression rings or pressure rings will be up to 0.2 mm (0.008 in) and for the
better to renew piston riqgs when a piston is lifted by ships' staff outside of a I lower compression rings up to 0.125 mm (0.005 in). For smaller engines the
programmed overhaul period. If the programme time for unit overhaul has original vertical clearance of all compression rings will be of the order of
been reached the rings must be renewed, since if the correct period between
overhauls has been established they will be almost worn out.
i 0.065 mm (0.0025 in approx.).
The vertical clearance of oil-control rings will vary according to their location
Some people generally consider that only the top two rings should be /
relative to the top of the piston, the minimum clearance usually not being less
renewed. If it is found in practice that this is all that is necessary, it could well be than 0.0625 mm (0.0025 in) in any type of engine.
that the period established for the running hours between overhaul is insuffi- / A common formula for the closed gap of a new piston ring when fitted in an
cient and further savings could be gained by extending the period. unworn portion of the cylinder liner is
gap (closed) = 0.4% cylinder bore
9.28 The bottoms of piston-ring grooves are generally rounded at the
corners. State the reason for this, and mention how the fitting of the Example
piston rings i s thereby affected. I If cylinder bore = 600 mm
If the corners of the grooves are not rounded there is greater possibility of the then -
metal between the giooves breaking off. - -600
The material between the piston-ring grooves forms a cantilever and is closed gap = 0.4 x -100 = 0.4 x 6 = 2.4 mm
subjected to cyclic stresses. If the bottom of the groove has a square corner it
acts as a stress raiser and may lead to eventual failure of the material by The value of 0.4% may sometimes be increased, perhaps to 0.5%. in some
fracture. The radius at the bottom of the groove acts in the same way as a fillet. engines where hardened or chromium-plated piston rings are used, or whether
The shape of the fillet can take various forms. the top piston ring is near the top of the piston.
When fitting piston rings the inside edges of the rings must be rounded off to However, the clearances and gaps recommended by the engine builder or
coincide with the shape of the bottom of the groove. Neglect to do this may specialist piston-ring manufacturer should be adhered to.
cause the rings to jam in the piston see Fig 9.3j). The free gap will vary according to ring material, the proportions of the ring
section, and the amount of hammering received by the ring. It is usually about
9.29 Why is an adequcite radius necessary on the upper and lower
three to four times the radial width of the piston ring.
corners of the outer circumference of a compression ring?
I W 9.31 How can the effective life of piston-ring grooves be extended?
In order better to lubricate the piston ring and the cylinder liner the radius is
necessary to give an oil lead-in. The oil is then forced between the piston ring In large, slow-speed crosshead engines the piston-ring groove landing face is
and the cylinder by the build up of an oil wedge and provides better lubrication subjected to heavy wear. In order to increase the piston-ring groove life 'false'
for both the piston ring and the cylinder liner. If the corners were sharp, i landing rings are omitted and the piston-ring groove is machined in the solid
238 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Pistons, Phton Rods, Piston Skirts, Piston Rings 239 ;
malerial of ihk piston wall. A layer of chromium is then electro-plated on to the The packing around a piston rod in two-stroke cycle crosshead engines has
lower landing face of the piston-ring groove or, preferably, both the upper and to perform a dual function; preventing oil from the scavenge air space under
lower faces of the groove are plated. The chrome layer has excellent resistance the piston draining into the crankcase, and oil from the crankcase coming into
both to the corrosive action of combustion products and to abrasive wear. the scavenge space. An intermediate set of packing, seals the scavenge air in the
Aluminium-alloy pistons do not have good properties to resist abrasive wear scavenge space and prevents air leakage into the crankcase.
in the piston-ring landings, so steel or cast-iron inserts are placed in the piston The top set of scraper rings in the piston-rod packing box is arranged with the
mould and the piston is cast round the insert. Sometimes an insert is used for the sharp edge uppermost and the bevel towards the bottom. The scrapers then
top ring only. scrape oil up the piston rod as it descends into the crankcase, and they are fitted
with drain holes which either drain the scraped oil into the scavenge space or
into a gallery where it is drained away through a drain pipe to some point
9.32 It is noted in engines burning heavy fuel that the top of the piston
outside the engine.
crown may waste and gradually - burn away, What is dene to rectify this The lower scraper rings act in the opposite manner and are fitted in the
condition?
reverse direction t o the upper scraper rings. They are also fitted with drain holes
When a piston is removed from an engine during the overhaul of a cylinder unit which often allow the oil to drain back to the crankcase, or in other cases it may
the shape of the piston crown is examined and compared with a gauge showing be drained away through a drain pipe t o some point outside the engine.
its proper shape and its height above some datum. Note Leak-off oil from the upper scraper rings of piston rod packing boxes
If the shape and height are not within the recommended limits the piston is should not be mixed with the leak-off oil from the lower scraper rings. The
taken out of service and sent to one of the specialist firms dealing with piston latter should be stored and saved. If analysis shows it to be satisfactory the oil
repair. may be returned to the crankcase lubricating oil system.
The firm will gauge the piston, examine it for fractures or cracks, examine the
piston-ring grooves and note the general condition of the piston. A decision Scraper rings have many variations on three basic forms, which are the bevel
based on estimated repair costs will be made as to whether it warrants repair. type, the hook type, which might also be called a self-sharpening variation of
If it is decided to repair the piston, the crown will be welded up with a deposit the bevel type, and the twin or double-edge type.
of weld metal to bring it to its correct shape and height above datum. The Bevel-type scraper rings start with a basic square, or rectangular section, in
piston-ring grooves will also be welded up. After the welding is completed it will which the radial width is greater than the vertical or axial height. Outward-
be examined again and i f in order it will be heat treated, fully machined and the springing rings have a bevel machined circumferentially on an outside corner of
piston-ring grooves will be chromium plated again. the ring section and inward-springing rings have the bevel machined on an
A repaired piston is similar in appearance to a new piston and has the same inside corner, The angle of the bevel from the cylinder wall is between 70" and
expected life. The specialist repair work usually costs considerably less than a 75". The section of a hooked scraper ring is, as its name implies, hook shaped.
new piston. Engine builders and their accredited repairers usually hold stocks of It is similar in shape to a beveledge ring but has an additional hook-shaped
repaired pistons for exchange with pistons that require repair. This shortens the relief on the lower flat-face surface of the ring opposite to the bevel. Double-
delivery or lead time for the repair of a piston. faced rings are rectangular in section with a peripheral U-section slot in the
outer circumferential face of the ring. Two scraping lands formed by the slot
make contact with the cylinder liner surface, and drain holes or vents are made
9.33 Where are oil-control rings or scraper rings fitted? What is the
through the ring across the thin section at the bottom of the U-shaped slot.
sectional form of a scraper or oil-control ring? In trunk-piston type engines with splash-lubricated pistons and cylinders,
Oil-control or scraper rings are fitted in pistons, piston skirts, around piston there is always some difficulty in controlling the amount of lubricant passing up
rods and at the bottom of cylinder4imrs in some types of engines. The pressure thecylinder to lubricate the piston. Some of this lubricant is splashed from the
on the scraping surface is usually obtained from the resilience of the material crankcase, but a large amount may come from the gudgeon pin by leakage
and hammering, although sometimes the load on the scraping surface is through the fastening of the pin in the piston skirt. In such engines the scraper
obtained from springs behind the rings. lafour-stroke cycle and two-stroke rings are usually fitted in the piston skirt and scrape the lubricant down the
cycle crosshead engines it is usua to fit at least one scraper ring in the bottom of liner. The ring is then fitted sharp-edge downwards and bevel uppermost,
the piston, arranged so that any oil coming down the liner is carried up again by therefore scraping downwards. Drain holes are usually drilled through the skirt
the ring, the ring being said to scrape upwards. To achieve this the scraping edge so that excess lubricant passes through the drain holes back into the crankcase.
of the ring is fitted uppermost and the bevel downwards, so that the upper The various shaped sections of oil control rings are shown in Figs 95(al
portion of the liner is better supplied with lubricant. . --- through (e). When lubii56ngXliSsC~apedfrom thesurface of the cylinder
Some modern crosshead engines are not fitted with a scraper ring in the liner, drainage slots in the control ring and d r a i n a holes
~ in the piston skirt
hottom piston-ring groovc. allow the oil to return back to the crankcase. In control ring (b) the drainage
 240 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Pistons, Piston Hods, J'rsrorr -
Sk rrt.5, /'/.%/Of/K I N X J
-
24 1

W 9.35 How much increase of piston-ring vertical clearance can be allowed

before reconditioning the piston-ring grooves?
In large slow-speed engines the greatest amount of wear takes place on the lower
side of the upper piston-ring groove. When the original piston-ring clearance is
slightly more than doubled it is common practice to machine the top and
bottom faces of the groove so that it is 0.5 mm larger than the original size. An
oversize piston ring having an increase of 0.5 mm in the axial height over the
original height is then fitted and this restores the original vertical clearance.
As the major part of the cost of reconditioning piston-ring grooves by
machining is in piston removal, and setting up the piston in the lathe or vertical
boring machine, overall savings can be effected by machining all grooves, even
though the increase of clearance in lower grooves may be considerably less than
in the top groove. This has the further advantage that all piston rings on any
piston are the same size enabling the number of different-sized rings carried in
the ship to be reduced. Oilcontrol ring grooves must also be reviewed at this
time, to decide whether machining is necessary.
In trunk-piston engines a figure of double the original vertical clearance in
the groove may not be feasible due to the slack rings pumping lubricating oil
and so increasing lubricating oil consumption. When this occurs it is sometimes
possible to extend groove life by changing from single-edged bevelled scraper
rings to 'fiercer' scraper rings having a_thook' section, or to rings with double
edges and narrow landing widths. Doublecdged scraper rings can be used only
' ~ m i nslots, / if drainage holes are provided through the piston skirt.
In trunk engines with splash-lubricated pistons and cylinders, care must be
Fig. 9.5 Various sections of oil control rings or scaper rings. exercised in changing scraper rings to another type, as the pistons may then
(a) Normal older type of oil control ring. become insufficiently lubricated. When scraper rings are changed in this way,
(b) Hook-shaped oil control ring with radial drainage slots in bottom land of ring. the lubricating oil consumption should not be below the engine builder's
(c) Double hook oil control ring with drainage holes and drainage slots. recommendation. Also, all the pistons must be fitted with 'fierce' scraper rings.
scraper edges.
-
(d) Oil control ring with double scraping edges. Drainiige hole is between
-
If only one or two pistons were fitted with 'fierce' scrapers these cylinders could
bc-insufficiently lubricated to the point where seizure could occur without
(e) Spring-loaded oil contra ring with drain- s6
l&%e
itween scraper edges. warning, since no indication would be given of a low lubricating-oil consump-
(f) Various forms of oil control ring drainage holes.
tion; because of excessive amounts being used in other cylinders where the
scraper rings had not been changed.
slots are situated on its base. In the control rings (c), (d), and (e) the slots are
located in the central section of the ring. Various forms of drainage holes and 9.36 List the causes of piston-ng failurewhich may result in gas
control ring grooves fitted in a piston skirt are shown in Fig. 9.5(f). leakage or ring breakage.
1 Insufficient piston-ring and gr~ove~clepance. This may cause the ring to
1 9.34 How can the life of a piston ring and cylinder liner b e increased? jam in the groove when the engine comes up to working temperature and
allow blow-past.
Piston ring life can be increased, with usually an increase in cylinder liner life, 2 Insufficient lubrication. Although there may be sufficient cylinder
by fitting the top piston-ring groove with a piston ring which has been lubrication to prevent ring scuffing and an excessive rate of ring and liner
chromium plated on its outer circumference. This increases the hardness of the wear, a borderline may be reached where there is insufficient lubricant
surface that makes contact with the working surface of the cylinder, thus available to keep the piston rings free in their grooves. A small excess
improving anti-friction conditions and consequently increasing piston-ring and amount of lubricant over that necessary to lubricate the liner is required so
liner life. that additives in the lubricant can clean sludges, varnish and gum forma-
tions out of piston-ring grooves. The rings then work effectively. This is
242 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Pistons. Piston Rods. Piston Skirts. Piston Rinns 243

particularly important in new engines or when a new cylinder liner and there is a breakdown of the lubricating film separating the surfaces. It may vary
piston are fitted in an old engirie. froin something relatively minor in nature, appearing as a slight roughening of
Large amounts of wear in cylinder liners. the surfaces, to a heavy abrasion rendering the damaged parts unfit for further
Excessive diametral clearance between the piston and cylinder. use.
Excessive wear on piston-ring landing face in the piston-ring .groove, When scuffing occurs the breakdown of lubrication in way of the high points
particularly if associated with (3) and/or (4). This is often the cause of or surface asperities is caused by very high localized pressure on the high points.
piston-ring troubles in cross- and loop-scavenged engines, the gas pressure The heat generated by the friction between the high points on the cylinder liner
built up behind the piston ring causing the ring to bow outwards slightly as it and the piston ring causes the high points to weld together. The movement of
rides beyond the top edge of thPzp~fi.It is then supported only by the port the piston and piston ring causes the weld to break away as soon as it is created;
bars, and the pressure behind the ring causes this bowing action. a roughened surface then results.
Ring gilp too small. This usually leads to ring breakage, but could ultimately Piston rings that have been subjected to scuffing action can be identified by
lead to disastrous or very serious consequences, subjecting the rubbing surface to a hardness test. If scuffing has occurred the
Incorrect preparation of endrof piston nng adjacent to gap, particularly in ring surface shows a large increase in hardness value.
loop- and cross-scavenged engines with relatively wide ports. The usual In appearance it shows as a slight roughening, brownish to very dark
preparation in this case is to give the ends of the piston ring a near semi- brownish-grey in colour, with light score marks emanating from the scuffed
circular profile which is washed into the corner radius of the ring, on the area.
face making contact with the cylinder. For example, the radius on a piston Scuffing may occur at any time, but is more likely when cylinder liners,
ring of 12 mm height would start at 5 mm. This 5 mm radius would- be? piston rings, etc. are ~~~~a-fylindei liner is fittedorwhena
reduced moving around the circumference away from the gap so that at new engine is undergoing trials on an engine works' test bed. Any factor which
25 mm away the radius is reduced to 2.5 mm, and at 50 mm away it would be causes or allows the lubricating oil film between the -king surface to become
reduced to the point that it merged with the radius at the corners of the ring disrupted will be a likely cause of scuffing. Some of the more common factors
are as follows.
section.
Radius at top and bottom of exhaust and scavenge ports in cylinder liner A surface finish, in a new cylinder liner, which is too smooth, and thus has
inadequate, the ring then receiving a shock when sliding past the port edges. inadequate oil-retention properties. The surface of the liner must be
As the design width of the port increases relative to the cylinder circum- smooth, but the honing marks at 45' to its axis should be deep enough to
ference, the port edge radius becomes increasingly important. Insufficient retain some lubricant and allow it to spread.
radius leads to ring breakage. Sections of piston ring may have a high localized wall pressure on the liner
Wear on the port bars relative to cylinder-liner working surface such that during the initial period of bedding, leading to oil-film breakdown in the
surface of bar is below the surface of the liner. This condition is checked region of the highly loaded piston-ring part and possible subsequent
with a straight edge held vertically on the port bar, the hollow surface being scuffing.
checked out with a feeler gauge. This is important after the first few Bad selection of cylinder lubricant, i.e. viscosity too high or too low. Using
thousand hours of liner life. The marks and slight surface roughness from cylinder lubricant with too high viscosity and running engine with cooling-
machining have now been worn away, and as the port bar is worn smooth its water temperature too low. Or, using a lubricant with too low a viscosity
ability to hold lubricant on its surface is impaired and the wear on the port and holding cooling-water temperature too high. Incorrect proportions of
bar increases. To rectify the condition the surface of the port bar should be additives in lubricant.
scratched with the corner tip of a small square file so that a trellis pattern of Absence of an upward-scraping scraper ring in some crosshead engine
scratches is put on the surface of the bar. The unscratched square areas of pistons, or wrongly fitted scraper ring.
port surface between the trellis pattern should have sides 3 to 6 mm Insufficient number of lubricating oil entry points in cylinder liner.
depending on the size of the engine. This problem is found to be more No oil grooves in cylinder liner.
prevalent onthe exhaust port bars. If this pattern of wear develops on an old Defective cylinder lubricator, or defective lubricating oil pipe to cylinder
h e r whlch has not given trouble previously, it may be indicative of the from lubricator.
cooling space in the exhaust port bar becoming dirty o r scaled. After the piston rings have become bedded into the cylinder liner and lubrica-
tion is kept at the correct level, scuffing rarely occtrs. In two-stroke cycle
9.37 What do you understond by the term 'scuffing' os reloted to pistons, crosshead engines fitted with piston skirts scuffing sometimes occurs on the
piston rings, piston skirts and cylinder liners? What are the causes of cylinder liner and piston skirt surfaces after the cylinders are run-in. This is due
scuffing? to broken or defective rings allowing blow-past which then overheats the skirt
on one side, causing the skirt to distort and rub on the cylinder liner.
 particularly important in new engines or when a new cylinder liner and there Is a breakdown of the lubr~ca~i~!gY~lr~r srpiilutllrg I I I surtnccb.
~ 11 lnuy vat y
piston are fitted in an old engine. from something relatively minor in nature, appearing as n slight roughening of
Large amounts of wear in cylinder liners. the surfaces, to a heavy abrasion rendering the damaged parts unfit for further
Excessive diametral clearance between the piston and cylinder. use.
Excessive wear on piston-ring landing face in the piston-ring groove, When scuffing occurs the breakdown of lubrication in way of the high points
particularly if associated with (3) and/or (4). This is often the cause of or surface asperities is caused by very high localized pressure on the high points.
piston-ring troubles in cross- and loop-scavenged engines, the gas pressure The heat generated by the friction between the high points on the cylinder liner
built up behind the piston ring causing the ring to bow outwards slightly as it and the piston ring causes the high points to weld together. The movement of
rides beyond the top edge of the port. It is then supported only by the port the piston and piston ring causes the weld to break away as soon as it is created;
bars, and the pressure behind the ring causes this bowing action. a roughened surface then results.
Ring gap too small. This usually leads to ring breakage, but could ultimately Piston rings that have been subjected to scuffing action can be identified by
lead to disastrous or very serious consequences. subjecting the rubbing surface to a hardness test. If scuffing has occurred the
Incorrect preparation of ends of piston ring adjacent to gap, particularly in ring surface shows a large increase in hardness value.
loop- and cross-scavenged engines with relatively wide ports. The usual In appearance it shows as a slight roughening, brownish to very dark
preparation in this case is to give the en+ of the piston ring a near semi- brownish-grey in colour, with light score marks emanating from the scuffed
circular profile which is washed into the corner radius of the ring, on the area.
face making contact with the cylinder. For example, the radius on a piston Scuffing may occur at any time, but is more likely when cylinder liners,
ring of 12mm height would start at 5 mm. This 5 mm radius would be piston rings, etc. are new, such as when a new cylinder liner is fitted or when a
reduced moving around the circumference away from the gap so that at new engine is undergoing trials on an engine works' test bed. Any factor which
25 mm away the radius is reduced to 2.5 mm, and at 50 mm away it would be causes or allows the lubricating oil film between the working surface to become
reduced to the point that it merged with the radius at the corners of the ring disrupted will be a likely cause of scuffing. Some of the more common factors .
section. are as follows.
Radius at top and bottom of exhaust and scavenge ports in cylinder liner A surface finish, in a new cylinder liner, which is too smooth, and thus has
inadequate, the ring then receiving a shock when sliding past the port edges. inadequate oil-retention properties. The surface of the liner must be
As the design width of the port increases relative to the cylinder circum- smooth, but the honing marks at 45" to its axis should be deep enough to
ference, the port-edge radius becomes increasingly important. Insufficient retain some lubricant and allow it to spread.
radius leads to ring breakage. Sections ofpiston ring may have a High localized wall pressure on the liner
Wear on the port bars relative to cylinder-liner working surface such that during the initial period of bedding, leading to oil-film breakdown in the
surface of bar is below the surface of the liner. This condition is checked region of the highly loaded piston-ring part and possible subsequent
with a straight edge held vertically on the port bar, the hollow surface being scuffing.
checked out with a feeler gauge. This is important after the first few Bad selection of cylinder lubricant, i.e. viscosity too high or too low. Using
thousand hours of liner life. The marks and slight surface roughness from cylinder lubricant with too high viscosity and running engine with cooling-
machining have now been worn away, and as the port bar is worn smooth its water temperature too low. Or, using a lubricant with too low a viscosity
ability to hold lubricant on its surface is impaired and the wear on the port and holding cooling-water temperature too high. Incorrect proportions of
bar increases. To rectify the condition the surface of the port bar should be additives in lubricant.
scratched with the corner tip of a small square file so that a trellis pattern of Absence of an upward-scraping scraper ring in some crosshead engine
scratches is put on the surface of the bar. The unscratched square areas of pistons, or wrongly fitted scraper ring.
port surface between the trellis pattern should have sides 3 to 6 mm Insufficient number of lubricating oil entry points in cylinder
-. liner. -"
depending on the size of the engine. This problem is found to be more No oil grooves in cylinder liner.
prevalent on the exhaust port bars. If this pattern of wear develops on an old Defective cylinder lubricator, or defective lubricating oil pipe to cylinder
liner which has not given trouble previously, it may be indicative of the from lubricator.
cooling space in the exhaust port bar becoming dirty or scaled. After the piston rings have become bedded into the cylinder liner and lubrica-
tion is kept at the correct level, scuffing rarely occtrs. In two-stroke cycle
9.37 What do you understand by the term 'scuffing' as related to pistons, crosshead engines fitted with piston skirts scuffing sometimes occurs on the
piston rings, piston skirts and cylinder liners? What are the causes of cylinder liner and piston skirt surfaces after the cylinders are run-in. This is due
scuffing? to broken or defective rings allowing blow-past which then overheats the skirt
on one side, causing the skirt to distort and rub on thecylinder liner.
Scuffing is a form of damage occurring between two sliding surfaces, when
 244 Queffions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

9.38 What are preformed piston rings?

Preformed piston rings are made to suit the difficult operating conditions
found in some types of highly rated engines. For example, in certain types of
cross- and loop-scavenged two-stroke cycle engines it was found that the
temperature differences across the radial width of the top piston ring set up
thermal stresses which distorted the ring, causing the ends of the ring to warp
radially outwards; the ends then break off if they contact the upper or lower
sides of the scavenge or exhaust ports.
CRANKSHAFTS,
The radial outward pressure pattern of the ends of the piston ring can be
modified by giving them a residual stress when they are in the cold condition.
The outward-acting thermal stress causing the ends to warp outwards at
CAMSHAFTS,
operating temperature is then nullified by the residual stress. The ring is then
able to work without contacting the ports and end breakage is prevented.
Preformed piston rings are those rings which have the wall-pressure pattern
CONNECTING-RODS,
of the ring modified to suit particular conditions found in particular types of
highly rated engines. - - - CROSSHEADS, SLIPPERS
Note The edges of the scavenge and exhaust ports in cross- and loop-
scavenged engines must have the radius at the edges of the ports rounded off
because the liner wears in way of the ports.
- 10.1 Name the various manufacturing methods of producing crankshafts
The radius of the scavenge ports in uniflow-scavenged engines is not so
for the various kinds of diesel engine used in marine practice.
critical because the ports extend for the full circumference of the cylinder liner.
The ports are much smaller in size.and the material between the ports does not Small, medium, and high-speed engines, such as those used for lifeboats, emer-
wear at the same rate as the relatively narrow port bars in loop- and cross- gency start-up air compressors, emergency lighting sets and the like, may have
scavenged engines. steel crankshafts produced by drop-forging methods for engines having up to
two cylinders, or some times four cylinders. Engines of three cylinders or more
may have the crankshaft cast with special cast-irons, or it may be made by
normal forging methods.
In larger. medium- and high-speed engines of the type used for electrical
power generation, and up to the sizes used for ship propulsion, the crankshaft is
normally forged in one piece from a steel billet.
Large, slow-speed engines have crankshafts produced from steel castings or
forgings. The various parts making up the crankshaft are machined and assem-
bled by shrink-fitting processes or welding processes and after assembly the
crankshaft is finish-machined.

10.2 Explain, with reference to crankshafts, the meanings of the terms

'fully built' and 'semi-built'?
The parts forming a crankshaft are the journals, crank webs (commonly called
webs) and the crankpins.
In fully built crankshafts the journals and crankpins are made from forgings,
the crankshaft webs may be forged or cast, and each part is made as a separate
piece. The holes in a pair of crank webs are accurately machined to a suitable
size for shrink-fitting on to a crankpin. After two webs have been shrunk on to a
pin, a web assembly is formed, and after the requisite number of web assemblies
are made the remaining holes in the crank webs that take the journals are some-
times line-bored so that they are in correct alignment with one another. In other
 246 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Crunkshqfts, Camshqffs, Connrct~ng-H
-ods,
--- C r o )-5 ~ L-
' u ~ JSlrpper~
, 24 1
-

cases a pair of webs is bored together so that tke hole centres are coincident. The 10.4 What do you understond by the term 'grain flow' when related to
various web assemblies are then shrunk on to the journals and the crankshaft is crankshafts?
built up.
In semi-built crankshafts the web assembly is one piece, made from a steel For many purposes steels can normally be regarded as homogeneous, but in
casting or a forging. It is machined and the crankshaft is put together by shrink- actual fact the crystalline structure and impurities in steel cause it to have grain,
fitting the webs on to the journals. resembling the grain in wood. This is shown when sulphur prints are taken from
split ingots and forgings, the grain following the direction of the polar axis of
the ingot. A knowledge of this grain structure is sometimes used in the forging
10.3 How are solid-forged crankshafts made? of solid forged steel crankshafts. The forging is made so that the grain structure
Solid-forged, crankshafts are made from a suitably sized steel billet. The heated foIIows a path like the flow of water round the bends in a stream. This grain
billet is held in a porter bar and worked down under a steam hammer or path would be along and parallel to the axis of the first journal and then bend
hydraulic forging press. Small crankshafts will be worked under a hammer, into a curve and follow along the line of the crank web, round into and along the
while larger crankshafts will be worked under a press, which for larger work axis of the crankpin, down the next web and into the next journal again, and so
gives superiority in quality, cost apd output. The end of the heated billet is first on throughout the length of the crankshaft.
worked to form an end coupling flange and journal. The next section worked To achieve this grain flow, the forging will be carried out in a similar manner
will be that part forming two crank webs and a crankpin, which is in the form of to that described in the previous question except for the crank webs and crank-
a block. The third section to be worked will be the second journal, followed by pins, which are forged with formers so that the material forming the webs is
the second block forged at the correct angle to the first block, the angle between turned at 90° to the axis of the journal (and ingot), to cause the grain to flow
each block being equivalent'to the crank angles of the finished crankshaft. from journals through webs to crankpins. Machining is done in the same way as
The forging is then continued through the crankshaft until it is completed. described in the previous question.
- The colour of the material is carefully watched during forging; the heating of The various stages of forging required to produce a forged crankshaft having
the billet is done slowly and is carefully controlled so that the steel is worked at the grain flow pass axially along the Erankjournals and crankpins and then
the correct temperature. If the heating is done too quickly it would be possible round the crankwebs are shown in Figs. 10.1 (a) through to (e).
to have the surface of-the forging up to welding temperature and the inside of After the ingot is forged down to its proper diameter sections of the forging
the material too cool, thus leading to faulty forgings due to insufficient working --
are heated as shown in (a). Pressure is then applied axially along the shaft to
sweIf up one or two s h i o n s which later form the crank webs. The 'jumped-up'
of the interior material of theimging; - --
The forging is heat-treated and after cooling is set up on the marking table for section or sections arc shown in (b) or (b-1) together with the grain direction
marking out. Generally the journals are roughed out, then each block forming along the forging. After the third heat pressure is applied with dies as shown in
two webs and the crankpin is machined so that the profile of the outside of the (c), the finalized grain flow is shown in (d) and the final forging is shown in (e).
crank webs is produced. The crankshaft at this stage is rough machined all over Note Dieforged or drop-forged crankshafts usually have grain-flow
except for the inside surfaces of the webs and the crankpin which still remains in characteristics.
the solid block. The journals and the sides of the webs adjacent to the journal
are finish-machined. Material is then cut away from the block (not flame cut) to
form the shape of the crankpin and pair of webs. A pair of webs and a crank- 10.5 What advantoges do crankshoftsj,& to give flow hove
pin is produced in the rough stage. over those where the crank webs and pin are forged as a solid block?
The crankpin and the inside of the webs are then machined. The crankpin is When the crank webs and pin are forged as a solid block the grain of the steel
usually machined by setting up in a special crankpin machining tool, in which runs along the journal and across the crank web. In grain-flow forging the grain
the crankshaft is held stationary and the cutting head holding the cutting bits runs along the throw of the web and this gives the crankshaft better fatigue
revolves around the crankpin. The oil passages and holes are also drilled. After resistance.
final finish-machining, the crankpins and journals are often hardened (which is
necessary if thin-wall bearings are used) and then ground to the finish sizes
within close tolerances. If the crankshaft is for a highly rated engine in the 10.6 How is the shrink-fitting process carried out for assembling the
medium- or high-speed range the inside surface of the oil holes in the crankshaft parts making up a large engine crankshaft?
may be ground to a very smooth finish to remove surface blemishes which could The holes in the crank webs are bored very slightly smaller than the crankpins
act as stress raisers, the fillet radius at the ends of pins and journals being and journals which they have to accommodate. The pins and journals are left at
sometimes ground for the same reasons. workshop temperature, while the web bore in which a pin or journal is to be
 248 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Crankshafts, Camshdts. Connecting-Rods, Crossheads, Slippers 249

shaft is lowered into the pit so tFat work goes on always at floor level. When
crankshafts are built up horizontally they are often built up from assemblies
that have been built inthe vertical position.
After the crankshaft parts are shrunk together they are set up in a large lathe
and the journals are checked for throw. Throw errors are machined out so that
the polar axis of each journal is in the same straight line.

10.7 How are crankshafts manufactured by welding processes? What are

the advantages of welded crankshafts?
Development in the manufacture of large crankshafts by welding together
forged or cast components is relatively new. Approval by the ship classification
societies for this form of construction is now being given.
The form of the components being joined together by a welding process will
be dictated by the final costfertWeRft&of tkecrankshaft. Thefixm of
a component for a large crankshaft could then consist of a web and one half of a
crankpin and one half of a journal. For smaller c r d s h a f t s the component
could consist of a pair of webs joined by the crankpin with one half of a journal
being formed on the outer surface of each web.
Narrow gap welding could be used to join the parts together. This is not a
welding process but adaptations of existing welding processes such as MIG
(metal inert gas arc welding process) or SAW (submerged arc welding process).
Narrow gap welding is ideally suited for crankshaft construction because the
amount of weld metal deposited is minimal when compared with the normal 'V'
and 'J' preparation used when welding thick material. Costs are lowered
because of reduced welding time; the heat input is also lowered, which has a
beneficial effect in the heat affected zone; the diameter of any crankshaft likely
to be made comes within the limits of the weld thickness the system can handle;
the materials likely to be used in crankshaft manufacture from normal carbon
steels to higher carbon steels through to alloy steels can also be handled.
The weld metal can be put down with a multipass weld, either from two wire
Fig. 10.1 Various stages in the forging of grain flow forged crankshafts. electrodes in the first-mentioned system with an inert gas shroud protecting the
(a) The first stage may be carried out with one or t w o heats as shown in sketch weld, or by a single wire electrode protected by an inert gas shroud or by sub-
(b) ( t w o heads) or sketch (b-1) (one heat). merging the arc in a suitable flux provided that its weight allows it to float easily
(b) and (b-1) Pressure on the ends of the section causes it t o make either of the on the pool of molten metal and its coefficient of expansion allows it to break
shapes shown. away cleanly and quickly without any fear of slag inclusions in the weld. With
(c) Producing the cranked section with dies and a hydraulic press.
the submerged arc system, alloying elements can be incorporated in the flux
Id) and (el Diwction of grain flow and finished forging.
when welding alloy steels.
With single wire electrodes the weld can be made with a pass as wide as the
groove, or the groove can be made up in two passes to give better side
penetration.
shrunk is heated slowly with gas burners both inside the hole and round the One of the requirements of narrow gap welding is for an accurate set up so
web, every care being taken with the heating to avoid distortion. When the that the width of the gap is the same over the depth of the weld. The sections of
temperature of the web reaches approximately 377OC the hole will, by thermal shafts being welded are set up with the polar axis of each section concentric on a
expansion, be large enough for the pin or journal to be entered into it, and this is horizontal plane, the welding being carried out in the downhand position. The
done fairly quickly; usually the web is in a horizontal position and the cold pin shaft rotates to give a suitable relative travel speed for the welding head. The
or journal is lowered into i t . weld pass is then continuous and in the form of a series of spirals.
Crunkshal'ts nluy be i i s ~ e ~ ~in ~ beither
l ~ d the vertical or horizontal position. The welding is automatically controlled and quality control is made by obser-
Vrrricd assenihly is 11~11i1llyt l o t ~ cover il pit; ILS the pclrts-rrre built-up the crank- vation of the bead.
 250 Questions and Ar~swerson the Marine Diesel Engine Crankshqfts, C u r n s h ~ t s .Corrrrecrlng I(otl5, ( 't 4)s tlrt.crtlr. Sli/)l~e
- I
s t - ?- 5.

Weld metol
,- similar manner we create a hoop tensile stress in the web after it has coolcd
down, As the radial thickness of the web around the hole is large, the radial
Th~mblefor hold~ng compressive stress and the hoop tensire Stress are more concentrated at the
nt and b o c k ~ qfor
Idmg runs surface of the hole and they both diminish gradually in an outward direction.
Note For a mathematical treatise on the stresses in crank webs due to shrink
fits, see any textbook on the strength of materials which deals with the theorem
of Lame, and pressures in thick cylinders and compound tubes.

Fig. 10.2 Narrow gap-welded crankshaft fabricated with cast steel sections. 10.9 What would be the result if the shrinkage allowance of crankshaft
cronkpins and iournals were (a) too great, and (b) too small?
If the shrinkage allowance is too great there is a danger of the crankpins and
Another requirement of a welded crankshaft is for the journals and pins to be journals becoming slack in the webs, while if the allowance is too small the
hollow. Backing rings are then used to obtain alignment and for the start of the material of the webs around the holes may be overstressed and the elastic limit
weld. When welding is finished the ring and the initial passes are machined out of the material reached. Steel in such a condition will quickly fracture.
to remove any doubtful material from the inner part of the weld. Note The elastic limit of steel or similar materials is reached when the relation-
The usual heat treatment and testing required for high quality welding are ship between stress and strain ceases to follow Hooke's Law. Beyond the elastic
carried out prior to finish-machining. limit steel begins to yield under the action of the load (see also Questions 6.44,
The main advantages of welded crankshafts are savings in weight when 6.45 and 10.8).
compared with crankshafts constructed in the normal manner by shrink-fit
assembly, lower cost arising out of the reduced size of parts being forged, and
10.10 What is the usual shrinkage allowance for the shrink fits of built-
ease of forging the pieces to obtain good grain-flow characteristics in the
finished components. up crankshafts?
The sectional profile of a welded crankshaft can be made similarly to that of a The shrinkage allowance for both the pins and journals of built-up crankshafts
'cast-iron' crankshaft. That is, the main masses of metal are located in those is the same and is between 1/570 and 1/660 of the diameter of the pin or
regions where the highest stresses would normally occur. (Fig. 10.2) journal.
ExampleFind tlx bore diameter to which a webmust be machined to accom-
104 What state of stress exists in a web and crankpin or journal of a modate a crank pin or journal of 400 mm diameter.
built-up crankshaft? The size of the hole (lower limit) is
The state of the stresses can be visualized if we consider the sizes of these parts
before they are heated and shrunk together and then relate these sizes to those
found when shrinking has taken place and the parts have cooled to normal and the size of the hole (upper limit) is
temperature. 400-400/660=400-0.61= 399.39 mm
After the shrink fit of the pin or journal is made in a crank web the diameter
of the pin or journal will be reduced in the way of the shrink; similarly the The mean bore size is therefore
diameter of the hole in the web will be increased.
During the cooling process the heated web will decrease in size and start
compressing the surface of the journal; this will continue until a balance point is
reached, when the force per unit area between the journal surface and the and the bore-size hole in the web is
surface of the hole in the web will be the same and will be acting radially. Thus
there will be a radial compressive stress acting on the mating surfaces of the pin
and the hole.
If we were to take a cast-iron washer and drive a steel taper pin in the hole, the 10.1 1 What are the proportions of crank webs relative to the pin or
washer would eventually split dong a line radial in direction and then open up, journal diameter in built crankshafts?
failure of the washer being due to tensile loading. In driving the taper pin into
the washer we are simulating the conditions existing in the shrink fit, so in a The proportions of crank webs must be such that the resultant shrink fit has
enough grip without overstressing the material in the web.
252 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Crankshafts, Camshafh, Connecting-Rods, Crossheads, Slippers 253

Generally. the thickness of the web axially is made greater than 0.45 of 10.14 Do the parts of a built-up crankshaft ever slip relative to one
the diameter of the pin or journal; common values now are between 0.5 and another? 2
0.575 of the diameter. Formerly this proportion was made greater.' The radial
thickness of the material of the web forming the eye is normally calculated With normal service usage the various parts of a built-up crankshaft do not slip,
from various design formulae which take into account the axial thickness of but many instances of shrink-fit slip are known. The most common cause comes
the web and the minimum yield stress of the material. In some cases the axial about in attebhpting to start an engine when water or fuel leakage has occurred
thickness of the web may be fixed first and then the radial thickness calculated and partially filled the space in the cylinder above the piston. When the engine is
later. fust started the piston comes up and the water or oil being incompressible
In semi-built shafts there is a restriction on the smallest distance between the causes tjw engine to stop; the momentum of the moving parts is then almost
side of the hole in the web and the surface of the crank pin; this distance is immediately absorbed as the shrink-fitted parts slip. The consequences of this
usually kept in excess of 0.10 of the journal diameter. are usually disastrous and the extensive damage is enormously costly to repair.
In other instances (outside the control of the ship's engineer officers) damage of
Note The bore sizes in the webs for shrink fits are calculated and take into this nature has come about when the propeller has struck some fixed or heavy
account the yield stress of the crankshaft mate@, the thickness of the web in object.
the axial and radial directions, together with other fact&. Further details on
this matter are covered in the rule books of the classification societies. Note Before putting starting air on to an engine after a shutdown or long
standby, the engine must be given a full turn with the turning gear, while the
open indicator cocks are observed to ascertain that no water or oil is discharged
10.12 Is it necessary to fit dowel pins in way of the pins, journals and while the engine is being turned. This may present difficulties, when an engine is
webs of built-up crankshafts? State reasons. kept on standby while the ship is at anchor. With good communication and
When reciprocating steam engine crankshafts were first built up by shrink- understanding between the Chief Engineer Officer and the Master, arrange-
fitting the parts together, the craftsmen of those days did not have the ments can be made for the engine to be checked using the turning gear before
advantage of using accurate measuring tools such as internal and external 'swinging' the engine on starting air. In the case of diesel engines driving aux-
micrometers. It was then necessary to use made-up pin gauges, inside and iliaries such as generators, the engine must be 'barred' round a full turn before
outside calipers, and feelers, and the accuracy of measurements depended starting'even if a solid-forged dankshaft is fitted in the engine concerned.
almost entirely on the 'feel' of the craftsman. In consequence dowel pins were
fitted to make up for any deficiences which might arise from a 'light' shrink. 10.15 How would you establish whether slip has occurred between any
As engine builders changed over from building steam reciprocating engines ports of s built-up crankshaft?
to diesel engines the practice of fitting dowels was continued.
When some crankshafts fractured in service, investigation into the failures After a crankshaft has been built the protrusion of the journal beyond the flat
showed that the dowel pin and hole (half in the web and half in the pin or surface on the inside of the web is locally flushed with a grindstone so that a
journal) acted as a high stress raiser which initiated a fracture. This, together small rectangular flat surface is created half in the web and half in the journal.
with more accurate methods of measurement brought about by the common use A light chiselcut in a radial line is then made with a very sharp flat chisel so that
of the micrometer, produced more reliable shrink fits and caused the practice of half of the cut is in the end of the journal and the other half in the web. If slip
fitting dowels to be discontinued. Their use is now generally prohibited by the occurs between the web and the journal the line cut by the chisel will separate.
engine construction rules of the various ship classification societies. Each end of the crankpin and the outside of the crankwebs are treated in a
similar manner on fully built crankshafts.
These reference marks, as they are called, should be sighted each time a
10.13 If dowel pins or keys are not fitted in the parts of a built-up crankcase internal examination is made and their correctness should be
crankshaft how is it possible to drive the propeller without the various recorded with any other remarks made in the log-book entry covering the
parts slipping? -
- a
crankcase examination.
When the parts of a built-up crankshaft are assembled with shrink fits, the
mating surfaces of the pins, journals and webs are subject to a very high radial 10.16 Assume that a large, slow-speed main engine crankshaft journal
compressive stress. This radial-siress sets up an enormous frictional resistance has slipped in its web. Would it be possible to effect a permanent repair
which prevents the webs slipping around the journals and on the crankpins without removing the crankshaft from the engine? If such a repair is
when the engine is operating. The radial compressive stress on the contact possible, how would it be carried out?
surfaces of tlic shr~nkfit i s approximately 77 MN/m2 (5 tons/in2).
Once the cause of the slipped journal has been established and careful exami-
nation shows that ncr otherpartsaf the engine are seriously damaged, k
 savings that cr~nbc ~ r ~ u dilleboll1 t h e and money by making a corrective repair the heating is stopped and the heated parts are allowed to cool down again while
to the crankshaft without taking it out of the engine are obviously very the journal warms up; the shrink then rcstvrcs i~scll.'
attractive. For this reason repairs of this nature have been carried out on many Prior to fitting the parts back in the engine, the journal in way of the repair is
occasions, and with satisfactory end results. checked for any errors which, if large in extent, must be corrected.
To make such a repair, the various parts of the engine such as the main After a repair of this nature a trial of the main engine must be carried out, and
bearings, connecting rods, etc. adjacent to the damage are removed from the if the engine operates satisfactorily the ship would be allowed to return to
crankcase so that good access is obtained to the repair site. service. The crankshaft and bearings would then be examined at frequent time
A hole is then drilled into the end of the journal that has slipped, far enough intervals which would be gradually extended. After a period of satisfactory
to meet with the oil hole which supplies oil from the main bearing to the operation the repair would be considered permanent.
crankpin. In some engines there will already be a central oil hole, in which case Nott A repair of this nature must be.undertaken with great care. In a book of
only the end plug will need removing. 'C
this scope it is impossible to go fully into all the details that must be planned to
The hole is drilled in the centre of the journal and follows its polar axis, its cover the exigencies that might arise.
size being calculated so that it can be made as large as possible without seriously
impairing the strength of the journal, or reducing the radial compressive stress The safety aspects must also becarefully studied as it can be seen that it would
on the shrink surfaces. be a simple matter to fill up the lower part of the engine room with nitrogen.
Sections of the oil hole are blanked off so that there is a clear passage only Liquid nitrogen at normal temperature is under high pressure so the methoti of
from the newly drilled hole to the oil hole in the.journa1. Thermocouples or piping the liquified gas to the parts to be cooled must be carefully studied. The
resistance elements are cemented on to the ends of the journal adjacent to the method of blanking the holes in the journal and the outlet pipe from the journal
web and on the curved surface of the journal near the web. The ends of the is also most important.
journal, the web and the circular part of the journal are then well covered with The heating of the web must also be carefully controlled or distortion will
-
fireproof blankets or similar non-flammable heat-insulating material. A pipe is occur.
led from the oil hole in the journal to some point outside the engine room. An inert and non-toxic gas must always be used. Nitrogen is probably the best
Liquid nitrogen is then piped to the newly drilled hole in the end of the journal gas for the purpose as it has a very low boiling point ( - 195°C) at atmospheric
and bled through a throttling or reducing valve into the space behind the hole. pressure, with a latent heat of vaporization of 200.1 kJ/kg.
The liquid nitrogen then flashes to gas in the journal and exhausts itself away to Other materials have been used to cool the journal; these include circulation
atmosphere. In flashing to gas, the latent heat required for making the change of methyl alcohol cooled by 'dry ice' (solidified COJ and liquid CO,. When any
of state is taken from the journal and the journal is cooled down. The forms of alcohol are brought into the engine room great care must be taken
thermocouples or resistance elements connected to instruments give a against possible formation of explosive vapours. -
temperature read-out of the parts being cooled. -
The crankshaft must be supported at suitable places, and hydraulic jacks are - --
10.17 What loads and stresses is a crankshaft sub'iected to while in
W
placed in such positionsthat &oqtte c a r r k ~ p l i e dto the journal from adja- operation? State any causes from inside or outside the engine that could
cent webs, the direction that the torque is applied being such that it will move increase these stresses.
the web in the opposite direction from the slip. Two jacks are normally used,
one to supply the correcting torque and the other as a form of control. The loads to which a crankshaft is subjecteg come initially from the compres-
Calculations and graphs are made to cover the temperature to which the parts sion of air and combustion offuel, which cause rotation of the crankshaft. In
being cooled will be reduced. When the temperature is sufficiently reduced the order to gain some idea of the loads coming on to a crankshaft it simplifies
hydraulic jacks are pumped up with separate pumps so that each jack can be matters if we consider only that part of the crankshaft associated with one
individually controlled. engine cylinder, and consider it as statie a d subjected only to a constant load at
The insulation covering the web to be heated is removed and propane or this point. In this way we can more easily analyse what is actually happening.
similar burners are then used to heat the web over as large a circumference as If we consider the crankshaft on top-dead-centre we can see it is in effect a
possible so that localized overheating does not occur. The witness or reference beam supported on the main bearings. The load it is subjected to will be the
mark on the journal and web is kept under observation together with the product of the piston area and the gas pressure in the cylinder at this time. This
pressure gauges showing the hydraulic jack pressure. When the pressure on the load will act downwards, and as the crankshaft will be supported by the
jack supplying the corrective torque drops it indicates that movement between bearings, the bearing reaction will be upwards. From this we can see that the
the journal and web has commenced. With the witness mark under observation load on the crankpin will give it a curvature downwards which will put the top
further torque is carefully applied until the witness mark is in line again. If the part of the pin in compression and the lower part in tension. The two journals
mark is passed, the control jack must be activated to reverse the movement. will receive a similar curvature and they will then be supported only on the
When the witness mark is correctly re-aligned, the nitrogen supply is shut off, inside edge (adjacent to the crank) of each main bearing.
256 Questions and Answers on fhe Marine Diesel Engine Crankshqfts, Camshqfts, Connecting-Rods, Crossheads, Slippers 257

The webs of the crank will be deflected similarly, and the inside surfaces of 10.18 What are the obiections to drilling oil-ways in crankshafts? How
the webs will be in tension and the outside surfaces in compression. The whole .are the effects minimized?
of the cross-section of the web will also be subjected to half of the total load
acting on the piston, which will be compressive. It has been seen (Question 10.17) that the parts of a crankshaft are subjected to
If the crank is put at 90' from the top-dead-centre position the gases will have stresses which are constantly changing both in magnitude and direction
expanded and the load on the piston will be between 11 % and 14% of the load throughout an engine cycle. When oil holq are drilled and channels are cut in
when it was at top-dead-centre. The crank mechanism will still be acting as a crankshafts they act as stress-raisers which reduce the ability of the parts
beam, supported on the edges of the bearing, but the crankpin, webs and concerned to resist fatigue. The objections to drilled oil-ways are minimized by
journal will have been turned through 90', and the parts of the pin and journal situating the oil holes in the regions of the crankshaft where they will be
which were subjected to the maximum tensile and compressive stress when the subjected to the least stress. An example of bad practice is seen in some older
piston was at top-dead-centrwill -now be lying in the plane of the neutral axis. engines where the oil supplied to the crankpin bearing entered the bearing from
The action of the piston load will be downwards and so also will the curvature four exit points in the crankpin obtained by drilling two holes, across the
of the pin and journal, which will consequently be subjected to tensile and crankpin at 90' to each other, one of which &me through the crankpin surface
compressive stresses due to the bendingmoments set up by the piston load and where it was subjected to the maximum tensile loading.
bearing reaction. The streGes on the crank web will be greatly changed, since Nowadays the holes in the crankpin may be positioned horizontally across
the load on the piston and the journal reaction from the twisting moment will the diameter when the crank is at top dead centre. The oil hole then goes across
cause the web to act as a beam and the bearing reaction will cause it to be sub- the plane of the neutral axis of the crankpin when it is subjected to maximum
jected to twisting at the same time. The angularity of the connecting rod will bending. In other cases it is located on the top of the crankpin when at top
centre, and goes radia&uiawwardsintothepin for half the diameer, whereit
also indixe a tensile load on the crank webs. ---
When the crank is turned to bottom-dead-centre the gas load on the piston joins a hole following the polar axis of the crankpin. When the hole is in this
will be a mere fraction of that at top-dead-centre position, the stresses on the location the material ef the pin is subjected to conuwessiveloading when the pin
pins, journals and webs will be reversed, and consequently stresses that were is at top centre, to a low tensile load when it is at bottom centre, and at gpproxi-
tensile in the top centre position become compressive in the bottom centre mately half-piston stroke the hole is along the neutral axis of the crankpin.
position, and vice versa. The magnitude of the stresses is, however, greatly The holes must be left smooth inside their bore; they must be made with sharp
reduced due to the reduction in piston load. drills so that drill swarf does not score the surface of the holes, particularly near
This analysis serves to show that the stresses on a crankshaft are changing the working surfaces of pins and journals.
both in magnitude and direction as the engine rotates and that the torsional Where a hole and the circular surface of a pin meet, the comer must be care-
stresses brought about by the shaft reaction or the load being driven are additive fully radius& with a clean smooth surface. Oil holes in journals are also given a
to those mentioned. It can also be seen that the action of the loads on adjacent radius in a similar manner.
cranks induces further stresses into the crankshaft. Stress patterns in In some cases no oil holes are drilled in the crankshaft, which is left solid.
crankshafts are extremely complex. Lubrication of the crankpin bearing is obtained from the crosshead which is
When bearings wear we can see that if the wear-down between adjacent supplied with lubricant via a set of telescopic pipes. The lubricant then passes
bearings is unequal the alignment of the crankshaft will be altered, this altera- through a hole bored through the connecting rod.
tion further increasing the stresses to which a crankshaft is normally
subjected.
Causes outside the engine may similarly produce misalignment, due to 10.19 Describe some of the difficulties which arise in crankshaft design
different loading patterns in the cargo spaces causing changes in the hull when the borehtroke ratio approaches unity or when bore/stroke is over-
deflection. This in turn causes changes in the crankshaft alignment, since the square. How does this affect the engine operator?
engine bedplate and crankshaft, being less rigid than the hull, follow the hull In engines with ratios of bore to stroke around unity the diameters of the
movement. crankpin and journal become relatively large in relation to the web dimension's..
In heavy weather as waves pass along a ship the increased buoyancy from the The crankpin-surface circle then overlaps the journal-surface circle when they'
wave crest causes hull movement which again alters the alignment of the are viewed end on. If the elevation of a drawing of a crankshaft of this type is
crankshaft and increases the stresses on it. When causes outside the engine studied it can be seen that the overlap of the crankpin and journal is such that
produce crankshaft misalignment, this is the result of changes in the positions the thinnest section of the web is across a diagonal running from the lower pin
of the bearings relative to some norm. The loads on the main bearings can then surface of the crankpin across the web and upwards to the top surface of the
be greatly increased, and this is one of the causes of the main bearings wearing journal. The rigidity of the crank web across this diagonal is much less than in
down at different rates. the other parts of the web, due to the influence of the lower portion of the
crankpin and the upper portion of the journal. If the bore/stroke ratio is over- edges examined and if necessary they should be eased lightly on the edge.
square the effect is more pronounced. The less-rigid section of the crank web Medium-speed solid-forged crankshafts must also bc cnrcfully examined
makes for problems in design to minimize its effect as a stress-raiser or notch. around oil holes for any signs of cracking. The fillets between the journal and
In turn, this affects the ship's Engineer Officer, who must watch moreclosely web area require careful examination, particularly so in the arc of the fillet
the alignment of this type of crankshaft. It is obvious that the amount of between the position corresponding to 10 o'clock and 2 o'clock when the piston
misalignment allowed will be much less than in a medium-speed engine with a is on topdead-centre.
lower bore/stroke ratio, as in such engines the notch effect across the webs is The location where fatigue failure may commence is shown in Figs. 10.3 (a)
much less pronounced. r or @). Any crack which may be present will be more difficult to find in crank-
shafts having reentrant or negative fillets. This type of fillet is more common
today; it is often necessary to use a mirror and a flashlight to view the surface of
10.20 What examinations would you carry out on the main bearings and the fdet. Cracks usually start at the bottom of re-entrant fillets. With normal
crankshaft before, during, and after removal of the bearings from the fillets any crack will usually start at the edge of a fillet run-out. These locations
engine? are shown with arrows in the figures. Cracks may also start at the fillets of oil
The bearing nuts, oil pipes, locking devices and split pins must be examined to holes, this form of crack usually runs at 45 degrees to the shaft axis. Once ini-
see that nothing is abnormal prior to dismantling. If it is possible to measure tiated, any fatigue crack will grow until complete fracture occurs. See question
the bearing clearance with a feeler gauge before dismantling the upper half of 6.50 dealing with nondestructive testing.
the bearing, the clearance should be measured and recorded. After removal of Before replacing the lower half of the bearing it is useful to take a bridge
the upper half of the main bearing, the weardown of the lower half should be gauge reading to establish the natural sag of the crankshaft with the bearing
taken with a bridge gauge and a feeler gauge and recorded.
The lower half of the main bearing is then removed and brought out of the
crankcase. The white-metal of the bearing should be examined for cracks,
which may be developing in the wearing surface of the bearing, and if present
the white-metal araund the cracks should be lightly tapped with the ball p i n of be?w_eenorc
a small hammer or with a large copper coin to check that the white-metal is still
bonding with the shell of the bearing. The remaining parts of the bearing should
also be checked to establish that the bond remains solid.
Attention must be given to any oil grooves which may be cut in the main
bearings; if the sides of the groove are sharp they must be lightly scraped with a
scraper to establish an oil lead-in. If the bearing has slightly wiped at any time V~ewon A
(and not been previously noticed) any debris should be chipped out of the oil
grooves and the sides of the groove scraped. Generally the lower half of the A
bearing requires a much more careful examination than the upper half. The
outer surface of the bearing shells should also be examined for any fretting
which may have taken place if the bearing was left or worked slack.
On the crankshaft the working surfaces of the journal are examined for signs
of corrosion or pitting caused by water or acid contamination of the lubricating
oil. The area around oil holes is a critical part and must also be carefully
examined for cracks, which usually emanate at about 45" to the axis of the
crankshaft, and in some cases may be up to four or more in number, forming
radial lines from the oil hole. The surfaces of the crank webs are also examined
for any signs of cracks, particularly in the higher-stressed regions midway Re-entrant fillet
between pin and journal. With built-up crankshafts the shrink fit reference
marks should also be sighted. Fig. 10.3 Usual locations of crankshaft failures. Note the two forms of fillet
For medium-speed engines it is most likely that the main bearings will be of shown in the sketches. The upper fillet form is a normal form of fillet. The lower
the thin-walled type and the crankshaft solid-forged. In such engines the treat- form of re-entrant or negative fillet is often used today as it is possible to obtain
ment and examinations are similar. The examination of bearing shells' for a shorter length to the crankshaft without a reduction in bearing surface length.
cracking should be carried out in a similar manner as for white-metal bearings. I Another location of possible failure is around oil holes with cracks running at 45
The oil lead-in pockets or chambers at the butts of the bearing should have their I degrees to the axis of the crankshaft.
 Crankshqfts, Carnshqfts, Connecting-Rods, Crossheads, Slippers 261
260 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
- the bearing. The contact surface between the connecting rod and the top flat
removed, if the figure is not known or recorded. This is a useful figure to have surface of the crankpin bearing is also checked for fretting.
when taking clock gauge readings of crankshaft deflections (see questions The threads of the bolts must be examined for deformation and stretching;
dealing with this matter in Chapter 14). (Fig. 10.3) the bolts should also be hung up and sounded with a light hammer for detecting
cracks. The fillets in the reduced sections of the bolt must be examined for the
10.21 Describe the examination carried out before dismantling main Mart of cracks which could lead to eventual bolt fracture. If any bolts are
bearings. How are main bearings removed from the bearing pocket? suspect, crackdetection tests should be applied and if any cracks are confirmed
new bolts must be fitted. The crankpin should be examined for cracks, partic-
Before dismantling main bearings an examination must be made to check that ularly in the region of the oil hole in the crankpin. The condition of the working
the marks locating the position of the keep and bearing shell are correct. The surface of the pin and the reference marks between crankpin and crank web are
marks, usually cut in with letter and figure type, signify the bearing number and also important points to note.
the way it is located. It may be that the spare main bearing has been fitted in an It is good practice to place a straightedge on the top of the crankpin when on -,
engine, in which case the direction in which the bearing is located may not be top centre, and at 90°, 180" and 270" from this position. The profile of the
indicated, and some location identifying mark should then be made with a letter wearing surface of the pin can then be checked and some indication will be given
or figure stamp. if high spots or areas are being left at the centre of the crankpin in way of
Various means are adopted to facilitate removal of the lower half of the the circumferential oil groove (if fitted) of the bearing and at the sides of the
bearing, a common method being to fit a special clamp on the crank web adja- crankpin. Although no action may be taken to remove the high areas on the
cent to the bearing which has to be removed. The engine is then turned slowly unworn parts of the crankpin, it is as well to be aware of their presence in case of
with the turning gear and the bearing is pushed round out of its pocket by a difficulties arising in the alignment of the running gear or operation of the
projection on the clamp. When the bearing has been turned for a half revolu- running-gear bearings.
tion it will be sitting on the top of the journal free of the pocket. It is then lifted
off the journal and swung clear of the crank webs with a set of chain blocks
rigged above the bearing and another set rigged near the crankcase door. 10.23 How does failure in a crankshaft usually occur?
If the bearing bore has been machined slightly eccentric to the outer shell of In Question 10.17 we attempted to analyse the stresses in a crankshaft and
the bearing, the engine must be turned in one direction to remove the bearing, found that they were highly complex. It was also noted that crankpins and
and in the opposite direction to replace it. - - .- journals were subjected to bending action, which realts in push-pull forces
With some very large engines t6e support for the bearing in the pocket of the and in consequence makes a crankshaft prone to fatigue failure. When a crank-
bedplate is made with a small hollow area so that a pocket is formed. This shaft is designed for a prototype engine, a careful study is made of the stress-
pocket is the? filled with oil and the oil is put under pressure with a hand concentration factors at oil holes, the ends of fillets, and across crank webs. By
pressure pump. The oil under pressure lifts the bearing in the pocket and altering the geometry of the crankshaft the stress concentration factor can be
reduces the turning effort required to turn the bearing out of the pocket. improved, but stress concentrations will always remain. If an engine crankshaft
In other engines it is necessary to place hydraulic jacks under the webs oq should fail, it usually does so due to fatigue at some point where concentration
each side of the bearing to be removed. Wood blocks are placed below the jacks of stress has been high. These points are oil holes in crankpins, oil holes in jour-
to distribute the load evenly over the bottom of the crank pit, and the jacks are nals to a lesser extent, and at the runout of fillets on the underside of crankpins
pumped up so that the weight of the crankshaft is transferred from the bearing in solid-forged crankshafts and semi-built-up crankshafts.
to the jacks. The bearing is then free in the pocket. An eye bolt is fitted into the Although-the design of a crankshaft may be good, misalignment of the
side of the bearing and the bearing is pulled round in its pocket with a chain crankshaft journal bearings will increase the stress range during operation and
block. When the bearing is half out of its pocket the eye bolt is transferred to may cause fatigue failure at one of the points where a stress concentration
another position so that the bearing can be completely turned out of its pocket. occurs. Hardened crankshafts may also fail due to overheating of bearings
from lack of lubricating oil or bad fitting. The overheated area may cause
10.22 What examinations must be carried out when a crankpin bearing surface cracks to appear in the hardened layer, which then progress inwards
of a large, slow-speed engine is opened up for survey? until failure occurs. The crack, once initiated, acts as a stress raiser.
Failure of crankshafts has also occurred in the flange connecting the engine
When the bearing has been exposed the white-metal is examined for cracks, to the intermediate shaft or electrical rotor. This is likely to occur if the radius
signs of wiping, and condition of oil grooves which should be dealt with as of the fillet between shaft and flange is large, making it necessary to make deep
mentioned in Question 10.20. The foot of the connecting rod must be checked facings into the fillet for the coupling-bolt heads or nut landings.
for cracks at the sides of thc bolt holes and the underside of the foot must also Failure may also occur due to excessively large stresses caused by torsional
be exanli~ledfor cracks running across under the line of the run-out of the fillet, vibration. This type of failure is dealt with in Chapter 17.
particularly so i f n conlpression plncc is fitted bctwecn thc connecting rod and
10.24 How can the fotigue resistance of a crankshaft material be ongin., mrdlutn-opoorlInrtallatior~Ooororl to n -.inale wrow: ( r ) o twin-
increased? screw Installation?
The locations of the highest stress ranges are the locations where fatigue failure Before any real course of action can be taken it is absolutely csscrtliid t h r l lltc
may occur in a crankshaft. These locations a* in the regions of the fillets at the suspicion is fully confirmed and a crack is found to exist. This can be done only
junction of the crankpins and webs, and the journals and webs. (Fig. 10.3) by careful examination and use of dye penetrant tests or magnetic particle tests
Normally fatigue failure occurs at some point where local damage or a flaw (see Question 6.50). Once the suspicion of a crack is confirmed the situation for
becomes the nucleation site of the failure. When the material in this region is the Chief Engineer Officer and the Master changes because the ship cannot
subjected to a cyclic stress that is tensile during some part of the cycle, a crack function norinally and may possibly be classified as a casualty. The shipowner's
may start to grow from this point and will proceed until fracture occurs or the technical and operating departments must be informed immediately so that the
crack is found during a survey. technical department can attend to repair arrangements, and the operating
If the material in the region of the highest fluctuating stresses is given a department attend to the commercial and legal liabilities of the owner.
residual compressive stress by cold working the surface, the possibility of (a) In single-screw engine installations the ship should not proceed until the
fatigue failure is reduced. following matters have been attended to. First, the depth of the crack must be
If the surface is locally hardened to give a higher tensile stress a similar result
can be expected. -
Apart from normql hardening processes applied to the surfaces of crankshaft
ascertained. If it is shallow, it may be ground out so that its effect as a stress-
raiser is minimized. The alignment of the bearing journals must then be checked
in case misalignment is the cause of the failure, and o h e r likely causes of failure
pins, journals and webs, as mentionehi Qxshn 6.11, there are another two
methods for surface hardening but these are not suitable for working surfaces.
- -should also be checked. Any likely causes found must be remedied.
In conjunction with the classification society's surveyor (Lloyd's Register,
The fillets on crankpins and journals may be work hardened by rolling the A.B.S., etc.) a certificate can be obtained which would permit the ship to
fillets with heavily loaded hardened steel rollers or by shot peening with hard proceed at reduced power. In the case of deep cracks some strengthening will
shot. A residual compressive stress in the fillet surface is then obtained. have to be arranged before the ship can be allowed to proceed to a repair port.
The depth of the compressed layer is of great importance. In the case of (b) In the case of twin-engined installationsthe conditions generally will be as
rolling treatments the depth cannot be easily measured. Procedures are estab- for (a) except that it is aq easiematter to get a classification certificate to allow
lished to determine the required amount of rolling by measuring the depth of the ship to proceed on one engine.
the effect in test samples after their destruction. (c) The conditions are similar to (b).
In the case of shot peening, test strips can be subjected to the same treatment
as the fillets, the degree of curvature of the test strip giving an indication of the Note In the case of such a serious matcer as a defective crankshaft, once the
depth of the induced stress. crack has been absolutely confirmed it is imperative that the Master and Owners
Valve springs are often shot peened to increase their resistance to fatigue be notified. No repair work other than preparatory removal of parts should be
failure, and shot peening treatment is sometimes applied to the root fillets in attempted until the confirmation for other work is received from the Owner's
gear teeth. technical department, who will be in a much better position to call for expert
One of the problems related to these treatments is fading of the surface effect advice and assistance, deal with classification and insurance matters, and
and the greater problems that may arise if this loss occurs. arrange for temporary repairs if necessary and then the permanent repair.
It is pertinent to remark that some builders of automotive engines use shot The nature of any strengthening or reinforcing work to effect a temporary
peening treatment for crankshafts in engines that operate mainly under part repair would depend on where the crack was found; for example, a crack in a
load condition and are only subjected to maximum load at infrequent intervals. web would require a totally different type of treatment from a crack in a crank-
Generally rolling treatments are applicable to large and small crankshafts pin or journal. Cracks at the after end of a crankshaft are generally more
whereas shot peening can only be considered suitable for the smallest critical than at the forward end. The amount of available space in a crankcase
crankshafts. may be a critical factor: any reinforcing or strengthening must be within the
Before any of these treatments are used on crankshafts for marine engines the limits of crankcase space to allow free rotation.
treatment must be approved by the classification society concerned.
Note This subject can be further studied in books dealing with the strength of
engineering materials and their fracture, and books on the subject of fracture 10.26 What special importance is placed on the side-rod cronkpin and
mechanics. crosshead bearing bolts of opposed piston engines? Why are they
considered in a different manner from the crosshead and cronkpin bolts of
normal crosshead engines?
10.25 How would you deal with a suspected crack in a main engine
crankshaft of (a) a slow-speed, direct-driven single-screw installation or The side-rod crankpin and crosshead bearing bolts are subjected to tensile loads
geared, medium-speed engine installation with one engine; (b) a twin- from the gas pressure under the upper piston. The tensile load on the bolts from
 ZW Questions and Answers on the Marrne Diesel kngme J
Crankshqfts, Camshqfts, Connecting-Rods, Crossheads, Slippers 265
the gas pressure is further increased by the tightening action of the bolt nuts
holding the bearings and running gear together. Together with loads from in the bolt is greater in service even though the maximum stress may be less. As
inertia effects, the range of tensile stress on side-rod bolts is such that they are fatigue is a function of stress range rather than maximum stress, an insuffi-
much more liable to fatigue failure than crankpin and crosshead bearing bolts ciently tightened bolt is more liable to fatigue failure than one correctly
on normal slow-speed engines. tightened.
In view of side-rod bolts being prone to fatigue failure they are given a 'life' In opposed piston engines the correct degree of tightening of the side-rod top
of a certain number of running hours. Special importance is put on this life and bottom ends is of paramount importance if premature bolt failure is to be
period and side-rod bolts must be renewed when they have operated for the avoided.
number of running hours making up the life period. Side-rod crosshead and
crankpin bolts on opposed piston engines are given this recommended running-
hour life-span due to the much greater possibility of fatigue failure, whereas 10.29 What particular attention is required for opposed piston engine
normal slow-speed engine crosshead and crankpin bolts are not normally given side-rod crosshead and crankpin bearing bolts during the survey of the,
a running-hour life. bearings?
The side-rod bearing bolts must be examined for the start of fatigue cracks at
10.27 Why is it particularly important that the total thickness of the the ends of the fillet runout on to the smaller diameter of the bolts and at the
shims or liners for crosshead and crankpin bearing adjustment be kept the fillets adjacent to the bolt heads. The bottom of the threads must also be care-
same on both sides of the bearing? What happens if the thickness varies fully examined, particularly towards the end of the thread nearest to the bolt
on each side of side-rod crossheudmd crankpin bearings on opposed head and at the reduced section of the bolt at the thread run-out. The bolts
piston engines? should be hung up and checked for soundness by their ring. Dye-penetrant tests
can also be used to make doubly sure.
When bearings and bearing-keeps are machined for bearing bolts, bolt-head If them has been any water contamination of the lubricating oil, corrosion
- and nut-landing faces, they are machined-with equal shims and the bolt-head pits often start at the critical areas described above. If the pitting is deep,
and nut-landing faces should be absolutely parallel to one another and at 90" to renewal of bolts must be considered because pit holes often become the stress
the bolt hole. If at some later time during bearing adjustment the bearing is raisers that initiate fatigue failure.
assembled with unequal thicknesses of shims or liners on opposite sides of the The landing face of the heads of bolts must also be examined for burrs and
bearing, the landing faces for the nuts and bolt heads will be slightly out of minor damage which could prevent the head of the bolt landing properly; any
parallel when the bolts are hardened up. This will cause the bolt to bend slightly such defects must be c l e a n m f %forethe bolts q e refitted. Tria simGW
in the hardened-up or tight position. In effect this causes a variation in the manner feathers or dowels fitted in the bolt head should be examined and any
tensile stress across the bolt cross-section and seriously reduces the bolt's resis- surface defects on the feather, which could cause thTfeather to bind in its slot,
tance to fatigue failure. For this reason it is imperative that the thickness of and slot defects, must be dressed and cleaned off, thus enabling the bolt head to
shims or liners be kept absolutely the same on opposite sides of the bearing. be pulled home square on its landing face.
In opposed piston engine side-rod crosshead and crankpin beqngs, if the When the bolts are refitted during assembly of side-rod bearings, the nuts
shim or liner thickness is not kept equal on opposite sides of the beanng the bolt should be pulled up lightly with a skeleton spanner. After the bolts are hand-
life can be greatly reduced, so that failure occurs before the bolt becomes due tightened the landing face of the bolt head should be checked with the thinnest
for renewal. feeler-gauge blade to c o n f v that the head is fitting correctly on the landing
While bearing-bolt breakage can have serious consequences in any engine, face of the bearing. When new bolts are being fitted at the time of bolt changes,
side-rod bolt failure in opposed piston engines can be, and usually is, the diameter of the bolt head should be checked against the diameter of the head
particularly disastrous. on the old bolts so that there is no fear of the head of the new bolt being too
large for the spot facing on which it lands.
10.28 If the crossheod and crankpin bolts ore insufficiently tightened Note The checks mentioned in the answer may appear troublesome, but they
what effect does this have on the bolt? are necessary to prevent premature failure of side-rod bolts in service and the
Insufficient tightening can have serious consequences even if the bearing con- disastrous consequences of failure.
tinues to operate without becoming slack. When a bearing bolt is tightened it is
subjected to tensile stress. 10.30 What particular attention is required for top- and bottom-end bolts
During operation in normal engines, changing inertia loads on the bearing of medium-speed engines and bottom-end bolts of high-speed engines?
keeps causes a variation in the bolt loading which is additive to the loading from I
ti~htcriingtllc holt nuts. Wllcn :I holt is i~lsufficicntiytightcricd the stress range The examinations carried out on top-end and bottom-end bolts for the engin6 .
I types named in the question should be as set out in Question 10.29. In certain, '
cngitw typcs lhc lcngtii or the bolt is measured when new, and the tightening l w i n t / n ~ - r n o ~ ~tlinyrn~~l,
~ e ~ l ( it will Or n r r l 1 I111tl ~ I I I I ~ IIIC
I I ~ I ) C I / O ~d V ~ V CIS
I
.;lrcss is controllctl by I I I C I I R I I ~ ~the
I I ~ 11oit dt11.111g
i l ~ ct l g l ~ t c ~ ~process.
l l ~ g When opening the torque will be positive and when the valve is closing it will bc
the required amount of strain is measured, the bolt has been brought to the negative. When the summation of tlic to~qircrcqulrctncnts for each cam is
correct tension by the tightening of the nut. With materials used in certain bolts plotted it will be seen that the torque requirement for driving thc camshaft
some permanent strain occurs in the bolts during their working life. When a varies considerably throughout the cycle. As the number of cylinders increase
I
specified amount of permanent strain is reached the bolt is considered to have the variation in camshaft torque decreases.
reached the end of its useful life and is scrapped.
Note Torsional vibration in the crankshaft can affect the camshaft. This
When bolts are given a life amounting to a certain number of running hours it
is essential that accurate records of the running hours of individual bolts be kept matter is covered in Chapter 17.
,
so that they can then be renewed at the correct time. When bearing bolts that I
I
have a specified life are replaced with new bolts, the old bolts must be defaced 10.35 What effect does camshaft torque voriotion have on the camshaft
or cut up so that they are unusable; this prevents inadvertent re-use of an old drive?
bolt.
As the torque requirement to drive the camshaft .varies, the load on the:!:
camshaft drive also varies. This load variation may cause problems in the
10.31 What is the purpose of cams and where are they fitted? driving gears which may chatter within the limits of the gear backlash, or cause
Cams are used on diesel engines to operate the mechanisms connected with the roller chains to vibrate and swing. Gear-wheel chatter and rollerchain
opening and closing exhaust valves and air inlet valves, driving fuel pumps, air vibration or transverse swing increase the load on the camshaft drive and may
starting valve pilot valves, etc. They are fitted to (or are part of) camshafts cause difficulties in service.
which are driven by the engine crankshaft. -
0 The Gller chains used to drive engine camshafts eventually
10.32 How are camshafts driven? A increase in length while in service. How is this increase in length accom-
modatd and how is increased transverse vibration catered for when the
Camshafts are driven by power transmitted from the engine crankshaft through chain stretches?
roller chains or gear trains. q
At regular intervals the stretch or length increase of roller chains is taken up by
adjustment of the chain tensioning device. This usually consists of an idler
10.33 What is the camshaft speed relative to the engine speed? sprocket wheel mounted at one end of a lever. At the other end of the lever is a
In four-stroke cycle engines the operational cycle is completed in four piston nut fitted in a yoke. A screw passes through the nut. Turning the screw causes
strokes or two engine revolutions, so the camshaft must turn one revolution in the lever to move about a fulcrum so that the idler sprocket wheel moves
this time. It, therefore, runs at half the engine crankshaft speed. In two-stroke -
towards or away from the chain increasing or reducing the tension.
cycle engines where the operational cycle is completed in one revolution of the In some engines correct chain adjustment is controHed by measuring th;
crankshaft, the camshaft operates at the same speed as the engine crankshaft. transverse displacement of the chain at its mid-position between two designated
sprockets.
In other engines a helical spring loading device is fitted on the lever, nut and
10.34 Is the torque on a camshaft constant or varying? screw. As the chain stretches, the amount of compression on the spring is
The torque on a camshaft varies considerably through an engine cycle due to the reduced, and restoring the spring compression to its proper figure gives the
action of the cams on the valves and fuel-pump operating mechanisms. When a chain its correct tension.
cam is opening an air inlet valve or an exhaust valve, the action of the cam in The tensioning sprocket is fitted to the slack side of the chain. As the chain
opening the valve compresses the valve springs. When it is time for the valves to stretches and is retensioned, the camshaft sprocket is gradually retarded. This
close, the reaction of the compressed spring closes the valve. During the period can affect valve timing and fuel-injection timing. The camshaft must then be re-
that the valve is closing the action of the spring forces the roller on to the cam positioned relative to the engine crankshaft so that the retarded timing is
and some of the work done in compressing the spring is returned to the engine corrected. In some engines the camshaft couplings cannot be moved angularly
through the roller, cam, camshaft and camshaft drive. The return stroke of the and relatively to the camshaft sprocket wheel, and in such cases the individual
fuel pump has a similar effect. cams must be re-timed.
The same action occurs with exhaust valves opened by the pressure from a Transverse vibration of the rollef chain is caused by torque variations in the
hydraulic pump and closed by the action of a pneumatically operated piston. camshaft and torsional vibratory movement of the crankshaft. The amplitude
If the torque transmitted by the camshaft to a cam is plotted on a polar of chain transverse vibration is controlled by guides and dampers which may be
 268 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine I Crankshafts. Camshafts, Connecting-Rods, Cross71eads.Slippers 269

elastically or spring mounted. The fastenings of these chain dampers and guides all the mechanical clearances are taken up. This takes away the shock loading in
must be carefully checked during crankcase examinations to ensure that they do the valve gear and reduces wear and tear, and results in a quieter-running
not slacken in service. engine. When setting tappet or roller clearances on engines fitted with hydraulic
loading devices on the push rods, the lubricating oil supply to the engine must
10.37 How are cams mounted on a camshaft? be shut off and the loading devices must be properly drained before
- adjustments are made to the clearances.
There are various methods of mounting cams on camshafts, but the most
common method is to make the bore of the cam of such size that it is an inter-
ference fit on the camshaft, and is pressed on to it. The sections of the camshaft i0.39 In some engines the camshaft driving gearwheel or chain sprocket
on which the cams actually fit are made progressively larger in diameter so that wheel Is made in two pieces with the ioint on the diameter, and then
the cam fitted first has the largest bore diameter. This facilitates the fitting of bolted on to the crankshaft or crankshaft flange. What very particular
the various cams, which easily slide over the smaller section diameters until they examination does this type of gearwheel require when carrying out a
come up to the spot where they are to be fitted. crankcaqe examination?
In some engines the bore of the hole in the cam is ground out to a very fine When this type of gearwheel or sprocket wheel is used, slackening of the wheel
taper, the camshaft is ground to the same taper, and within the bore of the cam fastenings causes the pitch of the teeth to change at the mating surfaces of the
an annulus is ground. The cam is then slid along the camshaft up to the location two halves of the gearwheel or sprocket wheel. This in turn causes high loadings
at which it is to be fitted and the annular space in the bore of the cam is pres- to occur on these teeth and leads to their early failure.
surised with oil from a high-pressure hydraulic pump. The oil under pressure When carrying out a crankcase examination the wear pattern of the gear or
expands the cam and allows it to be correctly positioned, both angularly and sprocket teeth on each side of the joint should be compared with the wear
laterally, on the camshaft. When the oil pressure in the annulus is released the pattern of teeth away from the joint. Any differences noted must be inves-
- cam contracts and firmly grips the camshaft. Any later angular adjustment for tigated and the causes (usually slackening of the fastenings) rectified. If differ-
timing purposes can be made by simply putting the annular space under oil pres- ences in the wear pattern are noted there is every reason to suspect that fatigue
sure and turning the cam to its new position. When pressure is released the cam cracks may have commenced in the teeth nearest to the joint, and they should be
again grips the camshaft. carefully examined and the roots of the teeth checked for cracking with dye
Camshaft couplings can be constructed in a similar manner for adjusting the penetrants. If cracks are found in gearwheel teeth, the teeth of all the other
position of all cams when the driving chain stretches and its tension is re- gearwheels in the train should be checked, particularly the teeth in idler gears if
adjusted. An advantage of this method of fitting cams and shaft couplings is their diameter is small in relation to the driving and driven gears in two-stroke
that the friction set up between the shaft and the cam or coupling is sufficient to cycle engines.
drive the cam without fear of slipping. This obviates the necessity for keys and
keyways and the stress raisers they produce.
- 10.40 Name the types of bearing used for camshafts. What attention do
- -.
these bearings require?
10.38 Why is the clearance between the cam and the roller important on
air inlet and exhaust valve cams? What precautions must be taken when Slow-speed engine camshaft bearings are usually of thk journal type, operating
setting roller clearances on engines fitted with hydraulic loading devices in white-metal lined or bronze bearing shells or bushes, and lubricated by oil
on the push rods? supplied from and returning to the engine lubricating system. In cases where
fuel leakage from fuel pumps could contaminate the engine lubricating oil, the
The roller clearance setting is important because, if the clearance is insufficient, lubrication for the camshaft bearings is sometimes arranged as a separate
exhaust valves and air inlet valves will not seat properly and will quickly burn on system. Apart from attention t o the lubrication system for camshaft bearings it
the valve seating faces. The roller clearances are set with feeler gauges when the is also important that the bearing keep fastenings and locking devices be
engine is cold. In some engines the clearance is measured between the rocker regularly inspected. This is particularly important when the camshaft is under-
arm and valve spindle, and in others between the end of the push rod and rocker slung and the cam loads are placed on the bearing keeps. If a bearing keep
arm. Adjustment is made with tappet screws or other similar arrangements. slackens it can alter the engine timing and valve-opening periods, and ultimately
In some engines hydraulic loading devices are fitted to the bottoms of push lead to camshaft failure. The fastenings holding the bearing housings and fuel-
rods. The purpose is to take up the clearances mentioned previously but at the pump foundations also require regular daily inspection, and should these
same time to allow the expansion, due to heating of the various parts, to occur fastenings slacken and damage the locating dowels, the housing will need care-
freely and without holding valves off seats. The design of these loading devices ful re-alignment. In medium-speed engines the camshaft bearings may be
is si~clit h n t thc rcqi~ircdclc:~rnnccsarc nrr:rn~edwithin thc hydraulic loader and similar to those found in slow-speed engines, or they may be roller or needle-
when Iubriciiti~igoil is put on the erigil~ethe piston in the loader is activated and roller bearings. The attention they require is similar to that for slow-speed
 270 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel E n ~ i n e
----------I_--- - - ---
--.------_I -
- -- -
engines. In high-speed engines the bearings are usually needle-roller type and
require similar attention. and crankpin bearing seizure usually results in the connrctirlg-rod buckling rn
the trans\;erse direction.
1 10.41 Connecting-rods on slow-speed engines are round in cross-section
while on medium- and high-speed engines the cross-section is found to be 10.43 How are the forces on the piston transmitted to the crankshaft in
I or rectangular-shaped. Why is this so? V-engines?

The cross-section adopted for connecting-rods follows from study of the loads In Vengines the gas load on the piston is transmitted through to the connecting-
on connecting-rods and the cost of manufacture. Round-section connecting- rod as in any other reciprocating engine. There are, however, different confi-
rods are naturally cheaper to produce, but in medium- and high-speed engines gurations in which the load or force is transmitted from the connecting-rods to
the loads on the connecting-rods are such that the higher cost of production of the crankshaft. If the engine designer wishes to keep the centre-line of the
I-and rectangular-section connecting-rods must b i accepted due to technical cylinders in the same transverse plane, which keeps engine length to a
necessity. minimum, articulated connecting-rods may be used. These have a boss on one
- -
The basis of connecting-rodddes&n is to consider the connecting-rod as a sidefuat~bovethe bottom end. One connecting-rod, referred to as the master
strut, pin-jointed at each end, and subjected to lateral loading from inertia (in rod, is connected to the crankshaft through the bottom-end bearing in the
V-engines additional lateral loading comes from slave rods) combined with the normal manner. The other connecting-rod, referred to as the slave rod, is
thrust from end loading through the pins. The loads coming on to a connecting- connected through a pin at its lower end to the boss just above the bottom-end
rod are the result of gas loads on the piston and inertia loads from the piston, bearing as mentioned above.
piston-rod, crosshead or gudgeon and piston skirt. The inertia loads from the In other V-cngines one connecting-rd with a fosked end grips a bottom-end
reciprocating pans are applied as a correction (depending on their action) to gas bearing bush which revolves around the crankpin in the normal manner. The
loads. The thrust- or end-loading on the connecting-rod may be 'push-puII' in other connecting-rod is built with a thin normal-shaped bottom end which fits
single acting four-stroke cycle engines, the rod being subjected to high compres- - .- and swivels on the outside of
between the fork end of the other cxmnecting-rod
sive loads in the 'push' stage and low tensile loads in the 'pull' stage. In a single- the bearing bush gripped in the fork.
acting two-stroke cycle engine the load from end thrust is usually purely In some V-cngines the bottomend bearings follow normal practice, but fit on
compressive. to the crankpin adjacently. This arrangement. however, increases the crankpin
I n service the connecting-rod is swinging about the crosshead bearing or length and the span between the main bearings. The cylinder centres must also
gudgeon pin bearing, the swinging movement being constrained by the bearing be staggered longitudinally resulting in some small increase in engine length.
on the crankpin. This action sets up inertia loads on the connecting-rod in a
transverse direction due to the mass of the connecting-rod and its swinging or 10.44 How has the conventional bottom end of connecting-rods been
whip movement. In slow-speed engines, round-section connecting-rods of modified in highly rated medium-speed engines? Why has this
normal length are strong enough to sustain the corrected gas loading; and the modification been mode?
inertia whip loading is not of sufficient consequence to cause departure from
the lower manufacturing cost of circular cross-section connecting-rods. With Failure of connecting-rods at the lower end, housing the bottom-end bearing
medium- and high-speed engines the transverse inertia loading is of such magni- shells, led to studies being made using transparent models in photo-elastic
tude that the weight of the connecting-rod must be considered together with its testing experiments. As a result of these experiments, departures were made
strength to resist these loads. Rectangular- and I-section connecting-rods fulfil from conventional marine-type connecting-rods with flat lower palms, and
this function in the best manner, and this is the reason for their use, in spite of those having a semi-circular end and bearing keep joining the rod on a face at
higher manufacturing costs. 90° to it. The bottomend bearing housings and rods are now made in three
pieces, so that the lower end of the connecting-rod has a wide-angled wedge
form; the bearing keep is made in two pieces, one portion nearly semicircular
10.42 Name the causes of failure in connecting-rods. and the other in the form of a sector to complete the circular eye for the bearing
Connecting-rods may fail from fracture or cracking in vulnerable areas, or they bushes. The mating surfaces of the three parts are serrated with V-shaped slots,
may buckle. Failure of connecting-rods in service is extremely rare in slow- the tops and bottoms of the slots being well radiused. The three parts are held
speed engines, but cases of slight buckling have been found in some instances together by two hydraulically tightened bolts set horizontally in the transverse
when an attempt has been made to start an engine after water or oil has leaked direction.
into the cylinder space. In medium- and high-speed engines fatigue cracks have Other designs have been developed in which the bottom-end bolts are set
been found in location^ subjected to wide stress ranges. With thin-walled steel- angularly to one another, and in another form the split between the connecting-
shell bearings seizure more easily occurs than with white-metal lined bearings, rod and the bearing keep is at 45' to the connecting-rod centre-line; this design
also has s e r d e d mafing surfaces. These designs give a much stiffer bearing
 272 Questions and Answers on the Marine Di&el Engine

In some older trunk-piston engines, pistons had to be removed by lowering

them through the liner and out through the crankcase door because the bottom- 10.47 How a n the clearances of the bottom-end bearings, gudgeon-pin
end was too large to pass up through the liner. When connecting-rods have the
I
bearings, topend bearings and slave-rod pins measured in medium-speed
bottom bearing keep angled at 45' to the centre-line, removal of the piston and -
connecting-rod from the engine is made easier because the connecting-rod will Thcmostoonvenicnt time to check the clearances on these bearings is when the
pass up through the cylinder liner. cylinder covers are removed for piston removal and piston ring renewal. A
hand-operated chain block or lift is fitted on the hook of the crane or main
10.45 How is the clearance of slow-speed top-end and bottom-end lifting gear. The piston lifting bar or eyebolts are fitted to the piston and rigged
bearings measured? to the hand-operated chain block before the bottom-end bolts are slackened. A
dial gauge with a magnetic base is placed on the connecting-rod with the dial
These clearances can be measured with long, narrow-width feeler gauge blades spindle touching the top of the crank web. When the piston is given a lift with
of sufficient length to go across the width of the bearing. The blade is inserted the chain block the keep of the bottom end lifts and contacts the underside of
under the top of the keep and then moved round towards the sides of the the crankpin so that the clearance is taken up. The amount of lift is registered on
bearing. Slow-speed bottom-end bearing clearances can be measured using the dial gauge and the reading given is the bearing clearance.
telescope feeler gauges applied between the side of the lower p a t of the bearing By reversing the dial gauge so that the needle spindle touches the bottom of
and the crank web. The blade of the feeler gauge is then inserted between the the piston skirt the clearance of the gudgeon-pin bearing can be measured using
keep and the crankpin. When adjusting clearances on top-end bearings the similar methods. Centre and dde-rod crosshead bearings in medium-speed
feeler gauge method of measuring the clearances gives foolproof results, but
during bottom-end bearing adjustment, use of thin lead wire gives better and --
o ~ w s e dpiston engines can also have clearances checked in this manner.
more positive indications of clearance than telescom feelers. Note The chain blocks or lifts must be of sufficient lifting capacity, and the
lifting operation should be carried out by hand pulling. Excess force should not
be a~vliednor should air or electric hoists be used in case of overloading the
10.46 Why are the actual clearances of opposed piston engine side-rod
lifting gear or causing other damage.
crosshead bearings extremely important?
-
It is imperative that the crosshgad bearing clearances of the two bearings on
If th&e is any chanwof piston or other parts slewing, two dial gauges must be
used and the mean of the two read'mgs gives the bearing clearance.
either side of any one crosshead be kept equal. Wear and loading on a side-rod
crosshead bearing takes place on the bearing keep, and if the bearing clearances
become unequal the upward loading comes first on to one bearing and then the 10.48 What effect does the gas load on the piston have on the crosshead
crosshead assembly distorts until the load is taken up by both bearings. Thir .ins? How is this effect catered for in the crosshead bearings?
effect puts a bending moment on the lower end of the tie-rod so that the stress In large slaw-speed engines t h e ~ ~ i ~ - p e m t w a eonthe
t @ piston and through
pattern over the cross-section of rod is unequal. A higher tensile load is then set the piston rod puts a load of approximately 600 tonnes on the crosshead pins
up on one side of the rod, which tends to initiate fatigue cracks. It also causes when the pressure in the cylindzr is at the maximum value.loads of this value
unequal wear on the side edges of the crosshead slipper. It is also nncressmy to cause some deflection in the crosshead pins of large engines, even though the
keep the bearings on both the forward and after sets of side-rod crosshead crosshad block is daigqed to give the pins maximum rigidity. The crosshead
bearings the same, to prevent a similar action taking place on the portions of the pin deflection is allowed for in most modem engines by providing a small
tie-rods just below the upper piston yoke. It also prevents excess piston and amount of flexibility in the base of the lower half of the crosshead bearing. This
cylinder-liner wear in the fore and aft directinn allows the bearing to follow the -shape
- of the pin under the high load, thereby
, In some medium-speed opposed pison engines the crosshead bearing design
reducing bearing operating troubles.
has reverted to :I form usrd in stream reciprocating engincs and commonly The latest generation of slow-speed crosshead engines now have a very stiff
known as [he 'single lop end'. With this type of hearing the end of the crosshead pin. This has been brought about by increasing the diameter of the
crosshead pin to approximately the same size as the cylinder bore. Crosshead
bearings in these engines have thin-wall bearing shells with either a thin layer of
tin-based bearing alloy or a thin layer of one of the harder bearing alloys.
In some cases the upper end of the connecting-rod has been made heavier and
more rigid. The axial length of the crosshead bearing is then made the same as
the upper part of the connecting-rod so that the crosshead pin is supported over
its entire length by the bearing shell and the upper part of the crosshead.
The piston rod is fastened to a relatively narrow landing on the crosshead pin.
The whole assembly is very rigid when compared with the designs used in earlier
engines. (Fig. 10.4)
In older engines the lower half of the bearing has a semi-elliptical area
scraped hollow (the minor axis of the semi-ellipse is adjacent to the inside edge
of the bearing against the crosshead block holding the piston-rod fastening).
The depth of this hollow area is a maximum at the centre and is approximately
0.05 mm. The hollow area is scraped after the bearing has been machined and
bedded in the normal manner. When the engine is in operation the crosshead
pins deflect downwards and the whole of the bearing surface supports the pin.
As the gas pressure falls away the pins straighten, and the part of the bearing
surrounding the hollow area is sufficient to take the pin load. During this period
of lesser loading when the pin is straight, lubricating oil flows into the hollow
space so that an adequate amount of lubricant is available during the period of
extreme loading.
With some other types of older engines the bearings are bored in the normal
manner, after which the bolts holding the bearing to the boring-machine table
are slackened off and a thin liner is placed under one edge of the bearing shell.
The bearing is hardened down again on the table and the thin liner cants the
bearing, and the semi-elliptical hollow area is machined in. In other cases the
bearings are set up on the boring table with the thin liner under the side of
the bearing; they are then machined with the bearing base canted.
The bearings are set up on the connecting-rod and bedded to the crosshead by
scraping, a semi-elliptical hollow area at the inside edge of the bearings adjacent
to the crosshead block being left as the bedding proceeds.

10.49 When white-metal-lined crosshead bearings fail in service what

ore the usual types of failure?

Various types of failure occur in crosshead bearing linings. Some, if found

early, can be rectified so that the bearing can satisfactorily continue in service,
in other forms of failure the lining must be condemned and the bearing
remetalled. Failure d the white-metal in some less severe forms usually
progresses so that eventually the bearing must be remetalled.
- - - - - - -. .
- -
The forms of failure are as follows.
two-
1 Cracking of white-metal. Fig. 10.4 Component parts of a modern, high-powered, slow-speed,
stroke cycle engine crosshead bearings and slippers.
2 Fatigue failure of white-metal.
3 Squeezing of white-metal so that oil grooves are partially blocked or
obliterated; oil holes may be partially blocked, or wholly blocked in extreme
cases.
276 Quesrions and Answers on the ~ a r i n Diesel
e Engine Crankshqfts, Camhqfts, Connecting-Rh, Crossheads, Slippers 27.1

4 Failure by overheating, when the bearing surface of the white-metal theinaximum pressure within safe bounds. It is, however, good practice to take
becomes plastic or even melt*; - - the maximum cylinder pressures whenever a new supply of diesel oil fuel is
5 Corrosion. being used for the f i s t time under man&hvring conditions.
Failure of the white-metal by cracking or fatigue does not usually manifest When ships with bridge control of the main engines are being controlled from
itself under normal operation. .If it is p r e s m i t is usually found at the time the the navigating bridge, the Master must be made aware of the maximum speed at
lower half of the bearing is exposed for examination. Failure by squeezing or which the engine can be safely operated on diesel fuel so that the engine speed is
overheating may become apparent during engine operation; it is often noticed kept within a safe figure. Excessive combustion pressures will be shown by
when checking bearing clearances or during crankcase examination. Failure by cylinder relief valves lifting, but operating at just below the relief valve lift pres-
corrosion is usually found when examination is carried out on the bearings, sure over extended periods can easily cause damage to bearings and possibly to
corrosion of the white-metal usually being accompanied by corrosion o.f as- otherengine parts. If there were any malfunction-of the relief valves, the high
crosshead pins. The form of the corrosion will depend on the nature of the maximum combustion pressures could go unnoticed until bearing damage was
-
--

contamination of the lubricating oil. found.

10.50 What are the usual causes of crosshead bearing failures? W 10.52 If, on opening up a crosshead bearing it was found that the white-
metal was cracked, how would you judge whether the bearing was fit for
As there are many and widely varying causes of failure, each case must be con- further service?
sidered individually and the cause ascertained from the findings of careful
examination. Bearings have been knqwn to fail on new engines when the engine Fist, the white-metal in the cracked area must be examined to ascertain if any
is being worked up to full power for the shop trials, or after many years of satis- metal has lost its bond to the bearing shell or become detached from surround-
factory service. ing metal. Loss of bond can be ascertained by tapping the surface of the white-
Bearing failures may result from any one or combination of the following metal with the edge of a large copper coin. There is a distinct change of note
causes. between solid-bonded metal and detached metal. If no loose metal is found it is
generally safe to continue using the bearing provided that the cracked areas are
1 Misalignment of engine running gear. localized and do not cover too large an area. Loose metal may extend from a
2 Deteripration of surface finish of crosshead pins. few small fragments or chips at the boundary of a crack to quite large detached
3 Quality of white-metal. pieces, of thickness up to the full thickness of the white metal lining, or lesser
4 Insufficient supply of lubricant. thicknesses where the crack has extended below the surface of the metal but not
5 Impure lubricant, or water contamination. down to the bearing shell. When loose metal is present it must be examined to
6 Excessive firing pressure. note how oil flow to the bearing will be affected if the detached metal should
In opposed piston engines fitted with spherical crankpin bearings, locking or move.
binding of the spherical portion of the bearing in the connecting-rod may lead In engines with non-drilled crankshafts, crankpin bearing lubrication is
to overheating of the bearing or squeezing of the white-metal. In some four- effected by oil flow which passes through the crosshead bearing. If loose white-
metal should move in such engines, it may block off oil flow to the bottom-end
-,
stroke cycle engines pounding of the bearing and consequent hammering out of
the white-metal may occur if there is too much clearance in the bearing. bearing, resulting in damage to the bearing and most likely to the crankpin too.
Generally, if detached metal is adjacent to oil holes, and movement @ght
block oil flow, the loose metal should be removed. If the amount of white-metal
10.51 How can damage occur to the crosshead bearings in slow-speed removed is not too large the bearing cancontinue to be used, until such time as it
propulsion engines when the engine is operating under manoeuvring can be changed. While it continues in service the clearance of the bearing must
conditions? be carefully checked and kept under observation. Any large clearance change
must be investigated, particularly if a change occurs between the clearances in
Many ships that operate on medium- and high-viscosity fuel at sea use diesel the forward and aft bearings of a crosshead.
fuel to manoeuvre the main engines when proceeding in coastal waters, rivers If any doubt exists as to the ability of the bearing to sustain its load the
and in and out of port. Medium- and high-viscosity fuels require much earlier remaining area of the bearing should be measured. The timing of the fuel pump
injection than diesel fuel, to obt_aingood combustion. When an engine which
has been timed for the cheaper grade slower-burning fuel uses diesel oil which is
can be slightly retarded to lower the maximum firing pressure, or the load on
the bearing reduced by reducing the power on the engine unit. The power devel-
faster burning, the rate of pressure rise increases and the maximum combustion oped can be related to the remaining effective area. This should only be done
prcssurc may wcll cxcccd that for which the cnginc was designed. Normally the when it is essential to keep a ship in service; normally it is better to change
lower operating power of the engine caters for this pressure rise and keeps doubtful bearings.
 278 -Qut-stions and rnswers on the Marine Diese7 Engine
- ^ _ "_ ___ - - - A -

With some engines in service it has been found that crosshead bearings have a such cases a comparator is used consisting of a set of preparcd surfaces finished
'life' of a certain number of running hours, and after this life is exceeded some to various CLA values. The index-finger nail or thumb-nail is drawn across the
breakdown in the crosshead bearing white-metal can be expected. surface of the crosshead pin and the feel of the roughness is compnrcd with that
-
of the surfaces of the comparator; the comparator surface that is closest to the
crosshead pin surface gives the CLA value.
1 10.53 What kind of surface finish is required for crosshead pins? The index-finger ndil or thumb-nail is very sensitive and there is no difficulty
After crosshead pins are turned to a smooth finish they are ground and may in making tactile comparisons. Some people, however, prefer to make the com-
then be 'super-finished', an operation consisting of setting up the ground cross- parison with the edge of an unmilled cog=: coin.
head block and pins in a lathe and polishing the working surface of the cross- Note 'Surface finish' and 'surface texture' are synonymous terms. The matter
head pin with hones. The hones are held in a tool holder which is pneumatically of surface finish becomes increasingly important in the operation of heavily
or hydraulically loaded on to the surface being finished. The force holding the loaded bearings similar to the crosshead bearings in a diesel engine where, in
hones on to the surface remains constant if the hydraulic or pneumatic pressure spite of the difficulties, maintaining an adequate oil film is an absolute
remains constant. The crosshead pin is revolved and the hones are fed slowly necessity.
along the length of the pin while being oscillated in the direction of the feed. The,loadcarrying capacity of a super-finished bearing surface is approxi-
Paraffin oil or cutting lubricant is used to prevent scores and wash away debris mately twice that of a very finely ground bearing surface.
from the hone. This honing action produces an extremely smooth accurate Terminology, standards and the methods of measurement used in this subject
finish on the working surface of the crosshead pins. are covered in the various standards published by such authorities as the British
In some cases, with the grinding machines and special grit grinding wheels Standards Institution, the American National Standards Institute and the
now available, the finish produced is sufficiently smooth to render super- International Standards Organisation.
finishing unnecessary. It is pertinent to note that the terms 'AA' (arithmetical average), 'Cla' or
There is a distinct difference in the 'lay' of the surface finish or texture 'CLA' (centre-line average), and 'Ra' are identical.
between ground pins and super-finished pins. In ground pins the lay is seen as a
series of circumferential marks from the grinding wheel, while in super-finished
pins it is seen as a series of wavy lines running circumferentially round the pin. 10.55 Some ships have, in their engine spores inventory, spore
The wavy line (in appearance similar to a sine wave) comes from the combined crosshead blocks. What attention must be given to this important spore
revolving of the pin and the oscillating movement of the hone. part?
The surface finish of crosshead pins requires the highest degree of smoothness
10.54 How is the surface finish of crosshead pins measured? and if this smoothness is lost the crosshead becomes useless for future use until
it is re-finished on its working surfaces.
Special instruments are available which measure the microscopically small It is therefore necessary to store this item in a safe place where it cannot be
grooves or valleys and peaks of the finished surface. This part of the measure- damaged mechanically and where it will not be subjected to water drips from
ment shows in effect the roughness of the surface. Some instruments also meas- leaks or build-up of moisture from atmospheric condensation. The finished
ure how the median point of these microscopic peaks and grooves undulates; working surfaces of the pins must be adequately protected against rusting and
this measurement then shows the 'waviness' errors in the surface. 'Waviness' also p r o t d withsuitable wrappings befoFe the pirt is brought on board. If
errors are often seen to be repeated in cycles, and this cyclic error is referred to the wrapping is not one which hermetically seals these finely finished surfaces, it
as 'form error'. must be removed periodically to examine the pins for deterioration, and then
Due to the size of a crosshead and the fact that some of the surface-finish carefully replaced.
measuring instruments are not portable, a plastic strip may be employed which If deterioration is present its degree must be noted and reported. Usually rust
is pressed on to the crosshead pin surface to be measured. The strip reproduces spots show as excrescences and they should be cleaned off carefully to bare
the valleys as peaks and the peaks as valleys, and after it has been allowed to set metal, taking care not to damage surrounding good areas. After this cleaning a
it is lifted from the pin, and may then be taken to the laboratory for checking shallow hollow area will be left. The boundaries of this area can be smoothed
the surface. off by rubbing down with the finest abrasive such as 'Crocus' paper. If the
Small surface profile measuring instruments are available but their use is rough boundary edge is smoothed off, the crosshead should be good for further
mainly confined to production engineering. use provided that only a small amount of the total surface area of the pins is
Generally for crosshead pins, surface 'roughness' (as mentioned above), is affected. Sometimes crosshead pins are chromium-plated on the working sur-
, the criterion by which the working surface is judged. The average depth of the faces to protect them during storage.
peaks and grooves is referred to as the centre-line average or CLA. In the field
and in many repair establishments special instruments are not available, and in
10.56 Name some of the improvements that have been made in the
design of the shafting in modern, two-stroke cycle slow-speed engines.
In many modern engines the camshaft drive is taken from a gearwheel or a
chain sprocket mounted on the thrust collar. This has shortened the engine
length. whenthe torsional vibration characteristics of the shafting system are
studied attention must be given to the position or the location of any antinodes.
When the drive for the camshaft is located at or near an antinode its amplitude
STARTING AND
should be studied in case of problems arising from vibration which may lead to
drive-chain 'snatch' and heavy loads on sprocket teeth in chain drives, or heavy
teeth loads on both sides of the teeth in gear drives.
REVERSING
The other design advance in crankshafts is the elimination of bored or drilled
lubricating oil holes. This in turn has eliminated the stress raisers which come
about when holes are bored in journals and crankpins. The elimination of oil
holes when hollow crankshafts are used becomes a necessity if the fitting of oil
piping is to be avoided.
Crankshaft manufacturing costs are lowered when oilToles arceliminated.
11.1 How are the various types of marine diesel engine started?
Small engines such as those used for lifeboats, emergency fire pumps, and for
driving small 'start-up' air compressors are usually started manually. To
facilitate starting, many of these smdl engines have a decompression device
which is operated when the engine is being swung, and which allows a faster
swing to be made by reducing the work done during compression. When a good
speed of rotation is reached using the starting handle, the decompression device
is released, and the compression of the engine returns to normal and should be
sufficient to ignite the injected fuel.
Small- to medium-size engines may be started by hydraulic starters. These
consist of three essential parts. The first is a hand-operated hydraulic pump,
similar to a test pump or the pump used for tensioning tie-rods, bottom-end
bolts and the like. The pump discharges into the second part which is
a compressed air-loaded or inert-gas-loaded hydraulic accumulator. This
accumulator is nothing more than a vertical cylinder, closed at each end and
fitted with an internal piston. The hydraulic fluid from the hand pump is
discharged into the cylinder space below the piston, which is forced up,
compressing the air above it in the cylinder. The third part of the hydraulic
starter is the mechanism attached to the engine. The engine is started by this
mechanism, which consists of a pair of hydraulic cylinders connected by piping
to the lower power part of the hydraulic accumulator. Within each cylinder is a
ram-type piston which is connected to a toothed rack with teeth cut on the skew.
The racks drive a small pinion which couples through dogs to the engine crank-
shaft. The skew on the teeth of the racks causes the pinion to slide up to the
crankshaft to engage the dogs and compress a spring. When the engine starts
the spring pushes the pinion clear.
To start the engine, hydraulic fluid is pumped into the accumulator through
connecting pipes. The hydraulic fluid under pressure in the accumulator is then
allowed to flow into the hydraulic starter by opening a valve in the connecting
pipework. The fluid drives the rams, and the pinion driven by the racks engages
 64 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Fuels, Lubricants - Treatment and Storage 65

I f two or more separators are required to handle the maximum fuel require- again activated after the fixed interval measured from the previous dumping
ment of the engine, the discharge from each pump must not be brought into a cycle. When this cycle is completed the bowl is clean and a new cycle begins. The
common line to feed the separators. Each separator should have its own heater period between the bowl dumping or cleaning operation remains the same
or the fuel should be heated prior to being handled by the separator's own irrespective of what may occur during the time between cleaning cycles.
supply pumps. If water content in the dirty fuel is more than the purifier can handle. the
The lowestcost fuels supplied today have a high viscosity, density, and .computer measures the rate of change of water content in the clean fuel with
carbon content. These kinds of fuel require a high temperature when being respect to time, and if this is above some accepted value the control system will
treated in a fuel cleaning system consisting of separators and/or clarifiers. activate alarms and cause the water contaminated fuel to be bypassed back to
The maximum temperature for heating the fuel prior to cleaning treatment is the settling tank. - -
governed by the boiling point of water, which limits the preheating temperature One manufacturer's equipment monitors the fluid taken from the lower
to something a little less than 100°C. A figure given by separator manufacturers paring dic. Again, the time interval between clearing the solids, sludge and
is 98°C with a tolerance of two more degrees. water out of the bowl by opening it is fixed in the computer program and never
The manufacturers of centrifugal-type fuel cleaning equipment are well able alters in amount. ,
to offer a wide variety of machines, well suited to the fuels supplied today and When a centrifugal purifier of this type is started the bowl is completely filled
expected in the future. with oil. The oil is discharged from the lower paring disc outlet line and
These machines do not always come within the previously accepted definition monitored for conductivity before going through a two-way control valve and
of separator or clarifier as they are not always fitted with a dam ring in the case passing back to dirty oil feed to the purifier.
of a separator or a sealing ring in the case of a clarifier. As water is removed from the fuel it builds up in the periphery of the bowl
The main advantage of these modern machines is that they can be operated and will be discharged during the cleaning or dump cycle. If the water contained
without an internal water seal. In this respect they are similar to clarifiers. inJhe dirty fuel is above a certain amount, the water will build up in the bowl
Control of the cleaning function is governed by monitoring the build up of and cause the oil water interface to move inwards to some point where water
solids, sludge, and water contained within the bowl. When solids, sludge and will be discharged from the paring disc outlet. When this occurs the change in
water build up within the bowl the interface between the water and the partidy conductivity will be relayed by the sensor to the computer. The computer
cleaned fuel moves inwards and reaches a point where the cleaned fuel will control. will activate the two-way control valve and divert the water flowing
contain traces of water. through it away from the dirty oil supply and into the alternative route to the
One manufacturer uses a computer programmed to control the automatic water outlet from the purifier. When the time for the dump cycle is reached, the
cleaning or dump function of the purifier bowl in conjunction with a device solids, sludge and water, are discharged out of the bowl, in the normal manner
extremely sensitive to the smallest trace of water. This device is fitted in the and a new cycle commences when the purifier is filled with dirty oil again.
clean oil discharge from the purifier. During normal operation of the purifier The remaining parts of the fuel oil system are similar to those mentioned in
the sludge and water discharge coming from the dirty side paring disc is shut off the answer t o Question 3.28.
by a valve fitted in the discharge piping from the purifier. Normal separators and clarifiers can be used for cleaning very high-density
The computer program covers fuels having a wide range of water content. fuel oils, but the sealing water in the purifier must have a higher density than the
When cleaning fuel containing limited amounts of water the dump cycle is fuel when both are at the operating temperature of the separator. If the density
programmed to act at regular fmcd intervals. When the fixed interval expires of the fuel is equal to or higher than the density of the sealing water, the
the bowl-cleaning action is triggered by the computer and the solids, sludge and separator will not function correctly. Aliquid having a higher density than the
water are dumped out of the bowl when it opens. fuel must be selected to create an interface. Liquids having a density higher than
If the clean oil outlet shows traces of water before the normal time interval the density of the fuel oils now available can be obtained by dissolving one of a
has expired, the water-sensitive monitoring device relays a signal to the variety of salts in water for use as the sealing medium. This can provide a seal
computer and the closed valve in the water outlet is opened. Water is then with a density and boiling point higher than that of water.
discharged from the bowl through the water paring disc and dirty water line. If The material selected will have to be carefully chosen because of the possibili-
the device monitoring the water content in the clean fuel shows a sharp drop in ties of set* up corrosion within the fuel cleaning equipment, sludge tanks and
water content over a short time interval, the valve i_n the dirty water line remains system pipework. Corrosion inhibitors will have t o be used to give adequate
open for some given-period and then closes. The normal dump cycle is then
repeated at the set interval following the previous dump cycle.
- --
corrosion protection if it is shown to be necessary.
The sealing liquid and water removed from the separator can be recycled
-- Ikke-watet contentm the dirty fuel increases, the cycle of operations after testing for density and inhibitor content.
resulting in the discharge of water through the dirty water line is repeated and
will continue if any water content is shown in the clean fuel. The dump cycle is
 66 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Fuels, Lubricants - Treatment and Storaze 67

3.31 why are fuel and lubricating oils heated prior to treatment in a contained in a fluid. Generally strainers are of the full-flow type and are fitted
centrifugal separator? Show in a simple manner how the forces causing on the suction sides of pumps to prevent foreign bodies entering the pump and
separation vary in a settling tank & a centrifugal separator. causing damage. Filters may be of the full-flow or by-pass type and are fitted in
discharge lines. The filtering media are usually such that contaminants down to
It is necessary to heat fuel and lubricating oil prior to treatment in a centrifugal minutesize are prevented from going into circulation. The pressuredrop across
separator to reduce the viscosity of the oil so that it flows easily into and out of a clean fdter will depend on the viscosity of the liquid being filtered, the size of
the separator and does not cause high pumping loads. the fdter, the size of particles being removed and the flow rate through the
Heating the fuel or lubricating oil, which is a mixture of oil, water and solids, filter. -
-- *-- -
lowers the specific gravity of the constituent parts. The specific gravity~fthe oil - -
-
-

A centrifugal separator separates foreign material from a liquid by virtue of

is reduced at a greater rate than the specific gravity of the water and solids; thus the differen& in the specific gravities of the parts to bemarated and the liquid
the difference in the specific gravities of the constituent parts is greater when the from which it is separated.
mixture is heated.
At 15°C At 70°C 3.33 What are simplex, duplex, by-pah and full-flow filters?
Viscosity in Viscosity in A simplexfilter is a single filter fitted in a line to remove contaminants from a
s.g. centipoise s.g. cmtipoise liquid by a filtration process. Dtcplexfilters are arranged in pairs so that one
Water 1 .OOO - 1.42 0.982 0.43 filter can be in use and the other ready for use or being cleaned. An arrange-
ment of valves or cocks is usually fitted to duplex filters so that as one filter is
Oil 0.898
- 100.00
-
0.848 10.00
opened to flow the other is closed. B y p m filters take a part of the flow from
Difference 0.102 0.134
a pump and return the filtered liquid back to the suction side of the pump.
. The oil in this example is SAE 30 lubricating oil of 100 VI. Full-flow fiiters take the full amount of discharge from a pump for filtration.
Note Care must be taken with the change-over interlocking arrangements on
Separation of the constituentsin a mixture of oil, water and solids takes place duplex filters to ensure that they are always in good working order. Extreme
in a settling tank due to the difference in the specific gravity of the various parts. care must be exercised in removing the cover of a shutdown filter. The air leak-
From the table it can be seen that heating the oil and water from lS°C to 70°C off and drain cocks must be opened to check that the filter case is completely
increases the.difference in the specif&gravity from 0.102 to 0.134, which is an isolated before slackening'the cover fastenings.
increase of more than 30%. The viscosity.of the oil has also been reduced by 90
centipoise. There will be considerable differences in the change in viscosity 3.34 Fuel with some definite viscosity value can be supplied. How is fuel
related to temperature for different kinds of oil. The change of the specific of this type obtained and what difficulties may be experienced in using it?
gravity in a wide range of oils will be approximately similar to the values given
in the table for the same range of temperature. Fuel supplied to motor vessels is usually of the high-viscosity type. This kind of
fuel is a blend of low-viscosity distillate and high-viscosity residual oils. The
, The forces causing separation between a mixture of oil, water, and solid bunker supplier has tables which give the proportional amounts of each kind of
material will be many times higher in a centrifugal separator than in a settling
tank. But to get this advantage the mixture must be heated. oil required to obtain some specified viscosity. After the proportions have been
The forces causing separation will also be related to the rotational speed of esitablished the blend is produced by using two pumps arranged to discharge
the separator, the bowl radius and the specific gravity of the constituents in the into a common pipe. The size of the pipe is such that turbulent flow takes place
mixture. Separation of the constituents becomes increasingly easier as the and the two kinds of oil become well mixed. The speed of the two pumps is set
differences between their specific gravities increase. For this reason it becomes so that the proportion of each kind of oil passing into the common discharge is
maintained correctly.
necessary to preheat contaminated fuel or lubricating oils.
A fuel with a density of 1.005 g/ml at 15°C will have a density similar to that
Distillates from one crude stock type do not always blend well with residuals
from another. This occurs when the smaller part is not soluble in the larger part.
below that of water at thesame tempwature. -
of water at 50°C. When this grade of oil is at 98°C it will have a density just
- If incompatible oils are used to produce a blended fuel, precipitation will occur.
This shows itself in the operation of the centrifugal purifiers which quickly fill
with asphaltic material and extreme difficulty may be experienced in
3.32 What is the difference between a strainer and a filter? Where are maintaining an adequate throughput of fuel through the purifier for the
strainers and filters used and how does a filter differ from a centrifugal requirements of the engine. This problem is well known to fuel oil suppliers and
separator? they take every care to blend compatible types of fuel.
Strainers and filters are similar in that they both serve to filter out contaminants Normally fuels from different sources should not be mixed aboard ship. A
 68 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine 1-uels, Lu/mcurr/.t 7rcu1nrm1und Storuge 69

blend that is compatible in itself may not be compatible with a blend from Ship classification societies such-as the American Bureau of Shipping,
another origin, and precipitation may occur. Lloyd's Register of Shipping, Det Norske Veritas, and others, together with
some commercial concerns, offer a fuel testing service. The ship's engineers -:'
take samples of the newly received fuel. These are sent through accredited
3.35 What are oil-water emulsions? Where may they occur? agents by one of the available fast courier services to a laboratory for analytical
Oil-water emulsions are liquid mixtures of small amounts of water finely tests. The results are notified to the owner within hours of the samples having
dispersed through the oil. Although heavier than oil the water remains in been taken. The ship's staff are notified of the result and advised of any require-
suspension. ments that may be necessary to avoid problems and risk of damage.
Oil-water emulsions may occur in fuel tanks; for instance when bunker fuel is Fuel tests can also be made on boardby the ship's engineers when the fuel is
taken into a double-bottom tank which has contained water ballast and not receiva. TheE tests will give an early warning of likely problems. Testing
been properly drained prior to receiving the oil. Emulsions may also occur in equipment sets for shipboard use are sold by various organisations.
the crankcase of diesel engines when the system oil becomes contaminated with Problems with poorquality fuel have sometimes begun when the department
residues of treated cylinder oils from diaphragm or scraper box leakage and purchasing fuel opted for what appeared to be the lowest-cost fuel without
small amounts of water. consultation with the technical department (See Question 4.40).
If the emulsions, due to ship movement and pumping, become stable,
considerable difficulties may arise. 3.38 Are any specifications available covering quality of fuel oil?
Additives can be used to break up unpumpable fuel-water emulsions. This
may be useful when these emulsions occur in places awkward and costly to clean Specifications covering fuel oil standards and quality have been drawn up by
such as double bottom tanks and the like. These additives are sold under various organisations. Some organisations involved in this work are the British
various trade names and are often based on mixtures of the high boiling point
fractions produced in coal tar distillation. One such mixture is known as cresylic
Standards institution(BSL); Conseil International des Machines a Combustion,
commonly known by its acronym CIMAC; the International Standards
Organisation (ISO); the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM);
-
acid.
the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), in conjunction with many
others including international and national ship-owning organisations and
H 3.36 What is grease and where is it used? major oil suppliers.
'.
Grease is essentially a material used for lubrication of moving parts of Standards, including the I S 0 standards for intermediate marine fuels
machinery. It is generally made from a lubricating oil and a metallic soap. The (blended fuels), are now available, but they have not been universally adopted.
soap acts as a thickening agent and is dispersed in the oil; the resultant grease
may be semi-fluid or solid. Additives may be used in conjunction with the
lubricant to give the grease more desirable qualities.
Sometimes materials other than metallic soaps and lubricating oils are used
to produce a grease having characterisiics to suit special requirements.
Molybdenum disulphide is used in many applications where loads are high and
speeds slow.
Greases are used in electric motor bearings, roller and ball bearings and in
applications not easily accessible such as rudder bearings. Grease may also be
used to exclude foreign matter from bearings in circumstances in which seals
would be costly or impracticable.

3.37 What is the probability of a ship receiving bad fuel oil leading to
problems with themain propulsion and auxiliary engines?
Studies made byrvario_usorganisatiomnshow that there are limited chances of
receiving a badly contaminated fuel, high in solids and other material, leading
to problems with combustion and erosion of parts. But this does not mean that
it will not happen. If contaminated fuel does come aboard unnoticed, the
financial costs of repairs and lost time could be disastrous. Use should,
therefore, be made of the means available for testing the fuel received on board.
 Combustion and Fuel-Injection Systems 71

oil supply line to the pump. Guard plates are fitted round the bottom of the ram
to prevent fuel oil leakages going into the engine lubrication system.
Some fuel pumps are fitted with delivery valves. Where delivery valves are
fitted the wings on the valve are not cut through to the valve mitre; this part of
the valve acts as a piston. When the delivery valve opens, a large lift is required
to give it opening area; when delivery stops, the volume of the space between the
COMBUSTION AND pump and the injection valve is increased rapidly as the pump delivery valve
closes. This sharp incr-heinPCtion - valve-te-ireate-
FUEL-INJECTION SYSTEMS and prevents dribble.
The parts of a fuel pump are very robust to withstand the discharge pressures
built up in the fuel System. These pressures may be up to 450 bars (approx.
6500 lb/in2 or 450 kg/cm2).
The rotation of the fuel ram to meter the volume of fuel delivered by the fuel
pump may be controlled by a governor, in generators and alternators, or by the
fuel lever, in propulsion engines.

4.2 Describe how the fuel quantity delivered by a fuel-iniection pump

4.1 Briefly describe the principle of the fuel-iniection pump and give can be controlled through the pump suction valve.
reasons for the important points of design.
The amount of fuel delivered is controlled by the clearance or.lost motion of a
There is one pump for each cylinder. Fuel is pumped by a ram working in a tappet positioned under the fuel pump suction valve. The tappet lever is
sleeve, the ram being operated on the pumping stroke by a cam, and on the connected into a collar or slot on the fuel pump ram. The lever fulcrum is a
return stroke by a spring. It works at constant stroke, and the amount of fuel section of a small shaft which is made eccentric to the shaft bearings; rotation of
delivered is varied by varying the point in the stroke at which the pressure side of the shaft alters the eccentric position and in turn varies the tappet clearance.
the ram is put into communication with the suction side. When this point is The shaft may be connected to a governor or to the engine fuel lever.
reached the pressure drops suddenly, fuel ceases to be delivered to the engine When the fuel pump ram is in the bottom position, the suction valve is held
cylinder, and for the remainder of the stroke of the ram.oil is merely pumped open by the tappet. Upward movement of the ram moves one end of the lever
back to the suction side of the pump. The means of putting the pressure side of (connected to the ram) upwards and the other end (connected to the tappet)
the ram into communication with the suction side is a helix-shaped groove on downwards, and the suction valve comes on its seat. Further upward movement .
the side of-the ram, registering with a hole in the sleeve; according to the of the ram builds up pressure in the fuel line; the fuel valve opens and fuel is, j
rotational position of the ram the helix-shaped groove will register with the hole injected into the cylinder until the pump comes to the end of its stroke. This type
early or late in the stroke of the ram. of fuel pump is fitted with a delivery valve on the top of the pump chamber.
The requirements that lead to fuel-injection pumps being of this design are as Downward movement of the pump ram allows fuel to flow into the pump
follows. through the suction valve as in a normal pump.
1 The need to build up to full pressure very rapidly at the beginning of
injection so as to ensure full atomization immediately. Cams lend them- 4.3 How can fuel be take? off a cylinder without stopping the engine?
selves to design for very rapid initial movement of the ram.
2 The need to cut-off ram pressure as suddenly as possible to prevent dribbie. If it becomes necessary to take fuel off a cylinder without stopping the engine,
The opening of a port does this more effectively than the ending of a the fuel pump crosshead is lifted until the roller is clear of the cam peak. The by-
(variable) stroke. pass on the fuel valve must be opened before lifting the crosshead.
3 The need to deliver extremely small quantities of b e 1 whep the engine is A lever is supplied by the engine builder which connects to the pump cross-
running light, withthe sam2 requiremenis of rapid build-up, rapid cut-off, head through a bolt and finger-plate. Lifting the bolt with the lever connects the
and full atomization. Cam drive and port cut-off is the most effective way finger-plate to the underside of the pump crosshead, and lifts it as the lever is
of achieving this. pushed downwqds or upwards depending on the linkage arrangement. After
lifting, the crosshead can be fastened in the lifted position.
When the cut-off point occurs and fuel discharge stops, the rapid drop of In some cases the pump crosshead is lifted by a small pin on an axle. The pin
pressure causes a shock on the inlet line to the pump. This may be damped out is eccentric to the axle axis, and movement 6f the axle connects the pin with the
bv n $hock absorber fitted on the side of the fuel pump and connected with the crosshead, lifting the roller clear of the cam.
the c~igiliccr;itiksli~~ft i111dti~rnsi l i ~ s~~ffi~icrif
t spectl to cnmc ignition of llir 1
1 11.3 N o ~ n rtlw rnaln ports of o colrtpressed atr stortrn~system for main
I I I ~ C C ~Iucl.
C ~ ~ 'l'lie tluec p U r t b 01' u l~ydruulicrtarler are connected together by propulsion engines. What i s the functlon of the vorious-po&?
pipework to a hydraulic fluid reservoir.
Emergency electrical generators driven by diesel engines are usually started Air-storage reservotr orstarting air tanks. Thcrc arc 11sui11lyt w o such tanks on
by electrical starters, powered by a starter battery of the pattern used in auto- ships fitted with reversible engines and fixed pitch propellers. These tanks hold
motive practice. The starter is actuated by a voltage drop in the ship's d.c.
supply, or in ships with a.c. electrical power by a reduction in the frequency.
in reserve the compressed air supplied from the starting air compressors.
Starting air lines to automatic valve. These lines are-fitted between the air
-
High-speed diesel generators with engines of the automotive type may have
similar starting arrangements to emergency diesel-generatingsets. In some cases storage reservoir and the engine automatic valve.
an air turbine may be used instead of the electrical starter motor. Medium-speed Automatic valve. This valve automatically opens when the engine controls are
diesel generator sets are usually started with direct compressed air supply put into the starting position and compressed air can then pass from the air
through a starting air system. The air flows into the cylinders during the firing storage reservoir to the starting air valves fitted in the'engine cylinder covers.
or expansion stroke in four-stroke cycle engines, or during the expansion The automatic valve is opened by pneumatic means with air passed from the
portion of the stroke in two-stroke cycle engines. The air flowing into the pilot valve.
cylinders sets the engine in motion and brings its speed up so that it is sufficient
to promote combustion when the engine is put on to fuel. Automatic valve controller orpilot valve. This valve is controlled by the starting
Medium- and slow-speed propulsion engines are invariably started with lever either directly or indirectly. Operation of the pilot valve supplies
compressed air through the starting air system. compressed air to the actuating piston in the automatic valve causing the auto-
matic valve to open. Action of the automatic valve controller or pilot valve also
controls the supply of compressed air to the starting air distributor.
-
11.2 What are common causes of difficulty in starting small manually Starting air distributor. This consists of a series of valves (one valve for each
started diesel engines? cylinder starting valve) mounted adjacent to the camshaft. The action of the
The most common causes of difficulty are loss of compression, and fuel loss pilot valve sets the air distributor valves on to the starting cam or cams on the
from the engine fuel system. camshaft. When these valves are opened in turn they supply air to the pistons
Loss of compression in four-stroke cycle engines is usually caused by leakage within the starting air valves mounted on the engine cylinders, thus opening the
through the cylinder-head valves, or sticking of piston rings. In some engines starting air valves, in turn, and allowing compressed air to flow into the
with a variable compression ratio, the small double-seated valve used to cylinders and rotate the engine.
connect or disc-ect the small ante-chamber-to the cylinder combustion space Note In some engine manuals the distributor valve may be referred to as the
can be a sourc? of air leakage causing compression loss. Loss of compression pilot valve.
from binding or stuck pistonringsis-skgR caused by rain, sea-water or
condensation draining back down the exhaust pipe and into the engine cylinder. Starting air valves. These valves, fitted in the engine cylinder covers, supply
For this reason, if the engine exhaust pipe outlet is in a position exposed to rain starting air to each cylinder. The timing for the opening and closing of starting
and sea-spray, care must be taken to secure the outlet properly against the air valves is controlled by the cam or sams (on the engine camshaft) which
ingress of water when the engine is stopped and shut down. Any drain cocks at actuate the distributor v h . The supply of starting air from the automatic
the lower end of the,exhaust pipe must also be put in the open position when the valve is led through a common starting air rail fitted along the length of the
engine is stopped. engine with separate branch connections to each cylinder starting air valve. The
Loss of fuel from the engine fuel system can be rectified by priming the fuel design and operation details of thev&aus parts of the starting air system differ
system up to the fuel-injection valve prior to starting the engine. The location of according to the engine manufacturer, but their function within the starting
the leakage or drain-back point in the system should be found and corrected. system is essentially the same in all makes of engine.
Some other common causes of starting difficulties may be associated
with maladjustment of decompression devices fitted to the cylinder-head
exhaust valve or valves. Dirty fuel filters, water in fuel, and blocked gauzes in 11.4 How are engine-starting air valves operated? What attention do
the fuel tank air pipes which prevent ingress of air into the fuel tank, are also they require? .
causes of starting or running difficulties. If the exhaust outlet has been tightly The body of a starting air valve is a casting, the upper part of which is consider-
secured and has not been opened up prior to starting, this will also cause ably larger than the lower part which fits into the engine cover. This larger part
difficulty. forms an air cylinder, and the piston working in this cylinder is fitted to the
starting air valve spindle. The cover of the air cylinder on the starting valve is
284 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Starting and Reversinn 285

connected through small-bore piping to the distributor valves. When a distri-

butor valve opens, compressed air flows through the piping to the upper side of
the piston in the starting air valve, forcing the piston downwards and opening
the starting air valve, which is connected to the starting air rail. A spring fitted
within the valve under the piston closes the valve when the distributor valve
closes.
The underside of the actuating piston and cylinder in the starting air valve is
open to the atmosphere so that any air leakage from the actuating piston leaks
off to atmosphere; air pressure cannot build up under the piston and cause
sluggish action of the valve. The upper part of the valve spindle is sealed with
small rings similar to piston rings and any air leakage from this part also goes
direct to atmosphere.
It is good practice to lubricate the actuating piston in a starting air valve prior
to manoeuvring the engine and afzfie time of engine shut-down, but w e must
be exercised to avoid over-lubrication. The lubricants used may be either grease
or lubricating oil, as specified by the engine builder. After certain periods of
service starting air valves are changed and-dverhauled. Care must be taken to
ensure that piston rings are free in their grooves. Should it be necessary to fit
new rings, the end clearances of the rings must be carefully checked because
they are usually made of brass which has a larger coefficient of expansion than
the other parts of the valve. The valve and valve seat are ground with grinding
paste and finished to a fine surface with lapping paste. It is essential to emme-
that all parts of the valve are scrupulously clean before reassembly.
After overhaul the tightness of the seat must be tested. In valves that are
removable from the cylinder cover it is usual to connect the valve to an air
supply and immerse the end of the valve in paraffin oil or clean water; valve
leakage is then shown by a flow of air bubbles through the liquid. When the
starting air valve parts are integral with the engine cylinder heads and the heads
are off the engine, the valve seat tightness (when under air pressure) can be
checked by the application of a solution of soapy water.
A modern type of starting air valve3 shown in Fig. 11.1. This valve is opened
by air supplied from a pilot valve. Instead of having a single piston as in the
valves described above, the valve shown has three pistons. The air from the
pilot valve passes down through the axial hole in the valve spindle. The air then
passes through the radial holes shown and creates a force which acts on the
three pistons and opens the valve. The spring situated round the lower part of
the spindle causes the valve to close when the automatic valve shuts off air
supply to the pilot valves. The engine starting air after leaving the automatic
valve passes through the ports and across the valve seat into the cylinder when
the valve opens. The starting air entering the engine cylinders exerts a force on
the pistons and causes the pistons to move and set the engine in motion.

11.5 What are the indications of leaking starting air valves?

When an engine i s in operation leakage of starting air valves is shown by over-
heating of the branch pipe connecting the starting air valve to the starting air
rail. The heating occurs due to the leakage of hot gases from the engine cylinder Fig. 11.1 Cylinder starting air valve with a multiple number of pistons to
intt, the st;rrtiug air lint con~~rc~tcci
to tllc starting air rail. During periods of reduce its size. (MAN B&W)
manoeuvring the temperature of each supply pipe from the air rail to the reach a tcmpcraturc at which combustiou o f tllc i~tjcctcdI'ucl is initiated. I f the
starting air valve should be checked by feeling the pipe - as close to the valve as starting air pressure is increased. the physical s i m of' the pnrts in thc system cnn
possible. be made smaller, but it will not necessarily follow that there will be any large
savings in weight of the parts, as they must be made heavier to withstand the
higher pressures.
1 1.6 What are the usual causes of starting air valve leakage?
Leakage of a starting air valve is usually caused by sluggish valve action 11.9 Is there a definite minimum storting air pressure at which any
preventing fast closure of the valve, or by dirt or foreign particles from the marine diesel engine will start?
starting air supply lodging on the valve seat and so preventing the valve from
closing fully. Sluggish valve action can be caused by dirty pistons or valve No. The minimum pressure at which a marine diesel engine will start varies
spindle guides and the like. In newly overhauled valves sluggish valve action from engine to engine. The pressure requirements will also vary according to
may be caused by parts fitted with inadequate clearances. whether the engine is at working temperature, or is comparatively cold as when
first starting. An engine at working tempeiature will start with a lower starting
air pressure than a cold engine. The temperature of the lubricating oil supplied
11.7 What are the opening periods for starting air valves? How is the
to the engine bearings will also have an influence on the minimum required
opening period controlled and what is overlap?
starting air pressure. When the lubricating oil is at working temperature the$$
Starting air valves are open only during the expansion stroke of the engine. In engine will swing more easily than when the lubricating oil is cold; hence a lowef
two-stroke engines, opening will occur some time after the engine piston has air pressure will start an engine with lubricating oil at working temperatures.
passed top-dead-centre, and closing should be fully completed before the Badly leaking piston rings may also be the cause of an engine failing to start.
exhaust ports, exhaust valves or scavenge ports open. In four-stroke engines the Leakage of air from the piston rings lowers the compression temperature; it is
starting valves open after the engine piston has passed topdead-centre and then insufficient to ignite the fuel and start the engine. Preheating the cooling
close before the exhaust valves open. water to a temperature higher than normal may be all that is required to get the
In order to cdnserve starting air, starting valves are designed to close as early engine to start, particularly in very cold climates where the engine room
as possible consistent with good starting, and some expansion of the starting air temperature has been allowed to fall. After the engine has started and warmed
then takes place. The opening and closing of starting air valves is controlled by up, the'cooling water temperature is brought back to its normal value.
the cam (operating within the starting air distributor) actuating the distributor Note During trials of newly built ships it is a part of the main engine
valve. manoeuvring tests to put one starting air reservoir on to the starting system and
To enable a propulsion engine to be started from any crank position, overlap continue manoeuvres ahead and astern until the pressure falls to the point that
is necessary in the timing of the starting valves on an engine. Overlap occurs the engine cannot start. This pressure is recorded with the ship's trial data.
during the period that any two valves are open, it being understood that one
valve will be opening whilst the other valve is closing. One valve will then always
open when air is put on the engine to start some manoeuvre. If there were no 11.10 If the automatic valve should fail during manoeuvring of the
overlap in the valves it would be possible for the engine to stop in some position engine, what provisions are made so that manoeuvring of the engine can
where all the valves remained closed when air was put on the engine. be continued? -- -
The opening of starting air valves usually occurs around 5" after top-dead- The arrangements vary according to the designs produced by the engine builder.
centre, with open periods sometimes up to as much as 130" of crank rotation, In some designs the automatic valve (under a failed condition) can be operated
but usually less depending upon the make and type of engine and number of by an emergency hand control consisting of a special lever made to engage with
cylinders. , a collar on that part of the automatic valve spindle which protrudes through the
I
valve casing cover. In other designs the automatic valve spindle (operated by
11.8 What i s the usual engine-starting air pressure in marine practice? hand-wheel control at the manoeuvring platform) can be put into one position
There are advantages and disadvantages in using higher pressures; what for automatic control, or screwed into another position which positively opens
are they? the valve and allows it to be closed when screwed back. In other cases the
positive hand-control wheel may be fitted locally on the automatic valve.
Starting air pressures vary with the various engine builders and engine types and
lie between 25 and 42 bars (350 and 600 Ibf/in2). They are within the same range Note When newly joining a ship, the method of emergency control for the
for both main propulsion and auxiliary engines. The pressure of the starting air automatic valve should be studied. Portable equipment, if required to operate
must be sufficient to impart enough speed to the engine pistons to compress the the valve, should be checked to see that it is in its correct location and in such a
combustion air during the compression stroke sufficiently quickly for it to condition that it is ready for immediate use.
288

1 1.1 1
Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

Briefly describe the most co_mmonmethod of reversing the

I Starting and Reversing

operated, an oil dashpot smooths out the motion of the parts and prevents
289

direction of rotation of four-stroke cycle engines shock.

The incline between the ahead and the astern cams allows the cam rollers to
In four-stroke cycle engines (which today are mostly of the medium-speed type) transfer from one cam to the other when the adjacen; cam is in an open
reversing is carried out by the use of duplicate cams for the air inlet valves, position. Some engine builders put a corresponding chamfer or a good radius
exhaust valves, and fuel pumps. on the cam roller edges.
To engage the correct cams for ahead or astern operation with the cam
rollers, the camshaft slides axially in its bearings. This axial movement is
controlled by the camshaft reversing gear, which 3s usually a piston operating in 11.12 How is it possible for the camshaft to slide axially (in reversible
a cylinder: motion of the piston is transmitted directly to the camshaft. In some engines) when the rocking lever roller on one cam happens to be adiacent
engines the motion of the piston is transmitted to the camshaft via levers. In V- to the peak on its duplicate cam?
engines a single piston is made to move the camshaft on each cylinder bank by In older slow-speed engines the shaft carrying the rocker arms had eccentrics on
the use of a pair of levers, each operating its own camshaft. it, the eccentrics being the fulcrums for the rocker arms. Rotation of the rocker
The camshaft reversing gear consisting of the pistons and levers is sometimes shaft lifted the rocker arms and rollers clear of the cam peaks so that axial
referred to as.. the camshaft servomotor. It may be actuated by hydraulic or movement of the camshaft could be completed. When the camshaft was in its
pneumatic means. In some cases the hydraulic system is fed from the main new position, continuous rotation of the rocker shaft lowered the rockers and
engine lubrication system, the pressure being sufficient to operate the rollers on to the duplicate cams.
servomotor piston. Pneumatic servomotors are usually supplied with air from In modem, medium-speed four-stroke cycle reversible propulsion engines the
the starting air system. axial distance of each pair of cams is made sufficiently large so that the side of
A reversing gear of the type used in four stroke cycle medium speed V-engines the peak of one cam inclines off slowly to the idle part of its adjacent duplicate
is shown in Fig. 11.2. The servomotor is pneumatically or hydraulically cam. These inclined planes between pairs of cams enable the rollers to slide
Exhaust arms from one cam to another, even ifi the most unfavourable position of the cams.

w
Camshoft drive Roller with topered edges
Astern
.- A
11.13 HOW a r e two-stroke cycle propulsion engines reversed?
Some cross- and loop-scavengeddiesel engines have a fuel-pump camshaft with
duplicate cams for each fuel pump and starting air distributor, and reversing is
carried out by moving the camshaft axially as in four-stroke cycle engines.
In other cross- and loop-scavenged engines reversing is carried out by
Cam inclih for roller to circumferential translation of the fuel-pump camshaft relative to the engine
ride from on, cam on to other 'cam
camshaft. This circumferential movement is accomplished by the use of a
servomotor in one of the gear wheels forming the fuel-pump camshaft drive.
The servomotor consists of a pair of vanes, fitted on the fuel-pump camshaft,
which move between another pair of vanes fitted within the gearwheel rim. By
putting lubricating oil under pressure between opposite pairs of vanes the fuel-
pump camshaft is moved relative to the gearwheel and the engine crankshaft.
This relative movement changes the fuel-pump timing for ahead and astern
operation, and in so doing changes the firing order of the cylinders. A similar
arrangement is fitted in the exhaust-valve and fuel-pump camshafts of some
uniflow-scavenged two-stroke cycle reversible engines.
Astern A reversing servomotor of the type described is shown in Fig. 11.3. The valve
- --- controlling the oil flow to the servomotor is actuated through a pneumatically
' Thrust bearing controlled valve forming part of the engine control system; it is shown in two
Fig. 11.2 Reversing servomotor gear on a four-stroke cycle medium-speed V- positions (a) and (b) for ahead and astern operation of the engine. The oil
engine. Note. It is common to fit cylinder starting air valves on only one cylinder passages through the camshaft are also shown in line form together with arrows
bank. showing the direction of oil flow during the reversal operation.
 11.14 What do you understand by the terms 'interlocks' and 'blocking
aevices' in starting and reversing mechanisms?
Interlocks and blocking devices are provided so that the enl;lne can be started or
reversed only after certain conditions have been fulfilled. The starting
interlocks prevent the engine being put on to fuel before all the sequences of the
starting system have been completed. During the reversing of engines the inter-
locks ensure that the reversing mechanism and gear have completed all opera-
tions before air can be put on to the starting valves, thus preventing the engine
from starting with the wrong directian of rotation.
The construction of the interlocks in the starting and reversing gear varies
considerably between different designs of engines. With systems controlled by
the operation of hand levers, the interlocks may be cams or pins which lock and
prevent hand-lever movement. In engines started by hand-wheel controls, the
interlocks are often slotted discs (fitted on the wheel shafts) and small levers
which engage or clear the slots in the discs.
Blocking devices are mechanical, pneumatic, electrical or hydraulic devices
used to make for safer operation of the engine. Some engines have a blocking
- -device connected with the ship's engine room telegraph which prevents the
engine being put astern when an ahead order is given, and vice versa. In other
engines, blocking devices are fitted to the engine turning gear so that the engine
cannot be inadvertently started with the turning gear in.
d

11.1 5 Why is it important toTnow how the interlocks and blocking

devices operate on an engine over which you have control?
When fuel-valve or fuel-pump timing &,being checked the interlock devices
must be cleared so that the fuel lever can be put into the position at which the
timing is checked. Similarly the fuel lever must be put into various fuel-setting
positions when the cut-off points on certain types of fuel pumps are being
checked.
In the event of engine-room telegraph failure, any interlocking and block-
ing devices operated from the telegraph would prevent the engine being
manoeuvred during this time of emergency. It is therefore important to know
how the interlock and blocking devices may be overridden so that the engine can
be manoeuvred under emergency conditions with orders via the bridge to
engine-room telephone.
Note The instruction books from the engine builder give details of the
interlocks on engine starting and reversing systems; sometimes the engine
telegraph interlock details are covered in the engine instruction book and
sometimes in the engine-room telegraph instruct ion book.

11 -16 Why are brakes sometimes fitted on the intermediate shafts of

some diesel-engined vessels?
Some types of propulsion diesel engines will continue to turn after the fuel is cut
off to stop the engine. If the engine is reversed and an attempt is made to start
the engine it can happen that the engine operates in the reverse direction to the
292 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
engine can be operated to bring the ship into port. How would you deal
control setting. Operation of the engine on fuel under these conditions usually with the starting arrangements for that cylinder?
causes the cylinder relief valves to lift.
In order to make for precise and quick manoeuvring of the engine, a brake is It is absolutely vital either to properly blank off the air supply to the starting air
fitted to the intermediate shaft, so that the engine can be brought to a standstill valve on the unit where the piston has been hung-up, or to remove the starting
with the brake before an attempt is made to reverse and operate the engine in the air supply branch pipe to the valve and blank off the branch piece on the
other direction. Braking systems are sometimes fitted in geared propulsion starting air rail.
systems where friction clutches are used. Their function then is to prevent high It can be seen that if starting air should get into a cylinder where a piston is
loading and possible burning of clutch friction surfaces when going from ahead hung-up, the load on the piston would most likely be sufficient to carry away
to astern and vice versa. In some cases the brake is brought into use auto- the piston hanging bar and its fastenings.
matically through the engine's manoeuvring controls; in other cases it is applied Note In a 740 mm-bore engine with starting air pressure at 30 bar, the load on
as an emergency operation. Usually this form of brake is actuated by pneumatic the piston in tonnes would be
loading. While braking systems may be fitted in any ship where their use is
justified, they are more commonly found in high-powered ferries operating in Load on piston = piston area x air pressure
confined waters. In other cases they have been fitted in passenger ships with Load (tonnes) = 0.7854 x 74.02 x 30
diesel engine propulsion (see also Question 12.7). loo0
= 129 tonnes
(assuming 1 bar = 1 kgf 1 cm2 approx)
11.17 If it became necessary to operate an engine with a piston or part It can then be seen that a hanging bar and its fastenings designed to support a
of the running gear for a cylinder unit removed, how would you deal with load of 3 to 4 tonnes would be totally inadequate to sustain a load of 129 tonnes.
starting and reversing of the engine?
If a piston has been removed from a propulsion engine it is obvious that the 11.19 Show in diagrammatic form the various parts of a starting air system
starting air valve (on the cylinder where the piston is removed) must not be
. --. - .
for a slow-speed main engine. Show the piping connecting the various parts.
allowed to fuction.
In some cases of breakdown a cylinder cover may not have been replaced An air starting system supplying compressed air for starting main and auxiliary
before the engine is run, in which case the starting valve would be disconnected. engines is shown in Fig. 11.4.
To enable the engine to be manoeuvred thwarting air branches on the air rail Compressed air is supplied into the system from either of the two main air
would have to be blanked off. compressors used when the engine is being manoeuvred; if an auxiliary
When manoeuvring an engine with one or two starting air valves removed, it compressor is fitted it will be used at sea under 'full-away' conditions. For
sometimes happens that the engine comes to a stop in a position where it cannot starting up a 'dead' engine room plant the start up compressor will be used.
be restarted. If this occurs the reversing control can be operated and the engine Air discharged from the compressors is passed through separators to remove
given a small amount of starting air to get it to another position, after whichthe moisture and oil, the air thmp&s.es into the cpmpressed air receivers.
engine reversing gear is again used to give the rotational direction required. The The main engine starting air link, the diesel generator starting air3ines a n d
engine can then usually be started in the correct direction of operation. the auxiliary ain lines arearranged as separate lines. The air to the main engine
If two starting air valves have been removed, the chances of the engine failing starting air lines passes through the automatic valve, a non return valve and
to start are naturally increased. If the engine still fails to start, the starting air then on to the starting air manifold fitted on the engine. The manifold has a
must be shut off the engine and the engine-turning gear applied. The engine can connection to each starting air valve fitted in the cylinder cover. A starting air
be turned into some position where a starting air valve will be effective, by valve is shown in the diagram. A separate air line passes from the automatic
putting one of the pistons a few degrees past top-dead-centre in the direction of valve to the pilot air distributor. A stop valve is often fitted in this line for use
the required rotation. when testing starting air valves for possible leakage.
- The starting air system for the auxiliary engines is similar to that for the main
Note When circumstances make it necessary to cut out the use of any starting engines but the air lines are arranged with separate branches to each generator
air valves, every effort must be made to make the machinery safe for set.
manoeuvring. At all times the Master must be notified of thesituation so that he Compressed air lines are shown branched to the ships whistle or syren, instru-
can take the necessary precautions for the vessel's safety. ment air, control system air, exhaust valve air, workshop and tool air, lifeboat
hoist air and deck air. In some ships the instrument air and control system air is
separated from the systems as shown, the system is then supplied with
11.18 111 cortairl caws of maill-ongine breakdown it is sometimes compressed air from oil-free compressors.
necessary to remove a connecting-rod and hang the piston so that the
 , ,>G
1 11.20 Show by sketches tho ports of or1 otr dtstrrbutor or the pilot valver;,:;~
used for controlling the operation of olr starting volvos I

A common form of a pilot air valve is shown in Fig. 1 1 . 5 , tllrcc v .I, I ves arc
shown, each being in a different operating position.
When an engine is in operation, stopped, or shut down the pilot valve takes
up the position shown in sketch (a). In this position the spring in the pilot valve
; lifts the roller off the cam and the ~ a l v remains
e inoperative.
When an-engine is stk-ted the automatic valve supplies compressed air to the
pilot valve, this acts on the spring loaded piston and forces the roller on to the
cam. Air cannot be passed through the valve to operate the epgine air starting
valve as the roller has engaged on the idle sector of the cam as shown @).
If the roller engages with the 'negative peak' of the cam as shown in (c)
compressed air passes through to the engine air starting valve piston and causes
the valve to open. The engine is then turned with the compressed air supplied
from the starting air manifold. As the engine turns the roller comes on to the
idle sector of the cam and the pilot valve reverts to the position shown in (b).
Any compressed air trapped above the piston in the engine starting valve is
quickly released to the atmosphere. The air passes through the holes drilled iD
the central piston of the pilot valve and through a silencer or muffler before

l U)
- (b! - I
(c)

Fig. 11.6 Sketches of starting air pilot valves.

296 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

escaping. As the air pressure above the piston (in the engine starting valve)
I Starting and Reversing 297

When an engine is- sLarxI the_small pneumatic controlled valve moves

drops the spring rapidly closes the valve. --- upwards to the position shown in the extreme right-hand sketch; in this position
the air above the pistan quickly leaks off to the atmosphere. This unbalances
11.21 Show by sketches the ports of on outornotic valve. the forces acting on the piston and valve, the upward acting force is now greater
and causes the valve to open quickly against the load from the spring.
An automatic starting valve is shown in Fig. 11.6. The purpose of this valve is to
Compressed air is then allowed t o flow from the open air reservoir through to
supply air quickly to the engine starting system when the engine is started and to
shut off the air supply automatically afterthe engine is working on fuel. This the starting air manifold on the engine.
After the engine has commenced to operate on fuel the small pneumatically
makes for safer engine operation and conserves starting air thereby saving
controlled valve is caused t o revert t o its original position and the automatic
energy and 'wear and tear' on the air compressors.
When an engine is brought into operation after a shut down the hand wheel vdve closes.
In an emergency the automatic valve can be manually operated by the
on the automatic valve is moved to the position shown on the valve indicator as
handwhcel.
'automatic'. In this position the piston, valve and the valve spindle assembly
can move up or down freely and without hindrance from the handwheel and
h some engines the automatic valve is manually operated by a portable lever
screw. When an air reservoir is opelied compressed air passes through to the
during an emergency. The lever is supplied by the engine builder.
The emergency operating lever is usually located in a position adjacent to the
central part of the automatic valve which is initially held shut by a spring (not
valve. Prior to a 'stand by' for manoeuvering an engine, it is good practice to
shown). The piston is greater in area than the valve below it. Compressed air check that the manual control lever is in its correct location and readily
acting on the top of the piston is obtained from a small pneumatic controlled available for immediate use.
valve (shown on the right hand side of the automatic valve). The downward
acting force being greater holds the valve in the closed position.

Fig. 11.6 Diagrammatic sketch of arrangement of automatic starting air valve.

 -Reduction Gearing, Clutches. Couplings 299

machinery space difficult to utilize, and hull trim problems when the ship is
fully loaded. These problems become less difficult to deal with when three
engines are grouped round the reduction gearing.
In specialized types of ships such as fast ferries, car ferries, 'Ro-Ro' ships and
the like, the low headroom requirements of geared medium-speed diesel engines
makes this form of machinery most attractive, to the point that it is almost a
REDUCTION G-EARING, prerequisite.
No ovenihelming case can be made for geared diesel propulsion machinery

CLUTCHE,' COUPLINGS except in the type of situations mentioned above.

Generally the total operating costs of geared engines and their auxiliaries is
higher than that for conventional slow-speed directcoupled machinery installa-
tions, which can be offset to somesxtent by capital cost reductions or the
possibility of increased difinings. Naturally, increased earnings can come about
only if cargo is available to fill the extra deadweight and hold cubic capacity
obtained from the use of geared diesel installations.
- .a

12.2 How a r e the engines in a geared diesel plant grouped around the
12.1 What are the advantages and disadvantages of geared diesel reduction gearing?
propulsion machinery instollations?
With single engines the engine is fitted forward of the reduction gearing. The
Geared diesel propulsion systems have many advantages and some disadvan- engine shaft is connected to the reduction gear pinion which is at the top of the
tages, and what might appear as an advantage for some specialized type of ship gearwheel. All the parts, consisting of the engine, gear pinion, gearwheel and
could be a real disadvantage for a different type. intermediate shaft, lie on a common vertical plane which is on the centre-line of
The main advantages of geared propulsion are a saving of total machinery the ship.
weight compared with direct propulsion, and a reduction of the headroom In twoengine installations, the engines are most commonly fitted forward of
requirement, for lifting gear to remove cylinder heads and pistons for overhaul. the reduction gearing. The pinions, which are on the same centre-lines as the
The main disadvantage is the number of cylinder units which have to be kept engine crankshafts, are placed diametrically opposite on the main gearwheel,
in good condition, though this is offset to someextent if it is possible (within the and the axes of the crankshafts, pinions and gearwheels are on the same
service commitments of the ship) to shut down one engine at sea. Overhaul of horizontal plane.
cylinder units can then be carried out when the weather is suitable for engine When three engines make up the installation, two engines are fitted forward
shutdown. of the reduction gearing in a similar manner to that described in the two-engine
The fuel and lubricating oil requirements for geared diesel machinery case. The third engine is fitted aft of the reduction gearing but coupled into the
installations are generally higher than for slow-speed, direct-coupled machinery gearing in a similar way to the single engine. This brings the aft engine above the
of equivalent power. The fuel consumption is higher because the overall intermediate shaft, which extends aft from the main gearwheel, to the propeller
mechanical efficiency is less than for equivalent direct-coupled installations. or screw shaft. The aft engine foundation is arranged so that it allows the -
However, this can to some extent be offset by designing for a lower propeller intermediate shaft to pass through it.
speed - which gives higher propeller efficiency. Operational experience with With fourengine installations the grouping of two of the forward engines is
medium-speed geared installations shows that the total lubricating oil consump- as in the two-engine case, and the other two engines are fitted aft of the reduc-
tion is usually considerably higher than with conventional diesel machinery. tion gearing. The pinion for the engines on the starboard side is common to
Total fuel and lubricating oil consumption figures for the whole machinery both starboard engines and the arrangement on the port side is similar.
installation, with slow-speed direct-coupled installations and conventional
diesel generating sets, still remains lower than for geared installations, even
12.3 --bk~methe v a r ~ o u s ~ of
~ egears
s and state which types moy be
where electrical poweF is generated with an auxiliary drive from the reduction
found in marine diesel engine practice, either on engines or within
gearing. propulsion reduction gearing.
In ships with machinery aft and a two-engint installation the extreme gear
casing width can cause problems, which may be overcome by moving the There are many types of gears; broadly they may be classified as gears used
machinery forward or increasing the fullness of the aft body of the hull or a when the axes of the shafts are parallel, and those used when the axes of the
combination of both. This can itself create a problem of having part of the shafts are at an angle or when their lines of projection intersect.
300 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Reduction Gearing, Clutches, Couplings 301

Gear types used when shafts are porallel connected or disconnected easily and quickly (see also ,Question 12.6, which
deals with hydraulic couplings).
Spur gears with external teeth, or mating pairs of spur gears where the teeth
on one gear are external, and o! the other internal, within a hollow rim. The
line of the gear teeth is axial. 12.5 How would you define the terms 'primary element'.ond 'secondary
Helical gears; in this type of gear the tooth line follows a helix; helical gears element' of a coupling or clutch?
may be of the single or double type. Single helical gears set up a thrust in the The primary element of a coupling or clutch is that part which is connected to
shafts when transmitting power, due to the helix angle, but in double helical the prime mover, i.e. the diesel engine in the case of geared diesel propulsion
gears the thrust created by the right-handed helix is balanced by the thrust machinery. The secondary element is that part which takes the power trans-
from the left-handed helix. mitted from the primary element. The secondary element is indirectly
In a pair of gears meshing with each other (sometimes referred to as a connected to the propeller through the gearing and shafting.
matched pair) the smaller gearwheel is called the pinion and the larger one is
referred to as the wheel. Note There may be a considerable difference in the form that the primary and
secondary elements of a coupling or clutch take. The form will depend on the
Gear types used when the shafts are not parallel actual type and operation of the coupling or clutch.
3 Bevel gears.
4 Spiral bevel gears. 12.6 Name and briefly describe the various types of couplings or clutches
5 Worm gears. used with geared diesel propulsion machinery?
6 Spiral gears. Spiral gears are similar to helical gears but used only when the
shafts are not parallel. Solidflange coupling. This is the simplest form of coupling and consists of two
flanges, one being the primary element which is fastened to the engine crank-
Another type of gear is the rack and pinion; in this form of gear a rotary shaft and the other the secondary element which is fastened to the pinion in the
motion can be converted to a sliding motion or a sliding motion can be used to gearing train. The two flanges are bolted together with coupling bolts in a
create a rotary motion. normal manner.
In marine diesel engines spur gears are used for camshaft and fuel pump This type of coupling is used only in very low-power installations. Its use
camshaft drives, cylinder lubricator drives and the like. usually requires a flywheel heavier than normal so that the cyclic variation in
Bevel and spiral bevel gears are sometimes used for governor drives and the output torque from the engine is reduced. The latitude of allowable misa-
indicator shaft drives. lignment between the engine and gearing with this type of coupling is very
Worm gearing is commonly used for engine-turning gear drives. small. The allowable misalignment can be made easier to handle by connect-
Speed-reduction gearing for propulsion drives from medium-speed engines is ing the engine to the gearing pinion through a quill shaft (see Question 12.8).
generally of the single helical type;'tlrough double helical gears are sometimes
used. Friction clutch. This form of clutch consists of both the primary and secondary
For engines of very low power, spur gearing can also be used for speed reduc- sections connected in the normal manner to the driver and driven sides of the
tion between the engine and propeller shafra- power train. The elements making up the internal parts of the clutch consist of a
Rack and pinion gear is used to connect and transmit the power from an series of primary plates with splines which engage with and are driven by the
electric motor in the automatic (Gyro Pilot) steering control to the control on primary element, and another series of plates, with splines on the opposite edge,
the steering gear. which engage with the secondary element of the clutch. Between the primary
and secondary clutch plates friction plates are fitted. When the plates are
unloaded the p r i m a r y s ~ ~ n g c a r r r e v o l but v eno torque is trans-
12.4 Whot do you understand by the terms 'couplings -ond 'clutches'; are-
f

mitted; but if the plates are forced together friction causes the primary plates to
the terms synonymous? drive the friction plates, which in turn drive the seeendary plate, and torque is
We often speak of couplings and clutches in a loose sense as being the same transmitted through the clutch. The plates are usually forced against one
thing. so they may appear to be synonymous; in fact there are essential another by hydraulic pistons fed from the lubrication system.
differences. Another form of friction clutch has a toroidal elastomer ring having an
The term 'clutch' is commonly applied to equipment which allows an elliptical cross-section. The ring is fastened inside a rim which is attached con-
operator quickly to connect or disconnect an engine into or out of the power centrically to the primary shaft. A series of friction pads are fitted on the
train wide t l ~ engine
c is working. The term 'coupling' is used for items of equip- outside surface of the ring within the inner circumference. The pads are
ment which connect an engine to apower train but do not allow it to be connected with links to the rim holding the elastomer ring.
304 Ouestions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Reduction Gearing, Clutches, Couplings 305

as is experienced in heavy weather. It is for these last two reasons that these pinion and the natural elasticity of the shaft, the arrangement will be very
types of couplings are so often employed in geared diesel plants. flexible; and this flexibility is obtained in approximately the same length as a
Another reason for fitting hydraulic couplings arises from the relatively large normal solid arrangement of pinion journals and flange.
mechanjcal clearances between their primary and secondary elements: this large If the end of the shaft which is keyed inside the pinion journal has the key
fastening replaced by a claw-type flexible coupling, the arrangement will not
and gearbox. -
clearance can accommodate minor rnisal&pnent between engine crankshaft
only have elasticity but will also be able to sustain a relatively large amount of
misalignment between the flange at the input end and the connected prime
mover. It must be understood, however, that as misalignment increases so also
12.8 What is a quill drive? What i s its advantages and where is it 'used? does the rate of wear on the teeth in the claw coupling.
A quill drive is made up of two parts, a pinion and its adjacent journals made Quill drives are often-used
- . - -to
- connect the prime mover through to the reduc-
from a single forging bored right through its polar a&, and a shaft 5iialT tion gearing pinions. They may also be used to cmnect the engine to the
enough to pass through the hole with a substantial clearance. One end of this primary sides of friction clutches when they are fitted on the aft sides of the
shaft has a flange coupling on it and the shaft is long enough to pass right pinions.
through the hole leaving the flange clear of the pinion journal. The end of the In reduction gearing installations which have a set of step-up ratio gears for
shaft opposite to the flange is fastened by a key to the bore in the journal. driving an alternator or generator, it is common practice to use a quill drive
It can be seen that if torque is applied to the coupling it will be transmitted between the pinion and the alternator or generator.
along the shaft which in turn will transmit it to the pinion through the key. A main propulsion reduction gearing system consisting of a quill shaft,
It can also be understood that, due to the length of shaft passing through the pneumatic clutch and pneumatic brake is shown in Fig. 12.1. The damper
- coupling is connected through to the coupling on the engine crankshaft. The air
Cornpessed atr supply
vents (located in the casing supporting the adjustable roller bearing) are placed
vertically one above the other; cool air may then enter the lower vent, the air
after cooling the clutch sets up a convection current and leaves through the
upper vent. It is important to keep the vents clear of obstructions at all times.
The illustration shows the arrangement for one engine, for a twin engined
propulsion system the arrangement will be duplicated.

12.9 What is the effect of changes in rate of pressure rise on the

pheumatic clutch shown in Fig. 12.13
I I Oulll shaft - II
Erqine The summation of the mass of the gearing, shafting, propeller, and the mass of
entrained water within the bounds of the propeller together with the frictional.
effect, amounts to a considerable sum. When the clutch is loaded by supplying
Damper air under pressure the large total mass has to be accelerated while bringing it up '
coupllrq
to the desired propeller speed.
If the rate of pressure rise is too fast the effect is the same as putting a brake
on the engine and the engine will possibly stall.
If the rate of pressure rise is too slow the heat generated by friction between
the pads and the clutch ring will cause the pads to be badly overheated and the
clutch ring to be damaged.
The rate of pressure rise in the clutch is adjusted to suit the power output of
Mom thrust the engine and the mass of the parts that have to be accelerated while the clutch
Propeller bear~ng is being loaded.
If the engine is low in power and the mass of the parts being accelerated is
- "
- high, the rate of pressure rise must be low to prevent stalling.
If the power of the engine is high and the mass of the parts being accelerated is
Fig. 12.1 Dingronirnntic-skutct~31 pneumatic clutch, pneumatic brake, and quill
shaft of a geared diesel propulsion system. low, the rate of pressure rise may be high to prevent overheating.
 loaded draught of the vessel, or because of limitations imposed on the
12.10 If the ring of a pneumatic clutch were found to be cracked, how
would you deal with the problem? machinery weight.
The largest ratios will be for the higher-speed engines geared to the lower-
There will always be some heat generated during the loading period in speed propellers. The speed-of an engiiie might for example be 850 rev/min
pneumatic clutches. The heat generated on the surface causes a crazed pattern geared to a propeller having a speed of 85 rev/min. Speed of driver divided by
of cracks in the hard surface of the clutch ring. If the cracks are only on the speed of driven equals ten. The gear ratio would therefore be 10 to 1.
surface of the ring no action need be taken. If there is reason to think the cracks Taking the other extreme we-cauld have an engine speed of 300 rev/min
have some depth, the depth must be ascertained. driving, through gearing, a propeller at 85 rev/min. In this case the driver speed
The depth of the cracks can be found by ~Itrasonictesting. If the cracks is 300 and the driven speed 85 so the ratio is 300 to 85, or 3.529 to I . These
indicate the possibility of parts of the clutch ring becoming detached or the ring figures are at the extremes of the range.
fracturing, the clutch ring must be renewed. In actual practice high-powered, medium-speed engines operate at speeds
Spare clutch rings are usually carried in the ship or held in some location considerably lower thslh 850 r e v h i n . Fairly common figures are in the range
where they are readily available for transport to the ship. 250 to 600 r e v h i n , and for propellers 90 to 1 10 rev/min, this providing the best
compromise between propeller size, cost, and efficiency. This gives a middle
value of 425 r e v h i n for engine and 100 rev/min for propeller. These values
12.1 1 What do you understand by the terms 'single- ' and 'double- give a gear ratio requirement of 4.25 to 1.
reduction' gearing? What is the purpose of each form of gearing and
where may these forms of gearing be found in motor ships? Note Design of geared propulsion machinery has taken a distinct trend
towards using increased engine speeds and lower propeller speeds, where the
In single-reduction gearing a set of gears consists of one or more pinions driving draught conditions will allow a larger-diameter propeller.
a gearwheel, the ratio being fixed by the number of teeth in the pinion relative to
the number of teeth in the wheel. The gear ratio or reduction ratio is designed to Higher-speed engines have been available for some time, and now that their
suit the relation between the speed of the prime mover and the speed of the reliability has been well proven they tend to be selected more often. When
output shaft. If the speed reduction required is not too great, single-reduction lower-speed propellers are used the increased propeller efficiency offsets some
gearing will be satisfactory. of the other losses in geared propulsion machinery.
If the speed reduction is large, double-reduction gearing must be used in
order to keep the physical dimensions of *e gearing within bounds. A set of 12.13 When examining gear ratios or the number of teeth on matching ,
double-reduction gearing consists of a pinion at the input end of the gear train, pinions and wheels in reduction gearboxes, it is olways noted that the -4
referred to as the first-reduction pinion, with its teeth meshing with the first- number of teeth on the pinion is never an arithmetical factor of the
reduction wheel. The first-reduction wheel is mounted on a common shaft with number of teeth in the wheel. Why is this, and what is a hunting tooth or
the second-reduction pinion. so the rotational speed of the first-reduction wheel teeth?
and second-reduction pinion is the same and is fixed by the speed of the input
shaft and the gear iatio between the first-reduction pinion and wheel. The Gear ratios for propulsion gearing always have a number which includes a
second-reduction pinion drives the second-reduction wheel, which is mounted decimal fraction, i.e. thenumber of teeth in the pinion is never an arithmetical
on the output shaft. factor of the number of teeth in the gear. By designing the numbers of teeth in
Single-reduction gearing is used in geared diesel propulsion systems to utilize this manner a particular tooth in a pinion does not repeat its contact with a
efficiently the available speed in medium-speed diesel engines with the more particular tooth on the gear until many revolutions later. This equalises the
efficient propellers, which turn at much lower speeds. wear between the teeth in the gear train. This can be demonstrated as follows.
If the ship has a steam turbo alternator coupled in with an exhaust gas boiler An arithmetical factor (a whole number) would be obtained if there were for
the steam turbine will drive the alternator through a set of single-reduction example 50 teeth on the pinion and 150 teeth in the gear. The factor would be 3
gearing. and the gear ratio 3 to 1. When the gears are rotating it will be shown that for 3
The most likely place to find double-reduction gearing is in the engine room revolutions of the pinion a particular tooth on the pinion will make contact
crane or hoist, on steam and electric winches, in lathe gearboxes and the like. again with a particular tooth on the wheel. First find the LCM of the numbers
of teeth.
I
12.12 Give some values of reduction gear ratios for propulsion reduction
gearing driven by medium-speed engines. I
I
3
Medium-speed diesel engines for marine propulsion purposes are designed to The number of pinion revolutions for re-establishment of contact between a
operate at some speed within the range of 300revhin to 850revhin. particular tooth on the pinion and a particular tooth on the gear is
Propeller spccds may bc between 85 and 150 rev/min depending on the size and
I
308 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Reduction Gearing, Clutches, Couplings 309

The construction or development of each of these curves is shown in

Figs. 12.2(a) through (d).
If during the construction of a hypocycloid the diameter of the rolling circle is
Let the teeth on the gear be increased to 152. The gear ratio is 15250 which is made half the diameter of the base circle the hypocycloid becomes a chord of-
3.04:1 . The ratio of the gearing has hardly been changed. We can now examine the base circle equal the diameter of the base circle. J
,

how many rey~lutionsthe pinion. must make between re-establishment of

contact between pinion and gear teeth. As before,
50=2xS 12.15 The terms 'involute' and 'cycloid' have some relation with gear
152 = 2'x 19 tooth profiles. What do you understand about this relationship and why is
LCM = 2 ' x F x 19=3800 one form of gear tooth preferred to another?
Revolutions of pinion Cycloidal tooth forms are based on the geometry of the cycloid; involute tooth
forms on the geometry of the involute. The involute tooth form is favoured for
use in reduction gearing as used for ship propulsion purposes in connection with
diesel engines. For two gears to operate satisfactorily it is essential that the
Before a particular tooth on the pinion repeats its contact with some tooth form be such that the velocity ratio is always uniform. In practice it is
particular tooth on the gear, the pinion makes 76 r e v o l u t i ~ s . - extremely difficult to maintain the theoretical centre distances between matched
gears; with involute tooth forms relatively wide deviations from the theoretical
If the gear was given 151 teeth the ratio would be 151:50 or 3.02:l.
centre distance can arise without affecting the velocity ratio, whereas variation
5O=2xS2 in cycloidal tooth form centre distance immediately affects the uniformity of
15 1 is a prime number the velocity ratio.
L C M = 2 x F x 151=7550 With involute teeth, within limits, variation in centre distance increases the
Revolutions of pinion is now backlash but has little effect on the velocity ratio. It is on this ground, together
with some other advantages related to manufacture, that involute tooth forms
are favoured.

In the examples, the odd tooth or extra two teeth put on the gearwheel
increase the number of revolutions before the pinion and gear repeat some 12.16 Define the following terms when related to spur gears: pitch
particular position. They are called hunting teeth, and their purpose is to circle, addendum, dedendum, tooth face, tooth flank, backlash,
equalize tooth wear and prevent problems which might arise if increased wear clearance.
occurred in localized areas. Hunting teeth make for longer gear life.
Pitch circles. The pitch circles of a matched gear and pinion are those circles
which if in rolling (without slipping) contact with one another give the same
12.1'4 What is an involute, a cycloid, an epicycloid and a hypocycloid? motion as the actual gear and pinion. The ratio of the pitch circle diameters is
If a plank is placed on the curved portion of a cylinder lying on its side, and the same as the ratio of the gearing.
rocked so that it is in effect rolling round the cylinder without sliding, a mark on Addendum is that part of the tooth above the pitch circle measured radially
the edge of the plank would trace out an involute. from the pitch circle; the dedendum is that part of the tooth below the pitch
Involute. In geometrical terms, an invoIute is the locus of a point on a straight circle measured radially from the pitch circle to the bottom of the tooth profile.
line which is rolling without sliding round the circumference of a circle. Tooth face is the working or contact surface of the tooth above the pitch circle.
Cycloid. Similarly a cycloid is a curve generated by a point on the circumference Tooth flank is the working or contact surface below the pitch circle.
of a circle when it rolls, without slipping, on a straight line.
Backlash is theminimum open distaqce or clearance measured between the
Epicycloid. An epicycloid is a curvetr&ed by a point on the circumference of a back faces of adjacent teeth on a pinion and gear.
circle rolling on the exterior of another circle.
Clearance is the gap measured radially between the tip of one tooth and the
tlypo~ycloid.I f it rolls on the fi~sidcof t l w t h c r circle the curve traced is a bottom space between two teeth opposite and on each side of it. The names of
hypocycloid. the various parts making up gear teeth are shown in Fig. 12.3.
3 10 Qucslions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

/ Epicycloid

Base

Fig. 12.2 (a) Development of an involute.

(b) Development of a cycloid.
(c) Development of an epicycloid.
(d) Development of a hypocycloid.
Note. If the rolling circle is half the diameter of the base circle the hypocycloid
becomes a straight line equal in length to the diameter of the base circle.
 e marine U~eselEngrne 1 Reduction Gearing, Clutches, Couplings 3 13

by the thrust from the left-handed helix. It has a disadvantage in that the main
gearwheel, being constrained axially by the main thrust bearing, must engage
with a pinion which is free to float axially, so that the load transmitted by the
pinion is balanced between the forward and aft sections of pinion teeth. This
entails the use of claw couplings or similar devices to provide the,floatingaction
required.
In reduction gears for diesel-engined ships single helical gearing is most
favoured. The axial thrust is kept to a minimum by using small helix angles, no
problem arises from the axial thrust in the main gear wheql and no serious
problem arises in balancing the thrust from the pinion. Single helical gearing is
less costly to produce.
However, for high powers associated with low propeller speeds, where the
width of the gears becomes large, double helical gears will usually be used.

Clearance c~rcle 12.18 When two V-engines are used in conjunction with a two-input
single-output gearbox, how are centres of the input shafts kept far
enough apart to give adequate working space between the engines?
It would be possible to design gearing which consisted of two input pinions and
one main gearwheel but it would be unnecessarily large and heavy. To keep
Dedendum clrcle
weight and physical dimensions within economic bounds intermediate wheels
are fitted between each engine input pinion and the main gearwheel on the
output shaft. This increas-essdistance Belween the centres of the input shafts
and gives the wdrking space required.
In some twin-screw ships the working space betmen the two engi~esis
obtained by an asymmetric arrangement wherein the gearing (moving outboard
from the inboard input shaft) consists of an input pinion meshing directly with
the main gearwheel. Between the outboard input pinion and the main gearwheel
Fig. 12.3 Sketch showing the names of the various parts forming a gear tooth. an intermediate wheel is interposed. This provides the necessary space between
the engines, and forms the asymmetric arrangement.

12.19 What is on epicyclic gear and where is it sometimes used?

12.17 Why is helical gearing favoured for propulsion reduction gearing;
what ore the advantages of double helical gearing over single helical The parts forming this reduction gear consist of the input shaft on which the
gearing? input pinion, referred to as the sun pinion, is mounted. The sun pinion drives a
Helical gearing is favoured because it is quieter and smoother in operation than planet wheel which is mounted on an axle attached to the planet wheel cage
normal spur gearing. This quieter and smoother action comes about from the carrier. The carrier is attached to the output shaft and revolves with it.
fact that the left- and right-hand helices of a matched pinion and wheel give a Surrounding the planet wheel is a gear rim with teeth cut on its inner circum-
gradual engagement of teeth, which in turn gives an increase in the allowable ference, and these teeth mesh with the teeth on the planet gear. The gear rim is
load which can be put on the teeth; with larger helix angles two or more teeth on fixed in the gear casing and does not move relative to the other parts. This gear
the pinion engage with two or more on the wheel at the same time. is referred to as the annulus wheel.
When helical gearing teeth are operating they set up axial thrusts which are When the input shaft and pinion rotate through a displacement of one tooth
the planet wheel is displaced a similar angular distance around its axle,
related to the helix angle. The axial thrust from the main gear can be accommo-
dated within the main thrust bearing, but the thrust from the pinion must be which is part of the planet wheel carrier. When the planet wheel is displaced
balanced by additional thrust bearings or some other means. angularly one tooth by the input pinion, the tooth on the planet wheel meshing
with the annulus is displaced an angular distance of one tooth round the
Double helical gearing, being cut with opposite handed helices, does not have
annulus wheel. As the annulus wheel is fixed the displacement of the planet
this problem-of thrust as the thrust from the right-handed helix is balanced
 Reduction Gearinn. Clutches. C o u ~ l i n m 3 13

by the thrust from the left-handed helix. It has a disadvantage in that the main
gearwheel, being constrained axially by the main thrust bearing, must engage
with a pinion which is free to float axially, so that the load transmitted by the
pinion is balanced between the forward and aft sections of pinion teeth. This
entails the use of claw couplings or similar devices to provide the.floating action
required.
In reduction gears for diesel-engined ships single helical gearing is most
favoured. The axial thrust is kept to a minimum by using small helix angles, no
problem arises from the axial thrust in the main gear whe$ and no serious
problem arises in balancing the thrust from the pinion. Single helical gearing is
less costly to produce.
However, for high powers associated with low propeller speeds, where the
width of the gears becomes large, double helical gears will usually be used.

12.18 When two V-engines are used in conjunction with a two-input

single-output gearbox, how are centres of the input shafts kept far
enough apart to give adequate working space between the engines?
It would be possible to design gearing which consisted of two input pinions and
one main gearwheel but it would be unnecessarily large and heavy. To keep
weight and physical dimensions within economic bounds intermediate wheels
are fitted between each engine input pinion and the main gearwheel on the
output shaft. This increw+hedistancek€ween the centres of the input shafts
and gives the wbrking space required.
In some twin-screw ships the working space bet-n the two engipes is
obtained by an asymmetric arrangement wherein the gearing (moving outboard
from the inboard input shaft) consists of an input pinion meshing directly with
the main gearwheel. Between the outboard input pinion and the main gearwheel
Fig. 12.3 Sketch showing the names of the various parts forming a gear tooth. an intermediate wheel is interposed. This provides the necessary space between
the engines, and forms the asymmetric arrangement.

12.19 What is an epicyclic gear and where is it sometimes used?

12.17 Why is helical gearing favoured far propulsion reduction gearing;
what are the advantages of double helical gearing over single helical The parts forming this reduction gear consist of the input shaft on which the
gearing? input pinion, referred to as the sun pinion, is mounted. The sun pinion drives a
Helical gearing is favoured because it is quieter and smoother in operation than planet wheel which is mounted on an axle attached to the planet wheel cage
normal spur gearing. This quieter and smoother action comes about from the carrier. The carrier is attached to the output shaft and revolves with it.
fact that the left- and right-hand helices of a matched pinion and wheel give a Surrounding the planet wheel is a gear rim with teeth cut on its inner circum-
gradual engagement of teeth, which in turn gives an increase in the allowable ference, and these teeth mesh with the teeth on the planet gear. The gear rim is
load which can be put on the teeth; with larger helix angles two or more teeth on fixed in the gear casing and does not move relative to the other parts. This gear
the pinion engage with two or more on the wheel at the same time. is referred to as the annulus wheel.
When helical gearing teeth are operating they set up axial thrusts which are When the input shaft and pinion rotate through a displacement of one tooth
the planet wheel is displaced a similar angular distance around its axle,
related to the helix angle. The axial thrust from the main gear can be accommo-
dated within the main thrust bearing, but the thrust from the pinion must be which is part of the planet wheel carrier. When the planet wheel is displaced
balanced by additional thrust bearings or some other means. angularly one tooth by the input pinion, the tooth on the planet wheel meshing
Double helical gearing, being cut with opposite handed helices, does not have with the annulus is displaced an angular distance of one tooth round the
this problem-of thrust as the thrust from the right-handed helix is balanced annulus wheel. As the annulus wheel is fixed the displacement of the planet
wheel tooth causes the planet wheel axle to be displaced a similar angular . morelightly loaded gearing will bccut with sli~r~tl;~rtlizcd
gcw cultcrs which rnny
amount. This in turn displaces the planet wheel axle carrier which, being part of follow B.S.S. designs or the designs of the specialist gear cutter manufacturers.
the output shaft, causes the output shaft to revolve.
In practice, to reduce tooth loading, two, three, or four planet wheels may be
used depending on the reduction ratio required, the space available and the 12.21 What types of bearing ore used to support the rotating elements of
power to be transmitted. propulsion reduction gearing?
A considerable torque is placed on the annulus wheel so the casing is of Some reduction gearing installations use white-metal-lined bearings throughout
necessity robust enough to withstand this torque together with the load trans- the gearbox.
mitted from the thrust bearing. The gear casing fastenings to the foundation are In other cases white-metal-lined bearings may be used for the main gearwheel
also robust enough to transmit the propeller thrust into the hull for propelling bearings, with a combination of roller bearings or ball bearings for the pinion
the ship. shafts. If ball bearings are used, arrangements must be made to allow for axial
The annulus wheel is flexibly connected to the casing by means of a tooth- expansion of the pinion and shaft.
type flexible coupling which is sufficient to absorb any inaccuracies in the For reduction gearing used in lower-power propulsion installations ball or
machining of the gears. roller bearings may be used throughout.
This type of gear is used in high-powered, single-screw motor ships driven by Epicyclic gearing bearings for the gearbox described in Question 12.19 are -
a single V-engine. The arrangement is very suitable for a fine aft body as is white-metal-lined throughout.
necessary for high powers and speeds. The power-to-weight ratio for this White-metal-lined pinion journal bearings sometimes have the bearing shells
arrangement makes it very attractive in specialised ships where a high cubic split on an angle from the horizontal. In such cases the split is arranged at 90° to
capacity and low machinery weight is required. the line of action of the bearing load or at some angle near to this.
In order to keep total weights down it is usual to utilize small-diameter
propellers having rotational speeds between 125 and 150 rev/min. With such 12.22 -How a- reductiori gearing te6th and bearings lubricated?
propeller speeds the reduction gear ratios are of the order of 2.75: 1 to 3.25: 1.
Double helical type gears are used for the sun pinion, planet, and annulus Reduction gear teeth are lubricated by directing jets or sprays of oil on to the
wheels. teeth of the pinion and wheel at the point where they are beginning to make
Note The definitions given for epicyclic gear arrangements vary and it could contact when running in theahead direction. Sometimes the oil jet is directed on
be argued that under some definitions the gear described is not of the epicyclic to the opposite side also, for better cooling of the teeth. The lubricating oil
type. The reduction gear described has, however, been used in many diesel sprayers are spaced approximately 100 mm apart.
propulsion installations. It is often called a sun and planet gear, or planetary The sprayers may be formed from hollow pockets cast in the gear case and
reduction gearing. drilled on the inside. Oil is fed into the pocket from the outside and issues from
holes in the pocket drilled at the correct angle to direct the jets on to the desired
areas.
12.20 What is the form of friction when involute profile teeth come into In some instances, with cast gear casings. and with most fabricated gear
and out of contact? casings, the sprayer consists of a straight pipe with holes driiled along lts length -
When the contact between a pinion tooth and a wheel tooth is at the pitch circle to form the jets. In other instances nozzles which produce a fish-tail oil spray
line, the friction is due to pure rolling action, because the r o l h g speeds of the are fitted into the feed pipe.
wheel and pinion teeth are equal. At other points of tooth contact the rolling Bearings are lubricated by forced l.ubrication, an annulus being machined
speed of the pinion teeth and wheel teeth will not be equal so the friction will be round the bearing pocket which is connected to the oil supply. Oil is fed into the
due to sliding action, and relative to the rolling speeds of each element. As bearing through two holes on opposite sides of the bearing shells which are in
sliding between tooth surfaces will give higher amounts of wear than pure way of the joint between the upper and lower halves. The holes feed the oil into
rolling, the gear designer aims to keep the sliding speeds to a minimum. This is the side pockets machined in the sides of the bearing at the shell joint.
done by altering the proportions of the addenda in the pinion and wheel. The lubricating oil drains into pockets at each end of the bearing and drains
Generally the sliding action is a maximum at the time the flank of a pinion tooth away through external or internal drain pipes.
makes contact with the tip edge on the face of a wheel tooth.
12.23 State some values for the overall efficiency of a set of reduction
Note The action of gear teeth is covered in most books dealing with Theory of gearing as would be used in geared diesel propulsion machinery (a) with
Machines. slip couplings, (b) without slip couplings. Why is it important that the
In practice the major gear manufacturers producing the high-duty gears used efficiency curve remain constant over a wide range of powers?
for marine reduction gearing have their own designs of tooth profiles which for The efficiency referred to here is the mechanical efficiency which is equal to the
marine propulsion gearing are based on involute forms. But spur gear teeth on output power divided by the input power. The quotient when multiplied by 100
gives the mechanical efficiency expressed as a percentage. Friction couplings have virtually no power loss except when running idle or
Gearbox efficiencies at full load are of the order of 97% to 98'70, which may being engaged or disengaged. Wet friction couplings have oil passing through
decrease to 96% to 97% at half load. . them which removes any heat generated under these conditions. Heat generated
Slip coupling losses, either hydraulic or electro-magnetic, are of the order of by dry friction couplings during engagement and disengagement is dissipated by
3% to 4% of the load transmitted at full load. These losses expressed as a conduction through adjacent parts and air cooling.
percentage efficiency will be equal to 100-3 or 4, or approximately 97%.
The efficiency of a set of reduction gearing combined with slip couplings will
12.25 Certain forces are set up in hydraulic couplings when they are
then be the product of the coupling and gearing efficiencies.
transmitting torque. How do these forces come about and how are they
Coupling efficiency x gearing efficiency = 97% x 98% =95% balanced?
If reversing of the propeller direction is carried out with reversing gear A common arrangement for the supply of lubrication oil (which acts as the
incorporating reverse gears and clutches in the gearbox, the gearing efficiency hydraulic fluid) is to supply'the oil through an axial drilling, which passes
will'be reduced by about 1 Qo so gearing efficiency is then of the order of 96% at through the pinion and journals. The secondary element of the coupling is
full power. attached t o the pinion shaft and the oil passes through its centre directly into the
Note Electro-magnetic slip couplings require an electrical power supply for
space separating the two elements.
energizing the magnet poles and this power input must be included in overall Air is expelled through the small radial holes in the outer circumference of the
efficiencies-.- coupling and a small amount of oil circulates through the holes for cooling'
purposes when transmitting torque. Oil completely fills the internal parts of the ,
It is important that the efficiency curve plotted as the relationship between coupling between the primary and secondary elements and the dome-shaped
load transmitted and efficiency be as flat as possible, so that at low power casing.
output from the engine the power loss will be minimal. The curves are In the static condition there is an out-of-balance force which tends to separate
plotted following tests which may be carried out at various speeds and tooth the coupling elements, this force being equivalent to the product of the oil
loading related to the propeller law, or at constant speed with varying tooth pressure in the coupling oil supply and the cross-sectional area of the primary
load. shaft to which the primary element is connected.
In ships with a controllable pitch propeller the efficiency curve will be plotted When the engine is started, oil contained in the primary element annulus is
with the relationship of the tooth load and speed to suit the changes made in the subjected to centrifugal force which acts radially outward, causing a circulation
propeller pitch for various rotational speeds. to be set up which is radially outward in the primary element and radially
inward in the secondary element. This circulatory action causes vortices to be
created which in effect transmit torque. As the secondary element gathers speed
12.24 How do the power losses in reduction gearing manifest themselves the slip reduces t o approximately 3% and the spe@ of circulation is reduced.
and how are theyldeolt with? What causes these losses? AU the forces acting on the oil in the coupling cause further axial force which
again tends t o separate the couplings and is an increase on the forces mentioned
The losses of power are mostly due to friction in bearings and from gear tooth previously.
contact friction, with a very small part due to windage losses. These axial forces are used in the balance of single helical gear axial thrust on
These power losses manifest themselves in the form of heat, a very small part the pinion side of the coupling, and small out-of-balance forces are balanced by
of which is lost by radiation and convection from the gear case. For practical tilting pad thrust bearings or thrust collars and locating rings built into the
purposes in calculating the quantity of oil to be circulated, it is assumed that all bearings or casings. Axial thrust on the primary element shaft is usually
the heat generated is removed by the lubricating oil used for the bearings and balanced by a tilting pad thrust bearing fitted to the primary shaft between the
gear oil sprayers. The heat taken away by the lubricating oil is in turn trans- engine and gearbox.
ferred to the water circulating through the gearing oil coolers. In other cases the thrust on the primary section is taken up by a thrust collar
Hydraulic coupling losses manifest themselves as heat energy. The fluid used and bearing fitted within the aftermost section of the engine crankcase, thus
in the coupling is taken from the gearing oil system and part of the oil used is keeping overall machinery length to a minimum.
continuously lost from the coupling through small holes drilled in the coupling
casing expressly for this purpose. This oil finds its way back to the system by
12.26 How are tests conducted to measure the efficiency of reduction
mixing with the oil from the sprayers and bearings and heat is eventually
gearing?
removed in the gearing oil coolers.
Electro-magnetic coupling losses also manifest themselves as heat which is It is common practice to carry out tests on reduction gearing by connecting two
removed by circulating air through, and around the coupling, in a similar sets of reduction gearing back to back. The two output shafts are connected
manner to the cooling for large clectric motors of the open or drip-proof type. together through a short section of shafting.
3 18 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

The input shafts are connected by a flexible shaft. Load can then be put on -12.28 What do you understand by the following terms when related to
the surfaces of the teeth of each set of gearing by putting a twist in the flexible high-precision gearing as would be used for propulsion reduction gearing:
shaft 'connecting the pinions while the wheels are held together by the other 'shaving', 'lapping', 'grinding'?
shaft. The tooth loading is directly related to the angle of twist put in the Shaving is a process carried out on accurately hobbed gears to improve the
torsionally flexible shaft, and by varying and measuring the angle of twist, the accuracy and the surface finish of the profiles of the gearing teeth. Rotary
tooth loading can be controlled and known. shaving cutters are used in special machines in which both the gear and shaving
By coupling one of the pinion journals to an electric motor and running the 'cutter rotate. The shaving cutter is fed in at an angle which causes the cutter to
gearing up to speed the power required to drive both sets of gearing can be slide sideways and produce a shaving action which is not unlike the action of a
measured. The power measured is the actual power loss for the two sets of hand scraper. Shaving gives the tooth profiles a mirror finish.
gearing. The power losses at various speeds and tooth loading can be plotted on
a graph in a manner coinciding with the power requirements of the propeller. ~ a p p i n gof gears is carried out in a similar manner to a normal lapping action
As the power losses in gearing are very low it would be extremely difficult to which can be likened to the action of lapping the high-pressure jointing surfaces
measure them with any accuracy using normal power testing methods with a of fuel valve parts on a lapping plate. When gears are lapped the gear is set up in
prime mover and dynamometer. bearings and meshed with an accurately matching cast-iron dummy. The
dummy is rotated and a lubricant containing the lapping abrasive is fed between
-- - -
- -the teeth of the dummy and the gear. The keeps on the gear journal bearings are
12.27 What is a hob? Where and how is it used? spring loaded so that some resistance is set up to increase the cutting rate of the
lapping media.
A hob is a cutting tool used in a hobbing machine for the manufacture and The pinion is then meshed with the wheel and they are finally lapped with
production of gearing. The hob itself is a specialized form of cutting tool which each other. In production of standard sets of gearing the pinion may also be
in appearance looks like a worm with sections cut out axially so that cutting lapped with a special IappingAumrny made for this purpose.
edges are formed. The material behind the cutting edge is backed off as is
normal with metal cutting tools. Hobs are made with two or three separate Grinding of the profiles of gear teeth is carried out in special gear grinding
helices. Single-helix hobs are used for finishing cuts where a high degree of machines. Surface- and through-hardened gearing is usually ground after
accuracy is required. I
hardening so that any discrepancies w m n g from growth or warping during
The hobbing machine consists of a horizontal circular table on which the gear the heat treatment process are removed.
blank is set up. The circular table is made so that it can be rotated. Gearing Grinding the profile of helical gears and pinions is carried out with a grinding
connects the table with the hob spindle, and the ratio of this gearing,is wheel thin enough to go between the gear teeth. The motion of the side of the
controlled to suit the number of teeth being cut on the gear blank and the grinding wheel relative to the motion of the tooth profile is such that the profile
number of helices on the hob. The angle of the hob spindle, which can be form is generated. Obviously it is not generated in the same way as a hobbing
swivelled, is adjusted so that the tangent of the helix on the cutting side of the machine, but follows the action of a gear rack planer. Grinding gives the gears a
hob is at the angle corresponding to the helix angle on the gear being cut. The mirror finish.
swivelling hob spindle head is mounted on a vertical arm or stanchion, and The capacity of gear grinding machines is limited when compared to main
guides on the arm allow the hob spindle head to be raised or lowered. gear wheel hobbing machines, but it can cover most of the reduction gearing
The gear blank and the horizontal table are rotated. The hob rotates in requirements for geared diesel propulsion installations.
synchronism with the table (through the gearing) and is brought down on to the The terms shaving, lapping and grinding cover the methods used for finishing
top edge of the blank so that cutting starts. The cutting of the gear then follows gears. When these processes are used to improved the surface of the profile of
on as a continuous process, with the hob and table continuously rotating. the teeth, the allowable surface loading on the profile can be considerably
The cross-section of the cutting face of the hob is similar in profile to a rack increased provided the stresses in the root of the tooth induced by bending are
and is normally straight-sided. The tooth profile on the gear being cut is not outside allowable limits.
therefore generated. Large hobbing machines have two cutting heads set at 180'
to each other. 12.29 In what direction do the engines run in a geared twin-engine
Pinions are cut in a similar-type machine, but smaller in size, and the pinion propulsion installation?
blanks are set up horizontally as in a lathe.
This method of cutting gears does not require a dividing head, index plates If the propeller is of the solid type and right-handed, and the reduction gearing
and the change wheels necessary if gears are cut in a milling machine with consists of a main gearwheel meshing with pinions on opposite sides (each
standardized gear cutters. engineconnected to its own pinion), it can be seen that the main gearwheel must
 322 Quesfions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Reduction Gearing, Clutches, Couplings 323

and (c). Vector diagrams based on the gear tooth loads required to obtain the 12.33 What effect does bearing wear have on the tooth loading of
designed shaft torques are constructed as shown in the diagrams. If the weight gears?
of the pinion is small relative to the weight of the main gear wheel, the weight of When gearing is new it is carefully aligned so that the whole length and working
the pinion is often neglected when constructing the diagrams. parts of the tooth profiles contacting each other have their surface loading
Some gearing manufacturers arrange for the line forming the junction evenly distributed.
between the upper and lower halves of pinion bearings to be arranged at or near If the two journal bearings of a pinion wear an equal amount in the same
90 degrees to the line of action of the force acting on the bearing. direction no detrimental effect is likely to be felt within normal limits of wear,
but if one pinion bearing wears more than another the alignment of the gear
12.31 What effect does a relatively heavy coupling of the hydraulic or teeth will be affected. The pinion teeth will bear more heavily on the wheel teeth
electro-magnetic type have on the pinion journal and bearing loads? at the end where the bearing wear is greater. The wear on the teeth will then
Generally the weight of a pinion is a lot less than the weight of the coupling. In increase at the end where heavier loading takes place so that eventually the
such cases the pinion shaft will be canted due to the weight of the coupling. The tooth profiles are impaired. If the bearing wear increases over a short time and
bearing nearest to the coupling becomes a fulcrum, and the weight of the goes unnoticed breakdown of the tooth surface could take place.
coupling tips the pinion shaft about the edge of this bearing. The bearing
furthest from the coupling restrains the tipping action, and the end of the 12.34 How can the clearance of reduction gearing bearings be found?
journal furthest from the couplin~contactsthe end of this bearing. It can there-
fore be seen that in the static condition a heavy coupling can lift the end of the Some gear cases are arranged with all the bearings outside the casing so the
pinion shaft so that weight comes on to the upper half of the bearing furthest bearings are easily accessible. In other arrangements it is sometimes necessary
. from the coupling.
Note The tipping action willxe dependent on the tipping moment caused by
- to remove part of the casing to get access to the bearings. In nearly all gear
casings the mainwheel bearings can be removed without disturbing the casing.
Sometimes the access space is sufficient to measure the bearing clearance with
the weight of the coupling and the righting moment from the weight of the a feeler gauge but when feelers are used care must be taken to see that the
pinion. The moments will be taken about the nearest edge of the nearest bearing weight of overhanging parts does not cause false readings to be obtained
to the coupling. If the tipping moment is greater the pinion shaft will cant and (Question 12.31).
the end furthest from the coupling will lift. --- In other cases it will be n&essif$ to remove the bearing keev and bearing shell
so that the clearance can be meas"red with lead wire or-&asiic gauging thread.
12.32 How is bearing wear-down measured? Why must bearing wear- The soft lead wire or plastic thread is placed on the jxurnal and the bearing is
down figures be carefully examined? reassembled and tightened down so that the wire is compressed and squeezed
Some reduction gear bearings are provided with bridge gauges, and bearing out to the same thickness as the bearing clearance. The bearing- keep - and shell
wear-down can be measured by removing the bearing keep, placing the bridge are dismantled, the wire or thread is removed and the clearance measured either
gauge in place and taking feeler gauge readings between the bridge gauge and by using a micrometer or comparing the width of the squeezed plastic with a
the journal. comparator from which the clearance is directly given.
In other cases a hole is drilled through the bearing keep and bearing shell. The
top of the bearing keep is machined flat. A depth micrometer gauge is then used 12.35 Some gears have what is called 'tip relief': what is this and what is
to measure the distance between the flat surface and the journal. Normally the its purpose? What is 'end relief'?
hole is blanked to retain oil, and a screwed plug is removed to take the
measurements. Tip relief is carried out to prevent damage to the contact surfaces of the teeth at
By comparing the measurements taken with the previous and original their extremities (face tip and flank root) where the sliding action is greatest (see
measurements, the wear since the last record, and the total wear, can be found. Question 12.20).
Bearing wear-down readings, when taken as mentioned previously, must be Tip relief is a modification of the involute form at the tooth tip. The actual
analysed with care bearing in mind that they will give no indication of work involves some removal of material on the face of the tooth at the tip, and it
developing trouble if it is the upper half of a bearing that is wearing, as is often done in a gear.grinding machine. The small amount of material
mentioned in Questions 12.30 and 12.31. removed relieves or lowers the contact pressure at the tooth tip, .which, if not
The original bridge gauge readings are used in making the initial tooth relieved, would become damaged early in service due to the combination of
alignment after bearings are remetalled. pressure and sliding.
I t can bc see11tha( after a set of gearing has been in service, changes in bearing End relief is carried out by removing a small portion of the ends of the tooth
3 1 r . t r . l r l l r. . ~ r F i r t ~ ~ IrI \f[ .. I I I I :tr :I fc-c.c>rtl ()I' wcnr that1 hridgr KalrRc r c n d i n ~ s . profile extending over the depth of the tooth. I t is seen as a chamfer or
324 Quesfions and Answers on tlrr Murlrrr l A e ~ r Ihrglrrr
l

smoothing away of the profile at the ends of the teeth for a distance of 7 to with a red dye. Teeth which have been lapped have ;I matt surface left from the
10 mm. End relief also relieves pressure at the tooth ends. lapping that delineates the contact surface boundaries very clearly.
In new ships it is common practice to copper-plate some of the teeth and
Nbte Teeth with coarse pitch are more prone to troubles if tip relief is make frequent regular observations of the tooth contact. Each time an observa-
neglected. Sometimes relief is made on the flanks of the teeth instead of the tips. tion is made the results are recorded for future reference.
When the flank is relieved it may be carried out as a grinding or shaving Some shipping companies maintain tooth-contact-surface records for diesel
operation. propulsion reduction gearing similar to the records kept for steam-turbine
reduction gearing.
12.36 How would you ascertain whether reduction gearing tooth
alignment is satisfactory or departing from some acceptable norm?
12.38 What are the Hertz equations? Where are they used and what do
In order to find out if the tooth alignment is acceptable or otherwise it is neces- they show us?
sary to examine the contact surfaces of the face and the flank on the tooth The Hertz equations are a mathematical method for obtaining the surface
profiles. If the width of the contact surface is the same along the length (axially) compressive stresses and surface strains which occur when spherical or
of the teeth and the contact width is adequate and extends nearly across the cylindrical surfaces of elastic materials are under load.
depth of the tooth (radially) covering a major part of the addendum and It can be seen that if one steel ball supports another so that they are in contact
dedendum, the alignment can be considered satisfactory. If the pattern of wear the area of contact will be infinitesimally small. If one of the steel balls is loaded
is wedge-shaped, being wider on one end of the tooth than on the other, it with sCRne weight the unit stress on the contact surfaces will be exceedingly high
indicates misalignment. from the fact that load divided by area is equal to unit stress. If the area of the
If the change in width is only small it should not be necessary to take imme- contact surfaces is infinitesimally small, the unit compressive stress at the
diate action but a record of the contact surface should be made, and the gearing surface becomes infinitely large. As the localized compressive stress is large it
kept under observation. follows that the localized strain will also be large.
If the contact surface does not extend to the full length of the tooth and The Hertz equations are used by designers to calculate the high localized
diminishes to a point, action should be taken to correct alignment. The compressive stress and strain which occurs in elastic materials when two curved
allowable amounts of misalignment vary with the gear material and original surfaces are under load and in contact with each other. The equations are the
heat treatment. The amount that can be allowed is very small. base from which were derived some of the equations used in the design of
Generally, gearing noise levels give some indication of changes taking place gearing teeth. The equations are also used in the design and evaluation of
in alignment, but in motor ships this cannot be relied on because engine noises material for fuel-pump cams and rollers.
often-drown the noises coming from the gearing.
Note The Hertz equations were the work of H. Hertz and go back to the years
Note For engineers who have sailed with highly loaded Steam turbine gearing 1891 and 1895 when they were published in Leipzig. They have since been
it must be pointed out that the proportions of propulsion gearing in diesel shown to be correct by photoelastic methods (see Question 6.53). For interested
installations are such that it is not necessary to make any compensation for students the mathematical methods devised by Hertz are covered in text books
twisting or bending of the pinions. on the Theory of Elasticity or the Strength of Materials and dealt with under
'Pressures of Spherical and Cylindrical Bodies in Contact'. There are many
12.37 If, in checking tooth contact patterns, it is found that, due to the equations derived from the Hertz equations which are of specialized form for
finish of the teeth, the contact surface is difficult to follow, what can be design work. While it is not necessary for the student to be familiar with the
done to give the pattern better definition? equations or their derived forms, it is desirable to have knowledge of the
problems that brought them about as such knowledge provides a better general
An area covering a span of four to six teeth is cleaned of all oil and staining. The understanding.
teeth are then coated with a thin layer of spirit lacquer or blue tool-room
marking dye, which must be oil-resistant. The engine is then operated at low
power so that some load is put on the teeth, after which the engine is shut down 12.39 List the troubles which sometimes occur with reduction gearing
and the lubricating oil shut off the gearing. An inspection of the coated teeth is -
teeth.
made. The contact area will now be bright and bounded by the blue dye.
Generally it is better to carry out this test with both engines operating at full Gear manufacture has become so good that propulsion reduction gearing runs
power, but this is seldom practicable unless the teeth are marked in one port and with remarkably little trouble. When the occasional trouble does arise
inspected at the next. investigation has often shown that it was caused by misalignment due to work-
In some cases ini ion teeth are coated with a blue dye and mainwheel teeth ing of the ship in bad weather or due to some condition of cargo loading
326 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine --- ... -
Reducmn Gearing. Clutches. C o u ~ l i n a s 327
-
. foreign matter will not fall into the gearing when the covers are opened up. It is
which distorts the hull in the region of the reduction gearing so that the gearing
alignment is disturbed. good practice to clean up the area around the gear casings and remove any loose
Troubles which may beset gearing teeth vary from minor pitting of the teeth material lying around.
found during the time the gearing is being run-in, to such faults as fracture of The inspection cover nuts are then removed from the covers leaving each
teeth with parts detaching themselves from the parent material. cover closed and held in place with two nuts; the nuts removed must be stored in
Pitting is a form of fatigue failure which occurs more commonly with new a safe place away from the inspection openings.
gearing during the running-in period. When the gearing teeth are newly in The turning gear is put in, the usual precautions having been taken at the
service the very minute imperfeciions in the surfaces of the teeth profile sustain engine control station and prior to turning the propeller with the turning gear.
very high loads so the surface breaks down under fatigue failure and small pit Inspection covers should only be removed one at a time and then replaced
holes develop. As the teeth bed themselves with one another correction and fastened down with the two nuts left on the cover.
naturally takes place and the pitting ceases. The first or last part of the examination will be to check gear oil sprayers and
If misalignment occurs, the surface loads in localized areas may rise so that oil flow from bearing ends; if they are not fitted with drain pockets, either
pitting starts again and may go on to the point where tooth profile is destroyed before shutting the oil pump down or by running the pump at the end of the
if the misalignment is not corrected. In appearance pitting is seen as a series of examination.
irregular-sized holes usually near the pitch line. If a grid or perforated plate is fitted in the run-down connection between the
Flaking may occur on tooth surfaces; some experts consider this to be gear casing and the drain tank, it should be inspected for any debris, white-
another form of surface fatigue failure while others consider it to be due to the metal flakes and the like.
action of rolling and sliding. This form of failure is not necessarily serious. The profiles of the pinion teeth should be examined, noting particularly the
Evidence of it is found in magnetic filters and it often stops when the teeth are wear pattern markings and the contact surface; both ahead and astern sides
fully bedded-in. It is more common with non-hardened or non-surface-treated should be examined. I

steels. - - If the contact surfaces are normal the alignment will be in order (see ~ u e s t i o n
Other tooth surface failure can occur with surface-hardened teeth, in which 12.36). Mainwheel gear teeth are examined in the same way.
the hardened surface breaks away from the softer sub-surface material. This is If the pinion teeth are hardened, defects in alignment will most likely show up
usually a metallurgical failure caused by internal stresses in the material, which in the gearwheel teeth first, especially if the gearwheel teeth have a softer
are set up during the surface hardening process. This type of failure shows itself surface than the pinion teeth.
in the form of holes or craters where quite large pieces may detach themselves The root fillets in all teeth must be examined for the start of any fatigue
from the parent material. This kind of surface failure is sometimes referred to cracks, even though they are more usual in pinion teeth.
as sub-surface fatigue or spalling. If any bearings are fitted within the gear casings their fastenings and locking
Scuffing is another form of surface defect which occurs when lubrication devices should be checked, together with any wiring connected to temperature
breaks down and small areas of pinion and gear teeth weld themselves together sensors.
(under loading) and then break away. In appearance the tooth profiles are seen The fastenings, clips and connections on lubricating oil pipes to bearings and
to have score marks running in a radial direction (seeQuestio_n9.37). oil sprayers must also be checked out. Prior to replacing covers the gear teeth,
Tooth fractures may comcabout from-a variety of causes such as: a row of where cleaned during the examination, should be coated with oil.
pitting holes creating a stress raiser; damaged or bruised teeth causing high Notes should be made of the findings so that they can be written up in the log-
bending loads; incorrect design in the form of insufficient root fillet radius; book or work reports, without omissions or inaccuracies.
minute cracks formed during quenching when teeth are being hardened; At the end of the examination when the inspection covers are being replaced
overloading when working on one engine (provided that engine characteristics all nuts removed, spanners, wrenches, inspection hand-lamps and material used
allow it). In most cases these causes decrease the fatigue resistance of the should be accounted for.
material and ultimate failure is due to fatigue. Note Any tools such as feelers, calipers, pencils, note-books, etc. should be
Wear debris and other small foreign particles which will accumulate in the taken out of the top pockets of boiler suits or overalls as they can be relied upon
lubricating oil if it is not properly treated, will cause surface scratch marks. If to fall out of the pocket when leaning over looking through inspection holes.
the parts embed themselves in the tooth profile quite a lot of surface damage
may occur together with accelerated wear.
12.41 How often should gear casing inspection covers be opened up to
12.40 If you were instructed to carry out an examination of a set of examine the gearing and internal parts of the gear case?
gearing, how would you go about it?
Once the gearing teeth are properly run-in after the initial operating period and
if there is nothing abnormal to cause concern, three- to six-monthly inspections
sho~lldhc nclcquntc dcpcndinp on t h r srrvicr c*or~tlitic~~~\ 11\11 i f thcrc is any
328 Oueslions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
-
unusual noise or an increase in debris in the magnetic filters, the cause must be 7.18). The chock is usually cast to support the whole of the mounting flange of
promptly investigated. Similarly, overheated bearings, which might have wiped the gear case.
and could lead to misalignment in tooth contact, must be investigated. The holding-down bolts for the gear case require periodic examination to see
that they are maintained in a tight condition and do not allow movement, which
12.42 How would a hot bearing be found in a set of reduction gearing? causes chock fretting.
Apart from periodic examination, holding-down bolts should be examined
In unmanned and-part-time unmanned engins rooms, reduction gearing after a ship has had a heavy weather passage or during a lengthy period of heavy
bearings are connected through to the machinery alarm system. If any bearing
devdeps a fault which causes~temgeraturecktooccur it is called out on the - -- weather.
alarm system and visual indicators locate the bearing. In other cases reduction
gearing bearings may be fitted with a thermocouple-type sensor in the bearing 12.44 If something is dropped on an open set of gearing so that the teeth
keep or housing. This is connected to an electrical meter which gives a tempera- became bruised, burred or locally deformed, what would you do to correct
the situation? What will be the likely result if repair is not carried out
ture read-out. A selector switch is used to find the running temperature of each
bearing. It is not usual for this type of instrument to be coupled into an alarm correctly? - +

system. In older reduction gearing part of the oil circulating in each bearing is While every care must be taken to protect open gearing, the occasional accident
passed into an individual lubricating oil return line. Thermometers fitted into can happen. With non-hardened gearing the damaged teeth must be filed up
thermometer pockets in the return line show the temperature of the oil leaving with a smooth file so that their profikfollows the original shape as closely as
each bearing. Portable cover plates on the line may be opened to check amounts possible. When this stage is reached the teeth on the mating g e v or pinion are
of oil flow. During normal watch keeping, bearings external to the gear casing thinly coated with &king blue and turned into and out of mesh with the
may be felt with the hand at regular intervals to check temperatures. damaged teeth. Any high spots shown up by the blue marking in the damaged
location are then removed with a very fine tooth file or an oil stone. This is
12.43 How are gear casings fostened down? What attention do the continued until good bedding is obtained, with all the high spots removed. Care
fastenings require? must be taken to prevent filings from falling into other gear tooth spaces or into
the casing. When the gearing is in operation at slow speed a check should be
Gear casings are fitted with a heavy flange which runs around the casing bottom made to ensure that there is no 'tick-tick', which would indicate high spots
periphery. When the gear casing has been lined up to the propeller shafting, remaining on the damaged teeth. If there is any unusual sound its source must
chocks are fitted between the flange and the tank top. The chocks support the be located and the cause rectified.
weight of the gear casing and the internal parts. Bolts are fitted through the If teeth are bruised or their profile is upset, indication of this is given by
flange, chock and tank top. The tank top is usually tapped with a thread so that unusual noise. If the gearing is kept in service without correcting the damage the
the holding-down bolts can be screwed into the-tank top. A nut and a sealing high bending loads set up on the tooth root will eventually lead to fatigue
grommet is usually fitted to the bolt on the underside of the tank top plating. A cracking and fracture of the tooth in way of the higher loaded locality.
large number of the bolts will be of the fitted type to ensure that the gear case is Hardened and surface-hardened teeth if damaged should be treated in a
always correctly located. 'similar manner. In this case it may be necessary to use carborundum hand hones
The thrust block is usually incorporated in the gear casing; when this is so, a or very small, portable, lightweight grinders if the material is too hard for
high percentage of fitted bolts may be used to hold the gear case down and for fdng. After the tooth profile is corrected, the surfaces of the teeth in the
the transmission of the propeller thrust into the hull. A chock is fitted at the damaged area must be checked for surface cracks with a dye-penetrant test.
forward side of the base flange to further assist in the transmission of thrust and After making a voyage, or in a lesser period if necessary, the damaged teeth -
also to prevent movement of the gear casing from thrum action should holding- must be examined again and if any hard bright high spots remain they must be
down bolts slacken. In some cases the thrust chocks are fitted with a wedging removed with an oil stone.
arrangement which is adjustable.
In other gear casing arrangements the space under the thrust bearing is left as
an open hollow space accessible through lightening holes. The chocks fitted to 12.45 What are magnetic filters and where are they used?
the tank top for holding the gear case against thrust are then welded direct to the A magnetic mter consists of a casing which houses a cartridge in which two, or
tank top and make hard contact with the lightening hole edges in the casing base up to a large number of permanent magnets are fitted. Lubricating oil is passed
plate. With this arrangement it is usual to make all the holdingdown bolts at through the filter casing and ferrous particles contained in the lubricating oil are
the aft end of the casing of the fitted type. attracted towards the magnets which hold the particles. The casing has a cover
Some gear casings are fastened down on to poured resin chocks (see Question which when removed allows the magnetic cartridge to be withdrawn from the
330 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Ennine

casing for cleaning. The magnets used in a magnetic filter have a high flux
density, and they are fitted in such a manner that the north pole of one magnet is
opposite the south pole of an adjacent magnet.
Magnetic filters used in a lubricating oil System are sized to take the full flow
capacity of the lubricating oil pump, with which they are connected in series. It
is normal to fit a magnetic filter in the lubricating oil system of propulsion
reduction gears so that the lubricant passes through the magnetic filter before it
passes into the oil sprayers and bearings. Sometimes small magnetic filters are
LINE SHAFTING,
fitted in the lubricating system of exhaust gas turbo-blowers when the rotor is
held in ball- or roller-type bearings; in other cases a magnetic plug may be fitted
in the oil sump. Some motor ships have turbo alternators (operated by waste
SCREWSHAFTS,
heat boilers), and it is common practice to fit a magnetic filter in the lubricating
oil system of such steam turbines and their reduction gearing.
In some Companies it is the practice to fit a magnetic filter on the main engine
PROPELLERS, THRUST
lubricating oil system during the early life of the engine. After the engine has
been operating for some period the filter is removed from the system and stored BEARINGS
for use in the next new ship. Many engine builders use magnetic filters in the
lubricating system to which new engines are connected when on the test bed.

12.46 Are magnetic filters fitted as duplex or simplex filter units? 13.1 How is the torque transmitted from the prime mover through to the
propeller?
It is not usual to fit magnetic filters in duplicate or as duplex units, so that one
can be in use while the other is shut down for cleaning, or as astand-by unit. It is A heavy flange is forged on the last section of the engine crankshaft, which may
usual to fit a by-pass in conjunction with a single magnetic filter unit so that it also be the thrust shaft. If the propulsion installation consists of geared diesel
can be shut down for draining and cleaning. engines, the heavy flange will be on the main gearwheel shaft and be an integral
When a magnetic filter is fitted only temporarily for use during the early part part of it. The main gearwheel shaft often incorporates the thrust collar for the
of an engine's life no by-pass is fitted. thrust bearing. In some cases the thrust collar may be forged on the main
gearwheel shaft; in other cases it is made separately and fitted on to a cone
machined on the forward end of the shaft and held in place with a large nut (see
12.47 How often should mawefic filters be cleaned? What attention Question 13.38).
must by given during the cleaning? The intermediate shafting is slightly 'smaller in diameter (but see Note later)
No set time period of frequency can be given for the cleaning of magnetic than the crankshaft (direct coupled engines) and the screwshaft. Each section of
filters; the period will be dictated by the4mild-up of ferrous wear debris seen on the intermediate shafting has a flange forged at each end. The screwshaft also
the magnets. has a flange forged on its inboird e n d
When a nev$ ship with a geared diesel propulsion installation is brought into The flange on the output shaft from the engine or gear case is coupled to the
service, it is common to open up the magnetic filters and clean them every watch intermediate shaft with coupling bolts. Each section of the intermediate shaft
right through to the screwshaft is joined together at the flanges by the coupling
until the working faces of the reduction gears have stabilized. During this early - bolts. The propeller i-~ihe screwshaft on its cone-shaped end, a d
operational period, which may last over some months, the amount offerrous
debris attached to the filter magnets should be carefully observed and held in place by the propeller nut which is screwed on to the threaded outboard
commented on in the log-book. After the working faces of the teeth in the gears end of the screwshaft. The torque is transmitted tkrough the coupling bolts to
have stabilized, it is common practice to clean magnetic filters weekly. The the conical end of the screwshaft and through the key into the propeller boss.
cleaning should be carried out under the direction of a senior engineer who It must not be forgotten that due to the tightening of the coupling bolts and
should carefully observe if any changes have occurred i n the amount of wear the method of fitting the propeller on to the screwshaft an enormous amount of
debris attached to the magnets. If any inctease is noted it must be investigated. friction exists between adjacent coupling flange faces, and also between the
Magnetic filters, when fitted temporarily for the early life of an engine, are conical end of the screwshaft and the propeller. This friction plays a large part
opcncd up for examination and cleaning when the engine is shut down in port. in the transmission of the torque from the engine to the propeller.
-
Note In some ships, fitted with machinery aft, it may be found that the inter-
mediate shaft is larger in'diameter than both the engine crankshaft and the
screwshaft. The screwshaft is commonly called the tailshaft or propeller shaft. coupling. Thc advantage with this typc o f I~oltI S 11i:it ~rmov:ilIr ccmlxirativcly
In some ships the flywheel may be fitted in 'sandwich' fashion between the easy with drawing gear, and the fitted scction of thc bolt docs not spoil so easily
engine shaft and the first section of the intermediate shaft. In similar manner a during removal. The hoop stress across the section between the side of the hole
turning-wheel may be fitted between the main gearwheel shaft and the first and the edge of the coupling flange is controlled by the amount of draw used to
section of the intermediate shaft, if the screw and intermediate shaft turning pull the bolt head hard home. -
gear is not incorporated within the reduction gearing. TaBred c6Tupling bolts have a taper on the diameter of about 6mm per
100 mm of bolt length; they do not have heads. The tapered bolts are fitted to
13.2 What form do coupling bolts take and how are they fitted? accurately reamed holes, and pulled tight with hammer and spanner. Tapered
coupling bolts are not favoured so much in British practice but are widely used
There are three types of coupling bolt in use. The most common has a parallel in the United States and the continent of Europe (Fig. 13.1).
shank; the others have either a very small taper with a normal bolt head, or a
larger amount of taper and no bolt head. The parallel-shank bolts have a
normal head, cylindrical in shape, and the parallel section is reduced in 13.3 What other types of coupling may be used on intermediate shafts
diameter where it joins the head with a well-radiused stretching length. The and screwshafts in place of the solid forged flange type?
threaded section is smaller in diameter than the shank and is joined to it with a The other types are those which are semi-permanently fitted to the shaft, and
stretching length well radiused and slightly smaller in diameter than the bottom those where the shafts must be dismantled, such as the coupling between the
of the thread. The end of the threaded section is turned parallel and drilled to screwshaft and the aft section of the intermediate shaftyas is necessary with'
take a split pin. The coupling-bolt nut is of the normal hexagonal type with a some variable- or controllable-pitch propellers.
depth of between 0.75 and 1.0 of the thread diameter. The bolts have a taper The semi-permanently fitted type consists of a flange and boss forged as one
over a short length on the shank end to facilitate entry of the bolt into the bolt piece. The inside of the flange and boss is bored out to the limits required for
hole in the coupling flange. The coupling-bolt hole is bored or reamed to size shrink fits, and circumferential oil grooves are machined in the flange bore. The
and the parallel shank is made to fit into the hole with a light interference fit. flange is fitted to the shaft by normal shrinking. It can be removed if necessary
Some engineering works produce a coupling bolt with a very small taper by connecting a high-pressure oil pump to the oil grooves and forcing oil into
amounting to I mm in 100mm. The coupling-bolt hole is made to the same the space between the shaft and coupling flange bore. This expands the flange
taper and the bolt is made to such a size that when tapped home in the bolt hole and boss and allows it to be easily removed from the shaft. This type of coupling
there is a small clearance between the bolt head and its landing face on the is used with shafts fitted with normal roller bearings (i.e. solid outer and inner
flange. The nut tightens the bolt-head landing on to the spot facing on the rings). It is removed only to fit new bearings. The flange is replaced again by
shrinking. As the flanges are removed only to fit new roller bearings they are
referred to as semi-permanent.
The other type of coupling is o_f the muff type. The muff is bored with a
smooth fine taper. A thin sleeve is machined conical on the outside to match the
fine taper in the muff. The inside of the sleeve is bored to suit the outside
diameter of the shafts being connected. The taper bore in the muff has circum-
ferential oil grooves machined into it. Each end of the thin sleeve has a circum-
ferential groove in its outer surface. When the coupling is fitted the thin sleeve is
mounted on one shaft and slid along so that it is half-way over each of the shafts
being coupled together. The muff, previously mounted on the opposite side to
the sleeve, is slid along and on to the sleeve untif it is tight on the taper. The oil
--
, grooves in the muff are connected with a high-pressureoil pump. h he hydraulic
tightening tool is a split ring in which are fitted a series of small hydraulic rams.
The tightening tool is fitted on the small end of the thin sleeve and engages in a
circumferential groove. The rams in the tightening tool come on to the muff.
The oil pump connected to the grooves in the muff is operated so that the muff
is expanded by the oil pressux. The h y d ~ u l i tightening
c tool is also pumped up
and the rams pull the sleeve into the muff. The operation is continued until the
muff is expanded out to the correct circumference. The pressure on the oil
between the muff and the sleeve is released, the oil is discharged out as the muff
Fig. 13.1 Shaft coupling bolts - taper and parallel bolt types. tightens itself on to the sleeve whichin'iurn is tightened on to the two ends of the
334 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Line Shqfting, Screwshqfts, Propellers, Thrust Bearings 335

shafts being coupled. To dismantle the coupling the tightening tool is fitted on undergoes cyclic stress reversal so is therefore subject to fatigue failure. The
the large end of the sleeve. When the muff is put under internal oil pressure, chances of fatigue failure are minimized if the stress range is reduced, and this is
pumping of the tightening tool.causes the sleeve to be withdrawn from the done by increasing the shaft diameter. This accounts for the propeller shaft
muff. being larger in diameter than the intermediate shaft.
Couplings of this type are often used in twin-screw ships where the screw-
shafts are withdrawn outboard for survey. They are also used on some single-
screw ships where the propeller is mounts on a flange on the outboard end of 13.5 'It is known that when screwshafts develop froctures the frocture
the screwshaft instead of a normal cone end. This type of screwshaft is often starts in the end of the keyway. Why do crocks start at this point?
withdrawn outboard for survey whereas cone-ended screwshafts are withdrawn It is an established fact that most screwshaft fractures result from a crack which
inboard. has begun from the region on the forward end of the keyway. It was explained
in the previous answer that the forward end _of the screwshaft cone was
13.4 Why are intermediate shafts smaller in diameier than screwshafts?
--- subjected to cyclic stress reversal; it is in this region that the keywayextendr
W.hot factors govern t t e size of these shafts? The keyway, due to its form acts as a stress raiser. Ifthere is some small ingress
of sea-water into the large end of the cone it creates a corrosive environment
The sizes of engine- and screwshafting are governed by the formulae adopted by which will hasten fatigue failure. This starts in the highly stressed region at the
the various ship classification societies. The factors used take into account the end of the key. There are other factors which create problems in this region;
strength of the steel used; the quality of the steel is controlled by the upper and they are the hard spot at the end of the key and the region at the forward end of
lower specified limits of the tensile strength. The horsepower being transmitted the propeller boss where there is a very small change of shaft diameter due to the
together with the rotational speed of the shaft, the maximum torque and the compressive effect of the propeller boss on the shaft. At the forward end of the
respective mass moments of inertiapf the propeller and the flywheel are used in conical fit the propeller boss compresses the steel of the shaft, and just forward
the formula to evaluate the intermediate shaft diameter. The mass moment of of the fit, the steel, in effect, 'bulges' out where it is not constrained; this
inertia of the propeller includes the entrained water. constitutes a stress raiser. Sometimes fractures start in this locality; often a
Once the diameter of the intermediate shafting has been found, the diameter series of pitting marks is found running round the shaft circumferentially.
of the screwshaft is found by increasing the diameter of the intermediate shaft These pitting marks also act as stress raisers.
by some percentage, to which is added a further amount which takes into
account the propeller diameter and the method by which the shaft is protected
from the corrosive action of sea-water. In practice the screwshaft is ap- 13.6 How is the aft end of a screwshaft protected from sea-water?
proximately 15% to 17% larger in diameter than the intermediate shaft. The Where i s the likely point of ingress if leakage occurs?
larger percentage is associated with the larger-diameter propellers. Screwshafts are protected from contact with sea-water by the brass liner which
The reason for intermediate shafting being smaller in diameter than the covers the greater part of the screwshaft. The liner extends from the largest part
screwshaft is because the intermediate shafting is not subjected to such high of the conical end over the length of the stern tube, through the gland and
stresses as the screwshaft. The stresses to which an intermediate shaft is subject stuffing box and some distance beyond, so that the liner extends forward of the,
are the stresses due to the transmitted torque, the compressive stress (running gland when it is just entering the stuffing box. The large end of the conical bore
ahead) from-the propeller thrust and the stresses induced by its own weight in the propeller boss is bored with a counterbore into which a square cross- '
which are often of little consequence. The screwshaft is subjected to similar section rubber sealing ring is fitted. The end of the screwshaft liner is made so
stresses but the forward side of the conical end is heavily loaded due to the that when the propeller is hard on the cone the rubber ring is compressed
manner in which the weight of the propeller is supported by the screwshaft. This between the end face of the liner and the counterbore in the forward end of the
end of the screwshaft is like a cantilever, the support being the screwshaft propeller boss. Some clearance is allowed in the counter bore: this allows the
bearing and the load being the propeller. The weight of the propeller creates a sealing ring to squeeze out and prevents it becoming volume bound.
bending moment which in the static condition causes a tensile stress in the upper . A common point of ingress for sea-water is at the sealing ring. Leakage may
part of the shaft having a maximum value at the top. This tensile stress come about if the sealing ring is allowed to twist when the propeller is being
diminishes to zero at the sides of the conical end, and at this point the stress fitted, or if the ring has insufficient compression. If the sealing ring is too large
starts to become compressive in nature and increases to a maximum value at the and becomes volume bound the ring will prevent the propeller coming hard
bottom. When the screwshaft is rotating a point or small portion of the shaft home on its cone. In service the propeller will move and chafe the rubber ring
will in turn be subjected to a maximum tensile stress, w h it is ixits uppermost causing it to leak, and further damage will occur as the movement damages the
position, which changes to zero-stress at the iides and a maximum compressive conical end of the propeller shaft and the conical hore in the propeller boss.
stress at its lowest point. If leakage of sea-water should occur at the sealing ring it usually results in a
Fronl this wc can scc that the large part of the conical end of the shaft fractured screwshaft; every care must therefore be exercised when propellers
336 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Line Shaftine. Screwshaf!~.Pror)elIers. Thrust Bearinns 337

arc being fitted on the screwshaft during assembly on the building berth or Leakage of sea-water into the stern tube is indici~tcdhy emulsification of thc
following survey in dry dock. lubricant. The best time to cawy out checks on leakage is when the vessel is in
port.
As the ship loads or discharges cargo, the aft draught of the vessel changes
13.7 Some screwshafts do not have liners fitted. In such cases how is the
and the static head of sea-wateraboyefie screwshaft outer seal will change in a
shaft end protected from sea-water? Where is the most likely point of
similar manner. If the pressure gauge showing the oil pressure in the stern tube
ingress of sea-water?
system changes with the change of draught it may under many conditions
Where screwshafts are not fitted with liners the shaft is oil-lubricated and the indicate a defective outer seal.
stern tube bearings are white-metal-lined cast iron bushes. In order to retain oil Prior to accepting stand-by when sailing, the stern-tube-system drain cock
in the stern tube the inboard end of the shaft is fitted with a mechanical seal should be opened and any water present drained off. If a large amount of water
which prevents oil running out. At the aft end of the stern tube another is drained off it indicates a seal leak.
mechanical seal is fitted so that the space between the stern frame and the If the ship has a light aft draught and there is no, or only a small, current
forward end of the propeller boss is sealed off. This seal, often called the outer round the ship, the stern-tube system can be pressurised to some pressure
seal, prevents egress of oil when the pressure of the oil in the stern tube is greater greater than the head of water outside the outer seal. If the seal is defective oil
than that of the sea-water pressure outside, and it also prevents ingress of sea- globules will be seen coming to the surface from the seal.
water when the pressures are reversed. This is the most likely point of ingress of Sea-water leakage into the system can occur only when the pressure of water
sea-water to the screwshaft. outside the seal is greater than the oil pressure behind the seal. When this
condition exists, coupled with heavy weather and cold conditions adversely
affecting the lubricant viscosity, leakage will occur if the seal is defective. The
13.8 What kind of lubricant can be used in stern tubes with white-metal-
chances of seal defects coming about are greatest when the stern-tube bearing is
lined bearings?
approaching its maximum allowable wear.
The lubricant used in stern tube systems must have the ability to maintain a
lubrication film in the presence of water so that it is not washed away. The 13.10 Why is it important with oil-lubricated screwshaft bearings that the
lubricant must also have an affinity for metal surfaces so that it affords good stem tube drain cock is operated prior to starting the main engine?
protection of the metal in the stern tube and shaft areas against sea-water. This
affinity for metal surfaces is also necessary when the screwshaft starts to If the stern tube should contain water and the engine is started, the rate of wear
revolve, as boundary lubrication conditions are present at this time. on the stem tube bearing will be very great until an oil emulsion is created in the
Compounded oils have these properties; they are blends of mineral oils and bearing. Even then the emulsion may not effectively lubricate the bearing. If the
fatty oils. The fatty constituent causes water physically to combine with the oil amount of water is large it would be possible for the bearings and screwshaft to
and form an emulsion. The fatty constituent may be lanolin or a synthetic fatty be damaged and scored to the point of ruin. For this reason it is imperative that
oil having similai properties. all wagr in the stern-tubesystem be removed by draining and that the stern-
The lubricants used have a specific gravity at 15.S°C within the range of 0.92 tube space be i%mpletely filled with oil prior to starting the main engine.
to 0.95, with a viscosity Redwood 1 at 60" of about 300. The viscosity index of Note It is unfortunate that there is not enough attention given to the access
many brands of stern-tube lubricant have wide ranges which is unfortunate, as arrangements to get to this drain. It is often placed on the aft peak bulkhead
the conditions under which they operate make a high-viscosity index desirable. right under the shaft. It is then difficult to get at and difficult to observe when
See also questions in Chapter IS dealing with stern-tube lubrication systems.
draining. The outlet drain-off point within the stern tube is also badly located in
some designs.
13.9 If leakage of sea-water into an oil-lubricated screwshaft occurs,
what indications will there be? When Is sea-water leakage into the
13.1 1 How can outer-seal leakage be found when at sea? What can be
system most likely to occur?
done to keep the system safe without dry-docking the vessel?
If the stern-tube system is pressurised by a pump and the oil pressure within the
outer seal is greater than the sea-water pressure outside the seal, leakage will Outer-seal leakage has often been found by ari increase ixthe consumption of
always be outboard. This is due to the head differential between the pressures the stem tube lubricant. It is more likely to be noticed when the ship is
on either side of the seal. If the pump maintaining the pressure inside the stern pr'oceeding. into tropical waters from cold-water areas. Leakage inboard is
tube should fail, the pressure inside the outer seal may be lower than that shown by oil emulsification and reduced oil consumption.
outside, and leakage of sea-water into the system may occur if the outer seal is Note No stern-tube gland remains a hundred percent tight over a long period
defective. and usually the oil shows some small amounts of emulsification, indicating the
338 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Ennine
1 Line Shafting, Screwshqfts, Propellers, Thrust Bearings 339

the bearing is measured on the wedge at the point where the chalk marking has
presence of small amounts of water.
Seepage from the inboard seal often has the appearance of bad emulsifica- been scraped off by the bearing.
tion. This comes about due to condensation on the water-cooled wear ring on If the clearance is measured with feelers it is done in the conventional
the forward end of the stern tube. The wear ring is the junction of the static and manner.
moving points of the shaft seal. If the screwshaft liner is worn so that a ridge has formed on the liner at tbe
end of the bearing, cart must be taken as the step formed by the ridge can lea$
.- to false clearance readings. Some difficulty arises in taking these measurements
13.12 How much is the screwshaft bearing allowed to wear down before as they are usually taken through a hand hole in the top of the rope guard.
correction is made? When oil lubrication is used for the screwshaft bearing it is not necessary to
The amount a screwshaft is allowed to wear down is governed by the rules of remove the oil gland to find the screwshaft. bearing wear-down. With oil-
some ship classification societies. In other cases it will be decided by the lubricated stern-tube systems a hole is drilled right through the stern-tube nut,
experience of the people concerned. Figures sometimes quoted suggest that the or stem frame boss, the stern tube and the bush, at the time of building. The
screwshaft bearing in the stern tube should be re-wooded when the weardown upper end of the hole is drilled to a larger size and tapped out. It is closed with a
is about 8.5 mm for shafts of diameter of 300mm (diameter of shaft under screwed plug. When the ship is in dry-dock the stern-tube lubrication system is
liner). For shafts of 200 mm diameter the allowable weardown would be 7 mm. shut down and the pressure on the system is relieved. The plug on the end of the
In other cases'from Class Rules the allowable wear-down is of the order of 5 mm stem tube is removed. Another plug with a central hole is then inserted. The top
for 300mm diameter and 4.75 mm for 200mm diameter shafts. The figures of this plug is the datum from which all measurements are made, and a depth
given are related to stern-tube screwshaft-bearings oflignumFitae, rubber, or micrometer is used to measure the distance from the datum to the top of the
plastic. screwshaft. The difference between the measurement just taken and the original
White-metal-lined bearings with oil lubrication often have a lining which is measurement gives the bearing wear-down. The bearing wear-down and the
considerably thinner than the wear-down figures given. With this type of original bearing clearance added together gives the new clearance.
bearing the allowable wear-down is dictated by the effectiveness of the oil seal A third method is t o fit a dial indicator on the rope guard or stern-tube nut so
when the stern-tube bearing becomes slack. In practice it is often found that oil that the indicator spindle is vertical and touching the propeller boss. A
seals will begin to give trouble, particularly in heavy weather, when the bearing hydraulic jack is placed on the stern frame skeg at some point over a keel block
clearance is approaching 2 mm. Some seals give trouble with less clearance, so that the skeg is supported. A wood shore is placed between the jack and the
others work well with considerably more. propeller boss. The jack is then used to lift the propeller until the screwshaft
In all cases the seal manufacturer's recommendations covering maximum contacts the upper part of its stern bearing. The lift recorded on the dial
allowable bearing clearance should be followed, but clearances must be viewed indicator gives the bearing clearance. This method is used in many dry-docks as
together with the thickness of the white-metal lining where applicable. it gives a direct positive reading of bearing clearance and is suitable for all types
of stern bearings.
Note In this question we have used the terms wear-down and clearance
because with oil seals clearance becomes the critical factor.
Wear-down of bearing = newly measured clearance - original clearance. 13.14 List the design improvements made in the method of sealing the
space between a screwshaft liner and a propeller, the key and keyway,
and the forward end of the conical bore in the propeller boss.
13.13 The screwshaft bearing fitted in the aft end of the stern tube has
its wear-down checked when the vessel is in dry-dock. How is this check The answer in Question 13.5 was based on the older design forms which are still
carried out? I s it necessary to dismantle the oil gland or outer seal in present in ships operating now and will be for some years to come.
oil-lubricated stern-tube bearings? A design improvement made in the sealing method between the screwshaft
When a vessel enters a dry-dock or floating dock the screwshaft wear-down is liner and propeller boss is to machine the liner and propeller boss so that the
checked as soon as possible after the dock is dry. This work is usually done from liner extends into the boss. A counterbore in the propeller boss allows three
a ladder placed against the stern frame boss surrounding the stern tube. The sides of the sealing ring to make good contacts; the inner circumference of
method of checking varies with the type of stern-tube bearing. With lignum the ring bears on the liner; the outer circumference and one face bears on the
-. ..- -the measurement of the bearing clearance may
vitae, plastic, or rubber bearings
T
propeller. Complete control is possible when the sealing ring is slid along the
be carried out with a wedge gauge or feelers. liner into the sealing-ring space in the propeller boss. A twisted ring is
I f a wedge gauge is used, the side of the wedge contacting the bearing is
immediately noticed. A split gland ring is used to compress the sealing ring.
chalked and inserted into the clearance space between the top of the screwshaft When the gland ring is tightened by the nuts and studs on the forward face of
and the bearing. The gauge is pressemme and withdrawn. The clearance of
the propeller boss the sealing ring is compressed until it is volume bound. The
340 Questions and answer.^ on the Marine Diesel Engine Line Shafting. Screwshujt.~,I'ropt~l1t.r~.I'hrrrst Bwrrngs 341
-
clearance between the gland-ring flange and the propeller boss is then measured 13.15 If a propeller were being removed from a screwshaft, would you
and a flat split spacer ring of correct thickness is made and fitted into the space, -.
allow heat to be used on the boss to make removal easier? -
and the gland is pulled up tight on both the sealing ring and the spacer.
The advantage of this design is that the propeller is fastened on to its conical A flame which heats a small localized area in a short space of time should never
landing on the screwshaft before the sealing ring is fitted. The sealing ring can be used to heat a propeller boss. This prohibition applies to all forms of flame
then be kept under observation while being fitted. Further, there is no fear of a heating whether it be a gas burning metal cutting torch or a vaporizing paraffin
volume-bound sealing ring preventing the propeller fitting properly on the burner. The drawback to using flame (even if the flame is kept moving around
conical end of the shaft. The sealing-ring space, being of larger diameter, is less the boss) is that distortion occurs and the accurate fit of the propeller bore on
influenced by the keyway in the propeller boss. A much better landing is the screwshaft cone is spoiled. If heat must be used it is better to use a low-
provided for the seal ring. In the older design the keyway extended nearly all the pressure steam lance.
way across the sealing-ring landing.
The keyway in the conical end of the screwshaft was at one time cut with an 13.16 If you had to supervise the fitting of a propeller on to a screwshaft
end milling cutter which left a sharp corner profile at the bottom of the keyway in extremely cold conditions, how would you ensure a proper fit?
and a semi-circular end. Some improvement was made when a radius was put
on the bottom of the keyway to remove the sharp corner, but the semicircular When a screwshaft survey is carried out it is usual to pull the shaft into the
end remained. engine room while the propeller remains on the dock. When the propeller is to
The sled runner end keyway form was next used; this being cut with a be refitted it will have cooled off to the low air temperatures prevailing at the
horizontal milling cutter and the end of the keyway followed the radius of the time. The screwshaft will, however, be at near engine-room temperature. Due
cutter. This gave an easier transition between the bottom of the keyway and the to the differences in the coefficient of expansion of each material the difference
conical shaft surface. The end of the keyway was then less of a stress raiser. in their relative size is such that the warm screwshaft will prevent the cold
Finally, the keyway end is now usually made to what is referred to as spoon- propeller from returning to its original position. If no special action is taken
ended form. In effect the end of the keyway is made with an easy transition into and the propeller is fitted t o the shaft it will only appear to be tight and there is
a shallow hollow space which resembles the shape of a spoon. There are no every possibility that it will go slack in tropical waters.
sharp corners with tbis form and it has a greater-resistance to fatigue than the In such temperature conditions the propeller boss is carefully steam-heated
other forms. -prior to fitting; it can then be brought back to its original position axially on the
With normal k&ay form-skip&sifieatkm societies allowed a three-year conical end of the screwshaft.
period between screwshaft surveys. With the new forms of keyway end, four After the propeller is fitted and hardened home it should be kept relatively
years is allowed between screwshaft surveys. warm by the heat from open coke braziers until the ship is put down in the
An improvement in key form is to make the forward end of the key with a water. Cases have been known where the propeller boss has split when it has not
V-shaped end. The bottom of V is radiused. This key form does not create a been kept warm after refittiw In such conditions it must be remembered that
'hard spot' as others have towards the forward end of the keyway. although large amounts of ice may be present on the water, the temperature of
In older propellers the forward end of the conical bore in the boss had only the water is usually much higher than that of the air.
the sharp edge removed with a scraper. When the propeller was hardened home
on the screwshaft the metal of the screwshaft was compressed whereas just
forward of the boss the screwshaft metal is unrestrained. The junction of the 13.17 What is a keyless propeller and what i s its advantage? How i s if
possible to drive the propeller if it has no key?
uncompressed and compressed shaft material forms a stress raiser as the transi-
tion from the compressed state to the uncompressed condition takes place over As its name implies a keyless propeller has no key. Technically the keyless
a very short distance. This effect is now minimized by putting a radius on the propeller has an advantage over normal arrangements in that the stress raisers
corner formed by the forward side of the propeller boss face and the conical (even though minimized in modem design) associated with the forward end of
bore. The radius is best formed as a quarter ellipse, or as a curve with large the shaft keyway do not exist. The shaft is therefore stronger and has a greater
radius starting on the inside of the bore which gradually decreases to a sharper resistance to fatigue failure. When the propeller is fitted on the conical end of
radius merging with the end face of the boss. the shaft and tightened up, the friction between the surfaces of the propeller
The ends of shrunk-on shaft liners also create stress raisers in a similar and shaft is sufficient to prevent slip between each part, so the propeller is
manner to the end of the propeller where it fits on the cone. To obviate this the driven in much the same way as torque is transmitted across a friction clutch.
ends of the liners are machined down to a smaller diameter, or a semi-circular or The tightening of the propeller on to the conical end of the shaft must be
semi-elliptical groove may be machined into the end faces. especially carefully controlled. Calculations based on Lamt's Theorem are
 ,
342 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Line Shafting, Screwshafts, Propellers, Thrust Bearings 343

made so that the necessary friction is obtained without overstressing the Air leak off plugs
material near the bore or even bursting the propeller boss by forcing it too far \
on to the cone.
The control is effected by the use of a hydraulically operated device in the
propeller nut (Pilgrim nut) and measurements are taken of the amount the
propeller is forced on the cone.

13.18 What is a Pilgrim nut and where is it used?

The term Pilgrim is a trade-name for a patented type of nut often used for
fastening a propeller on to the screwshaft. The landing face of the nut is bored
out with a circumferential slot into which a steel ring like a short piece of tube
is fitted. Grooves are machined on the outside of this ring to accommodate an
O-ring seal. A similar groov&tarned into the inner circumferential side face of
the slot, and an O-ring seal is fitted in to this groove so that is bears on the inside Hydraulic pump connections
bore of the ring. This then seals the steel ring and when connections are drilled
for an air-release plug, and for coupling up a hydraulic pump, the assembly
forms a hydraulic jack. - Fig. 13.2 Pilgrim-type nuts tightened with a hydraulic pump. The product of
the pump pressure and the area of the ring subjected to pressure gives the load
When the propeller is mounted and fitted-up on the propeller shaft, the on the bolt. When this product is divided by the sectional area of the bolt the
propeller nut is run down the shaft thread. The steel ring in the propeller nut is result gives the stress on the bolt.
then loaded with the hydraulic pump to a predetermined pressure, and this
forces the propeller hard on to its cone. The pressure is taken off thejackand
the air-release plug is opened. The nut is then hardened up with the nut spanner
and locked in the normal way. The plugs are replaced in the pump connection 13.19 How is a tight propeller removed from theconical end of a
and air release and the Pilgrim propeller nut is locked in the normal manner. screwshaft? Would you allow a propeller to b e wedged off the shaft using
An advantage of this type of nut is that it can be used to remove the propeller the thrust block to take the reaction?
from the shaft. When the propeller is to be removed the nut is taken off the end
of the shaft, reversed so that the steel jacking ring is facing outwards, and Although the thrust bearing is designed to take the propulsive thrust from the
screwed back on to the shaft, leaving some clearance between it and the rotating propeller, which is quite a high load, it should on no account be used to
propeller. Studs are screwed into the aft face of the propeller boss and a 'strong resist the reaction from wedges used to free a propeller from a screwshaft
back' plate is fitted over the studs. Nuts are fitted on the studs so that the plate without a Pilgrim nut.
contacts the propeller nut and steel ring. When hydraulic pressure is put on the The usual practice for removing a propeller is first to remove the rope guard
steel jacking ring the propeller is pulled off the conical end of the screwshaft. and the boss fairing cone, or 'top hat', to expose the propeller nut. After
The Pilgrim nut is the best means of propeller fastening and the fastest means removing the propeller nut locking device the propeller nut is loosened. While
possible for releasing a propeller from the end of a shaft. It is the type of nut the work is going on outside in the drydock, the coupling bolts in the screw-
used with keyless propellers. shaft and the last section of the intermediate shaft are also being removed. The
When this type of nut is used, either for keyless or keyed propellers, extreme distance between the aft side of the screwshaft flange and the forward side of
pressure lubricants, molybdenum disulphide lubricants, or similar materials the stern tube is measured, and steel packing pieces are made up to fit in this
must not be put on the screwshaft cone or in the propeller boss bore. If these space. Box wedges or folding wedges are then fitted between the forward side of
materials are used the elasticity of the material in the propeller causes it to slide the propeller boss and the aft side of the stern-tube nut.
back down the screw-shaft cone when the hydraulic pressure on the nut jacking When the wedges are driven up and hardened a force is exerted on the
ring is released, making it impossible to tighten the propeller on the shaft. propeller tending to loosen it on the screwshaft cone. The load from the wedges
Nuts of the Pilgrim type are shown in Fig. 13.2. They may also be used in puts the screwshaft in tension, and this tensile loading goes right back to the '
many places where accurate stress values must be known. The product of the screwshaft coupling. The load is resisted by the steel packing pieces fitted ,
purrip pre<sure anti thc effective area of the tightening ring under hydraulic between the flange and the forward end of the stern tube. The packing pieces
pressure glves the force actlng on the bolt. The maximum stress in the bolt is are therefore subjected to compressive loading which is transferred to and
then obtained by divding the tightening force by the cross sectional area of bolt through the stern tube right back to the stern-tube nut. The stern tube being of
I I I w a y 01 thc n ~ i r ~ ~ tli:~metcr
n ~ ~ ~ r \ubjected
n to the tightening force. cast-iron is well able to resist this compressive load.
344 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

reversing gear, starting air reservoirs, smaller-siic starting air compressors, and
Note If the stern gland is not of the split type it must remain on the screwshaft. reduction of similar equipment are taken into account. The advantages to be
I n this case steel packing is fitted between the gland flange and the stern tube.
gained are simpler methods of bridge control arid immediate astern reponse
The packing behind the screwshaft flange is then fitted on to the gland flange. under an emergency when the vessel is at sea. Normally with motorships and
Care must be taken when doing this or the gland may fracture. If enough space turbotharged engines hull fouling reacts unfavourably on the engine and it is
is available, and the coupling flange diameter is large enough, the steel packing normal to design the propeller with a finer, compromise pitch so that when the
can be put on each side of the gland flange and on to the stern tube. This hull is fouled the engine characteristics of power and speed are still matched.
packing must be supported by the stern tube and not by the aft peak bulkhead. With controllable-pitch propellers the engine speed can .be matched to the
condition of the hull - and to weather conditions - both of which lead to savings
in fuel and ability to maintain higher service speeds.
13.20 Where would y ~ expect
u to find defects (if any are present) in a
screwshaft which has been in service? How would you carry out the
examination and what equipment would you use? 13.22 Name and describe the various ports which moke up a
controllable-pitch propeller.
The first place to examine is around the forward end of the keyway to see if any
fractures have started; usually they are found to run in a circumferential The centre part of the propeller is referred to as the boss or the hub, the term
direction from the forward end of the keyway. If the keyway is of the older type hub being more commonly used. The hub houses the mechanism which controls
the lower corners of the keyway must be carefully examined from the forward the pitch of the propeller blades. The blades, which are individually cast, have a
end on one side round the radius of the end of the keyway and along the forward flange which merges into the root of the blade at its least radius. The blade is
end of the other side. To assist with this examination it is normal to use fastened to the blade carrier which in appearance is similar to a blank flange
magnetic particle crack detection equipment. In order to find cracks at the with a rebate around one face and its circumference. The blade carrier is called
corners of the bottom of the keyway dye-penetrants can be used as they usually the crank ring en some propellers; it fits into a-recess or a circular hole in the
show up cracks better in this location. If the shaft is of older design it will not be hub. In some propellers it is assembled from inside the hub and in others from
'eased' at the ends of the liner. Cracks have been found running in a circum- outside. When the blade carrier is assembled from inside the hub, the rebate fits
ferential direction in older shafts just under the end of the liner; in these circum- into the circular hole which is smaller in diameter than the outside diameter of
stances two or three millimetres is machined off the ends to expose the steel the carrier. The flange on the base of the propeller blade is mounted on the
shaft underneath. When this operation is carried out it is usual also to machine blade carrier and fastened to it with set bolts which fit into tapped holes in the
a semi-circular groove in each end of the liner. This relieves the hard edge which plate. When the blade carrier is fitted into a recess in the hub it is kept in place
comes from the shrink fit and prevents it acting as a stress raiser. with a threaded ring which fits over the rebate and is screwed into the hub. The
The parts of the shaft exposed after machining the ends of the liner are blades are fastened to the blade carrier as mentioned before. The blade carrier,
checked for cracks using the magnetic particle method or dye-penetrants. The being circular, can rotate, and rotation of the carrier alters the helix angle of the
forward end of the shaft, where it is reduced from the large diameter down to blade and therefore the propeller pitch.
the radius which is swept into the back of the flange, is also a location which Within the hub is a yoke which moves in a fore and a f t direction within
must be examined. The critical region is at the smallest diameter. Old shafts, guides. On each circumferential face on the yoke there is a hole or slot. A
which may have had the coupling-bolt holes enlarged, should also have the crankpin fitted on the inside face of the blade carrier engages in the hole or slot
thinnest section of material examined for cracks running radially outwards in the yoke. Fore and aft movement of the yoke then moves this crankpin and
from the hole to the outer circumference of the flange. The aft end of the shaft causes angular movement of the blade carrier and blade, which varies the blade
at the reduced section from the end of the thread to the face meeting the smaller pitch. The yoke is actuated by an oil-operated servo motor which may be fitted
end of the cone should also be examined -though this area rarely gives trouble. in the hub cone or fairing and is then directly connected to the yoke. Sometimes
If the shaft liner is made in two pieces the joint between the two sections should the servo motor is fitted within the propeller shafting, in which case it is
be carefully examined. Dye-penetrant tests would be carried out on the joint. connected to the yoke with a push-pull rod.
(Non-destructive testing is dealt with in Question 6.50). Controllable-pitch propellers are flange mounted on to the screwshaft.
Access to the propeller mechanism and its internal parts is made, either
through the hole in the centre of the hub flange, which necessitates removal of
13.21 What are the advantages and disadvantages of controllable-pitch the propeller from the shaft, or, in other designs, by removal of the hub cap or
propellers? fairing.
The important parts of a controllable pitch propeller used when altering pitch
The only real disadvantage of the controllable-pitch propeller is the first cost are shown in Fig. 13.3, the yoke actuating mechanism and the sealing rings are
which is considerably higher than that of a solid cast propeller. Some of these not shown. These omissions have been made for the sake of clarity.
first cost-differentials are considerably reduced when savings from engine
346 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Line Shdting, Screwshqfrs,,.Propellers, Thrust Bearings 347

13.24 How is the oil delivered from the servo-motor pressure pump into
the servo motor in controllable-pitch propellers?
The oil delivered by the servo-motor pressure pump is Led through high-pressure
flexible hoses (or solid pipes with some flexibility) into a sleeve which surrounds
the shaft but does not turn with it. Annular grooves which line up with radial
holes in the shaft are machined in the sleeve. The radial holes connect up with an
axial bore and an internal pipe within the axial bore. Oil from the servo-motor
pressure pump passes through a control unit and into the sleeve through the
flexible hoses, then into one of the annular grooves, and on into one of the
radial holes leading to the servo motor through an internal tube. It returns from
the servo motor on the outside of the tube back to the other radial hole, and out
through the sleeve. The ends of the sleeve surrounding the intermediate shaft
are fitted with seals with leaksff pipes. In some units the sleeve is incorporated '
with the propeller servo-motor control unit.
The weight of this heavy unit is sometimes relieved by placing springs under
the unit to reduce the loads on the bearing bushes fitted in the sleeve.

13.25 Where a r e seals fitted between the moving parts of the blade
assembly and the hub in a controllable-pitch propeller?
Slot for crank pun
The seals must be located in some place where they are reasonably accessible;
they are therefore fitted just below the blade flange and make contact with the
flange and the hub which become the sealing surfaces. In some cases two 0-
rings are fitted into a seal supporting ring. One O-ring bears against the flange
on the foot of the propeller blade, the other contacts the propeller hub. The
u/ovemen+ of yoke
In hob gu~des
- seals may be in the form of O-rings or may be specially moulded to suit the ring
housing and landing face.
Renewal of seals involves dismantling the propeller blades and lifting them
Fig. 13.3 Sketch showing the mechanism of a controllable pitch propeller. off the blade carrier plate or crank ring.

13.26 What types of lubricating oils are used for the servo-motor systems
in controllable-pitch propellers?
Note In single-screw ships a controllable pitch propeller is usually arranged
for left-hand rotation. The same oil is used for the servo-motor pressure system and for internal
lubrication of the parts within the hub, and is similar to the lubricating oils used
in marine steam turbines. They will have the following characteristics.
13.23 In what manner are the internal parts of a controllable-pitch
propeller lubricated? Specific gravity 0.875-0.90
Viscosity Redwood 1 at 60°C = 100 sec.
The internal parts are lubricated by keeping the hub space full of lubricating oil Viscosity index 104.
under pressure. The oil under pressure prevents sea-water entering the hub if
any of the seals should leak. The pressure is maintained by the servo-motor The pour point must obviously be very low to suit very cold sea-water and
pressure pump, and oil enters into the hub space either through balance holes atmospheric conditions; its value will be within the range - 10°C to - 30°C
from the pressure side or through small clearances arranged in sealing bushes. depending on the service of the ship. These grades of oil have additives with
11. the h t ~ b~ W S S I I Whcco~iicstoo prcnt the pressure is relieved through a relief properties to resist oxidation, corrosion and foaming. One of the features of
valve which lets tl~ccxucss oil go into the returll part of thc scrvo-motor oil lubricating oils within this grading is that water separates itself out from the oil
systclll. very easily.
13.27 What attention do controllable-pitch propellers require at sea and should be carried out from thc britlgc, cr~pinc1oo111.
; t ~ l t lloci11cor~trol
sti~tions.
in port? The emergency operation procedures should also be checked out at this time.
The condition of the oil must be constantly kept under observation for indica-
tions of water or condensation entering the servo-motor oil system. The 13.29 What do you understand by the term propeller pitch? What i s slip?
quantity of oil in the servo-motor system must also be regularly checked by I
taking soundings of drain tanks and other tanks within the servo-motor oil I
We know that if a thread has a pitch of two millimetres the screw will move a
system. A record of the oil quantities used for topping-up the system should be distance of two millimetres if it is turned one revolution when screwed into a
kept so that any changes in the amounts used are quickly noticed. It must be nut. A ship's propeller may be likened to a multiple-start thread, a three-bladed
remembered that changes in the oil temperature will cause corresponding propeller being similar to a short length of a three-start thread, a four bladed
changes in the drain-tank soundings. propeller being similar to a four-start thread and so on.
Filters on the oil system and control air system require regular attention and The pitch of a propeller is the distance it would advance in one revolution if it
cleaning, and partiS;ular care must be given to this if pressure gauges indicating were turning within a nut. In practice the propeller pitch is usually of some
the pressure be-fore and after the filters are not fitted or, if fitted, are value between 2.5 metres for a small coaster with a high propeller rev/min and 6
imperative. Particular attention must be -.-paid to filters in new vessels, and
following repair work, drain tank cleaning, and the like.
- metres for large fast ships. For motorships with speeds of 16 knots, common
--pitch values are about 3.8 to 4.2 metres depending on various factors such as
During each watch the various parts of the piping system should be checked; propeller revlrnin and coefficients of hull fineness. When a propeller is
slack pipe clips must be hardened up. The temperature and electrical loads of revolving in water it does not advance through the water in one revolution as
servo oil pump motors must also be checked out. much as the value of its pitch; it is said to slip.
On long sea passages when the engine room is put on stand-by and the engine The slip value, which ships' engineer officers record at noon each day, is the
is at slow for boat and fire drill, it is the practice in some Companies to move the average or mean apparent dipfor the previous 24-hours period.
propeller to the reverse or negative pitch position and back before or at the end The mean apparent slip per day is given by:
of the stand-by, before going to full ahead operation. The same check should be distance run propellerdistance run by ship
put on the propeller pitch control at the end-of-passage prior to propeller distance run propdrtr
manoeuvres for picking up the pilot. It is also good practice to change over to
clean filters and clean the shut-down filters some few hours before the end-of- It is usually expressed as a percentage so that the distance in nautical miles run
passage. . by the propeller (the DRP) is
pitch metres x total engine revolutions for day
13.28 What attention do controllable-pitch propellers require when in 1852
dry-dock? Then the apparent slip per day is given by
The parts of the propeller external to the hull must be checked out for seal DRP - distance run by ship
leakages. Oil within the hub is drained off and its quality checked for water x 100%
DRP
content. In some cases it is changed, and the oil drained off is purified and
returned to the system for make-up. Note There is another slip value referred to as true slip which takes into
Programmed blade seal renewal is usually carried out on one or two propeller account wake speed. This matter is dealt with in books on .naval architecture
blades at the time the vessel is in dock. This prevents breakdown of seals in and ship propulsion.
service as they all are renewed over a reasonable time period depending on the
number changed and the period that the vessel is out of drydock, which in
many cases may be up to two years. The remaining propeller blade fastenings 13.30 Is the propeller pitch the same ot the various rodii of the propeller
and locking devices (or spot welds used for locking blade set bolts or nuts) must blades, in solid cast or monobloc propellers?
be carefully examined. After changing blade seals the propeller hub is pressure With modern propellers the pitch gradually increases as the blade radius
tested. increases. There are various mathematical ways in which the mean pitch is
The shaft outer seal (to stern-tube oil system) must be inspected for leakage found for purposes of the slip calculations made on board ship.
and wear of parts (see Question 13.13). A British method uses a moments system. Other methods use an average
After completing renewal of blade seals and pressure-testing the hub and obtained from the sines of the helix angles; or the pitch at 0.7 of the blade radius
other parts, or completing other work, the propeller should be tested from full is sometimes used. The pitch to be used for apparent slip calculations is stated
positive to full npgative pitch positions before the dry-dock is flooded. This test on the propeller drawings.
350 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Line Shafting, Screwshafts, Propellers, Thrust Bearings 35 1

13.31 intermediate shafting fitted between the engiGe and txe underside of the bearing it will require periodic cleaning to remove sand and
screwshaft is supported on bearings. What types of bearing are used for mud. The bearing fastenings or holding-down bolts and chocks also require
this purpose? periodic checking.
Tilting-pad bearings require regular checks to be made on the oil level in the
There are four different types of bearing used for supporting the intermediate sump. The oil carrier ring requires regular inspection to see that it is lifting the
shafting. oil correctly and that enough is passing from the oil carrier ring to the bearing
Normal plummer or pedestal. The housing of the bearing is made of a good pads. The cooling water supply also needs attention because as the temperature
quality shock-resistant cast-iron. The bearing surface is white-metal, cast of the oil rises the lowering of the viscosity causes less oil to be picked up by the
directly on to the parent cast-iron of the bearing. The bearing is made to carrier ring, also when the oil viscosity is reduced the ability of tilting-pad
support the weight of the shaft only and no white-metal-lined keep is fitted. A bearings to carry load is reduced.
cover housing the oil box and tubes for wool syphon feeders is fitted. The cover The aft bearing on the intermediate shafting is most vulnerable from water
also k e e ~ out
s dirt and foreign matter. This type of bearing has limitations on leakage from the stern gland, and requires close attention. If the oil goes creamy
its load:carrying capacity and rubbing speeds. A pocket is sometimes made or milky in appearance it will require changing, and the water leakage from the
under the bearing which is circulated with cooling water. stern gland must be reduced. Leakage of water from the cooling coils or tubes in
the bearing oil sump will also cause the oil to go creamy or milky.
Tilting-pad. This bearing is also made to support the weight of the shaft only.
The weight of the shaft is supported on three or four bronze white-metal-lined
shells each of which extends about 30" to 40" round the journal circumference. 13.33 What is a stern tube and what is its purpose?
The back of each shell has a ridgeor projection running axially (along its length)
which becomes the tilting fulcrum for the bearing shells. The white-metal lining The stern tube houses the screwshaft, and its purpose is to carry the screwshaft
is well radiused along its length for oil lead-in. The ridge is supported in the bearing bushes. Due to the shape of the aft end of a ship where it is streamlined
body of the bearing which also forms on an oil sump. A carrier ring is fitted on down to allow an easy flow of water to the propeller, little space remains in the
the shaft. It is large enough in diameter to extend down into the oil in the sump. narrow section to fit normal bearings. This narrow space within the hull
When the shaft is revolving, oil is picked up by the oil carrier ring and carried up structure at the screwshaft level accommodates the aft peak. The stern tube
to a scraper which skims it off the ring; the oil then runs down a channel and is passes through the aft peak and is supported at its forward end by the aft peak
led into the bearing shells. The oil sump is fitted with a cooling coil or a series of bulkhead. Along its length the stern tube is supported by narrow floors or
cooling tubes through whieh --water is circulated to cool the oil so that it brackets to which the after framing is attached. The after end of the stern tube is
retains its vicosity. This iype of bearing can carry very heavy loads at high supported by the stern frame.
rubbing speeds. The stern-tube bearings support the (overhanging) weight of the propeller
and screwshaft. The load on these bearings is transferred on to the stern tube
Solid-ring ball or roller bearkgs may bcfound in older ships. Provision must be which is supported by the stern frame and the internal parts of the ship's
made for the fore and aft movement which takes place when the shafting runs in structure around the aft peak. The forward end of the stern tube houses the
the ahead or the astern direction. stern gland which prevents sea-water passing through the stern tube and into
Splif-ring roller bearings are commonly used for intermediate shafts. They are ship, and also oil leakage from the stern tubes.
held together in a housing which has a spherical outer form. The spherical - -- -- - --- .- -
portion fits into the bearing body and can swivel within it. The body ista3tmed 13.34 Where are the stern-tube bearings fitted? Hbw ore they
down on chocks with holding-down bolts. Ball and roller type bearings are
grease .lubricated and do not require cooling water.
lubricated? -
The stern-tube bearings are fitted just behind the stern-gland neck bush and at
the aft end of the stern tube. The bearing at the aft end of the stern tube has to
13.32 What attention must be given to intermediate screwshaft support a large weight and usually has a length of about four times the shaft
bearings? diameter. The bearings may be built up from staves of lignum vitae fitted into a
Ball and roller intermediate shaft bearings require periodic greasing and bronze bush. Phenolic resins and rubber are also used for stern-tube screwshaft
inspection o f the fastening.^ and chocks. Attention should also be given to noise bearings. These materials are lubricated by sea-water, and consequently a
lcvels conling from the bearings and the temperatures at which they are bronze or brass liner is shrunk on to the steel screwshaft to protect it from the
running. Changes in these levels may indicate chipped rollers or 'brinelled' corrosive action of sea-water.
i1111cr-or outcr rings. Oil-lubricated shaft bearings with drip-feed wool syphons White-metal-lined bushes may also be used, and these are oil lubricated. To
~ c v l l ~ I it i~c oil
r t~o';(*\
( . i I l i n ~:\I rrgul:~rintcrvnls. I f n cooling space is fitted on the prevent sea-water coming in contact with the oil, a seal is fitted on the outside
352 Quesfions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine / , l f l r . ~ h ~ . / l l t l .h \ .' 1 , * l ~ c . l l t . r
# . r--c * ~ $ / ~ r r / f 1 .., I Irrctrr /Ir.trrrrrE~
\--\ \

of the screwshaft between the propeller and the stern tube. Brass liners are not 'the largest ships afloat, the thrust bearing is most conlmonly of the tilting-pad
fitted on oil-lubricated screwshafts. type. In this type of bearing a thrust collar is forged integrally with the thrust
shaft. On the forward and aft sides of the thrust collar, the thrust pads are
13.35 Where are thrust bearings fitted and what is their purpose? fitted. The thrust pads are lined with white-metal and face on to the finely
machined and,polished surface of the thrust collar. The back of the pad has a
If a force of any sort acts axially along a shaft, some form of thrust bearing radial ridge which forms a fulcrum on which the pad can tilt. The tilting
must be used to prevent the shaft sliding along in its bearings as it revolves. The fulcrum on the back of the pad comes in contact with a solidly constructed
magnitude of the force may be small, as might be experienced in electrical housing. The hsusing is rigidly held in the thrusr-bearing casing. In slow-speed
generators. A simple type of thrust bearing in then used. This consists of directcoupled engines the casing is usually integral with the engine bedplate. In
nothing more than the provision of some bearing surface on both ends of one of geared diesel-propelled ships the thrust bearing may be separate from other
the engine crankshaft main bearings. The main bearing nearest the generator is parts, in which case it will have its own casing, cooling service and foundation.
the one used; one end of the main bearing contacts the side of the crankweb, This type of bearing builds up an oil pressure between the white-metal face of
and the other may contact a collar on the shaft or the side of a camshaft drive the thrust pad and the thrust collar when the shaft revolves. The oil pressure is
wheel. Lubrication for the end surfaces is provided from the bearing oil supply. due to the formation of an oil wedge which can build up only when the thrust
This type of thrust bearing is often called a location bearing as it also locates the collar is supplied with oil and is revolving. As the pad is able to tilt it becomes
crankshaft in its correct position relative to the cylinders. self-adjusting to the shape of the wedge. An essential for the build-up of the oil
The thrust from the propeller is taken up by the main thrust bearing which wedge is a good radius on the leading edge of the thrust pad; without this radius
transmits the thrust to the ship's hull and causes the ship to be propelled in the the leading edge would act as an oil scraper and the bearing could not function.
direction of the thrust. The main thrust bearing is always fitted at the aft endof The radial ridge on the back of the pad which becomes the fulcrum for the
the main engine crankshaft. The correct location of the crankpins relative to the tilting action is often made off centre. If the thrust pads aie viewed from the
centre of the cylinders is controlled by the main thrust bearing. top, the tilting point is away from the centre moving in the direction of rotation
Turbo-blowers have a small thrust bearing on the shaft to hold the rotor in its of the thrust collar. When designed and constructed in this manner the pad tilts
correct axial position. The thrust bearing also balances thrust which comes more easily to form the oil wedge.
from the action of the exhaust gases on the turbine blades, to which must be
added the thrust from the axial-flow section of the blower.
Many centrifugal pumps of the single-entry type have a thrust which is set up 13.37 What are the indications of faulty operation of the main thrust
in the pump rotor shaft from the action of the liquid flow. This thrust is usually bearing?
balanced within a ball bearing of the motor. The ball bearing is fitted nearest to The temperature at which a thrust bearing is operating is a good indication of
the pump. The housing for this bearing does not have any axial clearance. With the condition of the bearing. If the running temperature shows anincrease
large, heavy. low-pressure vertical centrifugal pumps the weight of the motor (above what would be expected for climatic and sea-water temperature
armature and rotor is usually greater than the end thrust from the flow, so the increases) it will indicate either that the oil flow to the bearing has been reduced,
weight becomes the thrust factor. All shafts and rotating components of or that alignment has changed. When the main engines are manoeuvring from
machinery fitted vertically have a thrust set up in the shafting from the action of ahead to astern it is good practice to sight the intermediate shaft where it
the weight of the parts. protrudes from out of the intermediate shaft bearings. I f the shaft moves fore
and'aft when the engine goes from ahead to astern and vice versa, it is a sure sign
13.36 What type of bearing is used to take the thrust set up by the that something is amiss. Even small amounts of movcmcnt can be detected with
propeller in propulsion machinery? the eye.
In ship's lifeboats the thrust bearing commonly used is a normal ball bearing Note There are questions on thrust lubrication systerns in Chapter IS.
fitted in the reduction gearbox. The thrust acting along the propeller shaft is
transferred frqm the inner ring into the ball race and then from the race into the
outer ring which is held in t h e x e a r - c a s e z e allowable limit for the trans- - -- 13.38 Why is the thrust bearing fitted forward of the main gear wheel in
some gearing arrangements? What particular attention does this
mission of thrust through a ball bearing is relatively low. Small craft commonly
arrangement require?
use a double conical roller bearing for transmission of propeller thrust. The
double conical roller bearing is fitted on the main shaft of the gearbox in which When the thrust bearing is fitted forward of the main gearwheel the cost of the
it is held. One bearing takes ahead thrust and the other the astern thrust. The heavy forging for a normal thrust shaft with integrally forged collar can be
holding down bolts of the engine and gearbox transmit the thrust to the hull. reduced to that of a plain s h a . The forward end of the main gearwheel shaft is
In propulsion machinery on larger craft, through the range from coasters to machined to a taper with a thread at the end. 'The thrust collar is machined from
354 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Line Shafting, Screwshufrs, Propellers, Thrust Bearings 35 5
7-.- - _

-1 face , I Pads

Levell~ngplates
Ttltmg plates
Bearmg houstng

Fig. 13.5 Arrangement of pads in a Kingsbury thrust bearing.

and checked with afeeler gauge. If it is possibp to move the shafting in its
<
- Ahead face
bearings by a jack or wedges so that the thrust collar is hard on one of the sets of
Thrust collar the thrust pads, it facilitates the taking of the feeler readings. They then have to
be taken only on the side of the thrust collar which is open. The feelers should be
Fig. 13.4 Sketch showtng a detachable thrust collar as fitted on many geared long enough to extend from one corner of the pad to the corner diagonally
diesel propulsion systems (see fig. 1 2 . 1 ). opposite. They must be inserted at one corner and eased diagonally across to the
other. When the feelers are inserted in this manner they measure the clearance
correctly without allowing the pad to tilt. If the collar cannot be hardened on to
a flat forged disc, with a tapered hole which fits on the taper of the shaft end either the ahead or astern side pads, two sets of readings must be taken on both
and is held in place with a heavy nut capable of taking the astern thrust. A key is faces of the thrust collar. The addition of the two readings gives the clearance.
fitted within the taper. The thrust housing is arranged so that the thrust collar It is possible to take thrust-bearing clearances without dismantling the casing
can be removed without lifting the shaft, thus allowing the thrust collar to be and the locking devices used to prevent the pads sliding round in their housing.
removed for re-machining without a lot of disturbance to other equipment. A clock gauge with a magnetic base is used to make the measurement. The stern
Periodic checkr must be made on the thrust colla'r nut and locking arrange- gland is then slackened off so that the compression on the packing is minimal. A
ments to ascertain that nothing is coming loose. To make a check on the thrust small hydraulic jack is inserted on some part of the hull structure such as the top
collar nut only involves the'removal of the forward end cover in way of the of the stern-tube flange and the coupling. The shafting is eased forward with the
thrust bearing I~ousing. hydraulic jack. The dial gauge is fastened to a coupling guard and set to zero on
A detachable thrust collar is shown in Fig. 13.4. This type of thrust collar is the side of the coupling or bolt head. The jack is then moved to another position
used in the reduction gear arrangement shown in Fig. 12.1. and operated to move the shafting so that the thrust collar comes on the astern
pads. The dial gauge reading gives the thrust-bearing clearance.
The shafting can be similarly moved by using wedges and inserting them
13.39 Describe with the aid of sketches how in one type of thrust bearing between the sides of the after crank webs and the bedplate cross-members.
the load on each thrust pad i s made to balance the load on adiacent thrust When moving the shafting backwards and forwards with wedges a dial gauge
pads. shouldbe set between the two webs of the aftermost crank and observation kept
In this type of bearing the pivot point or pivot edge of the thrust pad is on the deflection.
supported on another pad or levelling plate. The levelling plate is supported by If the after end of the screwshaft liner is worn with a step or ridge, and the
two other tilting plates. I f the load on one shoe is increased or decreased from forward end of the liner is similarly ridged, some difficulty may be experienced
any cause, the load on the levelling plate is increased or decreased. This acts on in moving the shafting. If the shafting does not move easily in response to the
the tilting plates supporting the levelling plate and causes an adjustment to take jack or wedge action, care must be taken to avoid overloading. If this method is
place to decrease or increase the load on the adjacent thrust pads. to be used it is the best carried out just after the engine is shut down and before
the oil has drained from the main and running bearings.
- - -
This type of bearing is known as a Kingsbury-type thrust bearing. (Fig. 13.5)
An alternative method can be used when the engines are being manoeuvred.
This method uses the small step at the radius of the smooth-turned journal
13.40 How I S the thrust-bearing cleorance checked? What precautions portion of the intermediate shaft where i t joins the rough or turned portion
must be taken when checking thrust-bearing clearance and what would which is slightly less in diameter.
y o u t,xpoct thc I I ~ ~ I I thrust-boorlng
II cleorance to be? When the engines are stopped one of these radiused fillets should be cleaned
off smooth. A magnetic dial gauge is Ihc~rWI 111) o n the bearing so that the
follower is contacting the edge of the radius. By setting up the gauge and noting
 356 Questionsond Answers on the M a r i n e L)iesel Engine

the readings when running ahead and asternthe clearance can be obtained. Care Cavitatiori may occur in various for1115dtrc to t l ~ cactloll of the watsr flowing
must be taken when this method is used to obtain clearance readings. If there is across the front and back of a propeller. Chnnpcs of vclocity occur when water
a 'throw' of the needle during a revolution of the shaft the readings could be flows across a hydrofoil. From 'Bernoulli' we know that as the velocity
misleading. increases the static pressure diminishes. I f the static pressure falls too low,
The thrust-bearing clearance (tilting pad bearings) when cold is between bubbles form. When the velocity of flow is reduced, and the pressure therefore
0.35 mm for small shafts and up to 1.00 mm for large shafts. rises, the bubbles collapse-and causeloss of material from the blade surface.
This form of damage is usually seen near the blade tips; it may show itself as a
Note When setting up dial gauges care must be exercised with the position of brighter area or, in bad cases, as rough-bottomed craters.
the follower which should always be perpendicular or near to perpendicular to Bubble impingment from badly-placed anodes shows itself as a roughened
the direction of the 'throw' or difference to be measured. area on the back face (forward side) of the blade. The roughened area extends
circumferentially at a constant radius across the blade.
W 13.41 How can excess thrust-bearing clearance be corrected? In ships such as bulk carriers and tankers, where a large part of the ship's
service time is in ballast, the rough marks often show up at two or three radii
Normally the amount of wear on thrust bearings is very small and provided the which correspond with the height of the anodes above the centre of the
lubricating oil is kept clean and free of water they will operate for many years propeller shaft.
without adjustment. The smalI amount of wear is due to the fact that there is no Anodes fitted in the stern area adjacent to the upper portion of the propeller
metallic contact between the pad and the thrust collar during operation. If aperture require locating very carefully to avoid this trouble.
adjustment is necessary it is carried out on the forward side of the bearing. The The build-up of deposits from anodes on the surface of the propeller blades
crankshaft or intermediate shaft is pushed aft so that the thrust collar is hard on appears as a relatively rough grey-white to grey-brown deposit.
the astern pads; thisleaves the ahead pads free (see Question 13.39 for details). If the edge of a propeller blade suffers damage and is part distorted, the
Assuming that the cover is off the thrust-bearing casing. the oil spreader and damaged locality interferes with water flow and may be the cause of surface
other loose-fitting parts are lifted out. The stopper piece on the top of the damage similar in appearance to cavitation damage.
bearing is dismantled, leaving the forward pads free. If it is a small-size bearing
the pads can be lifted out of the housing by hand. In larger bearings a long eye
13.43 Intermediate shafting is sometimes fitted with on electricol slip
bolt is screwed into the contact piece on the side of the pad and it is lifted out
ring or slip rings and carbon brushes. Whot is the purpose of this? How
with tackle. The pads remai*ng are then pushed round in their housing to the
are the electricol connections made and whot attention must be given?
lifting-out position and lifted out. Caremust be exercised in removing the thrust
pads to avoid damage to the fine finish on the thrust collar. The pads must be This device is fitted to intermediate shafting to create a short circuit between the.,,,
checked for marked numbers as they are removed, and they must be propeller and the hull of the ship; in effect it reduces or stops propellei$';i!
reassembled in their original locations. The pad housing is turned out of the corrosion which comes about due to the action of dissimilar metals in sea-water. '
casing and lifted out. The screws on the back plate are removed, shims and The brushes and brush-holders are connected by a heavy electrical cable directly
liners are made up in the amount that the clearance is to be reduced, and fitted with the ship's hull. Attention must be given to the cleanliness of the brushes,
between the back plate and the housing. brush-holders and slip ring surfaces to ensure that their resistance to current
The pad housing is then replaced. If any marks or blemishes have been made flow is not increased by oil or dirt.
on the collar they must be cleaned back flush with an oil stone. The pads are
reassembled and the new clearance confirmed with feeler gauge readings. The
rest of the parts are then replaced. Before the casing cover is replaced the
lubricating oil supply pipes must be carefully checked for position, if they are
open ended. After adjustment of clearance the oil flow to the bearing must be
checked when oil is put on the engine or gearing.
The thrust bearing, after being adjusted, must be kept under observation for
the first few hours of running.

13.42 In service a propeller develops defects which roughen the smooth

surface of the blades. What are the factors that cause this roughness?
The factors are corrosion, cavitation, bubble impingement from badly placed
anodes, and build-up of deposits from anodes.
 Engine and Shafting Alignment 359

when the bearing is removed. In the remaining cases special equipment is used
to take the measurements. /

Main bearing wear is measured with a bridge gauge when the bearing kepp
and upper shell are removed. The bridge gauge is fitted over the journal, and the
clearance between the gauge and the journal is measured with a feeler gauge. If
the original gauge reading is subtracted from the new reading the amount of
ENGINE AND SHAFTING wear o n the bearing together with the wear on the journal is given. As the wear
on the journal is usually very small, the wear-down reading given by the bridge

ALIGNMENT gauge readings is normally accepted as the bearing wear-down. When dealing
with very old engines, however, it is important to remember that use of the
bridge gauge gives both the wear on the journal and the bearing; this is particu-
larly important when dealing with alignment problems.
If a record was made of the crown thickness of the lower halves of the main
bearings when they were new, the wear on the bearings can be found by
measuring the thickness. The difference between the two measurements gives
the amount of wear. Some engine builders record these measurements on a
brass plate which is fastened on the engine and kept as permanent record.
14.1 When main bearings and crankshaft iournals wear, what effect
does it hove on the operation of the engine?
Note In taking measurements of bearing thickness a micrometer with a ball-
faced anvil should be used. If this type of micrometer is not available an
Normally the wear on crankshaft journals is slight, even over very long periods, ordinary micrometer can be used in conjunction with a short piece of standard-
and journal wear normally has little effect on engine operation. Wear on the size round rod or a steel ball.
main bearings, however, is considerably greater. The effect of this wear is to
lower the compression ratio on the engine cylinders, which reduces the thermal 14.3 Using the bridge gauge and feelers, how would you estimate the
efficiency of the engine and increases fuel consumption. In opposed piston maximum wear on a crankshaft journal?
engines the wear on main bearings lowers the running position of both the
upper and lower pistons, and therefore the compression ratio remains The maximum wear and location of maximum wear can be determined with a
unchanged. bridge gauge and feelers when a main bearing keep and the upper half bearing
If the wear on the main bearings and crankshaft journals were similar in shell are removed. Bridge-gauge readings are taken with the journal in various
amount throughout the engine the alignment of the crankshaft would not be positions, some point such as an adjacent crankweb being used as a base
affected. In practice, however, main bearing wear is never the same throughout position. The readings are taken at 30 degree intervals over a crankshaft
the engine, and the alignment of the crankshaft is therefore adversely affected rotation of 180". and then plotted on a graph, with the gauge readings as
as the unequal wear piogresses. ordinates. The difference between the maximum and minimum readings gives
an estimate of the amount of wear which has taken place on the crankshaft
journal; the actual amount of the maximum wear will be slightly higher than
14.2 How i s the wear on iournols and main bearings measured?
this.
The amount of wear that has taken place on a crankshaft journal can only be In old engines, particularly when difficulties arise with maintaining
found by measuring the journal with a micrometer. The.load on the journal lubricating oil pressure, the figures can be used when adjusting main bearings.
varies around its circumference. This is due to the load on the journal being the The figures can also be used in extreme cases when making crankshaft align-
algebraic addition of the effects of gas and inertia loads and the weight of the ment checks by optical or taut-wire methods.
various parts. In consequence the wear is uneven so the measurements must be
taken at various locatious a b n g the journal, and at each location the diameters 14.4 Give some details of how and where errors may occur when taking
must be m'easured at several angular positions. The measurements are plotted in bridge-gauge readings.
tabular form and the minimum diameter together with its location can then be
found. This method applies to all t m s of engines; in some cases the measure- Errors may arise because the feet of the bridge gauge were placed on dirt, or
ments can be properly taxen only when the crankshaft is lifted or lowered out of from small burrs on or under the feet. These faults will give high readings.
its 111ainI ~ I I ~ 111
I ~I~ ~
I I c~IC;ISCS
.. the tlli~knessof the main bearing shell is such Before taking bridge-gauge readings the locatiori around the bearing, and the
that it is possihlc. to mensure the diameters with a narrow frame micrometer bridge gauge itself, must be thoroughly cleaned. Errors can also arise if the
360 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

crankshaft is stiff and the span between adjacent main bearings is

not available, the dial gauge can be checkccl with l'cclcrs when it is fitted
small - leading to a 'bridged' bearing. The wear-down shown in a 'bridged'
between the cranks on which it is to be used.
bearing may appear to be normal, though in actual fact a dangerous situation
These two error factors, while most important for medium-speed engines
could be prgsent. When the engine is working, the loads imposed on the crank-
where only minimal deflections are allowable, are slightly less important in
shaft force the journal down into the bearing which, if 'bridged', could cause
large engines where larger deflections are permitted. However, this fact must
large amounts of strain from which high stresses result. 'Bridged' bearings may
not be used as an excuse for not checking dial gauges, because correct readings
also occur in locations near to overhung weights such as flywheels, armatures,
are essential if deflections are approaching or are at a limiting value.
couplings, and some types of detuners. (There is further information on
'bridged' bearings in Question 14.10.) Note Though ~ o b u s tin appearance, dial micrometer gauges are delicate
The location where the bridge gauge is placed to take the measurements is instruments. They consist of a contact point spindle held in guides. The spindle
also importan:, as in some engines a special location is scraped up so that is connected to a rack which is geared to a set of step-up gearing. A spring is
bridge-gauge readings are the same throughout the engine when it is new. If the used on the contact spindle to push it out to its point of maximum travel. A
bridge gauge is moved from this specially scraped area, errors result. In spiral spring is fitted to the needle axle so the load on the rack teeth is always in
opposed piston engines with main bearings fitted in spherical housings the the same direction, thus cancelling out the backlash.
bridge gauge is placed mid-length on the journal. This takes care of any errors
which may result if the spherical bearing allows one end of the journal to be up
14.6 Imagine that you have a section of on engine cronkshaft consisting
or down (see also Questions 10.20 and 14.13). of two crankwebs, a crankpin ond two journols supported between two
main beorings. Describe how the crankwebs behove when they are
14.5 How would you check o diol micrometer gouge of the type used for looded with the weight of the piston, piston rod, crossheod, connecting-
toking cronkweb deflections? rod and bearings, (a) when the crankpin is on top centre and (b) when the
crankpin is on bottom centre.
Note The dial micrometer gauge is often termed a dial gauge, a deflection
gauge, or a clock gauge. In order to analyse what is happening to the crankwebs we can first consider
what would happen to a straight length of shafting supported in the main
The first essential is to check that the zeroing and return spring in the gauge is
bearings and similarly loaded. When the straight length of shafting is loaded
adequate for its jobTf holding the instrument in place between the crankwebs
with a static weight of the same amount as the piston, connecting-rod, etc. it
and following the change which occurs in the distance between the crankwebs as
the engine is turned (some gaugesTiive-axexfefnif spring system to hold the
- --will sag downwards under the load. From what we know of beams, we know
that the deflection caused by the load will compress the material in the upper
gauge between the webs).
If any dirt adheres to, or damage occurs to, the spring-loaded contact point half of the shaft, reducing the length of the material at the top. Similarly the
spindle it may cause sluggish action of the gauge needle so that, though it will lower half of the shaft is in tension and its length will be increased.
read correctly moving inwards, sluggish action when moving outwards may (a) When the crankshaft is considered, a similar action takes place. With the
give false readings. This action can be checked by carefully loading the contact crankshaft on top centre t h e h a d is on thccrankpin. The journals and crankpin
point through the full extent of its travel with the finger and then letting it return deflect downwards in the centre as before. This causes the crankwebs (at the
by slowly unloading the contact point. Any sluggishness together with its opposite side to the crankpin) to open up. The distance between the webs
location is then found. Some designs of gauge suffer damage if they are set up in increases just as the length of the botfqm-part of the shaft did.
a crank location where the deflection is greater than the allowable amount of @) With the crankshaft on bottom centre, the load is still on the crankpin, the
contact-point travel. This strains the delicate gear teeth within the instrument journals deflect downwards in the centre, but now the position of the
and, although the instrument may appear to be working satisfactorily, the crankwebs corresponds t o the upper part of the shafting. This is in the position
readings at some points within a part revolution of the indicator needle may where the shaft is in compression and shortened, so when the crankpin is on the
have large errors. bottom centre position the distance between the crankwebs is reduced under the
This error can be checked in a lathe which has a micrometer scale on the hand load of the piston.
feed screw. The dial gauge is set up with the extension pieces corresponding to
Summing up, we can see that the action of the we~ghtof the running gear on
the distance between the crankwebs. It is then placed between the lathe face
the crank assembly is to cause the crankwebs to open outwards when the
plate or chuck and the side of the table holding the tool post. The table is fed
inwards carefully towards the headstock with the hand feed screw. The amount crankpin is on top centre, and to close inwards when the crankpin is on bottom
of feed on the micrometer hand feed screw should correspond with the amount centre.
shown on the dial gauge - at all points. If a lathe with this type of hand feed is Obviously the length of the crankpin does not change so the distance between
the crankwebs in way of the crankpin remain\ t h c znrnc. The action of the
 I

362 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Engine and Shafring Alignment 363
f

Gauge set to zero

W e b open givmg a + readmg

Runn~nq
gear In place Fig. 14.2 Sketch shpwing a dial gauge micromet~rset to zero between a pair
of crankwebs near bottom centre and the 'plus' reading obtained when the
cranks are turned up to top dead centre.
Fig. 14.1 Sketches showing a crankshaft with running gear removed and
running gear in place. The weight of the running gear causes a deflection in the
crankwebs, pins and journal as shown.
twice the amount it indicated when it was in the starboard position. Continuing
rotation of the crank, it will be noticed that as the crankpin goes over top centre
- position the reading on the dial gauge is still shown as a plus value but begins
change in the distance between the crankwebs comes about from the elasticity diminishing in amount. When the gauge is in the port position it will still show
of all the parts making up the crankshaft, but a large part of the movement as a plus value and should be the same in amount as when on the starboard side.
comes from spring in the crankwebs. (Fig. 14.1) When the crankpin approaches bottom centre the gauge will be in its uppermost
position and will read zero as the side of the connecting-rod approaches the
gauge. Now the gauge will be on the port side of the connecting-rod.
14.7 If a dial micrometer is fixed between the crankwebs at the opposite It will be seen from this and the previous question that the weight of the
end to the crankpin in the arrangement described in Question 14.6 when piston, piston rod, and running gear gives a plus deflection reading on the dial
the crankpin is near bottom centre, describe what happens when the micrometer when it is set t o zero in its uppermost postion. This is often referred
cronkpin is turned to the top centre position and rotation is continued to as the natural deflection due to the weight of the running gear. (Fig. 14.2)
round to the near-bottom centre position.
Normally when checking crankwebs' deflections, the first reading is taken at a 14.8 Referring to Question 14.7, describe how the dial micrometer -
point when the bottom-end bearing has just passed bottom centre position so readings will b e affected (a) if the dial gauge is fitted between the
that the side of the connecting-rod is just beyond the centre of the uppermost crankweb a t a position midway between the cronkpin and journal, and (by
part of the journal. To get to this position from the absolute bottom dead centre if the indicator cock is left closed when turning the engine.
position, the engine is turned in the ahead-running direction if a main engine, or
in its normal direction of operation if it is an auxiliary. The dial micrometer is (a) Due to the rigidity and strength of the crankpin the distance between the
fastened between the crankwebs usually at a point just above the uppermost crankwebs adjacent to the crankpin does not change in amount. When the
part of the journal. The gauge is set to a zero reading. , crankpin is on top centre, the weight of the running gear causes the crankwebs
Referring to the last Question we can see that the crankwebs near bottom t o move outwards (so that plus readings are given). As the distance between the
dead centre will be in the position where they had sprung inwards. As theengine crankwebs cannot change in the region of the crankpin it follows that the
I S turned in the ahead direction the crankwebs will begin to open and the dial distance between the crankwebs will increase as the distance from the crankpin
mlcrorneter will give a small plus reading. When the crankpin is on the port side increases and will be a maximum at the edge of the crankweb furthest from the
the dial gauge will be on the starboard side. As the gauge passes this position the crankpin. So it can be seen that the dial micrometer must be set in the same
amount of deflection o f the crankwebs will have further increased. The reading position on the webs each time deflection readings are taken. The position
~Iunildhc notcd ;111d I ccortlcd- Wirh contiru~edrotatimlhe cralrkpin reaches its where the dial micrometer should be fitted is always given in the engine
uppermxt posltlon and the gauge its lowest position. ln this position thegauge instruction book. In many engines the builder puts centre punch marks in this
~c.rJ~ng ~ 1 1 bc
1 ~ ~ o r .rnd
c d ~ccordcdagain. Referring to Question 14.6 we can see position, and for easy identification a letter '0' or a small square is cut around
~ I I ; I I thr wch\ will hc dc.flc'ctrd (wlw;irtis \o the gauge reading will be plus and each centre-punch mark.
364 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

will be opened an amount corresponding to the deflection produced by the

(b) If the indicator cock were inadvertently left closed when turning the crank ' - weight of the running gear. With one of the maill bcarmgs tightened hard down
to record crankweb deflections, the build-up of gas pressure inside the cylinder on one of the journals @ that it cannot cant), it can be seen that if the other
would have the same effect as a n increase in weight of the running gear - and bearing is lowered, the weight of the running gear will cause the crankwebs and
would increase the deflections. crankpin to bend in such a manner that the distance between the webs decreases
I
and will continue to decrease until the bearing no longer supports the journal.
14.9 In a single crank arrangement consisting of a pair of crankwebs, a I
, At this point the distance betweesthe crankwebs will not change, no matter
crankpin and two journals, describe what happens to the distance how much more the bearing is lowered. From this we can see that when the
between the crankwebs if one iournal i s rigidly held in its bearing and the crankpin is on t o p centre (micrometer dial gauge at lowest position) the effect of
other bearing is lowered from its original position. a low bearing is t o cause the crankwebs to close inwards to one another.
The action shown on the dial micrometer gauge as the bearing is lowered
If a dial gauge is placed between the cranks when the crankpin is in the bottom I
would be t o reduce the natural plus reading to zero and then to show an
centre position and the engine is turned to its top centre position the crankwebs increasing negative reading until the crank assembly was supporting the weight
of the running gear without assistance from the lowered main bearing. At this
point the deflection would reach its maximum negative value and no further
change would occur n o matter how much further the bearing was lowered. The
effect then of a low main bearing is to reduce the natural plus deflection of the
crankwebs (found when bearings are level). If the wear down of one bearing is
large in amount relative to another, the deflection will be reduced to the point
where negative values will be recorded when deflection readings are taken.
Figure 14.3 shows line sketches of the deflections in a two cylinder engine
crankshaft with a centre bearing of proper height; and a low centre bearing
causing misalignment.

14.10 How can bridged bearings be found?

If it is suspected that a crankshaft journal is not seating itself into its bearing
when the engine is stopped it can be found by the following means.
1 Feeler gauges can be used to check if there is a clearance on the underside of

- athe
journal between the journal and the bearing. The engine is turned into
topcentre posifion and from the botiom o f the crarikcase underneath the
web a n attempt is made to insert a thin narrow-width feeler between the
I
journal and the bearing. The job is made easier if telescopic feelers are
I%
available. If the space between the side o f the web and the main bearing is
small, it is virtually impossible to use this method with any certainty of a
definite result.
2 If method 1 cannot be used the journal must be loaded downwards with a
light jack. The crank adjacent to the suspected bridged bearing is put to a
position near t o bottom centre and a dial gauge is inserted between the webs.
The journal is then loaded with the jack acting downwards. If the bearing is
bridged a deflection will be shown on the gauge. In some cases it is possible
to d o this check without removing the main bean-ng keep. This 1s d o n e b y
removing the oil pipe and using a brass bar passed through the oil hole on to
the journal. Extreme care must be taken with regard to cleanliness and to
prevent damage to the journal. The jack 1s fitted between the top o f the
Fig. 14.3 Sketch showing the effect on deflections caused by a low centre
brass bar and the underside of the A-franic above the main bearing.
bearing in a crankshaft for a two-cylinder engine.
 I f the oil hole through to the bearing keep and shell is small it will be location of the failure will be dependent on the proportions of the various parts
necessary to remove the upper half bearing and keep so that access to the .of the crankshaft and the effects of localized stress raisers.
journal is easily made. If part of the running gear of an engine such as a connecting-rod, piston and
3 See Question 10.20. End of answer deals with method of finding natural sag piston rod has been removed for survey or repair, the amount of deflection in
of crankshaft in way of main bearings. way of removed gear will change and not be the same as when these parts a&
present.
14.11 In multi-cylinder engines what is the effect of the weight of the
crankshaft and running gear on either side of a crank where deflections 14.14 Describe how crankshaft deflections are taken, how they are
are being taken? recorded and how it is ascertained that alignment is acceptable?

The effect of the weight of the crankwebs and running gear in crank units The deflection readings are taken at each crank in five different angular
adjacent to the crankweb at which deflection readings are being taken is to positions. Two readings, the first and last, are taken with the crankpin near
reduce the deflection being recorded. bottom centre, the other three readings are taken with the crankpin on the port
Referring to Question 14.6 it can be seen that the weight of the adjacent parts side, top centre and starboard side. It must be remembered that the dial
of the crankshaft itself will to some extent balance out the weight of the parts micrometer is fitted in a position between the webs on the opposite side to the
acting on the crank unit where deflections are being taken. crankpin. A table of measurements is drawn up relative to dial gauge position.
- - To set the dial gauge between the crankwebs the engine is turned ahead until the
crankpin is approximately 10" to IS" past bottom centre (see Note towards end
14.12 Would you expect deflections to be shown on a micrometer dial of answer). The dial gauge is inserted between the webs in the location fixed by
gauge when the alignment of the cronkshoft is correct? the engine builder and set t o zero.
With the dial gauge set up between the crankwebs, yes. The amount of The turning gear is used t o turn the engine in the ahead direction and readings
deflection of the crankwebs will be dependent on the weight of the running are taken when the gauge is passing starboard position, bottom position, port
gear, the flexibility of the crankshaft and the distance between adjacent main position, and as it approaches the top position again. The turning gear is
bearings. In large slow-speed engines the deflection would be of the order of stopped just before the connecting-rod touches the dial gauge. This is repeated
0.05 mm whereas in medium-speed engines it would be about 0.01 mm, or so at each cylinder unit.
small that it would be difficult to measure. In older, opposed piston engines The readings are recorded so that they cover the alignment of the crankshaft
having three cranks to a cylinder unit and main bearings with spherically shaped in the vertical plane, and in the horizontal plane. The readings taken when the
housings the deflection could be as high as 0.4 mm. These deflections might be dial gauge is in the bottom and top positions cover the crankshaft alignment in
referred to as the natural deflection of the crankshaft, which comes about from the vertical plane and those taken in the starboard and port positions cover the
the load of the running gear and the weight of the crankshaft itself. alignment in the horizontal plane.
The table for recording the readings is made up as shown. Some examples of
how the figures are treated are also given, and it must be remembered that in
14.13 What i s the purpose of taking deflections? How and where may dealing with the deflection figures taken when the crankwebs are horizontal the
errors arise which could lead to misleading results? sign of the lower line of figures is changed and the figures are added
I t has been seen in earlier questions that when uneven wear takes place along a algebraically. %

line of main bearings, the effect is to cause changes in the deflections measured The figures taken in the engine room are recorded in tabular form with six
between the crankwebs. Any change in deflection from the natursl deflection horizontal lines and a vertical column for each cylinder unit, as shown in the
can then be related to misalignment in the main bearings, as the change of table.
deflection is proportional to the differences in height of the main bearings.
Deflection measurements are taken to ascertain quickly whether 'the alignment Engine room record sheet. Example: six cylinder engine
(Deflections in mm)
of a crankshaft is within acceptable limits or whether re-alignment is necessary.
Errors may arise in engines with rigid crankshafts and relatively light running Gaugeposition Cyl. No. 6 Cyl. No. 5 Cyl. No. 4 Cyl. No.3 Cyl.No.2 Cyl. No. 1
gear. In such engines it is possible for the crankshaft to support the weight of
the running gear without --beirrg-properly seated in its main bearings. The TOP 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
deflection readings recorded could then appear to be satisfactory, but, when Starboard - 0.01 0.00 +0.02 - 0.01 + 0.02 +0.03
such an engine is in operation, the gas pressure in the cylinder causes the journal Bottom +0.01 +0.04 +0.04 -0.02 +0.03 + 0.06
1 0 XYII i l l the low or 'bridgcJ1 bcaririg. W-w llexitigof the crankshaft which then
Port +0.02 +0.04 +0.02 0.01 +0.01 +0.04
TOP 0.00 +0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
tnkc.; plncc cnuscs high strrsscs to hc set up which will lend to early failurc. The
368 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
-Note Once a position of the cranks is found lor tllc initial setting of the dial,
The table drawn up is for a direct-coupled main engine with a right-handed each crank can be set to its correct position to con1incnc.c re;dings by using thc
propeller. Ships with controllable-pitch propellers usually run with left-hand degree markings on the flywheel.
turning. The first vertical column would then have the port and starboard gauge
positions reversed to that given above. The turning direction for taking clock Time can be saved in taking deflection reading, by \tartGg the readmgs on
gaugings should be the ahead direction for main engines, and direction of the crank nearest to the bottom centre position and after completion going to
rotation for diesel generators. The units of the measurements must be stated on the next crank nearest the bottom centre position. I t IS not necessary to deal
the record sheet. with each crank in its numerical order in the engine.
The analysis of the figures taken is drawn up as shown in the table for vertical It will be noticed that the vertical columns in the tables have No. 1 cylinder
plane alignment. If the variations in the port and starboard gauge readings unit placed on the right-hand side. This is for convenience as in many cases the
show a tendency to misalignment in the horizontal plane or some plane near to 'front' of the engine is on the starboard side, and this will be the side on which
the horizontal plane, the second table is drawn up. the crankcase is entered. Some engine builders number the cylinder and main
bearing numbers from aft to forward in the same way that the shipbuilder
numbers the ship's frames. In such cases No. 1 cylinder would be marked-up on
Vertical plane alignment (mm) the left-hand side column.
Gauge position Cyl. No. 6 Cyl. No. 5 Cyl. No. 4 Cyl. NO. 3 Cyl. No. 2 Cyl. No.1
14.15 When taking crankshaft deflection readings on large engines
having a worm- o r gear-operated tGrning gear, certain precautions must
Bottom A +0.01 +0.04 +0.04 -0.02 +0.03 +0.06 b e taken when taking t h e deflection readings on the cranks nearest to the
Top B 0.00 +0.005 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 turning gear. What a r e these precautions and why a r e they necessory?
Difference A - B + 0.01 + 0.035 + 0.04 - 0.02 + 0.03 + 0.06
If the main engine turning gear is fitted on the port side and the engine turn;
right-handed when running ahead there will be a tendency to lift the turning
wheel o r flywheel when the engine is moved by the turning gear. A similar
Horizontal plane alignment (mm) action takes place with a left-hand turning main engine when the turning gear is
- - -

Gauge position cyl. No. 6 Cyl. No. 5 Cyl. No. 4 Cyl. No. 3 Cyl. No. 2 Cyl. No. 1 fitted o n the starboard side of the engine. In such cases the lifting action exerted
- - - - -- ---.. .- .
- -by the worm o r pinion when turning the flywheel may cause the journal nearest
the flywheel t o lift off the bottom of its bearing. This will then be reflected in the
Starboard C - 0.01 0.00 +0.02 -0.01 +0.02 +0.03 reading given by the micrometer dial gauge, and may influence the two after-
Port D +0.02. +0,04 +0.02 -0.01 +0.01 +O.W most cranks o n the engine. In order to avoid false readings on these cranks it is
Difference C - D - 0.03 - 0.04 0.00 0.00 +0.01 -0.01
good practice t o take the load off the worm or pinion by running the gear back
by hand at the motor coupling+ the s a m e z a n n e r as is done when the turning
gear is t o be taken out o f engagement with the flywheel.
Maximum vertical plane deflection + 0.06 mm In geared propulsion systems and twin-screw ships the turning direction of
recorded the engines when running ahead a n d the location of engine turning gear would
Maximum vertical plane deflection (As stated in engine instruction have t o be examined individually to ensure that lifting did not occur when
allowed book) operating the turning gear t o take deflection readings. (There is more
Maximum horizontal plane deflection - 0.04 mm information on this in Questions 12.29 and 12.30.)
recorded Note The. importance of a n error in a false reading increases as the true
Maximum horizontal plane deflection (As stated in engine instruction
deflection approaches a limiting value. It may also be of great importance in
allowed book) medium-speed engines where allowable deflections are a lot less than in slow-
Alignment: satisfactory/unsatisfactory (Delete as appropriate) speed engines.

In order to check whether the alignment is acceptable, the maximum 14.16 In a diesel generator with o n e pedestal beoring what is the effect
allowable deflection figures are obtained from the engine instruction book. The on t h e crankweb deflection (in t h e unit nearest to the generator) when
values recorded in the vertical and horizontal plane of the table are checked and t h e pedestal bearing is low?
compared with the maximum allowable figure. In many engines the allowable If thecamshaft drive is between the crank and the flvwheel there are two journal
deflection in the horizontal plane is the same as that allowed in the vertical bearings between the crank and the flywheel. When rhc camshaft drive is at the
pl:~nc. whilc in othcrs thc nllownriccs arc different.
370 Ouestions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Engine and Shafting Alinnment 371)

14.17 Which i s stiffer, the hull structure or the engine structure including
cronkshaft crankshaft and intermediate shafting when considered relative to their
Iocot~on
resistance to bending?
The ship's hull can be likened to a beam. For the purposes of this question it ca
-
a
be considered as uniformly supported in calm weather and still wat
conditions. When the weather is bad the hull will be subjected to large upwar*
b
acting forces from the buoyancy given by the crests of waves. As the waves
flywheel move along the length of the ship these upward-acting forces move along wit)
them.
The stiffness of a beam is related to its moment of inertia or I value. If t h p
ship's hull is likened to a hollow rectangular girder, it is readily seen that t h a
stiffness of the hull will be much greater than the stiffness of the engine
crankcase, crankskft-and intermediate shafting.
When the ship's hull is subjected to forces from heavy weather, abnorm
3-f
loading and the like, it will deflect and small changes in the shape of the hull wil
occur. 4s the engine crankcase, crankshaft and intermediate shafting is les
stiff, i.e. more flexible than the hull, it follows that the engine and shafting wil
Fig. 14.4 Effect of overhung weight on the crankshaft of a diesel generator also deflect and will follow the changes in shape of the hull which supports it,
set.
0
14.18 If the shape of the hull changes and the main engine crankshaft
follows the shape of the hull, will the changed shape or line of the
other end of the engine (opposite end t o flywheel and generator) there may be
crankshaft be indicated when taking deflec<ions with o micrometer dial
only one journal or main bearing between the crank, flywheel and generator.
gauge?
I)
- -
The effect of a low pedestal bearing will be similar in each case, but it may be
less apparent when taking deflection readings if there are two journal bearings A line passing through the centres of the main bearings will follow the change@
between the crank and the flywheel. On the crank nearest the generator, starting in hull deflection as bending occurs and the line of the crankshaft will change ix@
with the cran kpin near bottom centre and the gauge in the uppermost position an identical manner. The changes that will occur in the shaft alignment will be
and set to zero, the crankwebs will begin to close inward and show a negative shown when crankweb deflections are taken with the dial gauge. It is t h u a
reading. This will be continued until the crankpin is on top centre and the gauge
is in its lowest position when it will show the greatest negative value.
possible to make a quick crankshaft alignment check if the cargo distributio
within the hull follows an unusual pattern or if the ship should go aground. w
In engines with two bearings between the crank and the flywheel, the weight
of the armature or rotor and the flywheel causes the bearing nearest the
a
flywheel to become a fulcrum point and the journal nearest the crank may lift
H 14.19 What do you understand by the term 'true line' of o crankshaft and
intermediate shafting?- a
off its bearing. With relatively lightweight running gear, as found on engines
operating at 720 or 750 rev/min and above, it is possible to lift the two journals - a
If some 'dead' straight line is taken and the vertical distances of the axial ceytre-
on either side of the crank off their bearings. In this case acceptable deflection line of each crankshaft and intermediate bearing is measured, it would b e
readings may be given whereas a dangerous condition of misalignment could possible to plot these distances in graphical form and obtain the true line of the
exist due to the bridged bearings. (Fig. 14.4) crankshaft and shafting in the vertical plane. In a similar manner it is possible t a
The manner in which the crankshaft deflects is shown in Fig. 14.4. The measure the distance of the axial centre-line of each main bearing in
fulcrum points where the crank journals are supported are indicated in the line horizontal direction from an imaginary straight line at the side of the engine.;Y
sketch. The amount of deflection shown is greatly exaggerated to show readily The true line of the crankshaft in a horizontal plane can then be obtained. 0
how dangerously false deflection readings could be obtained when taking the The true line of a crankshaft is plotted in graphical form. The X or horizonta
deflection readings of a diesel generator crankshaft. axis shows the foreand aft location of each bearing, to some suitable scale whic
will be dependent on the length of shafting being checked, and the length of th
k
Notc
to
W h c l ~thc engins is in operation the cylinder pressure causes the journals
\cat thernwlvc\ c>n the main hearings, but a low bearing if undetected could
b
sheet used for plotting the true shaft line. The axial centre-lines of the first an
last main bearing in the engine are made datum points having zero height a n 8
1c.d to ~ . r l l \ I . I I I ~ \ ~ I . I I Il . 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~
 - -
measurement on 'feel' as is normally done with micrometers. A length of piano
wire, ball bearing pulley, anchoring or support clamp, and weight are the other
items of equipment required to make a check by the taut-wire method.
The other method uses optical'means for establishment of the true line of the
crankshaft and intermediate shafting. The equipment required is a special
telescope, intermediate targets, and a base target. The special telescope has built
into it the capability of measuring small vertical and horizontal distances from
which the true line of the shafting is established. This capability is obtained by a
combination of mechanical and optical means. The method by which the
heights of the bearings are calculated is similar; it is only the methods of
measurement which are different.
Fig. 14.5 Sketch sho,wing the true line of a crankshait and intermediate
shafting obtained by using a stretched piano wire or a micrometer telescope. 14.21 The diameters of crankshaft and intermediate shaft bearings a r e
different, and in old engines there may also b e differences in the
crankshaft iournals. How is the axial centre-line of the various bearings
found when taking measurements to establish the true shafting line?
the X axis of the graph passes through these two datum points. T o obtain the Irrespective of whether taut-wire or optical methods are used, all measurements
true shaft line in the vertical plane the height of each of the other bearings above are taken from the very top of each journal. The axial centre-line of the bearing
or below this datum is then plotted as an ordinate at its correct fore and aft will then be one half of the diameter o f the journal below its top. Addition of
location on the X axis line. ,As these heights are only small measurements the semi-diameter of a journal to any measurement taken from its top will give a
amounting to a few hundredths of a millimetre, the scale adopted makes the result which is related t o the axial centre-line of the bearing. By using the semi-
actual heights shown on the graph 25 or more times larger. A height of 0.02 of a diameter of each journal in this way differences in bearing or journal diameter
millimetre would then be drawn on the graph as a half millimetre or more are cancelled out as we are then relating measurements taken from the top of a
depending on the scale chosen. When the true shaft line is drawn in this manner, journal to its axial centre-line. It is therefore usual when checking the alignment
with the fore and aft distances scaled down and the vertical distances scaled up, of a shaft t o measure accurately each journal diameter.
the true line of the shafting is readily seen and understood. The line of the
crankshaft in the horizontal plane is also plotted in a similar manner.
Normally the true line of the shafting should follow a smooth curve, and 14.22 How is the mathematically straight line obtained from which the
interferences to the smooth curve from high or low bearings are readily seen height of t h e s x i a l centre-lines of the bearings a r e measured when
when the curve is plotted with the scales as described. (Fig. 14.5) establishing a true shaft line?
Note The straight line referred to as a 'dead' straight line is one which is In any method used for establishing the true line of a system of shafting, it is
mathematically straight and the shortest distance between two points. necessary to have a real or imaginary straight line to which the height of the
axial centre-line of each bearing is related.
The term 'true alignment' of shafting is often used instead of the term 'true In the optical method of obtaining height measurements the straight line is
line'. the line of sight observed through the micrometer telescope on to some base
target. Displacements in the heights of the tops of journals are related to this
14.20 Name the items of equipment used to establish t h e true line of a line of sight, and when the semi-diameters of the journals are added to the
crankshaft and intermediate shafting. displacement found it is related to the axial centre-line of the bearing.
When a taut wire is used to obtain the relative heights of the bearings, the wire
There are two methods. One method uses a taut piano wire, and an internal is set u p vertically above the top of the journals. It is passed right through the-
micrometer of suitable length. The head of the micrometer is fitted with an crankcase from forward t o aft; one end is fixed and the other 'passes over a
insulated contact arrangement.. A low voltage is applied to the crankshaft and pulley and is tensioned with a heavy weight. The wire naturally sags to some
taut wire, so that the micrometer operates as a switch. When the measuring curvature. Two points at the ends of the wire vertically above the bearings at the
head of the micrometer contacts the taut wire it allows current to flow which extreme ends of the shafting are taken, and the straight line is considered to be
can be used to light a small lamp, or t o give an audible noise in a pair of ear between these two points. It is an imaginary straight line because the taut wire
phones. This equipment is essential for obtaining accurate and repeatable will be sagging below it. The measurements taken from the tops of the journals
measurements. The weight of the wire and its flexibility prevents the taking of a are related to this imaginary straight line.
374 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Engine and Shafting Alignment 375 .

14.23 What form doesthe curvature of a taut wire take?

Any flexible wire or chain having uniform weight over its length takes up
curvature when its ends are supported. The curve formed is a catenary which Let L - 2x = L,. Therefore
has certain mathematical properties. When the sag at the centre of the curve is
less than one-tenth of the distance between the supports the curvature
approximates to a parabola which also has certain mathematical properties.
These properties are related to conic sections, and with a knowledge of the
tensile load in the taut wire and the mathematical formula related to the In order to make the necessary calculations the maximum sag is obtained from
parabola, it is possible to calculate the maximum sag mid spzn and the sag at (Eq. I), and used in (Eq.2). The distance values used for the various values of x
various points over the span: can be obtained from the crankshaft and shafting drawings.
In making the calculations the work can be facilitated by setting out the
Note The mathematics required to formulate the relationship of these curves values in columnar form. A column would be assigned for each main and
is covered in mathematics books under sections dealing with the geometry of intermediate shaft bearing under consideration.
conic sections, series and hyperbolic functions. The maximum sag occurs at the centre of the span if the pulley and support
are horizontal. If one of the supports is slightly lower than the other the
14.24 Show how the maximum sag in a taut wire can be found by maximum sag will be a small amount off-centre and towards the low side.
calculation. After finding the maximum sag show how the amount of sag
can be found at any point between the supports. Assume that the wire is
fastened at one end, the other end being, passed over a pulley mounted 14.25 Using the formulae in Question 14.24, calculate the sag of a taut
on a ball bearing and supporting a weight which keeps the wire taut. wire at each main bearing in an engine 12 000 mm long. The spacing of
the cylinder centres is 1150mm. The engine has six cylinders and the main
It can be proved that the relationship between the sag in the wire (S), the weight
betarings are equidistant from one another. The piano wire used is
of a unit length of wire ( w ) , the distance between the supports (L) and the weight 18 s.w.g. and the weight supported by the wire and keeping it taut is
(W)suspended on the free end of the wire is given by the formula
20 kg.
The first thing that must be fixed is L, the distance between the extreme
measuring points. In the case shown, this distance is the distance between the
Since first and fast main bearings and would normally be read off the print of the
crankshaft drawing. Assume that the camshaft drive is taken from a point
midlength on the crankshaft; this then requires seven spaces between adjacent
where A is the sectional area of the wire and p the density of the wire, the main bearings-six for the cylinders and one for the camshaft drive. The
formula can be written number of main bearings will equal the number of spaces plus one which gives 8
main bearings in all.
Note Many slow-speed engines have another journal bearing just aft of the
. - - -- thrust block which is built up within the main engine bedplate structure. This is
As W / A = stress in wire named the thrust journal bearing and is not included.
- The distance, L, =seven spaces x distance between main bearings, i.e.
L - 7 x 1150=8050mm
where f = initial stress. Substituting The density, p, of the wire is 7849.86 kg/m3. (Note this unit must be divided by
1000' to give an answer in mm.) From tables the sectional area, A , of the wire is
0 . 7 8 5 4 ~1.219= 1.1671 mm2
-- - Therefore stress is given by
-

The units chosen m-usi cancel to leave a linear measurement.

i t can also be shown that the sag in the wire at a distancex from a support is
~ i v c wby the forrn~rlnbelow. where S,,, is the maximum sag.
376 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
Sag in line above no. 4 bearing is thereforc
and sag (max) by
Sx=3.71 ~ 0 . 9 7 9 6 ~ 3 . 6mm
3
As the bearings are equidistant to one another:
Sag at no. I main bearing = 0 the sag in the wire above no. 8 bearing will be 0
the sag in the wire above no. 7 bearing will be similar to no. 2
Sag at no. 2 main bearing the sag in the wire above no. 6 bearing will be similar to no. 3
the sag in the wire above no. 5 bearing will be similar t o no. 4.
-
The sag in the wire at the point where a measurement is'taken between the wire
Given that and the top of the journal is then set out in tabular form.
L , = L - 2 ~ = 8 0 5 0 - 2 ~1150=5750
Main bearing no. 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I
it follows that n Saginwire(mm) 0 1.82 3.03 3.63 3.63 3.03 1.82 0

and W 14.26 How are measurements taken and utilized to establish t l y true
line of a crankshaft when a taut wire is used?
The taut wire must be passed right through the crankcase of the engine
vertically above the centre-line of all the main bearings. Holes covered with
Sag in wire above no. 2 bearing is therefore blank flanges or screwed plugs are often provided in the ends of the crankcase
for this purpose or for using a micrometer telescope. After the flanges or plugs
Sx=3.71 xO.4898= l.82mm have been removed a light is placed adjacent to one hole, and a sight is taken
from the other hole while the engine is being turned with the turning gear. The
Sag at no. 3 main bearing engine is turned until the light is seen; at this point all the connecting-rods are
In this case clear and an uninterrupted path is made for the wire to be passed through
without making contact with any of the connecting-rods or other parts of the
~=2xU50=2300andL,=8050-2_x2300=3450 running gear (see Note). The oil supply pipes to the main bearings are removed
xt follows that . - - to enable the micrometer to be passed down on to the crankshaft journals. The
.- - - ---
wire is then passed through the crankcase and supported at one end and passed
' = 1- 0.1837 = 0.8163 over the pulley at the other. The weight is suspended on the wire to keep it taut.
The micrometer measurements are then taken between the top of the
Sag in wire above no. 3 bearing is therefore crankshaft journals and the taut wire. The measurements are set down in
tabular form with a verticaCcolumn asSTgned to each main bearing. There are
Sx=3.71 x0.8163=3.03 mrn horizontal columns for micrometer measurement, calculated wire sag, and
journal semidiameters; the readings are recorded in the appropriate 'boxes'.
Sag at no. 4 main bearing Various corrections are applied tojgalhetrue shaft line relative to the first and
In this case last main bearings as the datum line. The corrections are drawn up in further
horizontal columns.
x = 3 x 1150=3450and L,=8050-2~3450= 1150 After the corrections have been applied the true shaft line is plotted on
It follows that suitably-sized graph paper.

[I- I')$( -1- (=)'=I-0.02M=0.9796

Note Engines with seven or more cylinders do not usually have a satisfactory
angular position of the crankshaft that will leave a clear path for the wire to be
378 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine 1 Engine.and Shafting Alignment 379 '
I 1
put through the crankcase. In such cases the connecting-rod or rods must be
dismantled from the bottom-end bearing and swung clear. In some cases an oil
hole in the journal will be in line with the oil hole in the bearing keep so
measurements cannot be taken. The keep must be removed and the micrometer
I . obtain a satisfactory shaft line. The amount to be machined out is read off the
plotted shaft line. In other cases it may be necessary to re-metal some bearings 1
and machine others t o get the required line.
When bearings have t o be re-metalled the amount of lift required is also
measurement between the top of the journal and the wire is taken just forward
or aft of the oil hole.
I obtained from the plotted line, and at the time the bearing is removed from the
engine its lower-half crown thickness is measured. The amount that the shaft
must be lifted is added t o this measurement and this gives the new lower-half 4
crown thickness to which the bearing must be machined.
14.27 State the methods used to ascertain the amount of weight that can 1 1
!
be put on the free end of =wire to hold it taut for obtaining a true shaft
line.
( W 14.30 A set of micrometer mqsurement readings taken between a taut
wire and the top surface of the main engine crankshaft journals are given (
in the following table. All the iournals are 550 mm diameter with the
The amount of weight used must be such that the sag in the wire is minimal and exception of nos 2 and 5 which were ground in sltu. These journals are
less than one-tenth of t k s p a n betwxn the supports. In practice it is aimed t6
\ 4 mm less in diameter. Assume that the wire and weight used is as given
keep the wire as near to a straight line as possible. This limits the number of 1
in Question 14.25 and use the sag values calculated in the question. Show
changes that have to be made with the extension pieces on the micrometer. The I how the true line of the crankshaft is obtained. 4
limit to the allowable weight which can be put on the wire is obJiously related to
the ultimate tensile strength of the wire and the safety factor used. Generally the The main shafting line is parallel to the keel, the ship is 185 m long and is I
ultimate tensile strength of steel piano wire increases with increase in&es.w.g. trimming 0.50 m by-e stern. -- -
number, or as the diameter of the wire gets smaller. For example and for I 4
guidance purposes, the ultimate tensile strength of 19 s.w.g. steel piano wire I Bearing 8 7 6 5 4- 3 2 1
will be of the order of 2060N/mm2 (210kg/mm2, 133 tons/in2) and s i r e of I
38 s.w.g. size may have a ultimate tensile strength of twice the previous figure.
I Micro-
meter 621.87 617.37 613.26 611.18 605.17 603.50 603.70 600.10 (
The safety factor used should be such that it gives a stress in the wire of not I reading
more than one-third of its ultimate tensile strength. I
. I

14.28 What effect does the-rrim of the ship have on a taut wire when it is
set up in an engine?
I
Although the possible errors are small when the support points or extreme I
measuring points on the wire are not truly horizontal, it is incumbent on the
engineer to reduce errors to a minimum if the cost is not too great. In the case
,
considered the time taken to reduce error is worthwhile, as only a small calcula- 4
It was shown earlier that the support points for a taut wire must be horizontal ! tion is involved.
for the maximum sag to occur at the centre of the span. If one end support is As the ship is trimming by the stern the line of the shaft will be low at the aft i
I
higher than the other the point of maximum sag is displaced slightly from the end. Some correction is possible by raising the aft end of the wire at the support ,
mid-span position towards the low end. If the support points are at the same
height above the shafting at each end, it can be seen that the ship's trim will
i
I
I
pulley. The amount it should be lifted is found as follows.
cause the position of the maximum sag to be displaced. Generally if the amount The ratio of ship length to crankshaft length between no. 1 and no. 8 bearings is
of trim is small the effect can be neglected as no appreciable error will arise. In 185:7 x 1.150, or 185:8.050= 184:8 I
many cases the effect of trim can be cancelled out by adjustments to the height
of the wire (see Question 14.30). I The ship is trimming 0.5 m by the stern so
ship length -crankshaft length
14.29'^Whyore true shafting lines established in engines which have
trim by stern Y
been in service for some time?
Generally the wear which takes place on main bearings is such that at some time
in the ship's life corrective action must be taken with main engine shaft align-
I where y should be the difference in micrometer measurements between no. 1
and no. 8 main bearing. Then

Y=
crankshaft length x trim
I

riicnt . A true shafting line is established, and the line plotted shows high and low ship length
bearings as peaks and dips in the shaft line. The allowable curvature of the
8x0s 4
crankshaft is plotted on this line from which it is readily seen which bearings
~lcctiattention. In somc cases i t is possible to machine out the high bearings to
-- - = - =0.022m or 22mm
185 185
380 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

The pulley supporting the wire should be raised so that the micrometer measure-
ment at no. 8 main bearing is approximately 22 mm more than the measurement
at no. 1 main bearing. In this case no. 1 main bearing is at the forward end of
the engine and nos 1 and 8 journals are similar in diameter. This is seen in the
measurements given where the pulley height was adjusted and gave a difference
of 21.77 mm.
A table is first drawn up with 10 vertical columns and 10 horizontal spaces.
The top line is marked up with the bearing numbers 1 to 8. The micrometer
reading, wire sag, and journal semi-diameters are recorded in the horizontal
spaces under the bearing number to which they apply and each horizontal line is
marked A, B and C respectively. The summation of these amounts is then
recorded in the fifth line, reference letter D. A + B + C = D. The figures in line D
are the amounts that the axial centre of each main bearing is below the straight
line passing through the wire at the measuring points of no. 1 and no. 8 main
bearings. It is seen by inspection of the table that the forward end of the straight
line passes through a point 875.10mm above no. 1 main bearing, and the aft
end of the line passes through a point 896.87 rnm above no. 8 main bearing. If
875.10 mm is subtracted from the measurements in line D, the effect is to lower
the straight line by the amount subtracted; the forward end of the line then
passes through the centre of no. 1 main bearing.
If we take a straight line, which is the datum, through no. 1 and no. 8 main
bearing, and the straight line passing through no. 1 and the point 21.77 mm
above no. 8 main bearing, it is seen that a triangle is formed. Similar triangles
are also formed between the vertical passing through each main bearing. The
vertical height of the perpendicular of each of these triangles is calculated and
recorded in line G.
The base of the largest triangle is 7 x llZOmm, and as each bearing is
equidistant, the base can be considered as 7units. The perpendicular of the
triangle at bearing no. 7 is

Similarly at bearing no. 6 the perpendicular is

At bearing no. 5 the perpendicular is

The perpendicular for each of the triangles is calculated in a similar way and
entered in line G.
If the distance shown in line F is greater than the calculated value of the
corresponding perpendicular given in line G it follows that the axial centre-line
of the bearing is below datum. If the distance is less, the axial centre-line of the
bearing is above datum. The values given in line G are subtracted from the
values given in line F.
382 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Engine and Shafting Alignment 3 8
a
When the axial centre-line of the bearing is below datum, the amount is
marked with a negative sign, when it is above datum with a positive sign.
Figure 14.6 shows how the various measurements given in the table are
14.31 When an engine is being erected in a new ship or parts are being
assembled after a maior repair, which method is used to carry out
crankshaft alignment?
*e
applied to obtain the position of the centre axis of the bearing above or below When new engines are erected on the test bed in the engine works, the lower h*
the datum line. of the crankcase is set up on blocks on the foundation of the test bed. The height
of these blocks is adjusted so that the machined surface on the top of the low@
half of the crankcase is dead flat. The micrometer telescope is set up at so
Main bearmgs point outside the crankcase, or on one comer, and radial sweeps are made,wit
the telescope on to fixad-height targets. The blocks are adjusted to brifig th@
"b
N ?' '
bedplate flat which will be shown when the micrometer is sighted on the fixed-
height targets. The amount that the targets are up or down indicates the amour#
the blocks must be lifted or lowered. The line of the crankshaft is corrected w i t b
the micrometer telescope in a similar manner.
When the engine is erected in the ship the crankshaft flange is adjusted to i e
correct position relative to the intermediate shaft flange and the bedplate i
brought to the same line that it had on the test bed. The micrometer telescope 1
then used in a similar manner during erection of the engine in the ship.
b
When a crankshaft is being re-aligned after major repair work such as a
grinding crankshaft journals and re-metalling main bearings, taut-wire 4
optical alignment methods can be used.
0
14.32 What is the maximum amount that a bearing can be raised or
lowered when aligning intermediate shafting? How would you find the
amount of support being given by a bearing?
The maximum theoretical amount that an intermediate shaft bearing can b b
lifted will be such that the support given by the adjacent bearings is reduced t m
zero. In actual practice a bearing lifted this amount would run hot in service, so
the limiting value is related to the amount of w~ightthe bearing can car*
without becoming overheated. In a similar manner the amount that a bearin
could be lowered would be such that the s u ~ ~ oitrgave t to the shaft would b
zero. Again, in practice, it is mist likely t h a ~ ~ d j a ~ e n ~ b e would
a r i n ~run
b
s hot i~
Fig. 14.6 Sketch showing the method of obtaining a crankshaft line when service.
using a stretched piano wire passed through the engine. In order to find the weight that an intermediate shaft bearing is carrying, it i a
necessary to set up a hydraulic jack under the shaft on the bearing pedestal or
from the tank top. A micrometer dial gauge is set up to bear on the top of t h e
shaft journal and indicate any lift that occurs in the shaft. The area of the ram i .
the jack will be known. The jack is then gradually loaded with the hydraulic
pump, keeping a watch on the pressure gauge. At some point during the g r a d u a
loading of the jack the dial micrometer gauge will move indicating that the shaf
has started to lift. The pressure at which the shaft lifts must be noted. Th
pressure is applied continuously and the shaft is lifted a small amount. T h e
b
amount of lift and the corresponding pressure to obtain this is noted as the shaft
is lifted. 'The shaft is then gradually lowered, and the pressure and micrometel)
dial gauge readings are noted as the shaft is allowed to come down.
The various pressures are multiplied by the area of the ram to derive a serie@
of values of the upward force exerted by the jack. a
384
- Q u ~ s f i o nand
s Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine I Engine and Shafting Alignment 385

t Beoring supports

Fig. 14.8 Sketch showing how an-hermediate shaft hogs or sags due to the
location of the shaft bearings.

bearing 1
! coupling flanges would then no longer be parallel lines; they would be oblique
to one another and opening upwards.
Now imagine the bearings are slid away from one another towards the
Fig. 14.7 (a) Sketch showingthe set-up for finding the load acting on an
intermediate shaft bearing.
(b) Method of plotting values obtained when jacking up the shaft.
I ---
,
coupling flanges; the weight of the shaft will cause its centre portion to deflect
downwards, and the projected lines will again be non-parallel -and closing
upwards.
Note. The produc! of the pump pressure and ram area gives the force required t o In the first c&e the polar axis of the shaft is curved convex upwards; in the
I
second case the curvature is reversed and is concave upwards. (Fig. 14.8)

14.34 When adjacent couplings o f t w o sections of intermediate shafting

Axes are then drawn with the abscissa scaled to suit the upward forces exerted are correctly lined u p so thai their face2 are parallel and their circum-
I
I ferences level, what height w i l l the bearings supporting the shaft be
by the jack. The ordinates are scaled to give a good slope when the lift recorded I relative to one another?
by the dial gauge is plotted.
A graph is then drawn of upward force plotted against the shaft lift. The With normal .distances between the Bearings supporting the two sections of
graph when completed will give the force at which the shaft started to lift and shafting, the mid-lengths of the shafts will sag or deflect downwards as shown
will be a straight line for the various points of force and lift. A similar line is in Question 14.33. If the height of the bearings is the same right through it
plotted for the shaft lowering period. The two lines will be parallel to each other
with the lowering line nearer to they axis. A line is drawn centrally between the
plotted line indicating 'raising' and 'lowering'. The intersection of this line
through thex or force axis gives the weight that the intermediate shaft bearing is
carrying.
This method of checking the load that a shaft bearing is carrying is sometimes
used for aligning intermediate shafting. When bearings give trouble
overheating and the problem is not associated with faulty lubrication or cooling
services, this method of checking bearing load is useful for correcting alignment
without breaking shaft couplings or taking sights of shafting lines. (Fig. 14.7) flonge face
porollel
outer beormgs
14.33 If a single section of intermediate shaft is supported o n two fitted htgher
bearings, what angles do the coupling faces take?
Fig. 14.9 Sketch showing the height of normally spaced bearings when
The angle that the coupling faces make relative to one another will be dependent I coupling shaft flanges are brought into line. Note. Care must be taken to ensure
on the distance between the bearings which support the shaft. I that the flanges are of the same diameter when using a straight-edge in the
If the bearings are close together near the mid-length of the shaft, the ends of 1 manner shown. If the flanges are of different diameters a correction must be
the shaft will sag or deflect downwards. Vertical projections off the faces of the made.
386 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

follows that the couding flange faces will be open at the top. By raising the
height of the outer bearings the coupling face flanges will be brought parallel.
In practice the true line of shafting follows a curve in this manner. (Fig. 14.9)
Note When using a straight edge in the manner shown to align shaft flanges
care must be taken to ascertain that each flange is of the same diameter. If the
flanges are of different diameters a correction of half of the difference must be
applied to the flange with the smaller diameter. A feeler gauge set to half the
difference is used to make the correction.

14.35 If a ship goes aground, what effect is it likely to have on

crankshaft alignment? What precautions must be taken after the vessel is
afloat prior to operating main engines?
If a ship goes aground it is always possible that the bottom of the ship will be
damaged; also the hull may be strained if part of the ship is in clear water and
tidal changes occur before the ship is re-floated. In such cases it is quite likely
that the crankshaft alignment will have suffered, and it is therefore necessary to
make a check on alignment before the engine is operated for any length of time.
. .- ..-- - permit, some check should be made into the
Provided weather conditions
bearing operation within the engine to see that no bearings are overheating.
This check should naturally be carried out as soon as practicable after the
engine is operating.
No particular set of-rules can El-drawn up but prudence must be exercised
until it is established that the engine is safe to operate for lengthy periods; at the
same time it must be remembered that it is useless to save the engine if the safety
of the ship is at stake.
---
14.36 How is the alignment of a cylinder relative to the crosshead guides
and crankshaft sstablished? Which parts of the running gear must be
removed to carry out this check?
The cylinder cover must first be removed, followed by the piston, leaving the
I Stretching screw

crosshead clear. The crosshead is hung in the guides. The crosshead bearing
keeps are also removed and the connecting-rod is swung clear of the crosshead,
and the crank is set to the position of half stroke, approximately.
Piano wire is passedttiiough the cylinder bore, down through the hole in the
crosshead which takes the piston-rod fastening, then through to the bottom of
< Adjustment

the crankcase. The top end of the wire is fastened to a bar supported on wood
blocks clear of the top of the cylinder bore. The lower end of the wire is attached Fig. 14.10 Sketch showing a method of checking cylinder and crosshead guide 0
to a stretching screw. The stretching screw is in turn fastened to a bar passed 'alignment with a wire centred in the cylinder liner. When alignment is correct t d
under the drain holes between the crank pits. The wire is centred at the top wire is central in the piston rod stud hole in the crosshead.
relative to an unworn part of the bore. The wire is then centred in the lower part 0
of the cylinder liner by adjustments to the position of the bar passed under the relative to the sides of the hole is then measured in the fore and aft a*
drain holes between the crank pits. After the adjustments are made the wire is thwartships positions. The crosshead is then placed at mid and bottom strok
tensioned further and its position rechecked.
The crosshcad is raised to the upper position by chain blocks and then lightly
and the position of the wire checked in a similar manner. The position o f t
wire between the crankwebs in the fore and aft plane is also measured an
d
jacked or wedged over on to the ahead guide faces. The position of the wire recorded. (Fig. 14.10) @
,; a
388 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine I . E n ~ i n cond Shofting ~lignrnent 389

Note The instructions given in the engine instruction book must always be This clearance, together with the similar journal clearances, permits
followed when checking alignment. considerable movement of the crankshaft in the fore and aft direction without
the sides of the bottom-end bearings contacting the crankshaft.
If the clearance were insufficient and the crankshaft moved forward, because
14.37 Why are the clearances between the outsides of the crankwebs of a worn thrust bearing for example, the side pressure on the bottom-end
and the sides of the adjacent main bearings comparatively large? Are bearings would change the loading pattern on crankpin and crosshead bearings.
they the some throughout the engine?
-.
- $.,
.b,
I.

The relatively large clearances between the sides of main bearings and
crankwebs must in the first place be sufficient to accommodate the float in the
crankshaft which comes about when going from ahead to astern, and also to
accommodate the change in the length of the crankshaft relative to the length of
the bedplate during engine operation.
Further, during manufacture of fully buiIt and semi-built crankshafts,
difficulties arise during the assembly and shrinkage of the various parts. In
effect this can cause differences to arise in the axial centre-line distances
between adjacent journals. The large clearances avoid difficulties that might
arise from these causes.

14.38 When an engine is started the temperature of the crankshaft and

crankcase will be approximately the same. After the engine has been
operating for some time what will be the relationship between the
temperatures of the crankshaft and the crankcase? Would you expect
differences in the temperature of each and what effect will any
differences have?
Generally the temperature of the material forming the crankcase will be
considerably lower than the temperature of the crankshaft when the running
temperatures have stabilized. The temperature of the crankshaft will
approximate to the 'splash-off' temperature of the bearing lubricating oil.
The lower half of the crankcase is rigidly fastened to the tank top. The effect
of the temperature differences between the crankshaft and crankcase, together
with the fact that the lower half of the crankcase is rigidly fastened down, is to
cause the crankshaft to be longer relative to the crankcase during periods of
engine operation.
Put in another way, the'i&rease in length of the crankshaft is greater than the
increase in length of the crankcase during the period in which the engine is
coming up to running temperatures.

14.39 In examining the overall width (axial length) of a bottom:end

bearing it is noticed that it is considerably less than the distance between
the cronkwebs. Why is it made in this way?
The axial length of bottom-end bearings is made considerably less than the
length of the crankpin to accommodate expansion of the crankshaft in coming
up to working temperature, and movement of the crankshaft in going from
ahead to astern. In medium-speed engines with solid forged crankshafts the
clearances, while relatively large, are considerably smaller than in slow-speed
-
engines with fully or semi-built crankshafts.
 Heat Exchangers, Cooling Systems, Lubricafing Systems 391
4
%Air release
4

HEAT EXCHANGERS, Air to I

COOLING SYSTEMS, ensine

LUBRICATING SYSTEMS
.-

15.1 What is a heat exchanger?

A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment in which two fluids are separately
Arrangement of / . k Air release
circulated in separate adjacent spaces so that some of the heat in the fluid at tube fins
the higher temperature is transferred into the fluid at the lower temperature.
The fluid having the higher temperature is therefore cooled and the fluid having
the lower temperature is heated. - -
Note The term heal exchanger covers fired and unfired equipment. It also
covers heat exchangers in which two fluids o r gases are circulated, and those in
which evaporation or condensation takes place. In diesel machinery installa- Steam in 4Air out
tions most of the heat exchangers are associated with circulation of two liquids,
though ancillary steam plant involves heat exchangers in which evaporation and
condensation of the steam takes place. Similarly refrigeration plant involves
heat exchangers in which condensation and evaporation of the refrigerant
occurs.

15.2 Name the types of heat exchanger used in marine diesel machinery
installations.
Heat exchangers used in marine diesel machinery installations are either of
0ii in To steam trap
the multitubular type or plate types. Generally the multitubular type heat
exchanger has been favoured in the past but the plate type is now finding
increasing usage particularly in high-powered installations. There are various Fig. 15.1 Sketches showing different types of heat exchangers.
types of multitubular heat exchanger, classified by the flow arrangements, tube
arrangements, and the like. Plate type heat exchangers consist of a number of
thin metal sheets (often made of titanium) which are sandwiched between cast A multitubular heat exchanger with fins surrounding the tubes is shown in
header plates. By arranging the cast headers the flow of the liquids is such that Fig. 15.1 (a), this type of heat exchanger is used in conjunction with a
the liquid to be cooled is passed between the one pair of sheets and the coolant turbocharger t o cool the charge air before it passes through to the engine
between an adjacent pair of plates. Figure 15.1 shows various types of heat cylinders. The coolant flow makes a double pass, the air flow makes a: single
exchangers. pass.
 ..-I. -....#."..,,.,I". ....
U U I I & U J.... r r . . . . I..... r..r......h U,...C,*.., J I J

Figure 15.1 (b) shows another type of multitubular heat exchanger often used injected into the combustion space. Fuel heaters normally use steam as the
for removing heat from main engine cooling water and lubricating oil. In this heating medium, but in some smaller ships electrical heaters are used.
case the coolant makes a double pass and the jacket water makes a multiple
pass.
Figure 15.1 (c) shows a U-tube heat exchanger commonly used for heating 15.4 Name and give the purpose for which heat exchangers are used in
fuel oil. the engine room of o motor ship excluding those used for the main
engine. Give the heating or cooling media.
Fuelservice. Heat exchangers are used for heating the fuel before it is treated in
15.3 Where and for what purposes are heat exchangers used in associa- the centrifugal purifiers prior to use in the main engine. These heat exchangers
tion with main propulsion engines? Describe the type of heat exchanger are usually termed fuel purifier heaters, and use steam as the heating medium.
used for each purpose and the coolant used. In small ships electrical heaters may be used. Heat exchangers are also used
I Jacket cooling water system. A heat exchanger of the multitubular type, or within the fuel system for boiler firing; boiler fuel41 heaters are usually steam
, plate type, is used to removeFeat from the jacket cooling water. The coolant to heated. The heating coils in fuel storage tanks, settling tanks and the like are in
which the heat from the jacket cooling water is transferred is sea-water, which is - cffect a form of heat exchanger. Steam is used in fuel tank heating coils for the
circulated tfirough the heat excliangTrby the SeaTiaE circulating pump. heating medium. Fuel purifier sludge tanks are also fitted with a heating coil to
make sludges more fluid for pumping and removal purposes.
I Piston cooling water system. A heat exchanger is used to remove heat from the
piston cooling water; it may be of the multitubular or plate type and will be Lubricating oil services. A heat exchanger or heater is used for heating
I lubricating oil prior to its bein treated inlubricating oil centrifugal purifiers.
circulated with sea water as the coolant. (When pistons are oil cooled, the oil
used is lubricating oil.) This is usually termed the =.&purifier heater. Lubricating oil tanks used for
batch treatment of the main engine lubricating oil are fitted with heating coils.
1 Lubricating oil system. The lubricating oil is cooled in a heat exchanger of the L.O. purifier heaters and heating coils
multitubular type or plate type. The coolant is sea-water. In engines with oil- - .-- in separator tanks use steam as the
heating medium.
) cooled pistons it is usual for the lubricating oil heat exchanger to serve both the

' lubricating oil and the piston cooling oil which mix together in the lubricating
oil drain tank.
) A heating coil is sometimes fitted in L.O. drain tanks.
Steam and feed watersystems. A heat exchanger referred to as the condenser is
'used to condense exhaust steam by removing its latent heat so that it is
converted to water. The cooling medium is sea-water which is circulated
through the condenser to remove the latent heat from the exhaust steam. A feed
) Scavenge air system. A heat exchanger is used to cool the scavenge air after it heater is used to heat the condensed water when it is pumped back into the
leaves the turbo-blower and before it enters the cylinders. Scavenge air heat boiler as feed water. Feed heaters take exhaust steam as the heating medium.
)exchangers are shaped to fit the air dycting which carries the scavenge air. Within the boiler firing system steam heaters are used to preheat the combus-
) Headers are fitted on both sides of the cooler, gilled or finned tubes connect the tion air before entering the burner front or register. In other cases combustion
two headers, and sea-water is circulated through the inside of the tubes. The gases from the boiler may be used in a multitubular air heater to heat the
B scavenge air passes over the outsides of the tubes and between the fins. In some combustion air.
' engine systems heat exchangers are used to heat the cooling water and the
lubricating oil up to running temperature prior to starting the engine, or to hold
)the cooling water and lubricating oil at running temperatures during stand-by
Fresh waterproduction. Heat exchangers in the form of multitubular or coiled
heaters are used to heat sea-water in evaporators or fresh water generators. The
periods. Steam is usually used as the heating medium but in some cases the heating media may be either cooling water from the main engine fresh water
)cooling water from diesel auxiliary sets may be used. cooling system, or steam. The vapour produced in the evaporator of a fresh
water generator is condensed back to fresh water in a heat exchanger called a
) Reduction gearing oil coolix. The heat generated in the reduction gearing condenser or distiller. Condensers and distillers use sea-water as the cooling
band bearings in geared diesel installations must be removed from the lubricant medium. - I
to hold it at its correct temperature. The reduction gearing lubricating oil I

Dsystem is separate from the engine lubricating oil system and therefore requires Cargo tank cleaning. In oil tankers heat exchangers are used to heat the sea-
its own heat exchanger for cooling purposes. This is often of the multitubular water used in cargo tank cleaning sprayer heads. Steam is used as the heating
type, but in more modern installations it may be of the plate type. medium. Another heat exchanger is used to preheat the sea-water before it goes
into the main heater. This heat exchanger is referred to as a drain cooler. Apart
'~uelsystem.A heat exchanger is used within the main engine fuel system to heat from pre-heating the sea-water it also cools the co~densedsteam and prevents it
mthe fuel prior to entry into themain engine fuel injection pumps. The purpose is 'flashing'-back t ~ - v a p o u rafter it passes out of the drain cooler into low-
to heat the fuel and lower its viscosity so that it will atomize correctly when pressure drain lines.
D
 and outlet branches for the fluid passing through the tubes. The internal baffles
Heat exchangers fitted on auxiliary diesel engines (see Question 15.3) are
similar to those fitted on main engines, but are naturally smaller and mounted
on the auxiliary engine. 1 fix the position of the inlet and outlet branches for the fluid passing through the
body of the heater on the outside of the tubes.
If the heat exchanger heads do not contain any division plates the fluid

.&s
- ..
.<
What is a heat balance sheet or diagram?
Heat balances are drawn up to investigate how the heat in the fuel burned is
I
I
passing through the tubes enters at one end of the heat exchanger and leaves at
the other. This arrangement is referred to as a single-pass heat exchanger. If the
heat exchanger is a double-pass type a division plate is fitted in one head. The
inlet and outlet connections for the fluid passing through the tubes are fitted on
used around the various parts of the machinery installations, and to evaluate

I
this head. The division plate prevents the fluid bypassing the tubes and causes it
the capacity requirements of the various items of machinery, heat exchangers,
and ancillary equipment, which make up the whole installation. Use of the heat to pass through half the tubes in the heat exchanger which is referred to as the
balance diagram and statements enables the designer to optimize the over- inlet bank. After the fluid passes through the inlet bank it enters the other head
all performance of the installation, and the operating engineer to make which is just a 'bobbin' piece and a cover. The direction of the fluid flow is

I
comparisons of the machinery operation with an acceptable norm. The use of reversed in this head or box and it passes back through the outlet bank of tubes
heat balance diagrams and calculations is a prerequisite in the early stages of the and leaves at the outlet branch. The fluid has passed through the tubes in two
separate paths from which it gets the name two-pass, or double-pass type. /
design of a steam turbine installation; the diagrams are also used, but to a lesser
extent, in the design of diesel machinery installations. By dividing the total number of tubes into three banks, fitting a division plate

I
The heat balance diagram in Fig. 15.2 shows a thermal efficiency of 53%, in each head, and fitting the inlet branch on one head and the outlet branch on
15% of the heat in the fuel is shown going to heat exchangers. Some of this heat the other, a three- or triple-pass arrangement can be formed.
may be recovered in a flash type evaporator when engine cooling water is used
to evaporate sea water. 15.7 When a cold fluid is passing through the tubes of a heat exchanger

Heot In fuel to engine 100% 1

I! and a warm fluid is circulating outside the tubes, the body expands more
than the tubes. How are these differences of expansion catered for?
In some types of heat exchanger the body is made of mild steel plates, and in
order to cater for the differential expansion between the body and the tubes a
shaft mupl~ng53% bellows ring is welded circumferentially round the'body of the heat exchanger
(as shown in Fig. 15.3(a)). Expansion and contraction of the tubes are then
To mtermedlate shaftmg
catered for by the bellows ring which deforms slightly to accomodate the
changing length of the tubes. This type of expansion arrangement can be used
To heat exchangers for any number of fluid passes through the tubes. The tube plates are bolted
14% Recovery In exhaust gas baler
directly on t o the flanges of the body-ad the tubes can be roller-expaeded i&
:ig. 15.2 Heat balance diagram for modern two-stroke cycle, slowspeed,
both ends. -
ong-stroke engines used for ship propulstion.

In some modern machinery installations boiler feed water is use'd as the

--- I In heat exchangers with cast bodies, one tube plate is fastened to the flange on
one end of the body. The other tube plate is made to slide within the end of the
body. Sealing is effected by fitting O-rings in circumferentially cut grooves. The
O-rings contact the circular bored end in the body and the tube plate to make a
seal. (Fig. 15.3(a) )
:oolant for the charge air cooler; this heat exchanger becomes a water pre-
ieater for the boiler feed water. When there is a difference in expansion between the tubes and the body the
Approximately half of the heat in the exhaust gases may be recovered in the differences are accommodated by the tube plate which slides relative to the
>xhaustgas boiler. - body. With this arrangement the tubes can be arranged only for single- or
The heat balance diagram shown is sometimes referred to as a Sankey double-pass flow. This arrangement is more commonly used than any other for
liagram. engine cooling water and lubricating oil coolers. It also has the advantage of
allowing very easy removal of the tube stack from the exchanger body for
chemical cleaning or repair. This is further facilitated if the cooler is mounted
5.6 How are the flow paths defined in a multitubular heat exchanger?
I vertically and the sliding tube plate is at the lower end.
A third arrangement is to fasten the tube plates to the body of the exchanger
'he flow paths of the fluids are fixed by the division plates in the heat exchanger
eads and the internal baffles or tube support sheets within the body of the heat I and rollerexpand and bell-mouth the inlet ends of the tubes. The outlet end of
xchanger. Thc divisior~plates i n thc heads or boxes fix the position of the inlet
i the tubes is fitted with a cotton cord packing tightened by a threaded gland
396 Ques~ionsand Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

8 '15.9 Why must tubes be expanded very carefully when being fitted into
the tube plate of a heat exchanger?
When tube ends are being expanded into a tube plate with a .roller expander,

J==TTTk Tell- tale hole great care must be exercised to prevent excessive thinning and hardening which
comes about from over-rolling or expanding. When the expander roller cage is
fitted into the tube end, the tapered mandrel must not be hammered into the
rollers. The mandrel should preferably by pushed into the rollers by hand
loading or at most only with extremely light tapping blows with a very light
hammer. In some cases electrically operated expanders may be available, and it
is equally important to exercise care in their use so as to prevent over-
Tubes expanding. Excessive rolling materially affects the expected life of a set of
exchanger tubes as the thinning of the tube-end rsduces the effective life of the
tube. - -
< Exponsion ( )
15.10 What is a contra- or counter-flow heat exchanger?
The two terms are synonymous. A contra-flow, or counter-flow heat exchanger
Fig. 15.3 (a) Arrangement of sliding tube plate used in many multitubular-type is one where the two fluids flow in opposite directions. For example in a contra-
heat exchangers. The spacer is held in place between the exchanger shell and flow heat exchanger the inlet branch for the fluid passing through the tubes will
the water box and compresses the rings. Tell-tale holes are drilled through the
beadjacent to the outlet branch on the body for the fluid circulating outside the
spacer in various locations around the circumference to indicate leakage of
either primary or secondary liquids. (b) Arrangement of a bellows piece in the
tubes. Similarly the outlet branch for the fluid passing through the tubes will be
welded shell of a heat exchanger. adjacent t o the inlet branch for the other fluid.
Generally contra-flow type heat exchangers have a greater heat-transfer
capability based on unit tube area than other types. -.

15.1 1 When a tubular-type heat exchanger is mounted on a foundation

ferrule screwed into the threaded end of the stuffing boxes. In other cases or bulkhead, how is the heat exchanger fastened and how is contraction
sealing of the tube is made by caulking fibre and white-meal foil rings into the and expansion allowed for?
stuffing box. Differences of expansion between the tubes and exchanger body is
covered by the tube ends sliding through the packing in the tube plate gland. Generally the mounting feet or bossings are cast integral with or welded on to
This is a common arrangement for exhaust steam condensers. the heat exchanger body shell. One pair of the feet is made with circular holes
and the other pair has holes elongated in the axial direction of the body shell.
The feet with the circular holes are bolted up hard to the foundation. The other
15.8 Describe what happens to the material of a tube end when it is feet are fitted with shouldered bolts which give a small clearance under the bolt
rolled or expanded into o tube plote. head. This allows the shell of the heat exchanger to expand or contract freely in
When a tube end is to be expanded into a tube plate it must first be annealed to an axial direction without inducing stresses as would occur if expansion could
prevent splitting which might arise due to work hardeningof the material as it is not take place freely.
expanded. At the commencement of rolling, the end of the tube is stretched The pipework connected to the inlet and outlet branches or nozzles on the
circumferentially, so hoop tension is present until the outside of the tube heat exchangers is also designed and fastened in such a manner that the forces
contacts the hole in the tube plate. After contact is made between the tube end and moments set up in the branches from pipe expansion and contraction are
and the tube plate, continuation of the rolling or expanding process further kept within safe limits.
stretches the tube and, due to the restricting effect of the hole in the tube plate, Some heat exchangers have the feet rigidly bolted at each end, and in such
causes the hoop stress to reverse and become compressive in nature. At this cases one mounting foundation is designed rigid while the other is able to flex in
stage an axial compresgve stress is also set up becaus: there will be some restric- an axial direction relative to the heat exchanger body. The only load on the shell
tion on the free movement of the tube surface contacting the tube plate. This is that required to flex the mounting. With this type of fastening the same care
axial compressive str'ess is increased if serrations or circumferential grooves are - -must be given to the connecting pipes to prevent high forces and moments on
machined in the tube plate holes. the inlet and outlet branches.
398 Ouesrions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Heat Exchangers. Cooling Systems, Lubricating Systems 399

15.12 Name the usual causes of a lowering in performance of heat or blocked the sealing action is lost and air leakage into the sea-water system can
exchangers. - occur very easily.
1 Air locking of fluid spaces. When a ship is light, in ballast or pitching in heavy weather, air is drawn under
2 Fouling of heat transfer surfaces. the bow of the ship and passes along the bottom just under the bilge keels and
3 In two- or multi-pass heat exchangers, fluid by-passing the tubes because of leaves at the aft end of the bilge keel. Sometimes this air finds its way into the
division plate joint failure or holed division plates. water boxes or sea suction chests, passes through the pumps and causes air locks
on the sea-water side of coolers. It is usual to fit an air leak-off pipe on the top
Air locking in the fluid spaces of a heat exchanger can occur in many heat of shipside water boxes or chests. The pipe leads up to a goose-neck at the top of
exchanger and pipe work configurations, particularly if the heat exchanger and the engine room. After a vessel comes out of dry-dock the valve to this pipe on
adjacent piping form inverted letter U shapes. the top of the chest is usually closed by repairers. Before machinery start-up it
The rate at which air builds up in the sea-water circuits is influenced by the should be checked and left open. If air locking in coolers occurs the valve
cleanliness of the pump glands or seals; the build-up of marine growth on water should again be checked to ascertain that it is open.
box suction grids which if large in amount, reduces the pump suction pressure. Joints on sea-water strainer or filter boxes are also a common point of ait
The position of the water box on the ship's shell also has an influence; for ingress. If the sea chests are fitted with compressed air de-icing and weed-
example, in light or ballast condition with the ship pitching, air is carried in with clearing connections, leakage of air from the compressed air line through the
the waterunder the bow and is picked up in the suction water boxes on the ship's valve into the sea chest is another cause of air locking problems.
+hell. Air leakage into lubricating oil systems on engines may occur at glands on
Fouling occurs mainly on the sea-water side of oil and fresh-water coolers pumps, and on suction filter, or strainer cover, joints and the like. Another
and on the oil side of oil coolers. cause of air leakage into lubricating systems may be due to the sucking in of air
at the tail end of the suction pipe in the drain tank. This condition can easily
15.1 3 What does the phrase 'terminal temperature differences' mean? come about if foreign matter such as rag, old jointing or similar material is left
'Terminal temperature differences' refers to the inlet and outlet temperatures in the crankcase. This material finds its way into the crankcase strainers at the
of each of the fluids passing through a heat exchanger. By noting the rundown point into the sump tank and causes an accumulation of oil to occur in
temperature rise of the coolant and the temperature drop of the fluid being the bottom of the crankcase, this in turn causes a low level in the drain tank and
cooled the terminal temperature differences can be obtained. A knowledge of allows the pump t o pull in air. A similar condition occurs if the drain holes
these figures can be useful in evaluating the performance of aheat exchanger within the tank structure become blocked. The f l ~ w of oil to the pump suction
when it is in service. - - becomes reduced and air is drawn into the pump.
Cooling systems are of two different types; there is one type of system which
Note In design work, logarithmic mean overall temperature differences are is enclosed and where the cooling water is under a pressure head from an expan-
used. sion tank, and the other type is an open system where all the cooling water is
returned to a collecting tank from which the cooling water pump suction line is
15.14 How does air locking occur in the heaters and coolers in a marine connected. In the former type, where the system is enclosed and under pressure,
diesel machinery installation? problems with air locking do not normally arise; however, in ships with a
limited height in the machinery space the height of the expansion tank may be
Any place or point at which ingress of air into a system can occur can be the less than the static head in the cooling water at the engine cylinder tops. In such
cause of an air Iock. A heat exchanger and connecting pipework that has the mesa circulation of water may come about from the de-aerating cocks on the
configuration of an inverted letter U is more prone to air locking than systems uppermost part of the engine cooling system. When the cooling water circulates
without this feature. in this manner it goes up to the gooseneck at the top of the de-aerating pipe and
In sea-water circuits air ingress may come about at pump glands, and the goes into the expansion tank via the 'tundish' or 'save all' funnel. The water in
chances of air ingress are increased if the grids on the water boxes or sea-water passing into the expansion tank pulls in air with it. If the expansion tank is not
suction valves become badly fouled. In such cases the suction pressure in the fitted with air separation plates or if they become corroded, air finds its way
pump suction line is reduced and may even become sub-atmospheric. If the into the cooling system and can cause air locking in pipes or coolers.
gland or glands on the suction side of the pump shaft leak, air will be drawn in. In the second type of cooling-water system the sources of air leakage are
Note Some pump glands are fitted with a lantern ring which is connected mainly from pump glands and stuffing boxes. If air passes into the cooling
through a sni;rH pipe to thc puriip discharge. The water in the lantern ring is then water at cooling-water-return sight glasses this sometimes causes trouble.
under pressure and acts very effectively as a seal. I f the pipe becomes damaged Normally the coolers in the fresh-water and lubricating-oil system are fitted
 400 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine 1 Heal Exchangers, C o o l r n ~Sv\~cwrc. 1 -rrl~rrcnlrn~
- Svstc*rrts 401

with air leak-off cocks which should be opened at regular intervals and also feed-pump controls. If the fault is not corrected serious pitting and corrosion
during start-up of lubrication and cooling water services. may occur in the boilers, condensate lines and other parts of the feed system.

W 15.15 Which parts of a diesel machinery installation use steam as the 15.17 The term 'fouling factor' is used in heat exchanger design. What is
heating medium? Which types of heater are used for such service? the meaning of this term?
Steam is used as the heating medium in fuel systems and lubrication systems. When the capacity of a heat exchanger is calculated, the calculations are based
The type of heater used is multitubular; the tubes are bent into a U shape and on the various conditions applicable. When the heat exchangers become fouled
fitted with expanded ends into a single tube plate. The liquid head or box is or dirty their capacity becomes reduced and in such conditions it would be
fitted with a division plate in its middle so that the oil flow takes a two-pass necessary to reduce power on the engine to suit the reduced capacity of the
flow. The oil enters the inlet branch of the liquid head, passes through oneleg of heater. By introducing a fouling factor the effective capacity of the heat
the U, round the bend and leaves by the other leg. The division plate separates exchanger is increased (in effect tube surface area is increased) and some fouling
the inlet and outG3 legs of the U-shaped heater-tubes. The inlet branch is always can take place before its effect becomes critical. By increasing the fouling factor
on the lower side. a greater degree of fouling can be accommodated before it becomes necessary to
This type of heateris used tbpr-ethefuel @y raising its temperature reduce engine power or clean the heat exchangers.
which in turn lowers its viscosity and specific gravity) for treatment in the fuel
purifiers, and also in other heaters to make the viscosity of the fuel correct for
use in the engines. The fuel used for boiler firing is also heated in this type of 15.18 How does fouling azect performance of a heat exchanger?
heater, which forms part of the boiler firing units.
Steam-heated lubricating oil heaters of this type are also used to heat the The tube of a heat exchanger transmits heat from the hot fluid across the
engine lubricating oil prior to treatment in centrifugal oil purifiers. thickness of the tube wall and into thecold fluid. When t,he surfaces of the tubes
Bunker tanks, settling tanks and daily service fuel tanks and in some cases become dirty their ability to transmit. heat is impaired so that the rate of heat
main engine lubricating oil drain tanks are fitted with heating coils which use transmission is reduced. When this state of affairs is reached and the reserve
steam as the heating media. capacity given by the fouling factor is exceeded, difficulties arise in removing all
Ships built for service in very cold climates often have steam pipes led around the heat put into the jacket cooling water from the cylinder liners and cylinder
the bottom of the engine room. These pipes are used to maintain a satisfactory heads. Similarly the heat put into the piston cooling water on its passage
temperature in the engine during service and to prevent freezing during periods through the pistons is not wholly removed. As the heat put into the jacket and
when the main engine is shut down. piston cooling water during its passage through the engine is only partly
removed in the coolers, it follows that the outlet temperature of the cooling
water will begin to rise above what is required. After the cooling water leaves
1 15.16 Whot is the cause of air locks in the steam side of steam-heated the coolers it passes through the connecting pipe lines to the engine and enters
heaters and heating coils? the cylinder jacket at a slightly higher temperature than that required. The
The boiler feed system used in most diesel-propelled ships is of the open hotwell engine then slowly begins to overheat and the power must be reduced by shutt-
type. In this type of system all the condensate returns to the hotwell tank to ing in the h e l lever (reducing the fuel) to bring about a balance again.
which the suction side of the feed pump is connected. If problems arise with Note The effect of dirty lubricating-oil and cooling-water coolers is readily
control of the feed pumps they usually pull in air from the atmosphere which seen when a vessel is running from a temperate zone to a tropical area. When
mixes with the feed water and gets pumped into the boiler. Some air from the the sea-water is cold the heat put into the main engine cooling water and
atmosphere also mixes with the feed water even when the feed pump controls lubricating oil is easily removed in the coolers by the cold sea-water circulating
are is good condition. In the boiler the air separates from the boiler water and through them, and to maintain the correct temperature the by-pass control
passes into the steam lines where it can find its way into the steam space of valves will be.partly open. As the sea-water temperature increases the by-pass
heaters and heating coils. The air locked in the steam system gives up its sensible valves must be gradually closed to maintain the correct temperatures. When the
heat and as it cannot condense and drain out like steam it remains locked in the by-pass valves are closed the cooler is working at its maximum heat removal
system and causes a fall away of the heater or heating-coil performance. The air capacity; as the sea-water temperature rises still further the engine cooling-
leak-off cocks on heaters and bleed-off points on tank heating systems should water outlet temperature from the cooler and into the main engine rises. To
be regularly used to bleed off air and prevent performance reduction. maintain the correct cooling-water temperatures the heat exchangers must be
Note If air locking occurs frequently and rapidly the boiler feed system should cleaned or the power on the engine must be reduced until the ship enters a
be checked; the indications are that a fault exists which will most likely be in the location where the sea-water is lower in_ temperat urc.
4 -
 Heat Exchangers, Cooling Systems, Lubricating Systems 403
402 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
After cleaning has been completed it is a good policy to put a hydraulic test on
15.19 What form does the fouling toke in the sea-water circuits, fresh- the casing. If the stack has not been removed the test will indicate whether .
water circuits, lubricoting-oil circuits, and the fuel-oil circuits in heat deterioration of the sealing rings has taken place. It is better to find a leaking
exchongers? tube nest immediately after cleaning than a short time before stand-by. If the
In the sea-water circuits fouling takes place within the tubes in the form of tube nest has been removed the same provisions apply.
build-up of scale and sedimentation from mud and earthy matter picked up in
coastal and river water. The scale found is small in amount and approximates to 1 15.21 When coolers leak what indications will be given that leakage is
eggshell thickness; further incrustation, however, takes place from the sediment taking place?
build-up which hardens in the course of time from its exposure to the heat
passed from the liquid on the outside of the tubes. When machinery is in operation, there are difficulties in establishing that a
When distilled water is used in the engine cooling circuits the amount of cooler is leaking. This comes about from the pressures in the various systems.
fouling that takes place is negligible. If contamination from sea-water occurs or Usually the working pressures in the jacket cooling system, the piston cooling
raw hard fresh water is used in the cooling systems small amounts of system, and the engine lubrication system are higher than on the sea-water side
incrustation may occur. of the coolers. If leakage takes place, flow from any point of leakage is into the
In the lubricating oil sides of coolers, waxy and greasy deposits settle out sea-water side of the cooler, from where it is passed overboard. The only indica-
from the lubricating oil and sometimes from its additives. tions of cooler leakage given in the engine room when machinery is operating
In all cases of fouling there js a cpnsiderable reduction in the rate of heat are losses of cooling water o r lubricating oil. If the leakage is small in amount an
transfer through the walls of the tubes or cooler plates; this comes about from indication of leakage by system loss is not easily noted or found.
the insulating properties of the materials causing the fouling. If coolers and pumps are properly shut down in port, difficulties still arise
with knowing if a cooler is leaking. There is only one positive way to ascertain
15.20
-
How ore heat exchangers cleaned?
--
whether a cooler is leaking o r tight and that is to carry out a test on it. A good
time t o do this test is after cleaning the sea-water side of the cooler.
The sea-water circulated throGgh the various coolers is usually arranged to pass When coolers are shut down for cleaning, the end covers to the sea-water
through the bore of the cooler tubes. To clean the insides of the tubes the water boxes are removed. After the tubes have been cleaned and dried out it is a simple
box covers are removed and the tubes are cleaned by mechanical means; if the matter to start the fresh-water cooling pump or the lubricating-oil pump and
deposits are soft mud and earthy matter, they can be cleaned with compressed circulate through the c&rspacesorrthe outside of the tubes. Leakage wit&-
air. The mechanical means of cleaning tubes is usually with wire brushes made the tubes or at the junction of the tube plate and tube'is then readily seen on the
to fit into the bore of the tube. The ends of the brushes are threaded and screwed dry surfaces. When creaning of the sea-water sidesof the coolers is scheduled,
into rods or flexible wire handles which are used to push the brush through the the other work in the engine room should be programmed so that it does not
tubes. Some ships are provided with rotary cleaning gear. interfere with the testing of the coolers.
The fresh water and lubricating oil sides of coolers are cleaned with solvents Note Lubricating-oil cooler leakage is sometimes noticed by the presence of '
which are sold under various trade names. The solvents are usually weak acids oil in the overboard discharge, but usually when oil is visible the leakage is
containing an inhibitor to prevent metal corrosion. In lubricating oil coolers apparent from the losses noted when sump soundings are taken.
alkaline-base cleaning media are sqrnetimes used to remove waxy materials and Some coolers need to have clamp rings fitted in place to secure the sealing
sludges. When solvents are used for cleaning, the tubes are cleaned in situ rings and prevent them being blown out when the shell of the heat exchanger is
within the casing of the cooler. put under pressure.
I f there is any chance of solid or semi-solid matter settling in the lower part of
the heat exchanger casing there is risk that the flow of fluid through the casing
and round the tube support plates and division plates will be impaired. In such 15.22 If you found leakage occurring in o multitubular heot exchonger
cases the tube nest orstack should be removed and the various spaces cleared how would you deal with it?
with compressed air. If the leakage is at the junction between the tube-end and the tube plate, the
When certain solver~tsand weak acids arc used for cleaning, the space being leakage can be stopped by expanding the tube-end with a roller expander.
cleaned must be vented so that any gases formed from the cleaning action are Should the leakage be within the tube wall the ends of the tube must be plugged.
allowed to escape. I t sl~oultlbc noted that the gases vented off are often inflam- Leakage from tube-ends, which are made tight by packing fitted in small
ln;~hlcso carc must hc cxcrciscd to prevent explosion. Some chemicals and stuffing boxes round the tube-ends (as is often found in exhaust steam
wlvc~lrbuscd for c l c a l ~ i ~~cquirc
~ g ~~cut~-alisingagents aftc~.the cleaning ~llcdiun~ condensers and distillers), can be made tight by tightefiing up the screwed
I\:\\ twc11simovctl from tllc ~.;~sinp~!..
 404 C)~res(ior~s
und Answers on (he M a r i n e Diesel Engine Heat Exchangers, Cooling Svs(tvns. l . ~ r t ~ r i c ~ u t iSvstr~nrs
ng 405
1 .
ferrule on to the packing. If the thread on the outside of the screwed ferrule is Ultra-sonic equipment of the type mentinncd 1s also used to find leaking
covered by scale, the ferrule should be carefully removed and the thread cleaned valves.
off with a thread chaser before tightening is attempted.
I 15.25 How can leaks be found in lubricating-oil coolers?
H 15.23 Describe the types of plugs used to plug the ends of leaking heat
exchanger tubes. As there are usually mud and sandy-type sludges left by the sea-water in
the tubes of lubricating-oil coolers, leakage of oil discolours the sludges. The
Plugs used as a purely temporary measure may be made of soft wood or / presence of lubricating-oil globules may also be noticed together with the
hardwood; often, in the absence of properly-sized plugs, pieces of a broom discoloured sludges within the tubes that are leaking. The discolouration is
handle are turned down in the ship's lathe to the size required. In other cases often seen as darker patchy areas in the sludge after the water has dried out. ;.
metal conical tapered plugs are used. The large end of the pluds is usually drilled I
Care must be taken in the examination, however. If there is a carry-over of oil-<*
with a blind hole and tapped so that it can be easily withdrawn when it is desired globules with the flowing sea-water, staining of sludge and oil globules may be '
to remove the plug. The material used to manufacture the plugs is usually a non- found in the second bank of tubes and lead one to think more tubes are leaking
ferrous metal or alloy, the same as the tube material. It is common practice for than is actually the case. If doubt exists after the inside of the tubes have been
the manufacturer of the heat exchanger to supply some plugs for this purpose. cleaned and sponged out, the cooler can be pressure-tested with the lubricating
They are usually located in the heat exchanger tool box which also includes the oil pump. Ultrasonic testing equipment can also be used as mentioned in
correct-size cleaning brushes, the tube roller expanders, plug-drawing gear and Question 15.24 (see Note at end of Question45.21 regarding clamp rings).
the like. 4 -
I
15.26 Describe any equipment used for checking the tightness of
15.24 What type of equipment can be used on water coolers, distillers lubricating-oil coolers while they are in operation.
and condensers to find small leaks, particularly if time precludes properly
drying out the sea-water cooling spaces? How is the equipment used? I On the cooling-water outlet lines from the lubricating-oil coolers, at suitably
positioned take-off points, small outlet connections are fitted. These con-
Small leaks can be extremely difficult to find, particularly if time does not allow nections are led to a glass-windowed fitting which is similar in appearance to
for the proper drying out of the sea-water cooling spaces. The damp tube plates a flow indicator. The upper part of the windowed space forms a reservoir, and
unfortunately mask out small amounts of leakage. In such cases a small amount 1 small quantities of the cooling water are passed continuously through the
of fluorescent sodium crystals can be dissolved in the water within the space indicator. Any 1ubricating.oil leaking'from the cooler floats to the top of the
surrounding the tubes. The tube plates are then viewed under a source of ultra- , indicator and is retained in the reservoir where its presmce can be observed.-
violet light. Where leakage is present it is sharply delineated as a fluorescent I Some indicators are fitted with a lamp and a photo-cell. If oil particles are
area at the point of leakage. The equipment required is an ultra-violet lamp and present in the sampled cooling water an alarm is given when the light path
a supply of fluorescent sodium crystals or some 'Fluorescene' solution. ! between the lamp and the photo-cell is obstructed.
Ultra-sonic testing equipment can also be used to detect the location of a
leakage point in a cooler. This equipment consists of a detector or ultra-sonic
microphone which can be used with a contact probe or a sound concentrator. 15.27 How does corrosion occur in heat exchangers?
The pick-up from the microphone is amplified and gives a visual warning of I
leakage by read-out on a meter, or by audible warning through a pair of I Corrosion within heat exchangers may take various forms according to the
headphones. For this type of equipment to be used it is necessary to drain the behaviour of the materials under their environmental conditions. Generally the
I
space that surrounds the tubes and then pressurize the space with compressed corrosion is electro-chemical in nature and may occur as general wastage, which
I
air to some suitable pressure. After this has been done the detector is used with r takes place over large areas, or as localized wastage which shows as pitting.
These forms of attack can occur only where there are dissimilar metals in an
the sound concentrator to find the general location of the leakage. The probe
can then be used to find the individual tube or tubes leaking.
Note Fluorescence takes place in fluorescent materials through their ability to
i1 electrolyte. The two dissimilar metals will form an anode and a cathode.
Wastage takes place from the anode or anodic material. Sometimes this form of
corrosion is referred to as wet corrosion or metallic corrosion. The cathode will
absorb light of one colour or wavelength and emit light of another colour or b be lower in the electromotive series than the anode. When there is a large
wavelength. After using fluorescent solutions the cooling space must be washed
out prior to circulating the cooling water. If the heat exchanger is used for the
production of potable water, extreme care must be taken in washing out and
removing all traces of the chemicals used.
I difference in their positions in the table the rate of corrosion will be greater. The
metals that are low in the electromotive series are referred to as noble metals.
Corrosion of cast-iron water boxes, covers and the like is usually in the form
of general wastage in which the iron wastes away leaving the graphite or carbon
I
404 urrd Answers on the Murine Diesel Engine
Qrrc~s~iorrs Heal Exchangers, Cooling Svstrwrs. I.rrhric.afing S v s t m t s 405
1 .
ferrule on to the packing. If the thread on the outside of the screwed ferrule is Ultra-sonic equipment of the type mentiorred is also used to find leaking
covered by scale, the ferrule should be carefully removed and the thread cleaned valves.
off with a thread chaser before tightening is attempted.
15.25 How can leaks be found in lubricating-oil coolers?
15.23 Describe the types of plugs used to plug the ends of leaking heat
exchanger tubes. As there are usually mud and sandy-type sludges left by the sea-water in
the tubes of lubricating-oil coolers, leakage of oil discolours the sludges. The
Plugs used as a purely temporary measure may be made of soft wood or presence of lubricating-oil globules may also be noticed together with the
hardwood; often, in the absence of properly-sized plugs, pieces of a broom discoloured sludges within the tubes that are leaking. The discolouration is
handle are turned down in the ship's lathe to the size required. In other cases often seen as darker patchy areas in the sludge after the water has dried out. ;.;
metal conical tapered plugs are used. The large end of the pluds is usually drilled Care must be taken in the examination, however. If there is a wry-over of oil'(.
with a blind hole and tapped so that it can be easily withdrawn when it is desired globules with the flowing sea-water, staining of sludge and oil globules may be '
to remove the plug. The material used to manufacture the plugs is usually a non- found in the second bank of tubes and lead one to think more tubes are leaking
ferrous metal or alloy, the same as the tube material. It is common practice for than is actually the case. If doubt exists after the inside of the tubes have been
the manufacturer of the heat exchanger to supply some plugs for this purpose. cleaned and sponged out, the cooler can be pressure-tested with the lubricating
They are usually located in the heat exchanger tool box which also includes the oil pump. Ultrasonic testing equipment can also be used as mentioned in
correct-size cleaning brushes, the tube roller expanders, plug-drawing gear and Question 15.24 (see Note at end of Question45.21 regarding clamp rings).
the like. 4 -
15.26 Describe any equipment used for checking the tightness of
15.24 Whot type of equipment can be used on water coolers, distillers lubricating-oil coolers while they are in operation.
and condensers to find small leaks, particularly if time precludes properly
drying out the sea-water cooling spaces? How is the equipment used? On the cooling-water outlet lines from the lubricating-oil coolers, at suitably
positioned take-off points, small outlet connections are fitted. These con-
Small leaks can be extremely difficult to find, particularly if time does not allow nections are led to a glass-windowed fitting which is similar in appearance to
for the proper drying out of the sea-water cooling spaces. The damp tube plates a flow indicator. The upper part of the windowed space forms a reservoir, and
unfortunately mask out small amounts of leakage. In such cases a small amount small quantities of the cooling watef are passed continuously through the
of fluorescent sodium crystals can be dissolved in the water within the space indicator. Any lubricating 'oil leaking from the cooler floats to the top of the
surrounding the tubes. The tube plates are then viewed under a source of ultra- indicator and is retained in the reservoir where its presence can be observed.-
violet light. Where leakage is present it is sharply delineated as a fluorescent Some indicators are fitted with a lamp and a photo-cell. I f oil particles are
area at the point of leakage. The equipment required is an ultra-violet lamp and present in the sampled cooling water an alarm is given when the light path
a supply of fluorescent sodium crystals or some 'Fluorescene' solution. between the lamp and the photo-cell is obstructed.
Ultra-sonic testing equipment can also be used to detect the location of a
leakage point in a cooler. This equipment consists of a detector or ultra-sonic
microphone which can be used with a contact probe or a sound concentrator. 15.27 How does corrosion occur in heat exchangers?
The pick-up from the microphone is amplified and gives a visual warning of
leakage by read-out on a meter, or by audible warning through a pair of Corrosion within heat exchangers may take .various forms according to the
headphones. For this type of equipment to be used it is necessary to drain the behaviour of the materials under their environmental conditions. Generally the
space that surrounds the tubes and then pressurize the space with compressed corrosion is electro-chemical in nature and may occur as general wastage, which
air to some suitable pressure. After this has been done the detector is used with takes place over large areas, or as localized wastage which shows as pitting.
the sound concentrator to find the general location of the leakage. The probe These forms of attack can occur only where there are dissimilar metals in an
can then be used to find the individual tube or tubes leaking. electrolyte. The two dissimilar metals will form an anode and a cathode.
Wastage takes place from the anode or anodic material. Sometimes this form of
Note Fluorescence takes place in fluorescent materials through their ability to corrosion is referred to as wet corrosion or metallic corrosion. The cathode will
absorb light of one colour or wavelength and emit light of another colour or be lower in the electromotive series than the anode. When there is a large
wavelength. After using fluorescent solutions the cooling space must be washed difference in their positions in the table the rate of corrosion will be greater. The
out prior to circulating the cooling water. If the heat exchanger is used for the metals that are low in the electromotive series are referred to as noble metals.
production of potable water, extreme care must be taken in washing out and Corrosion of cast-iron water boxes, covers and the like is usually in the form
removing all traces of the chemicals used. of general wastage in which the iron wastes away leaving the graphite or carbon
406 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine -- - Hea f -Exchangers,-Cooling Systems,-Lubricating Systems 407

behind in a soft spongy form. This form of corrosion is referred to as

-
steel or cast-iron is then, in effect, electrically insulated from the sea-water
graphitization. When pitting occurs it is localized in nature and often takes which is in contact with the other metals of the heat exchangers.
place at a location where a small breakdown has occurred in a protective Cathodic protection systems using sacrificial anodes are also used within the
coating or in the natural passive protecting film. The effect is similar to a large sea-water spaces of heat exchangers. The metal used for the sacrificial anodes
cathode in the presence of a small anode and attack proceeds rapidly. must be such that they are higher in the electromotive or galvanic series of
Alloys of copper and zinc forming brass sometimes break down due to the metals than the metals which they have to protect. These metals or alloys are
zinc being attacked. When the ziqc is attacked a spongy copper structure is left referred to as being active or anodic. In descending order in the galvanic series
which has little mechanical strength, and leakages soon occur when the spongy they are cadmium, commercially pure aluminium, zinc, and magnesium alloys
copper structure breaks away. (see note in Question 15.27). In the presence of sea-water and with continued
Corrosion may also occur under joints and porous jointing materials in electrical continuity the anodes waste away and so protect the other metals
regions where scale has exfoliated, and in similar locations where a very narrow within the heat exchanger. In some cases a protective or passive film is
space or crevice is formed and stagnation takes place within the liquid contained deposited on the metals being protected.
in the crevice. This form of attack is referred to as crevice corrosion. Chemical additives placed in the fresh-water side of the cooler are referred to
as inhibitors. Their action is to create protective films of passive material on the
Note The subject of corrosion is a highly specialized field, covering in-depth metallic surfaces which they protect. They not only protect the heat exchanger
studies in physics, chemistry, and metallurgy. As marine engineers we must be but also the other parts of the cooling system in which they circulate.
cognizant of the various forms of corrosion we meet in our work, and have a
good knowledge of material selection for difficult environments and of the
means whereby the ravages of corrosion can be met and prevented. H 15.29 How would you know whether anodes are effective or non-
The electromotive series of metals is sometimes referred to as the galvanic effective? What causes anodes to be ineffective and how can an I
series. In some tables the cathodic metals are placed at the bottom while in other ineffective condition be rectified?
tables they are placed at the top. It must be remembered that the noble or
cathodic metals have a positive potential while the anodic metals have a Ineffective anodes are readily seen when the sea-water spaces of a heat
negative potential. exchanger are opened up; obviously if the condition of the anodes is the same as
when they were fitted, they are ineffective. This is not uncommon and comes
Electromotive series
about due to either incorrect selection of anode material, bad design of anode
Anodic metals: magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al). zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), fastening, or badly fitted anodes. Some anode materials build up a passive layer
iron (Fe), nickel (Ni). between the metal of the anode and its fastenings. This passive layer acts as an
Cathodic metals: copper (Cu),q silver (Ag), platinum (Pt), gold (Au). insulator and the anode is not sacrificed, and cannot therefore protect the
Silver, platinum and gold are the noble metals. cathodic material. This condition can be rectified by excluding sea-water from
Chromium is sometimes given two positions in the table due to its ability to the anode fastening. In many cases anode material such as magnesium alloy or
create a highly corrosion-resistant passive film on its surface. Stainless steels zinc is cast around a mild-steel strip. The mild-steel strip is then drilled and held
have the ability to build up this film naturally, but in-certain cases it is built up in place with studs and nuts or set screws.
by washing the stainless steel surfaces with acid (nitric) solutions to accelerate The contraction of the molten anode material when it freezes round the mild-
the production of the passive film. steel strip precludes any ingress of sea-water between the anode and the steel
strip. Electrical continuity is then always maintained.

15.30 How may badly located anodes cause darnoge to the tubes in
15.28 How are heat exchongers protected from the effects of corrosion? water and lubricating-oil coolers and similar types of equipment?
There are two ways to protect the sea-water cooling side of heat exchangers: by If the anodes are badly located within the flow pattern of the sea-water passing
coatings and by cathodic protection systems. The fresh-water side of the heat through the water boxes, turbulence and cavitation may be set up.
exchanger is protected by the addition of chemical additives to the cooling This allows the release of dissolved air in the sea-water, which leaves the point
water. of flow disturbance as a series of bubbles. The bubbles may then impinge on
Coatings, varying from bitumen-based paints through to epoxy coatings of some area of the tubes and cause leakage at the point of impingement. This
various forms, can be used to protect water boxes and water-box covers. In form of attack is referred to as bubble impingement. I t may also occur due to a
other cases rubber sheet materials may be bonded to the mild-steel or cast-iron piece of sea shell or other debris lodging at the entrance to a tube and causing
surf;l~csSO th;tt sc;i-w;Itcrc;trlnot 111;lkecontact with the steel or cast-iron. The cavitation (see Question 13.42).
408 Qrrc~stiorrsc~ndAnswars on the Marine Diesel En~ine
-
they are inhcrcntly self-priming. 'l'his prcl'crcncc ;11so;~pplicsit' t l ~ cpurlip has lo
15.31 If coolers are examined, one finds small metallic strips, held in
'supply lubricating oil for cooling the pistons.
place by round-head screws, fitted into the heater casing flange, tube
Sometimes two-stage centrifugal pumps are used for lubricating oil services,
plate, ond water-box flonge. What is the purpose of these little strips and
the second stage of the pump being necessary for the pressure requirements. To
what attention do they require?
facilitate priming, non-return or foot valves must be fitted in the bottom of the
Their purpose is to provide electrical continuity between the various parts of the suction pipes, together with other arrangements for positive supply at start-up
heat exchanger and so complete the circuit for the cathodic protection anodes. or automatic change-over in case of pump failure. In some cases where centri-
The strips, usuallpmade of brass, require periodical removal and cleaning. The fugal pumps are used the pump is actually fitted at the bottom of the drain tank
landing surfaces for the strips on the heat exchanger parts also require cleaning and driven by a motor outside the tank. A vertical extension of the motor shaft
so that good conductivity isgivenwherrttrestrips are replaced. This job should is connected to the pump rotor.
be done at.least after the heat exchangers are painted but preferably every time
heat exchangers are cleaned.
15.35 What do you understond by the term 'pump characteristics'?What
is net positive suction head?- -
15.32 Name the types of pump used for cooling on2 lubricating systems The characteristics of a pump show in a graphical manner its performance
on propulsfon and auxiliary diesel engines. capabilities. After the pump is tested for performance the discharge head H, the
Centrifugal-type pumps are used for the circulation of sea-water and fresh pump efficiency q , and the power absorbed in pumping are plotted as ordinates
water. Centrifugal-type pumps are also sometimes used in the lubricating oil against the volume of fluid pumped which forms the abscissa.
system, but they are then mostly of the two-stage type. The most common type Net Positive Suction Head(N.P.S.H.)is the term used to indicate the ability
used for lubrication systems is the rotary positive-displacement type of pump. of a centrifugal pump to deal with fluids which may vaporize in the inlet branch
and entrance t o the rotor. Although we should be conversant with this charac-
teristic of a centrifugal pump and its significance, the conditions under which
15.33 Why are centrifugal pumps used for the sea- and cooling-woter centrifugal pumps work in the engine rooms of motor ships are such that
services with marine diesel engines? What are their drawbacks? vaporization of the fluid being pumped does not commonly occur.
In the first place'they are small and light for the volumes of water they can Note, N.P.S.H.of pumps and piping systems is of importance when dealing
handle. The speed of the rotating element is such that it is very suitable for with cargo pumps in oil tankers. It is measured as a head in metres absolute.
either a.c or d.c electric motor drive. Except for the pump bearings and seals or
gland packings there is no mechanical contact between the fixed and moving 15.36 Which types of rotary pumps ore used for lubrication and piston-
parts of the pump, so wear is limited to the parts mentioned. In consequence the cooling services on main propulsion and auxiliary diesel engines?
maintenance necessary is small provided that the lubrication requirements of
the bearings are properly attended to. There are many different types of rotary pumps ranging from simple pumps
The only drawback to these pumps is the fact that if they are empty they having flexible plastic vanes to multiple-screw rotary pumps whose rotating
cannot produce a vaccum and so prime themselves. In cases where the pumps elements are machined to the closest possible tolerances.
are always submerged, as in sea-water systems and many cooling systems, they The basic types used in smaller engines for lubricating services are flexible-
are always full of water and so do not require priming. In other cases, such as
the cooling systems of some engines, where the cooling-water returns to a
! vane pumps, sliding-vane pumps, gear pumps and screw-and-wheel pumps. In
larger engines, where lubricating oil is also used for cooling pistons, multiple-
collecting tank, it is necessary t o have a rotary wet-air pump fitted to the screw pumps having two or thiee screws or helices are commonly used. Flexible-
centrifugal pump so that a vacuum is formed in the volute casing. This draws vane pumps, sliding-vane pumps, gear pumps and screw-and-wheel pumps are
liquids into the centrifugal pump rotor and so allows it to start pumping. often fitted on the engine and connected to the engine crankshaft through some
In other cases where it is necessary to prime the pump it may be connected to a drive train. The pump is then driven by the engine. The single-screw type of
pump has a rotor which is threaded. This operates within a stator which is made
ring priming system.
i of oil-resisting rubber or suitable plastic materiaL The oil flows axially alonp;
the thread whicMs eccentric to the axis of the rotor. This type of pump is
15.34 Why are rotary positive-displacement pumps preferred for independently driven. Multiple-screw type pumps have their own electric motor
lubricating-oil services? and operate independently of the main engine. Two- and three-screw pumps
have various arrangements of the individual screws. I n some cases the oil goes
'These pumps are generally preferred because their characteristics are more
into each end of the screw and is discharged at ~ h ccrlt
c rc; in others the flow goes
suitublc tlinr~tliosc of ccritrifugal p ~ ~ r n and.
p s hcing of positive displacemcnt.
 -
4 10 Ques~iorrsund Answers on [he Marine Diesel Engine Heat Exchangers, Cooling Systems, Lubricofing Sysferns 4 1 1

in at the middle part of the screw with discharge at the ends. Some two-screw . 15.38 What attention do the various parts of the lubricating oil system up
pumps have pinions fitted on the ends of each screw. Ttie pinion on the to the suction side of the pump require?
driven screw drives'the foll'ower screw. With such an arrangement the only Suction lines. The flange bolts on the suction lines must be checked periodically
mechanical contact is between the pinions, giving the rotating screws a long and tightened as required, particularly near bends and where the pipework is
service life. more rigidly fastened. This prevents suction loss in the lubricating-oil pump
which is noted in some ships during heavy weather. In some cases suction loss
15.37 Give details of the flow poth, and of the parts ossocioted with it. can be associated with a low level of oil in the drain tank, in other cases it is
of the lubricating oil through the lubricoting system of o slow-speed, associated with pipework flexing and joints opening slightly when flange bolts
direct-coupled propulsion engine. What changes would you expect to find go slack.
in the system if the pistons are oil cooled? Valves on suction lines. The glands on suction line valves require regular
Irrespective of the fluid used to cool the pistons, the lubricating oil within the tightening down t o prevent air ingress into the suction line. It is the practice in
system progressively drains down into the lubricating-oil drain tank from where many well-run ships t o slacken the gland prior to opening the suction line valves
it is pumped by one of the lubricating-oil pumps. The lubricating-oil drain tank and 'nip' the gland after the valve is open. At the same time a few drops of
is sometimes called the double bottom lubricating-oil tank or crankcase drain lubricating oil may be put on the valve spindle and gland s,o that parts are kept
tank. The tank forms part of the hull structure so that the sides of the tank working freely.
running fore and aft form intercostals and the thwartship members connect up Suction-line strainers. The suction strainers in the suction line to the pump
with the 'floors' in the double bottom structure. The structure is robust because require periodic cleaning, particularly after work in the engine crankcase or
it forms part of the engine foundations. Within the oil drain tank is a suction cleaning out the lubricating-oil drain tank. The cover to the suction strainer
well (see Note) into which the tail of the suction pipe is fitted. The tail is casing requires particular attention when it is replaced. Doubtful joints should
prevented from moving by welded fins which also keep the flow line of the oil be renewed and care must be taken t o ensure that the cover is pulled down
entering the pipe from rotating and forming a vortex. squarely on the casing flange. Air ingress through suction strainer covers and
The oil, after passing into the suction pipe, will flow through valves, a glands on valves in the suction line are the most common causes of loss of
strainer, and then anothefv$hCwhete it enters the lubricating oil pump. From suction o r similar difficulties when starting lubricating oil pumps. A common
the lubricating-oil pump it will pass through a pump discharge valve of the non- cause of trouble with glands and stuffing boxes is bent valve spindles.
return type and then through a strainer o r strainers which filter out quite small
particles o f foreign m a t t e ~ F r o mt h e m i n e r the oil passes up to the oil coolers Pressure gauges o n the suction line o r suction inlet to the lubricating-oil
and then to the lubricating oil manifold on the engine. pump should be kept in working order. The read-out on these gauges gives the
The various bearings on the engipe are fed with oil under pressure through best indication of causes of problems on the suction side of the pump. High
pipes connected to the manifold. After lubricating and cooling the bearings the vacuum readings indicate choked strainers, blocked lines, partially opened
oil runs down to the bottom of the crankcase from where it drains down valves and the like. Low vacuum readings indicate air ingress into the suction
-
through 'rose' plates or grids into the drain tank in the double bottom,Yafious line. -

valves are fitted on the lubricating oil system pipe lines to isolate various
sections for testing purposes. If the pistons are oil cooled it is usual for the
lubricating oil line from the cooler to be led to a branch piece so that one side of 15.39 Give some details of the attention that must be poid to the various
parts and fittings on the discharge side of the lubricoting-oil pumps.
the branch goes to the bearings and the other side to the piston-cooling system.
The oil to the piston cooling passes through a valve which bleeds it to the piston- In most ships a non-return valve of some type is fitted on the discharge lines
cooling system and so maintains adequate pressure on the lubrication system. from the lubricating-oil pumps. Its purpose is to prevent a back flow of
When pistons are oil cooled the lubricating-oil pumps are naturally larger as lubricating oil through the stand-by lubricating-oil pump when the pump
they have to pump more oil to supply both the bearings and the piston-cooling suction line and discharge line valves are kept open. They must be left open in
system. The lubricating-oil cooters are also larger as they have t 6 remove not lubricating oil systems where automatic start-up of the stand-by pump occurs
only the heat from friction in the bearings but also the heat passed into the with low lubricating oil pressures. The non-return valve must be kept in good
piston cooling oil from the piston crown. working order s o that it can open freely. This keeps the head or friction loss in
Note In sonic ships the lubricating-oil drain tank extends down to the keel the valve to a minimum.
plate and garboard strakes so that the bottom of the tank forms part of the The pressure filters, which are usually of the self-cleaning type, either hand o r
outc~-bottoln platil~g.Obviously w i t h s11c11an arrarlgclncnt there is no suction automatically operated, require the sludge and dirt reservoir at the bottom of
well. 'T.11~[;ti1 crld o f thr suc.tiorl pipc is fitted with a conical-shaped or bell- the filter to be cleaned out regularly. Air-locking within the filter casings would
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 l 1 ~ 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1 01 1I l 1 1 1 1 ) '
reduce the effective strainer area, and it is thercl'orc csscntial that the air bleed
4 12 Questions and Answers on the M a r i n e Diesel iingine

or leak-off cocks be kept in proper working order and used regularly. It is essen- 1 15.41 When sea-water circulating pumps are started it i s noted that the
tial to use them .when the lubricating-oil pumps are started to prepare the pressure on the suction line falls after the pump i s set in motion. Why
engines for sea. does this occur?
The pressure gauges, inlet and outlet, on either side of the pressure filters When the pump is opened up to the sea-water suction and discharge lines the
need to be kept in working order; a large difference in the readings of the two pressure registered on the suction gauge is the static head pressure of the sea- -:;
gauges indicates a large head loss across the filters which comes about when a water outside the ship. When the pump is started, water begins to flow through
filter is dirty or air-locked. the sea-water grids on the ship's side, into the water boxes and through the ship-
The requirements of the oil coolers have been covered in earlier questions. side suction valve. It continues through the sea-water strainer, through the
and the air leak-off cocks on coolers and the upper parts of piping systems various suction lines, bends, T-pieces, valves, and then through a conical
require the same attention as the air cocks on the discharge filters. reducer into the suction eye of the pump rotor. During its passage from outside
The shut-down~valvesrequire the normal attention given to valves such as the ship the water meets with resistance to its flow as it passes throught the pipe
gland packing renewal, spindle lubrication, together with regular opening and worrand fittmgs. This resistance to flow reduces the effect of the static head of
closing to keep the valves working freely. water outside the ship and causes the lower reading shown on the suction line
(pressure) gauge.
15.40 Describe a common method of lubricating the main thrust bearing It sometimes happens that suction line pressure gauges are fitted on the pump
in the main propulsion machinery. What attention does the system inlet branch and on the outlet side of the filter. When the pump is stopped both
require? gauges give the same reading but when the pump is operating each gauge gives a
different reading. The different values recorded on each suction gauge are
The thrust collar of the main thrust bearing revolves in an oil bath. The accounted for by changes in water velocity along the line and in the pump
revolving collar picks up lubricating oil from the bath which is scraped off the suction branch.
A
top of the collar by a diamond- or rhombus-shaped scraper or spreader. The oil
is then diverted into two channels which keep the thrust faces of the collar Note It is important that a record be kept of the pressure drop on the suction
adequately supplied with oil. The lubricating oil is supplied to the thrust bearing line gauge to the sea-water, as increasing head loss for-any one pump speed.
oil bath from the lubricating oil manifold or rail within the crankcase. The indicates fouling of strainers, ship side grids, etc.
supply pipe passes through the end of the crankcase and then leads through A clear understanding of the different values recorded on pressure gauges is
filters down into the thrust bearing and the lubricating oil leaves from an open- greatly helped by an understanding of Bernoulli's Law.
ended pipe.
The take-off point for the supply pipe on the main manifold is often the
15.42 What is the reason for starting centrifugal pumps with the
location of sludge and solid matter build-up which can throttle the oil supply t o discharge valve closed?
the thrust bearing. The end of the manifold requires regular cleaning to prevent
this build-up and so prevent choking of the thrust oil supply. The end of the tail It is common practice to start large-capacity centrifugal pumps (such as sea-
pipe is sometimes fitted with a restriction plate: this also requires regular water circulating pumps and fresh-water circulating pumps) with the discharge
cleaning. valve closed. If the characteristic curves for a centrifugal pump are examined it '
In some ships a thrust lubricating oil pressure alarm is fitted, and it can be will be seen that when the quantity of water discharged is zero the power
seen that if the end of the tail pipe becomes blocked there will be no pressure fall required by the pump is zero or a very small amount. By starting the pump with
and therefore no alarm call-out. The purpose of the low-pressure alarm is to call the discharge valve closed the power demand made by the pump on the pump
attention to the condition of the filter. motor is kept to the very minimuiil.
In other ships, particularly those classed for unmanned machinery spaces, a After the pump has started and the momentary high motor current demand
temperature sensor is fitted in the oil bath. This sensor requires a check-out at has stabilized, the discharge valve is opened.
regular periods.
If the precautions listed are regularly taken, troubles with thrust bearings
should be almost entirely eliminated. 'm 15.43 What is the purpose of the automatic and hand-controlled by-pass
valves on positive-displacement lubricating-oil pumps?
Note Generalbthe same methods of thrus! bearing lubrication are used in
geared installaions where the thrust bearing is integral with the gear casing. The The automatic by-pass valve is used to control the discharge pressure of a
same precautions must be taken with the oil supply lines, pressure alarms and - -- positive-displacement pump. The automatic by-pass is a necessity with pumps
temperature sensors. driven by alternating current motor which have no speed control.
416 Questions and ~ n z w e r son the Mwine Diesel Engine Heat Exchangers, Cooling Systems, Lubricating Systems 41 7

15.46 Give some details of the checks vou would make on a ~ositive- such glasses the flow is indicated by the droplets of lubricant passing up through
- --
---
--
displacement lubricating-oil pump when it is dismantled and opened up the sight glass.
for examination and survey. There is usually a small heater in the oil reservoir or lubricator box to hold the
oil at some steady tlmperature and viscosity. Criice the lubricators have been
The ability of the pump to maintain correct lubricating-oil pressures with set, the flow rate to the cylinders is unaffected by engine-room temperature
correct engine bearing clearances would be known before the pump was changes as the oil viscosity in the lubricator remains constant.
dismantled. If the pump was maintaining good pressures when the lubricating Timed lubrication or timed cylinder lubricant injection is arranged for on
oil was up to its working temperature it is unlikely that there will be anything some engines. With such systems the oil is pumped into the cylinder at the
amiss with the clearances of the rotating parts within the pump. The first instant when the piston rings pass the quill point during the piston stroke. This
examination of the internal parts after opening the pump should be carefully requires the cylinder lubricator to be timed relative to the piston position in
directed towards their cleanliness. If any hard sediment or lacquer from the much the same way as the fuel injection is timed to occur at the correct instant.
lubricating oil is present, carehl consideration must be given as to whether it It must be remembered that the cylinder lubricant is pumped into the cylinder at
should be cleaned off. It is likely that if the deposits were removed the effects of a slow rate and that it flows down the cylinder lubricating grooves or cylinder
wear would be found and the pump would not maintain the correct pressure walls rather than being expelled from the quill into the cylinder space in the way
when it was put back in service. This effect has often been noted in the past after that fuel is injected. The end of the oil quill is usually drilled in such a manner
thorough cleaning of rotor parts, and also when solvent-type flushing that the lubricant flow is directed into the cylinder liner oil grooves or down the
compounds have been used. It is noticed more in older ships than in, say, ships cylinder wall. The cylinder lubricant is then spread over the cylinder wall
during their first survey. working surfaces. Some of the oil is picked up on the horizontal faces of the
Once a decision on the amount of cleaning has been made, the important
things to consider are the end and radial clearances of the rotors within their
housings. In pumps with two helical-form rotors the driving gears should be 4 To auill
carefully examined together with the surfaces of the helices on the rotors. This
is to establish and confirm that no contact is being made between the rotor
surfaces. In pumps with three helical rotors the contact pattern between the
rotor helices should be examined to see that it is uniform over the length of the
rotor. Non-uniformity of contact indicates unequal wear in the rotor bearings,
which will require correction. The general conditions regarding packing contact
surfaces on rotor shafts as set out in Question 15.45 also apply.

15.47 How are engine cylinders and pistons lubricated? What do you
understand by the term, 'timed iniection' or 'timed lubrication'?
Pistons, piston rings, and cylinder liners are lubricated either by oil splashed up
from the crankcase as in trunk piston engines, or by special lubricants pumped
into the cylinders as in crosshead-type engines. The oil is pumped into the
cylinders through a quill fitting which may or may not pass through the jacket
cooling space. A small sinde-acting pump is used70 pumrthe cylinder oil
through the quill, one pump being used for each quill point. A number of the
small pumps are mounted together on the front side of a metal box which forms
the oil reservoir from which the small pumps take their oil supply. The plimp
pistons are driven by eccentrics mounted on a shaft which passes through the
length of the lubricator box. The lubricator shaft is driven by the engine
camshaft, either by a roller chain or gearing.
Each small pump discharges through a sight glass. In some cases the sight
glass is made like a venturi tube, and a small ball is fitted in the upper part. The
height to which the ball rises in the sight glass indicates the amount of lubricant
flow. 111 other caws the glass is a small parallel tube which is filled with distilled
water o r a clear f l u ~ dw h ~ c tdoes
i not affect the additives in the lubricant. With flg. 16.4 Common type of cylinder lubricator.
 piston rings where it lubricates the contact faces between piston ring and it in effect 'plugs' the supply pipe. In such circu~nstancesthe lubricant cannot
groove. pass into the bearing even though the amounts required are very small. This
Figure 15.4 shows a common type of cylinder lubricator. A small set screw
(not shown) is fitted below the sight glass. This connects with the pump
condition is easily checked by slackening a pipe flange or union coupling and .
noting whether the lubricant comes through easily or just oozes out. If the latter
chamber and is used to release air so that the pump can be primed. The material is the case some heat must be applied to the supply pipe from the gravity tank.
of the various parts must be compatible withthe additives used in the cylinder This is best done by rigging a temporary steam tracer line against the supply
lubricating o i l pipe to the stern tube.
- -. --
Note Some builders of medium-speed trunk piston engines lubricate the If it is the usual practice to operate the ship with some water in the aft peak to
pistons with lubricators in the same manner as a crosshead engine. When the transmit heat away from the stern tube, consideration should be given to
engine is operating on heavy fuel oil a lubricant with a higher TBN (total base discontinuing this practice in cold weather. Better lubrication and oil entry into
number) than the crankcase oil is used to lubricate the pistons and cylinders in
addition to the oil splashed up from the crankcase. The higher TBN oil used for
-
the tube might be obtained if some temperature rise were permitted.

cylinder lubrication does not lose all its alkalinity; it drains into the crankcase
and assists in the crankcase oil make up requirements and in maintaining the
TBN of the crankcase oil at a satisfactory level.

W 15.48 Name the various parts which make up the lubrication system for
white-metal-lined bearings as fitted in stern tubes.
These bearings are commonly lubricated by gravity feed systems, though there
are exceptions in which an electrically driven pump, or a pump driven by a cam
on the intermediate shaft, is used. Whether a pump is used or not, the essential
parts of the lubrication system are similar. If the tank is in a gravity system it is
naturally fitted at such a height that sufficient head is available to force
lubricant into the bearings at all times. A gauge glass is fitted on the tank to give
an indication of the lubricant level. A stop valve is fitted on the bottom of the
tank at the inlet to the supply pipe to the stern tube. A pipe leads from the tank
through the aft peak bulkhead into the top of the stern tube. Another separate
pipe leads from the top of the stern tube and runs parallel with the supply pipe
back towards the gravity tank, ending with an open-ended goose neck situated
above a tundish or funnel leading back into the tank. The other fittings in the
system are the drain line and drain cock. The drain cock is fitted on the aft peak
bulkhead below the stern gland or shaft seal.
Temperature sensors are sometimes fitted to indicate the working tem-
perature of the stern tube or screw shaft bearing. When a pump forms part
of the system it is fitted into the feed line from the supply tank and pressurizes
the stern tube and bearing spaces.

15.49 What particular attention must be given to stern tube bearing

lubrication systems when low temperatures are experienced in the region
of the gravity tank and connecting pipework?
A problem for the machinery designer is the question of the diameter of the
supply pipe fitted between the gravity tank and the stern tube. There is virtually
nil flow between the tank and the stern tube, and on this basis one might think
that a small-diameter pipe should be used. In practice the pipe fitted is often too
small, and with low temperatures the stern tube lubricant can thicken up so that
 I Air Compressors, Air Storage Tanks 421 1

4
4
I
AIR COMPRESSORS, AIR (I
v
STORAGE TANKS Rg. 16.1 PV diagram showing compression of air in one or three stages. The
4
reduction in work compared with compression in a single stage is shown by the 4
area bounded by the letters a-b-c-d-e-f. The re-expansion of air from the
clearance volume spaces is not shown on the diagram.
I
I 4
16.1 For what purposes is compressed air used in motor ships?
I d
air is compressed in stages it is easier to control the temperature of the air and to
Compressed air is used for starting both main and auxiliary engines. It is also hold it at lower temperatures during its passage through the air compressor. a
used for control equipment and instrumentation purposes. Many of the port- This is accomplished by water jacketing the air compressor cylinders and 4
able tools such as drilling machines, impact wrenches, torque wrenches, hand passing the air through heat exchangers, or intercoolers as they are often named
grinders and lifting gear also use compressed air. Auxiliary boilers and econo- on air compressors. As the air leaves each stage of the compressor it is cooled in d
the intercooler. This lowers the work done in compressing the air and prevents a
lot of the mechanical problems which could arise if the air temperature were cC
mizers are often fitted out with soot blowers which use compressed air. It is also
used for chipping and scaling machines, paint-spraying equipment and similar
services both in the engine room and on deck.
I uncontrolled. By keeping the air temperatures low, less difficulty is experienced 4
with the lubrication of the pistons and cylinders, and the suction and delivery
valves remain in a cleaner condition without becoming fouled with carbonized
16.2 Give the working pressures for the compressed air or pneumatic I oil.
services used on board motor ships. I Apart from practical considerations, a three stage air compressor is more q
The starting air pressure (gauge) for the various types of diesel engine, both I
desirable as it requires less energy or work input than a single stage air compres- 4
propulsion and auxiliary, varies between sor when compressing air over the same pressure range.
This is illustrated in Fig. 16.1 where the reduction in work is shown by the 4
24 bar (350 lbf/in2, 25 kgf/cm2) and I
shaded area bounded by the letters a-b-c-d-e-f. The pressure at the end of each 4
41 bar (600 lbf/in2, 42 kgf;/EmZ). '
stage is denoted by p,, p, andp,. The discharge pressurep is the same for each
For most of the other pneumatic and compressed air services the working compressor. The extra energy required to compress the air in the single stage Q
-
pressure is in the region of - compressor will be converted into heat and the air discharged will be at a much
higher temperature, although the discharge pressure is p. 4
4 bar (60 lbf/in2, 4 kgf/cm2) to
7 bar (100 Ibf/in2, 7 kgf/cm2). (I
16.4 Trace the path and name the parts through which the air passes
For control engineering services using compressed air a wide variety of air 1 . when it is compressed in a three-stage reciprocating air compressor. 4
pressures may be required; it is normal practice to use a small reducing valve to
supply air at the correct pressure for each individoal fitting. --- I The air first pass- o e p i r filter as it enters the c~mgressor,..e~
passing through the air filter it enters the low-pressure (L.P.) stage of the a
16.3 Why are air compressors constructed to compress air in two or
three stages in preference to compressing it in a single stctge?
I compressor and goes through the L.P. suctiowalves during the suction stroke
of the L.P. piston. During the discharge stroke of the L.P. piston the air passe*
through the L.P. discharge valves.
The number of stages used is governed by the required final pressure of the The air then passes through the medium or intermediate pressure (M.P. 04
conlpressed air. As [he pressure increases more stages arc required. When the I.P.) stage and on through the high pressure (H.P.) stage in a similar manner. (I
422 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine -----
, Air Compressors, Arr Storage Tanks
-- - - -
423
--

Heal exchanaers -, Note The value of gamma y is obtained by dividing the specific heat of air at
constant pressure by its specific heat at constant volurnc.
- -

16.6 Define the term 'volumetric efficiency' in reference to reciprocoting

air compressors.
The volumetric efficiency of an air compressor is the relationship between the
quantity of air discharged when brought to standard atmospheric conditions
and the swept volume of the low pressure piston.
volume of air discharged as 'free' air
. - Oil and Mter Volumetric efficiency =
Automatr or, seporafors
swept volume of L.P.piston
manual drams
Free air is air at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 15°C. The time
Fig. 16.2 Arrangement of intercoolers and oil and water separators in a three- value is the same for both the numerator and denomhator in the efficiency-
stage air compressor. The arrangement of these parts in a two-stage equation.
compressor is similar but has one stage less. In the case of two- or three-stage compressors the volumetric efficiency
always refers to the low-pressure piston.

The arrangement shown in Fig. 16.2 shows each stage and includes the rela- How is the capacity of on air compressor specified?
16.7
tive locations of the inlet air filter, compressor cylinders, intercoolers and
moisture-oil separators. The valve at the outlet end of the compressor is shown The capacity of an air compressor is stated in terms of cubic metre per hour
as a screw down stop valve, in many cases a screw down non-return valve is (m3/h), this being the volume that the air actually discharged in one hour would
fitted. occupy if it were expanded down to atmospheric pressure and cooled to atmos-
The suction and delivery valves for each stage are not shown. pheric temperature. Air at atmospheric pressure and temperature is referred to
as normal air. Normal air has an absolute pressure of 1.013 bar and a
16.5 Give the reasons for the reduction in the work done when air is
temperature of 15°C.
compressed in stages and cooled between each stage of compression.
The details of an air compresser would therefore be specified as:

When air is compressed and no heat is removed during compression the temper- Capacity - Nm3/h or m3/h F.A.D. (lS°C, 1.013 bar)
ature of the air rises and the air is compressed adiabatically. If heat is removed Pressure - discharge pressure in bar
during compression so that there is no change in the temperature of the air, the Temperature - discharge temperature in "C
air is compressed isothermally. For isothermal compression, the compression
Power input - kW
curve on the P V diagram will be such that: PV-a constant. Note The letter N preceding m3stands for normal and.not newton; F.A.D.
In actual compEssor practice it is not possible to compress the air isother- denotes free air delivery. sometimes the figure of 0°C is used for the tempera-
mally, but by jacketing and cooling the cylinders, and cooling the air between
each stage, we can approach isotXSmtiko~m-pression.For compression between
I --- ture value when referring to normal air. This value is often used on the conti-
nent of Euro*.
adiabatic and isothermal, the compression curve on the PVdiagram will be such The volumetric efficiency is approximately equal to the discharge capacity
that P P = C. F.A.D. in m3/h divided by the displacement of the low pressure piston meas-
The value of the index n will be less than the value of gamma (see Note); in
ured in m3/h.
consequence as the value of n is reduced the steepness or slope of the compres-
sion curve on the P V diagram is reduced. The area under the cuNe represents - d

the work done and this will be a lesser amount under the curve with least slope. 16.8 Mention the factors that have an adverse effect upon the volumetric
In practice the actual value of n will depend on the number of stages and the efficiency of an air compressor.
amount of intercooling between stages, the cleanliness of the intercoolers, and - -.
the temperature of the cooling water. The factors that affect the volumetric efficiency of an air compressor are as
It is normally between 1.35 and 1.25. follows.
424 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Air ~o&ressors, A i r Storage Tanks 425

1 The clearance between the cylinder cover and the end of the piston when the ing than to use an excess of wire and strain the cover studs or other parts. The
piston is at the end of its discharge stroke. The larger the clearance the less ball of wire must be placed centrally on the top of the piston; if the wire is on
air is discharged per stroke. one side of the piston there is a possibility that the piston rod could be bent when
2 Sluggish opening and closing df S~rctionand delivery valves. the piston is barred over the top centre position.
3 Leakage past compressor piston rings.
4 Insufficient cooling water or the cooling-water inlet temperature too high. Similar care must also be exercised with regard to the suction and delivery
With air-cooled compressorw insuffiGieRt number of air changes into the valve port locations in the cylinder cover.
cooling space or the cooling air temperature too high.
5 Inlet temperature of the air to the first or !ow-pressure stage of the compres- H 16.1 1 In most air compressors it will be found that the L.P. cylinder
sor too high. absorbs the most power and that the H.P. cylinder absorbs the least: in
6 Throttling of air supply to L.P. suction - example, dirty air inlet strainers. other words, the maior part of the work of compressing the air is done in
the L.P. cylinder. Why-knohm e$treCemKHrnt of work done in each stage?
The reason for doing the smallest part of the work in the H.P. cylinder is
16.9 Explain how excessive piston end-clearance reduces the volumetric because the comparatively small diameter affords much less surface for the dis-
efficiency of an air compressor. sipation of heat to the cooling water. Furthermore, the high pressure in this
Excessive piston end-clearance gives a large clearance volume which will be full stage necessitates a thicker cylinder wall, which is not conductive to the rapid
of air at high pressure when the piston reaches the end of its stroke. On the out- transfer of heat. These considerations make it advisable for the greater propor-
ward stroke of the piston the air within the clearance volume expands until the tion of the work to be done in the L.P. or largest cylinder.
pressure within the cylinder is low enough to allow the suction valves to open.
With a large clearance volume the outward travel of the piston will be greater 16.12 Explain how sluggish action of the suction and delivery valves
before the pressure is low enough within the cylinder to allow the suction valves reduces the volumetric efficiency of an air compressor.
to open. In consequence a large part of the suction stroke is made ineffective
and the amount of air taken into the cylinder during each suction stroke is If a suction valve does not reseat promptly at the end of the suction stroke, due
reduced. This lowers the volumetric efficiency. to a weak spring or to carbon deposit, part of the air drawn into the cylinder will
be returned through the defective suction valve during the first part of the deliv-
ery stroke. If a delivery valve is slow in reseating, for the same reason, part of
16.10 How is a check made on the clearance volume of an air the air compressed and delivered during the delivery stroke will return to the
compressor? What would you expect the clearance volume to be? cylinder during the first part of the suction stroke.
It is not normal practice to make a check on the clearance volume of an air com-
16.13 Explain how the temperature of the air drawn into the low-
pressor as this is something which. is fixed by the designer. We do, however,
pressure cylinder affects the efficiency of an air compressor.
make a careful check on the mechanical clearance between the piston head and
the cylinder cover. This check is made by making up a small, loosely woven ball The higher the temperature of the air drawn into the low-pressure cylinder. th; ,
of lead wire. This is placed on the top of the piston which will have been moved less will be the weight of air discharged by the compressor in a given time, since
a little off the end of the stroke. The cylinder cover is replaced on the cylinder the higher the temperature of the air the greater will be the volume occupied by a
with a joint in place and tightened down. The compressor is then barred slowly given weight.
over top centre so that the ball of lead wire is compressed. After it is removed
from the top of the piston it can be measured with a micrometer. The mechani-
16.14 Explain how a restricted inlet passage to the low-pressure cylinder
cal clearance measured is compared with the compressor manufacturer's
reduces the volumetric efficiency of a multiple-stage air compressor.
recommendations. Adjustments are made by altering the cover joint thickness
or by fitting or removing shims between the foot of the connecting rod and the If the inlet passage to the low-pressure cylinder is restricted, the air will be pre-
bottom-end bearing. vented from following up the piston at the correct rate during the suction
The clearance volume in air compressors varies widely according to cylinder stroke, with the result that when the piston begins the delivery stroke, there will
diameter, running speeds and final discharge pressures. The mechanical clear- be a partial vacuum in the cylinder and less air will be discharged during each
ance in the H.1'. stages of high-pressure air compressors may be or& a fraction delivery stroke.
o f a ndlinletre when the hachint?is cold and less at running temperatures.
Note The air inlet passage to the low-pressure cylinder may be restricted
owing to insufficient suction-valve lift, suction-valve \prings being too strong,
($1 to II (111tv IIINI ~ I I I I I Vc-l~oc~kc(l
i t i ~\ I I . I I I I C I .
1 16.15 What would b e t h e effect of thd suction valves of a n air afterwards cooled. Unless the water is drawn off at each stage it will go with
compressor having too much lift? the air through the various stages and wash thc oil film off the cylinder wall.
Proper attention to the drairring of ~ o ~ p r e s s oisr snecessary if excessive cylin-
The valves would be late in closing and this would reduce the volumetric effi- der liner and piston ring wear is to be prevented. The drains are also a means
ciency of the machine. Valves with too much lift reach the end of their travel of drawing off any surplus lubricating oil which has been injected into the
with greater force and therefore are more liable t o break. cylinders. - - . A

1 16.16 Briefly describe t h e most common forms of air compressor 16.19 What d o you understand by the term 'volve loss' relative to
intercoolers, ond state how they a r e arranged. reciprocating air compressors?
An air compressor intercooler generally consists of a number of small-diameter The suction and delivery valves of an air comp5essor allow the air to flow in
copper tubes contained in a cast-iron chamber forming a water jacket. The air only one direction. The suction valves allow air flow into the cylinder and
passes throdgh the tubes and the cooling water circulates around them. Some- prevent back flow out. The delivery valve similarly allows air to flow out of the
times a single long copper coil takes the place of the nest of straight tubes. Each cylinder and prevents flow back. T o make the action of the valves more positive
intercooler is provided with what are commonly called 'purgepots,' the purpose the valves are spring loaded. When the piston is making a suction stroke, the
of which is to collect and drain off water and oil which finds its way into all pressure within the cylinder space is lowered to the point where the air pressure
intercoolers. Intercoblers are fitted after each stage of compression and behind the suction valve overcomes the spring load and causes the valve to
arranged as close to the cylinder as conveniently possible, to reduce the length open. When the suction valve opens, the external air flows into the cylinder by
of hot delivery pipes. The chamber containing the nest of tubes o r coil, as the virtue of the greater air pressure outside the cylinder. During the suction stroke
case may be, is fitted with a large diaphragm of rubber, lead, o r very thin brass, the air within the cylinder clearance volume expands to some value lower than
to release the pressure in the event of a tube bursting. outside. Once the air commences to flow through the suction valve the pressure
in the cylinder rises slightly but remains slightly lower than the pressure outside.
1 16.17 What a r e t h e advantages and disadvantages of t h e single-coil type This pressure difference is necessary to get air to flow into the cylinder. The
and the straight-tube type of intercooler for air compressors? Why a r e the difference in pressure is the suction valve loss.
tubes and coils generally made of copper? Similarly on the discharge stroke of the piston the pressure in the cylinder
rises t o some point at which the discharge valve opens. After the valve opens the '
With the single-coil type there is less likelihood of leakages, but the coil is more pressure in the cylinder falls slightly, then remains approximately constant, and
difficult to clean and wears more rapidly -than the straight tubes. When a falls again just before the discharge valve closes. This approximately constant
straight tube leaks it can be plugged and remain in service until it is convenient pressure would be slightly higher than the pressure into which the compressor is
to renew it. Tubes and coils are generally made of copper because this material discharging. This pressure difference comes about due to flow 'resistance set up
is a good conductor of heat. within the valve. These valve losses lower the mechanical efficiency of the air
Note A good deal'of wear sometimes takes place inside cooling coils. One c o m p r e s s o r , ~ r o mthis it can be seem that careful attention must be given to
theory is that this is due to corrosion as a result of oxidation of the lubricating suction and delivery valves when they are overhauled and that it is essential that
oil to organic acids. Another probable cause is that the air, travelling at a high the correct type and weight of springs be fitted.
velocity, carries with it small particles of carbonised oil and abrasive dust,
which have a scouring effect inside thpcoil. This latter theory is supported by How a r e air compressor pistons, piston rings, ond cylinders
16.20
the fact that the coils wear most on the outer part of the bore. Copper coils
lubricated?
become hard and more likely to break if allowed to vibrate; they must therefore
be well secured by lead-lined clips. Some air compressor pistons are connected to the connecting-rod through a
gudgeon pin and are similar to trunk pistons. With such an arrangement the
1 16.18 Why is it necessary for air compressors to have efficient drains cylinders are lubricated by oil splashed from the crankcase. Condition of
fitted between each stage of compression? scraper rings is of the utmost importance in this type of compressor.
When air compressor pistons are connected to the running gear through-
The air that is drawn into compressors contains moisture held in suspension. piston rods and crossheads, the piston rings, pistons, and cylinders are
The amount of moisture contained in the air depends on the density (the lower lubricated with lubricator pumps similar to those fitted on crosshead engines
the barometer reading the greater amount o f moisture the air will contain). The for cylinder lubrication. The oil is passed through a quill fitting to the cylinder
moisture is deposited in the form of water when the air is compressed and liner. There is further information in Question 15.47.
 w
428 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine A i r Compressors, A i r Storage Tanks' ' 4%

16.21 Can sea-water .be used to cool air compressors and air-compressor wires. In other cases, rings may be made from carbon or graphite materials. T@
intercoolers? reduce friction between the piston rings and the cylinder, molybdenu
disulphide compounds are sometimes bonded in with the ring materials.
'3).
Sea-water, fresh water, or distilled water can be used for cooling compressors. Double-acting compressors have the piston-rod packing rings made
Sea-water has the advantage of always having an inlet temperature to the materials similar t o the piston rings.
compressors lower than that available from fresh water or distilled water. It In marine service oil-free compressors are used for the supply of compresseb
also has simplicity in that no heat exchangers are required within the cooling- air for instrumentation purposes. The location of the inlet to the air compress
water system, therefore there are fewer cooling-water pumps. The main is important; it must be in a position where the air drawn in will be
3
disadvantages with sea-water are its tendency to form scale, the passage of mud uncontaminated. In some cases the air suction is ducted to some point e x t e r n 4
and sandy matter through the cooling spaces of the compressor and to the engine room.
intercoolers, and the greater possibility of active cowsion within the cooling Some ships are fitted with rotary compressors of the positive displacemen@
spaces. -
type for supplying oil-free aim to the instrument air system. e
Fresh or distilled water has the advantage of being less corrosive than sea-
water and it is on this count that it is mainly used, irrespective of the fact that an
extra heat exchanger and pump are required. As the fresh water used for 16.24 What attention would you give to the running gear contained
*
cooling must pass through heat exchangers to give up the heat it receives, it will within the enclosed crankcase of an air compressor? . a
always be at some temperature higher than sea-water. The crankcase should be opened up periodically to examine the running gear oQJ
the compressor. At the time the crankcase is opened up for examination it is
16.22 How is the running gear of reciprocating air compressors common practice to drain off the lubricating oil and pass it through a very fin#
lubricated? filter to take out any foreign matter. Attention is given to all the nuts and nu
Small air-cooled compressors having the running gear enclosed within the
locking devices on the main bearings, bottom-end bearings and the crosshea dr
crankcase may be lubricated by splash. Larger compressors, both air-cooled bearings. The guide-bar fastening nuts must also be checked for tightness. 1
The lubricating oil pipe union nuts, oil pipe clips and oil pipe fittings are also
and water-cooled, usually have the running gear lubricated by force lubrica- checked to see that none of the parts are loose. Attention should also be given t d
tion. A pressure pump draws oil from the crankcase sump and discharges it the lubricating oil suction filter or strainer to ensure that it is clean before th
through the main bearings to holes drilled within the crankshaft journals. The lubricating oil is put into the crankcase. The fine filter fitted on the discharge "9
oil passes through the crankshaft passages and lubricates the bottom-end
bearings. The oil for the top-end bearings and guides is passed from the bottom-
side of the lubricating-oil pump should also be cleaned. 4
end up through the connecting rods. The pump used to supply oil to the (I
bearings is sometimes operated from an eccentric which is mounted on the 16.25 How many starting air compressors are usually fitted on
compressor crankshaft; in other cases a small rotary gear-type pump is used. motorships? Is any limit put on the temperature of the air discharged f r o 4
When gear-type pumps are used they may be fitted within the crankcase and he the compressors?
driven by a roller chain, or external to the crankcase and driven by a V-belt. In (I
many compressors the lubricant discharged from the lubricating oil pump is It is usual to have at least two starting air compressors and sometimes there are
passed through a full-flow self-cleaning oil filter before it enters the main more than two. The compressors may be independently driven by an electric1
bearings. motor or a steam engine. In other cases they may be driven by a diesel generatov
set; the compressor is driven off the free end of the electrical generator through
*-. - - a friction clutch. This enables thecompressor to be used as required, and allows4
16.23 What are oil-free air compressors, and for what purposes are they the generator to be operated without driving the compressor. It is usual to
used? design the starting air compressors and the inter-coolers so that the temperature4
When it is necessary to sugply compressed air that is completely free of any of the air discharged from the final stage is not greater than 93°C. 4
contaminating oil, oil-free air compressors are used. Oil-free reciprocating air
compressors do not have any normal lubricant supplied to the pistons. Some 16.26 If, during the course of an overhaul or as a result of some mishap,
a
oil-free compressors have a solid piston with labyrinth grooves and a very small it becomes necessary to fit new bearings to o reciprocating compressor, 4
clearance in the cylinder. They operate with high piston speeds to reduce the
effects and losses from piston leakage. In other cases piston rings may bensed.
where must speciutprecautions be taken? - 4
Piston rings in oil-free compressors may be made from bronze, phenolic resin When new bearings are fitted to either m a i ~ b e a r i n gjournals, crankpins or
plastics laminated with linen or cotton fibres, or PTFE reinforced with bronze crosshead pins, the effect will be to lift the working position of the
 within the cyl~l~tlcrs.
I'his lifting of Il~cworking position rcduccs thc mechanical dimensions in c o ~ j ~ ~ n c t iwith
o n thc rrcl~~~~c.tl wor h I I I ~t > r r \ \ l l r c \ \o t I i : ~ t t licv
clcnriwcc ol pistons ilt Illc- uppcl pwl ol tllc stlokc, unrl ill cloublc-ucting come withh 1 1 1 Icast
~ st~i~rger~r 1 ules I ~ I I \ , t l l o ~ v \ I ~ K I I I 1 0 Oc I I I ~ I I I I ~ ~ L I dUl I C ~

compressors it also increases the mechanical clearance at the lower part of the the lowest cost. Air reservoirs built to the lewt \tr~npcntrules req~~irc only to hc
stroke. In consequence when new bearings are to be fitted the crown thickness hydraulically tested.
of the new bearings must be compared with the old and the mechanical
clearances of the pistons must be carefully checked. The bore of each cylinder 16.29 What are compensation rings and why are they necessary?
, must be carefully checked for ridges at the ends of the stroke and any ridges
found must be carefully ground down. If new bearings have been fitted as a When a hole is cut or machined in the shell of a compressed air reservoir the
result of a mishap and the white-metal in the old bearings has wiped or run, care material around the hole will be subjected to a higher stress when the reservoir is
, must be taken to ensure that no white-metal has entered and blocked the drilled under pressure. In order to reduce the stress in the material around the hole a
holes forming the oil channels within thecrankshaft. If white-metal has plugged compensating ring is fitted. The material in the compensating ring in effect
these holes it must be drilled out or otherwise removed. replaces the material removed when the hole is cut. When the diameter of a hole
exceeds a specified amount relative to the thickness of _the shell it becomes,
essential to fit a compensating ring to reduce the shell stresses to a safe figure. It
1,527 Describe the method of construction of large and small air
is common practice to utilize the compensating ring as a flange on which to
res-ervoirs. What material is used?

'
)
The material used for the construction of large or small reservoirs is good-
quality, mild-steel plate having similar specifications to boiler plate material.
niount the valves or fittings for which the hole was originally cut.

16.30 How are compensating rings fastened to the parent material of an

The steel will have an ultimate tensile strength within the range of 360 MN/m2 air. vessel?
1 to 500 MN/mZ with an elongation of not less than 23% to 25%. Large starting
t air storage reservoirs have dished ends; one end has an opening formed with a Compensating rings are made from thick plate of suitable material specifica-
lip to take an elliptical manhole door. The form of the dished end may be either tion. In some instances they are made of material considerably thicker than the
) torispherical or semi-ellipsoidal. The cylindrical part of the air vessel may be shell to which they will be fitted, in which case a hole is cut in the shell similar to
rolled from one or two steel plates and will have either one or two longitudinal the outside diameter of the compensating ring. The ring is then fitted in the hole
welded seams. The dished ends are usually made by the spinning process. The and fastened to the shell by a full-penetration weld. The side of the hole in the
) edge left by the spinning is machined and tapered down to the thickness of the shell is prepared to a suitable profilebefore the welding.
cylindrical shell. The ends are welded to the cylindrical shell by full-penetration In other cases one flat side of the ring is machined to the curvature of the
welds. The longitudinal seams are machine welded. The circumferential seams outside diameter of the shell. The opposite side is left flat. The side with the
) where the dished ends join the cylindrical shell may be either machine or hand
welded.
) Smaller air storage reservoirs often have hemispherical ends, and the inspec-
b tion holes may be fitted in the cylindrical shell or in the hemispherical ends. The
ends may also be fastened t o g e cylindrical shell as a lapioint with double fillet
D welds. - -
P
-

16.28 Are welded air reservoirs X-rayed and heat treated after
)completion of the welding operations?
B ~ h e r eare various rules covering the manufacture of welded pressure ves-
p e l s . These rules are issued by Ship Classification Societies, Government
Authorities, Technical Societies and Institutions. The necessity for X-ray
hesting and heat treatment or otherwise is set out in these rules and construction
()codes, and as is to be expected there are some variations.
Generally one may say that as the thickness and working pressure of the air
lheservoir increases, the rules governing welding quality and inspection
become more stringent. As the welding rules become more stringent, so the
*necessity for X-ray examination of the welding and subsequent heat treatment Fig. 16.3 Compensation for the material removed in compressed air receiver
@increases. In many cases air reservoirs are designed by carefully selecting the shells and dished ends.
 432 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine I Air Compressors, Air storage Tanks 433
I total capacity of the reservoirs or receivers must be sufficient to make 12 or
. machined curvature is then bedded to the shell and the ring is fastened with two
large fillet welds, one between the outside circumference of the ring and the inore starts without refilling the reservoirs. If the ship has twin screws the size of
shell, and the other between the sides of the hole in the ring and the surface of the reservoirs must allow not less than 12 starts on each engine. When the ship
the shell. For this weld procedure to be practicable the hole in the compensating has controllable-pitch propellers which are used for supplying astern power, it
ring must be larger than the hole in the reservoir shell. There is further relevant is usual to have the air reservoir capacity such that six starts can be made.
information on welding in Questions 6.33 and 6.34. (Fig. 16.3) In practice, ships are usually supplied with air reservoir capacity well in excess

16.31 When flat plate compensating rings are to befitted to pressure

vessels by fusion welding, it is usual to drill a small hole through the plate
I of these requirements. The actual number of starts that can be made without
refilling the air reservoirs is dependent on engine temperatures, lubricating oil
temperature, the skill of the engineer manoeuvring the engine and the minimum
air pressure that will start the engine. Usually most engines will still start when

i
thickness of the compensating ring priscto welding. What is the purpose the air pressure has fallen to half or even less than half of the designed
of this hole? maximum starting air pressure.
The hole drilled through the thickness of the plate compensating ring is kept less
than 9.5 mm in diameter. The hole allows release of air during welding and heat
treatment so that no pressure rise can occur as it could if air were entrapped 16.34 How does the stress vary in the shell material of a compressed air
receiver in the longitu~dmalandci?icumferentiaT
direction?
between the compensating ring and the shell. If any failure in service
occur with the welding within the hole in the compensating ring and the shell it I
The shell thickness of &compressed air receiver or refervoir is thin in relation to
will be indicated by air leakage from the small hole in the compensating ring. the diameter. It c h therefore be considered as a thin-walled vessel where the
The hole is also sometimes used for testing purposes, in which case a thread is
tapped in the hole. A threaded connection piece is screwed into the hole and
connected to an air supply with suitable pressure. When the welding is under
pressure it is tested for leakage and porosity with a soapy-water solution
i stress is uniform across the thickness of the material.
Let
D= internal diameter of the receiver
brushed on with a paint brush.
-
16.32 Name the fittings and mountings likely to be found on a main
I
l
and
t =shell thickness
P =working pressure

compressed air reservoir for starting main engines.

I stress = load/area
There will always be a large outlet valve of a size suitable to supply compressed
air at the required rate of the main engine starting air system, and a valve of I If a section of unit axial length is taken the circumferential or hoop stress is
much smaller size which is used for the air inlet to the reservoir from the main
compressor discharge. Many air reservoirs are also fitted with other outlet
valves which have connections with other air systems such as auxiliary engine
starting systems, instrument air, workshop air services, ship's whistle, filter I and the longitudinal stress is
cleaning systems, emergency air supply to boiler feed pump, boiler light up sets
and the like.
Excess air pressure is prevented by spring-loaded relief valves on the air
reservoir. In some cases the relief valves are fitted on the common discharge line
from the cumpressors and fusible plugs are fitted on the air reservoirs. The from which it can be seen that the stress in the material of the cylindrical shell in
fusible plugs prevent serious pressure rise if a fire should break out near the air the axial or longitudinal direction is only 'fifty per cent of the hoop or
reservoir. Drain valves or cocks are fitted to the bottom of the reservoir to drain circumferential stress, or the hoop stress is twice the axial stress.
off oil or moisture carried over with the air from the compressor. An
independent connection is fitted for the pressure gauges used to indicate the air
pressure within the reservoir. 16.35 Give an estimate of the increase in circumference of an air
reservoir when it is pumped up from zero gauge pressure to 41.4 bar
gauge pressure. The internal diameter of the reservoir is 1000 mm and the
16.33 Is there any rule governing the size of main engine starting air thickness of the shell is 13 mm.
rosorvoirs?
I
I
The load of a semicircular section 1 cm long is equal to
D x 1 cm x pressure
434 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Ennine

Therefore
Load = 1 x 0.01 x 41.4 bar = 0.0414 MN
and the area of material resisting the load is equal to
0.01 x 0.013 x 2 =0.00026 m2
Young's modulus E is stress/strain and is equal t o 210 GN/m2. Stress is given by
load/area which is
BALANCING AND
VIBRATION
Stress/Strain = E = 210 GN/m 2
Strain = Stre&/E

The increase in circumference in mm is given by s x 1000 x strain which is

17.1 When a ship's propeller is driven by some power source a torque-
3.142 x 1000x 0.000758 =2.38 mm resisting rotation is created. Is this resisting torque of constant or varying
value? - ...w
16.36 Why are the outlets from relief valves and fusible plugs fitted on When the ship is in calm water at some particular draught and proceeding at;,''
compressed air receivers arranged with lines from the fitting to some uniform speed the torque-resisting rotation can be considered to remain at some '
point outside the engine room? constant value. When the ship is in seas that cause the vessel to pitch, the
propeller immersion changes as the stern rises and falls. The torque-resisting
In the event of a fire in the engine room the function of the fusible plug and
rotation then changes with the change of immersion of the propeller. As the
relief valve is t o discharge air and hold the pressure in the receiver at some safe
level. If the air is discharged into the engine room the air will aid combustion of immersion increases the torque increases and the engine driving the propeller
slows down. In a like manner theengine speed increases when the propeller
any burning material and cause any CO, discharged in the engine room to be
displaced br weakened by mixing with air from the receiver. When the air comes towards the surface of the water.
discharged is piped out of the engine room there is no risk of air from the If the resisting torque is plotted against the angle turned through by the
receivers supporting the fire. propeller the result is a straight line of constant value.
Note Due to the pattern of the wake at the stern of a ship some variation of
torque will exist; for our purposes, however, we can assume that the torque is
constant in smooth water.
,
17.2 When an electrical generator is being driven o torque-resisting
rotation is set up. How does this torque vary?
While the electrical load remains constant the torque-&sting rotation rernzns
constant. When the electrical load is increased on the generator the resisting
torque increases, and when it is reduced the resisting torque is reduced. In order
to suit the voltage and frequency requirements of the various types of electrical
machine the rotational speed of a generator or alternator should remain
constant (See Question 17.4).
436 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Balancing and Vibration 437

17.3 The gas pressure on the piston of a diesel engine changes as the excess torque causes some increase in the rotational speed of the crankshaft.,
piston recipmcates within the cylinder. How do these gas pressure The excess energy is thus stored in the flywheel by virtue of its increased s w .
changes affect the output torque of the engine? During the periods of the cycle when the torque from the engine crankshaft is
Starting with the piston on top centre at the beginning of the firing stroke the less than the mean torque requirement of the load, the extra energy stored in
torque created by the gas pressure is zero, because the crank angle is zero the flywheel is returned to the shafting system, and helps to maintain the rota-
(piston, connecting-rod and crank form a straight line). As the crank moves - tional speed of the crankshaft. The flywheel is designed to hold the fluctuation
over the top centre position the gas pressure forces the piston downwards. Some in the rotatioial speed of the engine within the limits required by the load.
of the pressure is used to accelerate the piston, and the remainder creates a The flywheel also assists in holding the speed of an engine nearer to the
turning moment or torque which overcomes the resisting torque from the desired value while the engine governor is altering the fuel pump setting to suit
propeller, generator or machine being driven by the engine. When the crank is some changed condition in the load on the engine. It also stores energy from the
appfoximately 90' from the top centre position the piston speed is at a starting system during the starting operation and keeps the engine turning at
maximum. From this position the piston speed begins to fall until the piston sufficient speed to initiate combustion.
reaches bottom centre where its speed is zero. While the pTSton is bSng retarded The speed fluctuations discussed above do not alter the speed of the engine
the retardation force is added to the gas pressure on the piston, thus increasing when measured as revolutions per minute, but cause small changes in angular
the torque. velocity within the period of one or two revolutions depending on whether the
While the expansion stroke is taking place the forces acting on the piston engine is of the two- or four-stroke cycle.
create a torque which is considerably in excess of that required by the machine Note The flywheel is also used in conjunction with the turning gear for
being driven. During the other strokes required to complete the working cycle turning the engine. In smaller engines teeth are cut in the flywheel rim which are
of the engine (induction, compression, exhaust) energy must be obtained from engaged by the pinion of a starting motor when the engine is started. .
some source other than the fuel, and the engine torque is therefore negative. In
particular, during compression a considerable amount of energy is required to
compress the air.
It can be seen then that there are considerable fluctuations in the torque W 17.5 The terms 'fluctuation in energy' and 'fluctuation in speed' are used
output from a single cylinder at the crankshaft coupling and that there will be in reference to reciprocating engines. What do you understand by there
larger fluctuations from four-stroke cycle engines than from two-stroke cycle terms?
engines. As the number of cylinders on an engine are increased the torque The term fluctuation in energy refers to the changes in the energy output that
fluctuation is reduced.' occur during a complete cycle. It is calculated from the twisting moment or
Figure 17.1 shows the forces coming on to a piston during engine operation. torque diagram and the positions at which the angular velocities of the crank-
The gas pressure within the cylinder creates a downward acting force on the shaft are at a maximum and minimum value. The term fluctuation in speed
piston. Initially the primary inertia force acts in opposition to the gas pressure. refers to the changes that occur in the angular velocity of the crankshaft during
Soon after passing the mid position of its stroke the primary inertia forces aid a complete cycle.
the movement of the piston. After the fluctuation in energy and speed have been obtained, coefficients of
During the upward stroke of the piston the inertia forces act on the piston in these values are calculated and used for establishing the required mass moment
the opposite manner. The gas pressure under the piston (the charge air pressure of inertia for the flywheel.
in crosshead engines and the crankcase pressure in trunk piston engines)
continually act upward in opposition to the gas pressure above the piston.
Piston and piston ring friction also act continuously in a direction contrary to W 17.6 How would the requirements of a flywheel for a main propulsion
the piston movement. engine b e different from the requirements for a diesel engine driving an
alternator?
17.4 What is the purpose of the flywheel on a diesel engine? 1 The purpose of the flywheel on each type of engine is the same. The allowable
limits of speed fluctuation for a propeller are generally higher than for an
The turning moment from m engine cEilikshaft is subject to considerable
variation during its rotation, and the variation can be shown on a torque
diagram for tlic cnginc. I f t l ~ cavcragc torque rcquircd to drive the load is
plotted on a graph as a straight line with a constadt value it will be seen that the
I alternator. The flywheel for an alternator must therefore control the speed
fluctuation to much narrower limits. The necessity for controlling the speed
fluctuation to narrow limits becomes particularly important for engines driving
alternators which have to be run in parallel; further, the allowable tolerances in
actual torquc at ally instaut will bc greatcr or less than tlic mcan torquc. Whcri
1Iir l o r c l t i c ' ~ I ~ I 01r
I I ( * I I R ~ I I ( i\
~ ~ r ( ~ 1 1t111iri
a thc IIiCiII) 1or(111c
rcql~ircmcnllk I on a shin
are very small for much of the electronic equipment in- use
electrical frequency --
 l .Marine Diesel
l - . Engine
43H Qucalions and Answcw
_ - _ ~on
- _Ihc _--ll . -. ^ -. . - _ - - -

17.7 Does the.speed of a piston change or remain the same throughout . 17.9 What do you understand by the terms 'displacement', 'oscillation',
the stroke? 'periodic time and frequency' when related to s.h.m.?
When we speak of piston speed we are usually referring to the mean piston If a body or point is moving with s.h.m. it will oscillate between two fixed
speed which (in m/s) is given by points; if the centre between the two fixcd points is taken, the maximum
stroke (mm) x 2 x rev/min -stroke (rnm) x rev/rnin displacement is the distance from this centre to the extreme point of travel. The
displacement is in effect half the distance between the extreme points of travel.
1OOOx60 30 000 An oscillation is the movement of a point or body from the centre to one '

Example extreme point, over to the opposite extreme point and back to the centre point
again. More simply it could be described as the movement starting from one
What is the mean piston speed of an engine of 1600mm stroke running at 115 extreme point, over to the other extreme point and back to the original extreme
rev/min? point. An oscillation is sometimes referred to as a cycle.
The mean piston speed in m/s is The periodic time is the time taken to make one oscillation or cycle. The
frequency is the number of cycles or oscillations made in unit time. It is the
reciprocal of the periodic time.
The mean piston speed in ft/min is
17.10 Give a statement or formulae covering the velocity and
acceleration of a piston when the connecting-rod is 'n' times the length of
the crank. Say whether the formulae are applicable for both slow- and
Actually, during the stroke of the piston, the piston velocity changes from zero high-speed engines. -
at the beginning of the stroke to some maximum value at approximately mid Let
stroke. The velocity then decreases to zero again at the end of the stroke. From V = piston velocity
our studies in mechanics we know that any change in velocity is associated with f = piston acceleration
acceleration, therefore as the velocity of a piston varies it follows that accelera- I= connecting rod length
tion is occurring. When the piston velocity is zero the piston acceleration is at a r = crank length =half stroke
maximum. 8 =angle turned through by crank
If a connecting-rod were of infinite length, the piston velocity and accelera- o = angular velocity of crank
tion would be sudt-that it would move with simple harmonic motion.
- ...
- -
17.8 Define the term 'simple harmonic motion'.
Simple harmonic motion is a form of movement that is quite often met with in Then
nature: the strings of a musical instrument, the simple pendulum, and the
particles in an elastic body which is vibrating all move with simple harmonic
motion. It is often denoted by the letters s.h.m. We know from the motions
mentioned that it is a form of oscillating movement of a point or body which
takes place between defined limits or points. If a body or point moves with
s.h.m. it has an acceleration whiCh varies as its distance from the central point
of the movement. The distance that the point moves from the central position is
termed the displacement. The formulae given are sufficiently accurate for slow- and medium-speed
Mathematically, if the velocity of a point moving with s.h.m. is plotted on a engines; in balancing calculations for high-speed engines it might be necessary
time or angular displacement base, a sine curve is formed. The acceleration is to take the part of the formulae within the brackets out to a larger number of
given by a cosine curve when plotted on a time or angular displacement base. terms, which can be done by placing the appropriate input into a Fourier series.
Zero time commences with movement from the centre point of the travel or The mathematical work involved in this is beyond the scope of this book, but
from when the displacement is zero. the method can be found in books on mathematics.
 Balancing and Vibration 441
440 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

.where M = reciprocating mass. As

17.1 1 When a piston is moving, through its stroke it experiences
acceleration and retardation. Where do the forces causing acceleration
and retardation originate?
When we consider the balance of the moving parts of an engine the gas the original equation can be rewritten
pressures are not taken into account (for reasons which are explained in the next
Question). The piston is connected with the other moving parts of the engine
through the connecting-rod. The force causing acceleration of the piston from
the top centre position can be considered as coming from a pull exerted by the
connecting-rod, After the piston reaches its maximum velocity, retardation If the parentheses are removed we have
occurs, the retarding force c-dining from a push exerted by the connecting-rod.
This push from the connecting-rod continues while the piston goes through the F = M d r cos 8 + Mdr cos
- 28
n
bottom centre position and continues so that the piston is accelerated in the
vertical direction upwards, After the-pkton reaches its maximum velocity it is The component Mdrcos 8 is referred to as the primary disturbing force and is
again retarded as it continues towards the top centre. The retardation is caused comparatively easy to balance because it has an action similar to centrifugal
by a pull exerted by the connectng-rod. force.
The reactions to the forces in the connection-rod can be traced back to the The second component Mw2rcos28/n is referred to as the secondary
main bearings and the engine bedplate. disturbing force and is more difficult to balance.
.-- - When the piston i s o n t o p centrethe piston is in e_ffectpulled down by the
connecting-rod to give the acceleration, and the reaction to this pull tends to lift
17.12 Do the forces associated with piston acceleration have any effect the bedplate. When the piston approaches bottom Sntre it is retarded, and the
on the balance of an engine? What effect does the gas load on the piston reaction from the retarding force tends to push the bedplate down.
have on balance? When the piston moves upwards from the bottom centre position the reaction
When we speak about the balance of an engine we refer to the balancing of to the accelerating force continues to push the bedplate down until maximum
forces associated with the acceleration of reciprocating parts, and the balancing piston velocity is reached. Beyond this point and as the piston approaches top
of centrifugal forces arising out of the revolving parts. The forces arising out of centre moving upwards, the retarding force reaction tends to lift the bedplate
piston acceleration do have an effect on balance. The forces associated with UP.
each piston do not act in the saxiie plane so couples are created which must also This can be summarized by saying that the primary inertia forces from the
be taken into consideration when the complete balance of the engine is being piston and the reciprocating masses cause the bedplate to press hard down on
studied. This form of balancing is associated with the dynamics of the various the chocks when the piston approaches, goes through and leaves the bottom
moving parts; in consequence the gas load on the piston is not considered in the centre position. Similarly the bedplate tends to lift when the piston approaches,
calculations covering the balance of these forces and couples. However, the goes through and leaves the top centre position.
.
effects of the gas load on the piston must obviously be considered when stresses
are being calculated. 17.14 Give details of how primary disturbing forces can be balanced on
When calculations are made to find the actual loads on crosshead bearings, single-cylinder engines.
crosshead slippers, piston pins and on the sides of piston skirts, a correction
must be applied to the gas load on the piston for the inertia loads arising out of Primary disturbing forces from the reciprocating parts can be balanced by
the reciprocating parts. placing balance weights on the crank webs at 180" to the crankpin. The
centrifugal force exerted by the revolving balance weights works in opposition-
to the primary inertia forces associated with the acceleration of the recipro- .
17.13 How is it possible for the forces arising out of the acceleration of cating parts. Vertical forces coming on to the bedplate (vertical engines) from ' '
the pistCn to affect the balance of an engine?
the reciprocating parts are then balanced by the centrifugal forces coming from
It is known that a force is required to accelerate a mass (Newton's Second Law the balance weights. Unfortunately when the cranks are at 90" to the line of the
of Motion) piston stroke, the centrifugal force from the balance weights tends to rock the
engine transversely. A compromise is therefore necessary and it is customary to
accelerating force = mass x acceleration balance out the vertical primary forces only partially, by using balance weights
The acceleration of the reciprocating parts is denoted by f and lighter than would be required for full balance, and so keep the transverse
disturbing forces down to reasonable proportions.
 The primary inertia force at any point of piston travel is &eh by By substitution. the vertical component of the centrifugal force is shown to
M, w2r, cos 0
be:

where M, = the mass of the reciprocating parts.

w = the rotational speed of the crank radiadsecond. The value of o is the same in both the centrifugal force equation and the
r, = the crank radius. primary inertia force equation. If the percentage amount of balance required is
9 = crank angle. given by x then:
The centrifugal force caused by the rotation of the balance weights is given by
M2d r2
where M 2= the sum of the mass of each balance weight.
17.15 Is it possible to balance the secondary disturbing forces? Give
w = the rotational speed of the crank radiadsecond.
some details of how it is done.
r2 = the radius of action of the balance weights.
Figure 17.1 shows in diagramatic form a piston and crank with a balance For an engine running at a constant speed the variables in the formulae for the
weight attached. A vector triangle shows the centrifugal force CF from the I
primary and secondary disturbing forces are the values of cos 8 and cos 28,
balance weights acting at an angle of 8. From this diagram it can be seen that the where 8 represents the crank angle movement from the top centre position. The-,,;,
vertical component VC of this force is equal to CF cos 8. table below gives the values of the cosine for 8 and 28. - -,:+{
I Crank angle 0 cose cos 28
Primary mertia force.= M,&, COS8 1 0 + 1.0000
26

+ 1.0000
rh 45 +0.7071
0
90 0.0000
- 1.000
1I 90
135
180, -
+ 0.0000
-
-
0.707 1-
1.0000
180
270
360
0.0000
+ 1.0000
225 - 0.7071 450 0.0000
270 0.0000 540 - 1.0000
I 315 + 0.7071 630 0.0000
+
I 360 1.0000 7 20 + 1.0000

Examination of'the table shows that the secondary disturbing force reaches a
maximum and minimum value twice in one revolution of the crank, while the
Ii Vertcal component = CF ~ o s e
primary disturbing force reaches a maximum and minimum value once, i.e. the
secondary disturbing force goes through two cycles while the primary
disturbing force goes through one. It is possible to balance the secondary
disturbing forces but the balancing masses must revolve at twice the crankshaft
speed to accommodate the two cycles that occur in one revolution of the engine
crankshaft.
' Balance weight The way this is done in practice is to fit two auxiliary balance weight shafts on
either side of the engine bedplate, geared to run at twice the engine speed, and in
Fig. 17.1 Balance weights fitted to crank webs to balance or partially balanrce opposite directions. The balance weights on these shafts are in the top centre
the primary inertia forces arising out of the reciproacting parts of an engine. position when the piston is on top centre. When the piston is at approximately
The primary inertia forces are governed by the mass of the reciprocating parts half stroke the balance weights on the auxiliary shafts are in the bottom posi-
and the speed of rotation. The mass of the balance weights may be varied to
suit the degree of balance required. The speed of rotation given by w is the same
tion, and so on. A set of balance weights is required for each piston, and they
for the reciprocating parts and the balance weights. are fitted in the transverse plane of the piston. Because the auxiliary shafts run
In order to reduce the value of the horizontal component of the centrifugal in opposite directions the centrifugal forces from the weights on them balance
forces coming from the balance weights it is usual only to partially balance the out when they are in the horizontal plane: they are either both acting outwards
primary inertia forces. The reduction of the horizontal component value reduces at the same time when the weights are outboard or both acting inwards when the
the side forces acting on the engine and minimises their effect. weights are inboard. -
 The values of cos 8 and cos 28 and the crank angle 8 as set out in the table are
shown plotted, with different peak amplitudes in Fig. 17.2. The value of cos 28
has twice the number of peak values as cos 8 in the same amount of crank
displacement.
Figure. 17.3 shows a diagramatic arrangement of secondary balance weights
as described earlier. The number of teeth on the crankshaft gear wheel is twice
that on the balancer shaft pinions. The number of teeth on the idler pinion has
no effect on the speed of the right-hand balancer shaft.
The centrifugal force created by each balance weight is shown in the vector ,
diagrams as a-b and d-e, their vertical components are a-c and d-f respectively.
The mass of each balance weight and its centre of gravity is arranged so that the
sum of the two vertical components is equal to the secondary inertia force
arising out of the motion of the reciprocating parts. - 1
The horizontal components b-c and f-e are equal in amount but act in o m -
site directions, therefore, they balance one another when the engine is in
,
operation. I
Fig. 17.2 The primary and secondary inertia forces plotted as a function of
crank rotation degrees. Note The mathematics related to this form of balancing can be found in text
(a) Plot of primary inertia forces. books dealing with theory of machines and the Lanchester methods of
(b) Plot of secondary inertia forces. balancing. I
Some engines in the higher-speed range of both in-line and V-types have
auxiliary balancing shafts of this kind. 4
1
17.16 I n engines with auxiliary shafts a n d weights for balancing
secondary inertia forces, where must special attention be given during
t
crankcase examination? 1
When secondary-force balancer shafts are fitted to an engine the loads coming(
on to the bedplate and holdingdown bolb are reduced. The centrifugal forces
from the revolving balance weights on each shaft, although balancing the4
vertical secondary forces and in opposition to one another in the horizontal
plane and therefore balancing out so far as the engine structure is concerned, do4
imposed heavy loads on the individual auxiliary shaft bearings. The stress o q
the bearing studs changes during one revolution of the auxiliary shaft from the
tensile stress due to tightening of the stud and nut, to a maximum value made up4
of the tightening stress plus the maximum stress induced from the centrifugal
force exerted by the revolving balance weight. The induced stress in the studs
from centrifugal force is variable. The load on these studs is cyclic in nature, s q
they are prone to slackening off while in operation.
During crankcase inspection special care must be given to the auxiliary shaft4
bearings, the bearing cap fastenings and locking devices. If these studs slacken
particularly at the driven ends of the shafts, considerable damage may come4
about, often involving costly renewals and repairs. If the studs slacken at th$
driving end, the driving gears may come out of mesh, jam and cause the
Fig. 17.3 Secondary balance weights and their horizontal components. By auxiliary shaft or crankshaft to bend. a
~rrangingthe balance weights In the manner shown, the horizontal component When these bearing studs are tightened they must be carefully pulled up t
of onch Ixdnricrr wcr~gtitI S balanced. As the horizontal components are balanced
the secondary lriertlu forces cell be completely balanced.
the torque recommended in the instruction book. Split pins or split cotter P,
should not be used if they do not fit properly. The fit should be such that t h g
A pnir of balnncn wni(1hts is fitted at each crank position. split pin can be lightly tapped home with a light hammer. I f special locking nuts
a
with fibre inserts are used, they should not be re-used without the most careful As w and cos 0 are idcnticlrl for bot 11 upper ; I I I ~
IOWCIpis1011s111cycanccl out
consideration. Their cost is so little in relation to the potential damage if they and we can say
slacken, that they should be considered as expendable items during top piston mass x r upper piston = bottom piston mass x r bottom piston
overhaul - unless the instruction book specifically states otherwise.
It follows that the weight of the upper piston reciprocating parts consisting of
the piston, transverse beam, side rods, etc. is naturally greater than the recipro-
17.17 In vertical diesel engines each unit, so far as the masses of the cating parts of the lower piston. As the mass of the upper piston reciprocating
reciprocating parts are concerned, is identical. The cranks for each unit parts is greater, the value of r, the length of the crank, must be made smaller to
are at some angle to one another and at some distance from one another. make the primary disturbing forces equal and opposite.
What effect does this have on the disturbing forces created by the It should be noted that as the primary forces are equal and opposite for the
reciprocating parts? upper and lower pistons they equate to zero in any one cylinder unit. As they
equate to zero no couples are set up.
As the cranks are at an angle to one another there is a difference in the value (at
any one instant) of the disturbing forces between two units. The difference in Note This applies only to engines where the lower piston is connected to a
the instantaneous values of the disturbing forces and the fact that they are centre crank and the upper piston is connected through two side rods and two
acting at some distance from one another causes a couple or moment to be connecting-rods to a crank on either side of the centre crank.
created. The product of the difference in the value of the disturbing forces and
the distance-etween the cylinder centres produces the moment. These 17.19 If one examines the lower half of the crankcase or the bedplate of
disturbing moments tend to rock the engine bedplate in a fore and aft plane. -- opposed pisjon engines it is noted that the scantlings are lighter than the
The action tends to force one-md Wthemgine bedplate down and the opposite bedplate of a normal engine. Explain why.
end up.
Balance weights are sometimes fitted at one end of a propulsion engine to As opposed piston engines of the type discussed have no external primary forces
balance out moments. When a primary moment is being balanced the weights or couples and the firing loads are contained between the upper and lower
revolve at engine speed; they are timed or phased so that the moment from the pistons and not transmitted down to the bedplate and main bearings, it follows
action of the weights balances the moment produced by the engine. that loads coming on to tke bedplate S e much less than in ordinary engines. In
When a secondary moment is being balanced the weights revolve at twice the consequence they are often made lighter than the bedplates of other types of
engine speed; they are also so phased that they balance out the secondary engine.
moments. If the weights are timed or phased incorrectly they will increase the It should be noted that the gashads and inertia forces from the individual
out-of-balance moments. upper and lower pistons and running gear are transmitted through to the
The fitting of these balance weights assists in reducing any hull vibration that crankshaft from the centre and side rod bottom-end bearings.
may arise out of any of the moments coming from the engine. In some cases 1
balance weights become necessary if the engine is located at a node point in the 17.20 If one examines a crank and bottom-end bearing assembly it is
hull and the frequency of the moment matches or nearly matches the natural seen that quite a large mass is on one side of the centre-line of the crank-
frequency of any hull vibration and creates a resonant condition. (Fig. 17.4) shaft iournals. How does this off-centre mass affect the operation of the
engine?
The mass of material which forms the crankwebs, crankpin, bottom-end
17.18 In vertical opposed piston diesel engines where the upper and
bearing assembly, and the lower part of the connecting-rod, constitutes a large
lower pistons operate through one lower crankshaft, the upper piston
mass which rotates in a circular path having its axis on the polar axis of the
stroke is less than the lower piston stroke. Why i s the engine made in this
journals. When the engine is running at operational speed these parts set up
way?
centrifugal forces. The summation of these forces is such that they add up to a
In this type of engine the pistons always move in opposite directions so it is large force which acts radially outwards from a point midway between the
possible to balance the primary disturbing forces from the upper and lower crankwebs passing outwards through the centre of the crankpin. The value of
pistons and their attendant reciprocating parts. Taking the formula for the this force is naturally dependent on the weight of the parts and their angular
primary disturbing force we have velocity. The effect of this force on the operation of the engine is to induce loads
in the main bearings which in turn tend to move the bedplate in the direction in
which the force is acting. For example, when the crankpin is passing over the
and in order to balance the disturbing forces from the upper piston they must be top centre the force is acting upwards and is tending to lift the bedplate. Whe~;
equal and opposite to the disturbing force from the lower piston. the crankwebs are at 90" to the line of piston stroke the force tends to slide thg"
448 Ouestions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Ennine
Balancing and Vibration 449

bedplate to one side in the direction of the crankweb. When the crankpin is on 17.23 What do you understand by the statement thot an engine is in
bottom centre the force is acting downwards and tends to push the bedplate good balance so far as moments and forces are concerned?
hard down on the chocks and engine foundations.
If an engine is in good balance it is understood that the forces and couples
coming on to the bedplate are within acceptable limits and are not likely to
cause trouble with the foundation chocks or holding-down bolts, or set up
17.21 How do the primory disturbing forces from the inertia of the
reciprocating parts compare with the forces caused by the revolving
unacceptable vibration in the engine foundation and hull structure. For an
parts?
engine to be in good balance all the forces caused by the reciprocating and
revolving parts must be preferably fully balanced out, or at least partially
The primary inertia forces from the reciprocating parts vary in amount but balanced out. Any moments or couples caused by these forces must also be fully
always have the same line of action; the centrifugal force created from the or partially balanced out. In many cases it is not possible to completely eradi-
revolving parts on the crankshaft is always the same in amount but is changing cate all the forces and moments but they must be balanced to satisfactory and
in direction. acceptable values.
The mass of the bottom part of the connecting-rod, the bottomend bearing, Generally it can be said that six-cylinder and twelve-cylinder engines are the
the crankpin and part of the crankweb sets up a centrifugal force, the vertical easiest t o balance completely, followed by eight-cylinder engines - in which out-
component of which is algebraically additive to the inertia force arising out of of-balance couples may remain. Usually engines with four or more cylinders
the mass of the reciprocating parts.
The horizontal component tends to slide the engine bedplate from side to side
(see Fig. 17.1).
FORCES AND MOMENTS. DESCRIPTION

17.22 What do you understand by the terms 'static balance' and 'dynamic
balance'?

A crankshaft or turbo-Mower rotorxin balance statically if it has its centre of

gravity on the polar axis of its journals. If the rotor or crankshaft were set up on
knife edges it would remain in the position it was left in and would not roll. If it
is out of balance statically it will have its centre of gravity off the polar axis of
the journals. When placed on knife edges and moved slightly it will then always
roll to the.same position where its centre of gravity is directly un&rThTpolar
axis. In any other postion a turning moment exists due to gravity which causes
the rotor or crankshaft to roll until its C.G. is vertically below its polar axis.
When a turbo-rotor or crankshaft is in dynamic balance the conditions for
static balance must be present, but in addition, when the shaft or rotor is I. Order Moment,ver?ical,l-/Rev
revolved in the bearings or on two sets of rollers the load on each bearing or set 2. Ordw M m ? ,vwtiwl.2-/ Rev.
of rollers must remain constant throughout 360' of rotation or during the time
the shaft or rotor is turning. If the load on a bearing or set of rollers does not
remain constant throughout a_ revolution it indicates that some mass in one
/ 1. Order Moman?.horizontal.1 -/Rev.

plane is out of balance with another mass in another plane and a couple is set up
which causes a variation in the load on each of the bearings or rollers.
r Guide Force Mment, ti,ver?icol T-/Rev.

If a turbo-blower rotor with two blade discs is considered it can be seen that if
a blade were removed from one rotor disc and another blade were removed
from the other rotor disc but diametrically opposite in angular position, the
,Y
rotor would be in good static balance if the moment (mass x distance from axis) A = Combustion Pressure
of each blade were the same. If this rotor were run up to speed in a balancing 0= Guide Force
C= Stay Bolt Force
rnachinc i t would exhibit bad dynamic balance due to the moment created by Da Main Bea~ngForce ( a 1 Cornbushon Force
each disc with a missing blade. The out-of-balance forces not being in the same ( b ) Force due lo Mass
phnc and thcrclorc wilt disca~iccapart, create a couple or moment.
450 Ouestions and Answers on !he Murine Diesel Engine

Node Node have the cranks arranged so that t h e primary reciprocating forces and
centrifugal forces are balanced.
Note The only perfectly balanced reciprocating engines were those built to the
designs of the late Dr Lanchester and used in automotive practice many years
ago.

Node Node Node

17.24 List the forces and moments which may come about i n a vertical
multicylinder engine. What effects will these forces and moments hove?
Primary and secondary disturbing forces arising out of reciprocating parts,
together with their associated moments.
Horizontal and veeical forces and moments arising out of the centrifugal
-forces from revolving parts.
3 Forces and moments arising out of guide forces.
4 Reaction of the engine structure due to torque from the crankshaft.
The forces and moments are dependent on the number of cylinders, crank
angles, masses and speed of the moving parts. In some cases the forces and
moments are balanced internally and have no external.effect, in other cases the
unbalance may manifest itself in vibration of the hull structure. Where there is
no external effect arising out of the balance moments there may be an increase
in the loads on main bearings around the mid length of the crankshaft.
Figure 17.4 (a) shows the out of balance forces and moments associated with
a two stroke cycle crosshead type diesel engine. The ef_fectsof gas pressure are
also shown.
Figure 17.4 (b) shows how an engine having out of balance forces and
moments can cause hull vibration.
An engine having out of balance forces could cause a two node, three node or
Fig. 17.4 (a) Forces and moments occurring in two-stroke crosshead engines. multi node form of vibration if it is located between nodes. This is shown when
These forces and moments occur in any make of engine and are dependent on an engine is located at points marked 'A'. The upward and downward acting
engine speed, the mass of parts, etc. forces coming out of the engine create a push and pull action on the hull
The first and second vertical order moments may cause a forced vibration in the structure and lead to vibration.
hull. If the engine speed is such that the forced vibration frequency is near a Engines having out of balance moments may cause vibration if located at
natural frequency in the hull, resonant conditions may occur and lead to very
high hull stresses and extreme discomfort t o those on board. Although
points marked 'B'. The out of balance moments create a couple; when this
electronic navigation equipment is tested on vibrating stands t o ascertain the life couple acts in way of any node point the rocking action coming out of the
of components, experience has shown that breakdown of electronic navigation 1 engine acts on the hull and could lead to vibration.
equipment occurs early in life when any hull vibration that may appear If the hull structure is not strong enough to resist or dampen these actions
acceptable is present. Some failure of electronic equipment is also associated vibration will be experienced. If the engine is operating at a speed which
with local vibration caused by propeller excitation. (MAN B&W drawing) II
coincides with a natural hull frequency a resonant condition will arise and the
(b) Two- and three-node hull vibration. Engines with large out of balance vibration amplitudes may become excessive or even dangerous. A change of
vertical moments may cause hull vibration when fitted at points marked 'B'. 1 engine speed, up or down, usually gives the desired effect.
Note. Some main propulsion engines with a small number of cylinders and large If service demands make it impracticable to change engine speed, changing
out of balance primary forces have caused hull vibration to occur when fitted at ! fuel location or moving ballast may give the required degree of damping. If the
points marked 'A'. When hull vibration occurs while operating under light ship
vibration remains excessive then a speed change becomes necessary to prevent
condition the vibration may be reduced by increasing the amount or changing I
the location of ballast. I the start of hull fractures.
ICY Primarv and secondarv moment balance weiahts fitted at one end of an
engine. ~ h & balance
i weights.canbe BtUxi after the shop trials if a serious hull
, - -- Figure 17.4 (c) shows a type of balancer gear capable of balancing moments
that lead to hull vibration.
vibration not found in the hull design stage is experienced. (MAN B&W) I The engine designer aims to eliminate or reduce to acceptable levels of the
I
!
 - Balancing and Vibration 453
452 Questions and ~ n s & r s on the Marine Diesel Engine
axial movement at the end of the shaft and may lead to an unwanted axial
various forces and moments which come from an engine when it is in operation. vibration. - -- - - - ---
- -
The reactions to these forces and moments come down to the engine foundation By moving the hands, one clockwise and the other anticlockwise, the length
which forms part of the ship's hull structure and in consequence Hay a u s e of rubber can be bent to form the arc of a circle.-lfhe stresses will be similar to
vibration of the hull-or parts of the hull. those in a loaded beam and if a vibration occurs from this form of loading it is
referred to as transverse vibration.
17.25 Apart from ease of manufacture, why is the semi-built crankshaft The three forms of vibration are: axial vibration in which the particles move
more popular in slow-speed direct-coupled engines? backwards and forwards in lines parallel to the axis of the bar or shaft; torsional
vibration in which the particles move in small circular arcs around the centre of
Semi-built crankshafts may be cast or forged in steel, and the two webs and the axis of the shaft; transverse vibration in which the particles move in lines
crankpin form one piece. By enlarging the size of the crankpin and boring it perpendicular to the axis of the bar.
out, a very stiff section can be formed. This, together with the fact that the web
does not encircle the crankpin as in fully built shafts, reduces the out-of-balance
rotation weight at the crankpin and makes it less difficult to achieve the balance 17.28 Is it possible for a shaft to experience torsional vibration while it is
required. Some crankshafts are balanced by varying the size of the holes in the revolving and transmltting torque?
crankpins and casting a balance weight section withih the engine flywheel. Yes. Axial and transverse vibrations can also occur in revolving shafts. In
making studies of the vibration characteristics of shafting, engine components
17.26 How can the action of vibration be described? and the like, the part being studied is considered as static except for the motion
of the vibration which is occurring.
If a constrained piece of elastic material is loaded in some manner, deformation
occurs. When the load is removed the deformed material returns to its original
condition. In returning to its original condition the elastic strain energy stored 17.29 Sometimes a piece of material can be seen vibrating but the -
in the deformed material is converted to kinetic energy which causes the vibration dies away and the vibrating part becomes static. Why does this * .
material to continue moving beyond the point of zero strain. The movement occur? I

continues until all the kinetic energy is again converted to elastic strain energy All elastic materials when vibrating experience some resistance which dissipates
and the malerial is in a deformed condition. The action is again repeated as the the energy causing the vibration, and so the vibration may die away and the
deformed materials revert to the position of '
zero strain. The action continues vibrating parts become static. This resistance and its action is referred to as
and the material is said to be vibrating. damping. It is made up of internal and external resistance. The internal
The motion is described as free or natural harmonic vibration. resistance is caused by the resistance of the particles to motion or by internal
friction. The external resistance is due to the resistance set up by the medium in
17.27 Imagine you have a square-sectioned length of rubber constrained which the part is vibrating. It should be pointed out that as the amplitude
by holding the ends in the right and left hands. Describe how you could increases the damping action also increases.
stress the rubber and name the types of vibration that would be
associated with the stresses described. 17.30 If a vibration is damped describe what occurs.
The piece of rubber could be stretched by moving the hands apart thereby When a free vibration,is damped the energy changes at each oscillation are
increasing its length, axially. If vibration occurred so that axialstresses are set gradually reduced. The amplitude is also gradually reduced until it becomes
up it would be described as axial vibration: zero. During this period of decay the periodic time is slightly increased and the
If the wrists are turned in opposite directions the square section would be frequency is slightly reduced.
twisted and the edges of the square corners would change from straight lines to
helices. The rubber would then be subjected to torsional or shear stress; when
vibration occurs associated with torsional stress it is described as torsional 17.31 The term 'forced vibration' is sometimes used. What do you
vibration. Iri the unstressed condition the corners of the square-section rubber understand by this term?
lie along straight lines; when torsional vibration occurs the straight lines formed Forced vibrations are of fairly common occurrence, and therefore of consider-
by the square corners move to form right-handed and left-handed helices. able importance in vibration studies. For forced vibration to occur the vibrating
When the shaft is twisted in this manner it is slightly shortened in an axial body must be subjected to a rhythmically applied force or load. The initial
direction. When under the action of a varying torque changing in direction as in motion of vibration is complicated in nature and consists of both free or natural
a crankshaft, the periodic decrease and increase in length will bring about an
vibrations and the forced vibration. ,The natural vibration rapidly dies away 17.35 If we hove two masses of different values fastened at each end ol
(see Note) and the forced vibration continues under the action of the rhyth- a flexible shaft supported on frictionless beorings, how would the system
mically applied force. The frequency of a forced vibration is the same as the behave when the shaft is vibrating torsionally and in a natural manner?
frequency of the rhythmically applied force. Imagine that a straight line has been scribed along the shaft longitudinal
Note The rapid decay of the natural vibration is sometimes referred to as the between the two masses. Vibration would be started by giving the masses son
transient vibration or transient condition. angular displacement in opposite directions. If the masses and shaft dimerisior
were chosen so that the vibratory movement were slow enough to be easil
visible, the scribed line would be seen to go through a swinging movement s
17.32 The term 'resonance' sometimes appears in articles on vibration. that right-handed and left-handed helices were formed. It would also be notice
What is resonance and why is a resonant condition of great importance? that the movement of the scribed line was a radial or angular movement whic
It is known that any elastic system has a natural vibration which will have some took place about some point which remained futed while the rest of the shaj
frequency. If the system is subjected to forced vibration and the frequency of was torsionally vibrating. On one side of the fixed point the shaft would swin
the rhythmically applied forces is very near to or the same as the natural in one direction while on the other side it would be swinging in the opposit
frequency ofThe elastic system, resonance occurs. When the frequency of the direction, The fixed point is referred to as the node or nodal point.
applied force approaches t& natural frequency of the elastic system the The periodic time would be the same for the sections of shaft on each side a
amplitude of the vibration increases at an alarming rate. The amplitude of the node, and the node would be nearer to the larger mass; the amplitude of th
the vibration is equivalent to strain. As stress is proportional to strain, stress larger mass would be less than the amplitude of the smaller mass.
also increases at an alarming rate. Operation of machinery where a resonant In this example the amplitudes would be angular and would normally b
condition occurs is extremely dangerous and early failure must be expected of measured in radians. line scribed on the shaft when in a position of extrem
the part operating under resonant conditions. It is for this reason that resonant displacement is referred to as the elastic line.
conditions are of great importance.
17.36 Show how the pressvresrdinates on an indicator diagram can be
redrawn on a uniform time base in the form of a periodic pressure or
17.35 What is a harmonic?
force acting on the piston.
If we have a vibration with a fundamental frequency, the harmonics would be An indicator diagram taken from an engine where the indicator drive is take]
vibrations having frequencies which are whole number multiples of the funda- from the crosshead or from a lever and eccentric off the camshaft, wil
mental frequency. For example, if the fundamental frequency were 4 cycles per incorporate the effect of connecting-rod angularity.
second, the second harmonic would have a frequency of 2 x 4 cycles per second The connecting-rod angularity and its effect on piston position must be taker
(8 c/s), similarly the fourth harmonic would have a frequency of 4 x 4 cycles per into account when re-drawing the diagram on a time base or as a polar diagram
second (16 c/s) and so on.
\
17.34 When we speak of constrained elostic systems vibrating, what
would be the constraint in the shafting system of a direct-coupled slow-
speed engine?
The crankshaft and shafting system of a slow-speed directcoupled diesel engine
is made up of a series of large masses connected by relatively slender and
flexible shafts. If we start at the aft end of the system the first large mass is the
propeller. This is connected to the engine flywheel by a long shaft; being long,
relative to its diameter, it is naturally flexible. The two constraints are the
masses of the propeller and the flywheel.
Between the flywheel and the engine is the thrust shaft and the aftermost
crankwebs. The thrust shaft, while relatively slender, is much shorter and
therefore its elasticity is less. Each crank can also be considered as a constraint
connected by a relatively flexible journal.
The large masses are therefore the constraints and the elastic parts of the
system are the connecting sections of the shafting. Fig. 17.6 Sketch showing the forces acting on an engine piston.
456 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
Balancing and Vibration 457
a
The method of making this correction is shown in Fig. 17.8. The gas pressure
on the top of the piston causes motion downwards. T k forcesresisting piston
motion are the gas pressure under the piston, piston ring and piston friction,
and piston skirt or crosshead slipper friction. The inertia forces resist the piston
motion during the time the piston is accelerating from the top centre position
and reaching its maximum velocity; during the lower part of the piston stroke
when the piston is being retarded the retaidation assists the movement of the
piston. When the piston is moving upwards from the bottom centre position the
inertia forces retard piston movement until the piston reaches its maximum
velocity. When the piston is being retarded the inertia forces assist the piston
motion. The length of the connecting-rod must be known. This is drawn to the
same scale as the base of the indicator diagram. The positions of the ordinates
can then be corrected to obtain their relative crank angles. When this has been
done the ordinates from the diagram can be plotted on the time or crank-angle
base (see later and Fig. 17.8 which shows how this is carried out).
If the gas pressure at any point is multiplied by the area of the piston the
diagram can be drawn with the ordinates as the force acting on the piston. This
diagram will be identical in form with the plot of the gas pressure because the
area of the piston has a constant value.

17.37 Show how the effect of two harmonic motions hoving the same
frequencies but not occurring at the same time con be combined.
Fig. 17.7 Addition of primary and secondary inertia forces.
The two harmonics are first plotted as separate harmonics on the same time
base, but with the time difference correctly positioned. The vectors of each
harmonic motion are then added geometrically to obtain a third periodic
motion. This is shown in Fig. 17.6. The time difference between the two
harmonics is referred to as the phase angle or phase difference. 17.38 Show how two periodic motions con be combined when one
periodic motion has a frequency of twice the other.
This case can be likened to the case of the primary and secondary inertia forces 4
in an engine. 4
The two periodic motions are plotted on the same time base qnd the ordinates
are added algebraically to obtain the combined effect of the two periodic 4
motions. (Fig. 17.7)
4
-. . -.
4
17.39 If a periodic motion is the same as or shnilor to the combined
motlons shown imthe previous Questions, c w l d the periodic motion be 1
broken down to the separate motions from which the combined motion
was originally obtained? 4
It is possible to break down a combined form of a set of periodic motions into i
the basic forms from which it was obtained. Sometimes the basic forms are (
I referred to as harmonics. This is difficult to carry out and requires a good
Phase angle
-
knowledge of mathematics. 4
One method is to use a mathematical process known as Fourier Analysis. The
Fig. 17.6 Combination of two harmonics of the same frequency. Note. The method is beyond the.scope of this book, but the student should be familiar (
term 'phase angle' applws only to two harmonics with the same frequency
with it in order to achieve a better understanding of the cause and effect of
value. Harmonics w~thdifferent frequencies do not have a phase angle.
vibration.
17.40 Show how the diagram of the forces acting on a piston (shown in
Fig. 17.5) can be converted to a diagram showing the tangential forces
acting on the crankpin.
The force acting on the piston at any point in the stroke is obtained from the
product of the pressure at that point in the stroke and the area of the piston.
If the effect of inertia force is ignored, the force acting on the piston due to
gas pressure isihe same as the force acting on the crosshead. This force can be
drawn as a vector in a triangle of forces from which the force acting on the
connecting-rod may be obtained. The force acting on the connecting-rod can
then be drawn as a vector in another triangle of forces to obtain the tangential
force acting on the crankpin. The values obtained can then be plotted as
ordinates on a time base. (Fig. 17.8)
The method for carrying out this procedure is as follows.
Figure 17.8 (a) The atmospheric line of the indicator card or diagram is
projected to the right to accommodate the scale length of the connecting rod
and the crankpin circle. The length of the indicator card and the diameter of the
crankpin circle will be the same. In the example shown the connecting rod
length is three times the crank throw. The crankpin circle has been divided up
into 10 degree intervals. Using a compass set to the scale length of the
connecting rod, arcs are swung from the various points on the crankpin circle to
pass through the atmospheric line of the indicator card.
The height of the ordinate at each point is then lifted with dividers and
carefully measured. The product of ordinate height and spring number gives the
cylinder pressure at that point in the piston stroke. The calculated value for the
cylinder pressure at each ordinate is recorded.
Figure 17.8 (b) shows a base line drawn up to represent 360 degrees of crank
rotation divided up into 10 degree intervals.
The cylinder pressure recorded for each ordinate is set up to some scale on the
corresponding ordinates in (b). The curve showing the gas pressure in the
cylinder may then be drawn in as shown.
Figure 17.8 (c) shows the line of the piston stroke set up vertically and the
crankpin circle drawn to the same scale as in (a). An arc corresponding to the
scale length of the connecting rod is swung from a point on the crank pin circle,
corresponding to the point on the crankpin circle shown in Figs 17.8 (a) and (b),
to pass through the line of stroke.
In Fig. 17.8 (d) the gas pressure is set up in a vector diagram as a vertical line
a-c. The angle of the connecting rod to the line of the piston stroke is set up at
the correct angle as shown in a-b, this will run parallel to the line of the
connecting rod~hownin Fig. 17.8 (c). The length of the vector (a-b) represents
the force acting down the connecting rod per unit area of piston.
The vector b-d passingthrouxh w int .@$is drawn parallel to the normal on
the crankpin circle. The line of the crank is drawn parallel to the line of the
crank in Fig. 17.8 (c) to pass through point (a) in Fig. 17.8 (d). The vector b-d
represents the force acting tangentially to the crankpin per unit area of piston.
The product of this'.force, the area of the piston and the length of the
crankthrow gives the torque acting on the crankshaft at this point in the piston
460 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Balancing and Vibration 81
stroke. The value of the torque is plotted to some scale on Fig. 17.8-(b).lFhis is
repeated for each of the crank positions drawn up in (a).
17.41 Show~tIi&i~rninioffhe d6grams you-would expect if the f i e
.obtained from plotting the tangential force on the crankpin shown in
*
1,
- --

After marking iri each torque value the curve of torque values plotted against Fig. 17.8 were to be broken down into itTvarious harmonics. e
crank angle may be drawn in.
When dealing with four stroke cycle engines the base for the cycle must
extend over 720 degrees of crank rotation.
Note if a greater degree of accuracy is required, tke inertia forces arising out
The various curves obtained by Fourier Analysis are shown in Fig. 17.9.
The harmonics shown sketched in below the torque curve were at one t' e
obtained mechanically by using a special drawing and plotting instrument
design office practice tables and sets of curves may be used to find
k*
of the motion of the reciprocating parts will have to be used as a correction harmonics and calculate the corresponding stresses.
factor and added algebraically_to the force on the piston arising out of the gas Today, this design work is d e d out with a computer and a plotter using*
various programs now available. It should be noted that two stroke cy le
pressure.
engines do not have half order harmonics. 6
Torque 1 180' 360" 540' 720° Degrees
17.42 If three masses were attached together by two relatively flexibl)
shafts how would the system vibrate torsionally? What is the relationsh'
between the number of masses and the number of nodes? Y)
Let one mass be located between the two flexible shaft sections and the ot@r
masses be fitted at opposite ends on each side of the central mass. If the systQ
described is supported on a pair of frictionless bearings it can be shown that
there are two modes of natural torsional vibration. The system is someti*
referred to as a three-mass system. j .

One mode of vibration would be similar to that described in 17.34 ahd h&
one node. In this mode, two of the masses would move in one direction w w
the other mass moved in the opposite direction, and vice versa. The nodal polnt
would naturally be on that section of shafting where the masses moved*
opposite directions. In the second mode of torsional vibration the central m
would move in one direction while the two outer masses moved in the oppos R
l+&b4 order
direction and vice versa. This mode of vibration has two nodes - one on e w
section of shafting.
Generally it can be assumed that the number of nodes will be one less than
number of masses in the system, or equal to the number of lengths of elas
a
connecting-shaft sections. 8
8
17.43 In a system in which a six-cylinder, direct-drive, slow-speed engi#
is connected to a propeller, how many nodes would there be? How man
modes of nutural vibration could such a system have; are some more
Y
important than others? a
If each crank is considered as a mass there will be six masses within the e n g i m
the mass of the flywheel, and thernass of the propeller. This is equal to a total of
eight masses. The possible number of nodes could be up to seven. From thisl)
Fig. 17.9 The torque plotted against the crank angle for a single-cylinder, four-
stroke cycle, pressure-charged engine. The torque, crank angle diagram has
may be assumed that there could be seven different modes of vibration.
first mode of vibration would have one node, the second two nodes, the thl
three nodes and so on up to seven. Generally, the lower modes of vibration
P
been broken down into a set of curves representing the half order, first order,
orlo und u liulf ordur, sucorid odor arid two and one half order harmonics.
investigated and analysed as these are normally of more importance; the higher
Note.There are no half order h~rrnonicsin two-stroke cycle engines. modes of vibration are often outside, the operating speed range of the engill()
rn
462 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Hulanrine and Vibration 4t

17.44 What do you understand by the terms 'critical speed' and 'barred (c) An increase in the shaft diameter will make the shaft stiffer: consequent
speed-range'? the natural frequency of the system will be increased.
The graph of the turning moment from a single-cylinder engine is made up from
a combination of the forces acting on the pistons and the inertia forces from the
running gear (Question 17.3). The turning moment reaches a peak each 720" of 17.47 If the spare propeller has to be fitted in place of the normal
crank rotationin a four-stroke cycle engine and each 360° for a two-stroke cycle working propeller does the barred speed change, or is a barred speed
engine. In multicylinder engines there will be a peak for each cylinder. In a likely to. be introduced?
four-stroke cycle enginethe numberof pwkswill thefefore equal the number of If the spare propeller and working propeller are made of similar materials ar
cylinders firing in 720" of crank rotation, or half the number of cylinders.for have similar characteristics the barred speed will not alter. But if, for exampl
360' of rotation. In two-stroke cycle engines the number of peaks per revolu- the working propeller is made of one of the lighter high-tensile bronzes and tl
tion will be equal to the number of cylinders. If the peaks per 360" of crahk spare propeller is made of cast-ir_on there will be a considerable difference
rotation are multiplied by the engine rev/min we can get a frequency per min. If their weights. Consequently there will be a difference in their mass moments (
this frequency is similar to any one of the various natural frequencies of the inertia (WK2) and when the spare propeller is fitted the barred speed w
engine shafting system we have a resonant condition (Question 17.31). change. It can generally be assumed that if a heavier propeller is fitted tl
The speed of the engine in rev/min at which the resonant condition occurs is natural frequency of theshaftkg system will be reduced. The actual amount
referred to as the critical speed. The high stresses associated with resonant change will depend on various factors. Where there is a large difference betwec
conditions start to build up as the engine speed approaches the critical speed, the weights of the spare propeller and the working propeller, details are given
and do not come back to some safe value until the engine speed is beyond the the time the torsional vibration characteristics are submitted by the engi~
critical speed. The unsafe stresses either qide of the critical speed are referred to builders to the classification society for their approval. '
as the flank stresses. The barred speed-range of an engine is the range of s ~ e e d The actual change in the barred speed-range is usually small and is oftc

+
from the beginning of build-up of unsafe flank stresses to the dying-away of
txese stresses at some hi her s eed. Obviously the engine must not be
&ntinuously operate at speeds within t& barred range.
covered by making the red sector on the tachometer sufficiently large to i n c h
both the working and spare propeller barred ranges.

17.45 How are ship's officers made aware of the barred speed-range of 17.48 If in the preliminary design of a shafting system it is'found that th
an engine where a barred speed exists? torsional vibration characteristics are not satisfactory what can be done i
improve the situation?
The barred speed-range or ranges are often marked on the engine-room and
bridge propeller-shaft speed tachometers. The marking consists of a red- If the system is to run at constant speed (for example, a diesel generator) there
coloured sector on the tachometer. The width of the sector is such that it normally no great difficulty in bringing the critical speeds outside of tl
corresponds to the upper and lower speeds of the barred speed-range. In other operating speed of the engine. This can usually be done by increasing tl
cases an engraved plate giving the lower and upper speeds of the barred range is torsional stiffness of the shafting system.
fitted on the bridge and engine-room main-engine control stations. The barred In the shafting systems associated with propulsion machinery it becom
speeds are also recorded in the main engine instruction book, usually on the more difficult to modify the natural frequency of the system, as usually m?
page giving the engine's characteristics. than one mode of vibration must be covered. If alterations to the torsiab
stiffness of shafting, or changing the values or location of the masses does nl
17.46 What is the effect on the natural frequency of a two-mass system if give the desired results, additional masses must be brought into the systen
any of the following changes are made? Sometimes the additional mass is in the form of a damper or detuner. In gem
(a) An increase or reduction in the distance between the masses. propulsion systems, couplings giving some damping effect can be fittc
(b) An increase or reduction in one of the masses. between the engines and the gearbox (described in Question 12.6).
(c) An increase or reduction in the shaft diameter.
(a) An increase in the distance between the masses reduces the natural 17.49 What do you understand by the term 'anti-node'?
frequency of the system; conversely a reduction in the distance increases the
natural frequency. In an earlier question it was shown that within a vibrating system certain poin
(b) Increasing the size of one of the masses so that there is an increase in its did not move or had zero amplitudes. These points having zero amplitudes we
mass moment of inertia will cause a reduction in the natural frequency of the referred to as nodes. The anti-nodes within a vibrating system are those poin
system: decreasing the mass moment of inertia increases the natural frequency. where the amplitudes of vibratory movement have maximum values.
1 17.50 G i v e some details of t h e commoner forms of vibration, d e t u n i n g
Consisting 01 a large mass (sometimes calleci the se~srlucmass), 1s tltteu on tne
a n d d a m p i n g devices used i n w n j u n c t i o n w i t h m a r i n e dieseTengin&.
first partin such a manner that it can move angularly. The centre part of this
mass is bored out to fit on the projecting shaft. The two parts have a series of
The commonest detuning and damping devices used in marine practice are slots cut around their circumferences in an axial direction. The two parts are
viscous-fluid dampers and spring-loaded detuners. In each of these both connected by a series of flat springs, the inside ends of the slots being cut with a
damping and detuning occurs. The viscous-fluid damper consists of a flanged curve which accommodates the curvature of the springs when they are deflected
circular casing which is rigidly fixed to the shafting usually at the forward end under load. The moving part of the detuner is enclosed within a casing which is
k.
4 , !-
of the crankshaft. Within the circular casing is a ring which has a large mass and attached to the part rigidly fued on the crankshaft. The inside of the casing is
I+ - completely fills the casing except for small clearances around it. The ring is not connected with the bearing lubricating oil supply and drain holes allow a small
fastened to the casing in any way and is completely free to move angularly circulation of lubricating oil through the casing. (Fig. 17.10)
within it. The clearance space is filled with a fluid which has the property of
retaining its viscosity over a wide temperature range. The ring fitted within the H o w does a viscous damper o p e r a t e ?
17.51
casing is sometimes referred to as the seismic mass.
Spring-loaded detuners have been made in many forms but a common form The effectiveness of any mass on the natural frequency of a shafting system
used in merchant ships consists of two parts. One part is rigidly fixed to the vibrating torsionally is dependent on the mass moment of inertia of the mass. A
crankshaft and has a centrally located shaft projecting from it. The other part, viscous damper is made up of two masses: the comparatively light casing and
the heavy inner ring which has a high mass moment of inertia. When the engine
is started the inner ring lags behind the outer casing, which moves with the
crankshaft. The viscous fluid drags the heavy ring round and it quickly comes
up to the same speed as the casing.
When the inner ring is moving with the speed of the casing the effective value
of the mass moment of inertia of the damper is the summation of the value for
the casing and the inner riqg. As the speed of the engine is increased and a
resonant condition is approached, the crankshaft and outer casing commence
to vibrate torsionally. When this occurs the viscous fluid separating the casing
and the ring allows some slip to take place and the effective mass of the damper
is reduced to that of the casing only. The reduction in the mass alters the
frequency of the system by increasing it. When slip occurs the energy within the
vibrating system is dissipated by the movement of shearing action within the
viscous fluid, and the amplitude of the vibration is kept within safe bounds. As
the amplitudes ,are kept low the stresses remain low. This will occur at any
critical speed.

Th~ssectlon f ~ x e dto crankshaft w ~ t h l ncoslna 17.52 H o w does a springhodad d e h n e r w o r k ?

The connection between the fixed and moving elementiof a detuner commonly
takes the form of flat strip springs, or laminated sprxgs made up from a series
of flat strips. These springs fit into slots which have a curved profile. The
curved profile is such that when the detuner operates with very small vibration
amplitudes the distance between the spring supports in the slots is nearly a
- - maximum. When the vibration amplitudes are large the distance between the
Thls sectlon free to turn w ~ t h ~constraint
n of sprmgs
C-- ___) spring supports is reduced. If we liken the flat strip spring to a beam we can see
that as the distance between the supports is reduced the stiffness of the beam or
Fig. 17.10 Silicone filled and spring-loaded d e t u n e r ~ . the spring increases. This change in stiffness of the spring in effect alters the
(a) Silicone filled detuner. The smallclearance space between the seismic mass mass moment of inertia of the moving part of the detuner and so varies the
and the casing is filled with a silicone liquid.
natural frequency of the shafting system.
(b) Spring-loaded detuner shown operating with maxiniurn damping. As
increasedldamping becomes necessary when approaching a critical speed the
When the engine is in operation and the speed is altered so that it coincides
deflect~onof the springs increases to give the required degree of damping. with or approaches a critical speed, vibration of the shafting system
 466 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

commences. The element of the detuner fixed to the crankshaft vibrates with through gearing it may impose hci~vylo;~tl\i111cl cirusc fntipuc fi~iluresof pear
the crankshaft. The moving part of the detuner then lags or leads the vibratory teeth. This is more likely to occur in idler wheels.
movement of the crankshaft and the natural frequency of the shafting system is If drives are also taken to the governor a speed increase is involved through
changed or detuned and the resonant condition vanishes. While the moving part gearing; the torque variation may then cause the governor drive gearing to wear
excessively.
of the detuner is lagging or leading the part attached to the crankshaft, the .,>&
-
- :;.<,
I. I,

energy used td reverse or change the loading on the flat springs dissipates a large
amount of the energy of the vibration, and damping occurs. The damping effect H 17.56 How would you know whether the drive to the fuel pumps and
reduces the amplitude of vibration of the crankshaft and keeps the stresses camshaft was, or was not at a nodal point?
within safe bounds.
The elastic curve line drawn for each mode of vibration crosses the base line or
line of zero amplitude at the nodal points. An examination of the nodal points
17.53 Is it possible to operate an engine continuously at a speed which and theirposition relative to thecamshaft drive will show if the drive is at a
causes the damper or detuner to be in full operation? nodal point and indicate the amplitude of the various modes.
Detuners and dampers designed for use with main engines will usually operate On an actual engine on a deep-sea ship, where the number of hours running
. continuously. The heat generated from the damping action of the viscous fluid ahead is very large relative to running astern, the wear patterns on the crank-
or the load reversals on the flat strip springs must be continuously removed so shaft gear and the camshaft gear teeth will show wear on both sides of the teeth
that no serious temperature rise takes place in the damper or detuner. if any appreciable amplitude or torque variation exists. If wear is present on
Viscous-fluid dampers are sometimes fitted external to the engine crankcase both sides of the teeth, the teeth on the idler gears should be inspected period-
in such a manner that sufficient air circulates around them to remove the heat ically for fatigue failure starting at the root fillets, more particularly if the root
generated. The lubricating oil allowed to circulate through a detuner is usually Wet radius is small.
of sufficient quantity for adequate heat removal. Note Dye-penetrant tests are very effective for this form of examination (see
Question 6.50).
17.54 Are detuners and dampers fitted at the nodal points or anti-nodal
points within a shafting system associated with a diesel engine? H 17.57 Why are dampers fitted in the camshaft drives of some medium.
At the nodal points in a shafting system subjected to torsional vibration there is speed engines?
no torque variation or amplitude arising out of the vibration. As there is no Dampers may be fitted for either of the following reasons.
torque vaiiation or amplitude nothing is available to activate the movement of
the seismic mass in the detuner or damper. No detuning or damping can 1 They may be fitted to smooth out the torque variations produced by the
therefore take place. engine at the point where the camshaft drive gear is fitted on the crankshaft.
Detuners and dampers are most effective if they are fitted at the anti-nodes. 2 In some engines, particularly those where the fuel pumps are driven by the
In practice this may not be possible so they are often fitted at the forward end of main camshaft, the variation in torque driving the camshaft through two
the engine. There is nearly always enough vibratory movement at the forward revolutions can be very wide and in many cases (particularly with small
end of the crankshaft to activate fulIy detuning and damping devices. In some cylinder numbers) the torque may have negative values for part of the time.
special cases detuners havd been fitted at the aft end of the engine and on the When the camshaft has negative torque values it is actually assisting in
intermediate shafting. driving the crankshaft and in so doing reverses the loading on the driven and
driving gears. The function of the damper in this case is to smooth out the
back driving periods, reduce tooth loads and noise, as back lash is taken up.
W 17.55 Why is it desirable to have the drive for the camshaft and fuel
pumps fitted at or near a nodal point on the crankshaft? ~ o t e Dampers used on camshaft drives are fitted with restriction devices to
limit the relative motion between the two parts of the damper.
If the drive is taken from a nodal point the turning monient is even; this is
desirable as it prevents any crankshaft torsional vibration from being trans-
mitted to the fuel pump and camshaft drives. If the drive is taken from some H 17.58 If you read in the instruction book for the main engine that
point' on the- crankshaft where there is appreciable torsional amplitude, a third-order, second-degree vibration existed at some engine speed
considerable variations in torqu_e will betransmitted through to the camshaft what would you understand by this?
and fuel pump shafts. A vibration of the second degree is the same as the second mode of vibration. It
The torque variation can cause heavy loads to come on the drive chains or indicates that when the system is vibrating two nodes are present. The third
gearing. Chains may dampen the vibration to some extent, but when the drive is
468 Questions and Answers on the-Marine Diesel Engine Balancing and Vibration 4.
order indicates that the engine speed is sukh that the number of impulses per drive) the propeller when running ahead forces the shafting system to take up
*
revolution coincides with the third harmonic of the natural frequency of the
system, in this case the two-node natural frequency (see Question 17.41).
position where the ahead face of the thrust meets the thrust pads. This becom 0
--- the fixed p o i n t o n h e - n i e fit% system. Similarly the node will becoiGidT -
Note In four-stroke cycle engines +-order harmonics are possible. For with the crankshaft location bearing in diesel generator sets. Any vibrato a)
example a 1;-order-harmonic would have a frequency of 1$ times the funda- movement in an axial direction will therefoE take place away from the thni3)
mental frequency. bearing or location bearing.

17.59 If the natural frequency of a shafting system is N and the speed of

the engine is such that a second-order critical speed exists, what is the l7.62 Where does axial vibration usually occur in marine diesel engine @
speed of the crankshaft? shafting systems?

It can be shown that the natural frequency divided by the critical speed gives the Axial vibration is usually found within the crankshaft section of the system arl)
order of the critical speed. makes itself manifest by movement of the forward section of the crankshaft; in
multi-cylinder, in-line, slow-speed engines the movement may reach an a p p d
natural frequency
critical speed
= order number
$able amount. The shortening and lengthening of the crankshaft journals
crankpins due to the shear stresses arising out of the torque placed on them ma
set up axial vibration. In older engines with more flexible crankshafts this m a .
9
natural frequency be exacerbated by bending of the crankwebs, crank pins and journals in a
critical speed =
order number similar manner to the vibration in a tuning-fork (see Question 17.27).

.
Axial vibration can be controlled by a damper.on the forward end of t
In the case given
N
crankshaft. The damper usually consists of a piston moving in a cylinder. Th
movement of the piston causes oil to be forced through small openings so t h b
"9
critical speed = - resistance to movement is set up. The resistance damps out the vibration.
2
-
= natural frequency
17.63 "
Why are air inlet and exhaust valve springs arranged in such a
If the frequency is measured in cycles per minute the second-order critical
speed in rev/min will be half the frequency (see Question 17.41). manner that more than one spring is used per valve?
If the frequency of the natural vibration of the air inlet or exhaust valve sprin
17.60 It is known that the friction between the molecules in a material is
responsible for the obility of that material to dampen out vibratory
is a harmonic of the camshaft speed, the springs may vibrate axially and are s a
to surge.
b
il)
movement. Is the ability to dampen out vibratory movement the same for Surge can be avoided by modifying the sizes of the springs. By arranging th
all the constructional materials used in diesel engines? springs in pairs and fitting one inside the other the avoidance of surge is mad b
less difficult. Another advantage of having pairs of springs is that if one s p r i n e
The ability of a material to dampen out vibratory movement is sometimes
referred to as its damping capacity or dynamic ductility. Usually the materials fails the valve is held up and is not damaged by striking the piston.
with high tensile strength have low damping capacity and those with lower Note A stopper or safety ring is usually fitted around valve stems to prevent a.I)
tensile strength have higher damping capacities. For example, high-tensile steels valve falling into the cylinder, but in the lower position it is still possible for t h e
have less ability to dampen than low-tensile steels. GenerallFcast-iron has a valve t o be struck by the piston.
better damping ability than steel, which is one reason it is sometimes preferred 4
for crankcase construction.
In other cases (apart from providing easier production to any shape) cast-iron 17.64 When a shaft is vibrating torsionally how can the stresses caused
a
(special alloy type) is preferred to steel for the crankshafts of smaller engines. by the vibration be ascertained? If the shaft is driving some external loadl)
does the vibration increase the stress?
Note Generally the ability to withstand fatigue or the resistance to alternating 4
stresses is better with the higher tensile materials. Referring to the two-mass system in Question 17.34, it was found that the line
scribed on the shaft in the unstressed condition would swing between t w d
17.61 When axial vibration occurs in the shafting system of o main
propulsion engine or diesel generator. where is the node located?
positions and that the line would swing radially with the nodal point as th
centre. The elastic line gives the position of extreme displacement. The angle e
subtended between the elastic line and the scribed line in the zero-stress positioa
I'tir ~iodc
is i ~ ttt i c fiurtl point withi11:I vihr;~tinpsvstrnl In n main cnpinc (dircct nt the nodal point given the angular strr~innlo~lp.t hc surfncc of tl~cshaft.
I
 Let this angle be denoted by a radian. Let the distance from the node to one
of the masses be I, and the angular displacement of this mass be 8 , and the
diameter of the shaft be D. It can be shown that

from which
'
I- -- INSTRUMENTATION AND
CONTROLS
Let q be the stress from the torsional vibration (shear stress) and C be the
modulus of rigidity (shear modulus). From the torsion formula it is known that

Therefore 18.1 How is the speed of a main engine controlled? What types of device
can be used to control speed?
The speed of main engines is controlled primarily by the fuel-lever or fuel-wheel
setting. The fuel lever or wheel controls the fuel pump settings which in turn
and control the amount of fuel injected per working cycle into each cylinder.
Provided the load on an engine did not change the speed of the engine would
remain constant for any fuel-lever setting. Unfortunately this condition occurs
The stress caused by the torsional vibration is equal to the product of the only in very smooth water; as soon as a ship starts to pitch the propeller rises
modulus of rigidity of the shaft material and the angular strain a on the surface and falls and the load on the engine changes. If the speed of the engine were
of the shaft. This stress, from the torsional vibration, is additive to the stress controlled only by the fuel-lever setting, the speed would rise and fall with the
from the torque set up by the external load. When torsional vibration is taking pitching of the vessel and the corresponding load changes.
place, therefore, the maximum stress is equal to the addition of stress from the Small changes in engine speed can be tolerated. But in bad weather when the
external load, the stress from the vibration, and the induced stress from the ship is pitching heavily it is possible for the propeller to come clear of, or nearly
bending action which also takes place when the engine is in operation. clear of, the water, and in such circumstances the speed of the engine could rise
Note In practice, obtaining the various frequencies either by calculation or dangerously. A similar situation could arise if the propeller shaft fractured
tabular methods is reasonably straightforward but beyond the scope of this and/or the propeller was lost.
book. The calculation of stresses from vibration, and under resonant In order to keep the engine Speed within reasonable bounds in heavy weather, -.;:;
conditions, is more complex. or in the event of shaft failure, a governor is fitted to the main engine. When the
engine speed rises the governor overrides the fuel lever and reduces the fuel '
injected into the cylinders, so preventing the engine speed from rising further.
There are four types of governor used for this purpose: the inertia-type
governor; the mechanical-type governor with spring-loaded sleeves and
flyweights; the mechanical hydraulic-type governor; and the electronic
govgnor. The inertia-type governor mas at orie time used only on main engines,
to limit the maximum speed when the engine was racing in heavy weather (see
Question 18.16).
18.2 How do inertia-type governors control the engine speed? Whot ore
their disadvantages?
i!
Inertia-typegovernors are fitted on to a swinging arm or beam which receives its
motion by a link connection with some reciprocating part of the engine, such as
 Instrumentation and Controls 47311
4 7 2 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
the top of the sleeve, in which case the springs between the balance weights may
q
the crosshead pin. The inertia governor then moves up and down through the sometimes be omitted.
arc of a circle aqd an angle of approximately 45". The governor consists of a The action of the governor is such that when the flyweights are revolving 4
weight held down by a spring. The weight is normally held by the spring in the the load on the springs is balanced by the centrifugal force of the flyweights.(
lower position, and when the weight moves from its normal position, one pawl The sleeve then takes up some position on the vertical shaft. An increase in the
(the upper) is retracted and another pawl (the lower) is extended. When the engine speed increases the centrifugal force of the flyweights and they moved
speed of the engine rises the inertia of the weight is such that it overcomes the outward to a new radius. This causes the sleeve to rise and a new equilibrium(
spring holding it. This retracts the upper pawl anbextenduutwards the lower position is taken up when the increased centrifugal force is balanced by the
pawl. The lower pawl engages with a lever and lifts it. The lever is connected springs. The movement of the sleeve is transferred by levers and linkage to the(
with the fuel pumps or fuel pump suction valves. Movement of this lever fuel pumps which then reduce the fuel quantity injected and slow the engine
reduces the quantity of fuel injected, or may allow injection to occur only in one down to its proper running speed. 4
cylinder. When the speed of the engine returns to normal the weight returns to The governor operates on the principle that the centrifugal force exerted by
its normal position and reverses the pawls. The upper pawl then pushes the lever the flyweights is balanced by the load on the spring or springs. Changes in
downwards and restores the fuel pumps to the setting given by the fuel lever. engine speed result in changes in the radius at which the flyweights operate, and I
The lever connected with the fuel pumps has its fulcrum pin in the same centre- this in turn alters the height of the sleeve which controls, through levers and
line position as the axis of the swinging arm. linkage, the fuel pump settings. 4
Although this governor is very simple it requires an engine speed increase of
the order of 5 % or more to make it operate. In some cases this speed increase Note The spring that is used to load the governor sleeve is also used to make (
will bring the speed of the engine into or near to a critical speed. During heavy slight adjustments to the engine speed. This is accomplished by increasing or (
weather the englne speed is continuously rising and falling and the reduction in decreasing the load on the spring by a screw mechanism. ,

average rev/min may be considerable. This type of governor is fitted only on 4

slow-speed direct-coupled engines and is found mainly on older engines. It has
been superseded by mechanical hydraulic-type governors and electronic 18.5 What do you understand by the following terms when referred to
governors. speed control governors: 'sensitivity', 'stability', 'effort', 'droop', 'hunting ?1
,
Sensitivity. The sensitivity of a governor is a measure of its ability to control the 1
18.3 What ore the maintenance requirements for inertia-type governors? speed of the engine within narrow limits. It can be understood that a sensitive
The only regular maintenance required for inertia-type governors is lubrication governor will give a large movement of the control sleeve for only a small
of the inertia-weight pin, the pawl pins, and connecting lever and linkage pins. change in the radius in which the flyweights are rev.olving.
After some lengthy period it becomes necessary to dismantle the governor Stability. Normally with a governor the no-load position of the flyweights will
and clean the various parts, pins and bearings. The spring also needs periodic be such that at some speed N2the weights will be at a maximum radius R,. As
greasing to prevent wastage from rusting. The pin holding the inertia weight the load on the engine increases a slight drop in speed occurs and the flyweights
tends to wear on opposite sides and eventually requires renewal. The holes in move to a new equilibrium position slightly less in radius than R,; funher
which the pin fits are usually reamed round again when a new pin is fitted. After increase in load causes a further slight decrease in speed and a further reduction
reaming, an oversize p h mu3 be used. in the radius at which the flyweights are operating. A governor is stable when
there is only one radius of rotation of the flyweights for each speed at which the

operate?
-
18.4 On what principles does thmechanical centrifugal governor governor operates, within the speed range of the governor.
Note As a mechanical centrifugal-type governor becomes more sensitive it
Mechanical centrifugal governors used in marine practice are of the Hartnell becomes less stable.
type or modifications of it. The governor consists of a vertical shaft on which a
yoke is fitted. The opposite ends of the yoke are fitted with pins, and these pins wfort is the force exededby thegoyernor skeve on the mechanism controffing
hold flyweights which are attached to the ends of bell cranks. The &rends of the fuel pumps (and the fuel pump delivery) when a change of engine load and
the bell cranks are fitted into a circumferential slot at the top of a sleeve which in turn a change of engine speed occurs. If there iPno change of load there is no
surrounds the vertical shaft. As the radius of the path of the flyweights is change of speed and the effort is zero.
increased the sleeve is raised up the vertical shaft. In some governors springs are Droop. When the load on an engine increases from no-load to full load the
fitted to the weights so that the centrifugal force on the weights is balanced by governor flyweights move to an equilibrium position with a smaller radius and a
the pull on the springs. In others a helical compression spring is also fitted on
slight reduction in speed occurs. The reduction or change in speed which occurs .The governor is connected with the fuel pump suction valves or the fuel pump
from no-load to full load is referred to as the droop or governor droop. rack controlling the circumferential positio~~o f tllc ram, and is arranged so that
the engine can run at near-constant speed. This type of governor has been used
Hunting. When the load on an engine changes the governor tends to over-
with diesel generators, diesel-driven crnergency compressors, diesel-driven fire
control and undercontrol. This over- and under-control causes a fluctuation in pumps and the like.
rotational speed which is referred to as hunting. For example, if load is removed
from an engine the speed increases some amount above normal. The governor
then comes into operation and redu,cesthe fuel supplied by the fuel pump. Due 18.8 When the effort given by a mechonicol centrifugal-type governor is
insufficient to operate the fuel pump control gear what con be done?
to friction, time lag, etc., the governor causes the fuel reduction to be in excess
of that required and the fall in speed is too much. This causes the governor to -
Formerly if the governor effort were insufficient toAgivethe desired control it
increase fuel again and the engine speed goes slightly above normal. This swing would have meant redesigning the governor. Steam turbine designers had to
in speeds above and below the mean operating speed for that load continues face up to this problem many years ago and they used a Hartnell-type
until equilibrium is reached and hunting ceases. It can be seen that the more mechanical centrifugal governor to operate a pilot or control valve to supply oil
sensitive a governor is, the greater will be the tendency to hunt. under pressure to a relay piston. The relay piston was connected either through
linkage or directly with the throttle valve. The advantages to be gained were that
18.6 How is the operation of a generator governor affected by tight the governor flyweights could be reduced in size with consequent reduction in
sleeves, slack flyweight and bell-crank bearings, and slack cod pieces in inertia effects; this increased the sensitivity of the governor. By using oil under
sleeve groove? pressure as a hydraulic medium, large efforts can be obtained for operating the
control equipment.
If the sleeve becomes tight on its spindle, or other causes affect its free up and The basis of this type of governor is used by companies who specialize in the
down movement, the effect on the governor will be that larger changes in the design of centrifugal hydraulic-type governors. They produce a 'packaged' unit
rotational speed of the engine must occur before the governor can act. When in which is contained a centrifugal-type governor, an oil pump and the neces-
the load on the engine is being increased the spring assisting the downward sary control valves, linkage,and hydraulic piston which is connected to the
movement of the sleeve will reduce the effects of the increased friction but the external controls on the fuel pumps.
engine speed will drop more than normal before the engine takes up the increase
of load at the correct engine speed. With decreasing load the sleeve spring load
is additive to the increased friction and a considerable increase in engine speed 18.9 Name the various parts of a centrifugal hydraulic-type governor.
must occur before the governor can operate and reduce the fuel supply. The What are the advantages of this type of governor over a normal
governor droop will be increased and the speed at which the engine operates will centrifugal mechanical governor?
beconie erratic. The main part of a centrifugal hydraulic-type governor is the speed sensor
Slackness-In flyweight bearings must be taken up when engine load increases which is similar to that of a Hartnell-type governor. The flyweights operate
and engine speed falls. This has the effect of increasing the lag before the through bell cranks on to a spring-loaded sleeve. The springs on the sleeve
governor startsto ~ - f e i t s e - & e ~and 1 -so~ increase the engine speed to consist of a conically wound helical spring and a normal helical spring. The
normal. With reduction in load the slack does not have to be taken up and the sleeve controls, through a lever, the control valve on the hydraulic system.
speed change will be approximately normal. Within the system is incorporated a reversible gear pump driven off the main
Slackness in the sleeve cod piece will make for erratic speed changes when the shaft, which pumps oil into two spring-loaded hydraulic accumulators. The
load on the engine changes; the effect of load change on speed will depend on accumulators when pumped up alG act as relief by-pass valves to assist in
the system of levers and linkage between the governor and the fuel pumps. maintaining constant pressure in the hydraulic system when large load changes
occur.
18.7 What types of engine use the mechanical centrifugal-type A direct hydraulic connectionismade to the cor;trol valve and the hydraulic
governor? servo piston. The hydraulic servo piston is of the differential type. The connec-
tion with the servo piston from the accumulators goes to the top of the dif-
All types of engine used for most purposes may use the mechanical centrifu- ferential piston which has the smaller effective area. The oil pressure in the
gal-type governor. Some main engines have a governor of this type fitted to accumulator is always tending to push the servo piston down which will reduce
enable the engine to be run at near-constant speeds. In some medium-speed fuel supply and speed. If load comes on to the engine the momentary or tran-
two-stroke cycle engines the governor is fitted horizontally direct on to the sient speed reduction causes the control valve to open to the oil supply from the
fuel pump camshaft. On slow-speed engines the governor is fitted separately accumulators. This puts oil to the underside of the differential servo piston and
and geared to revolve at a speed considerably higher than. the engine speed. lifts the piston, thereby increasing the fuel supply to the engine. If load comes
476 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Instrumentation and Controls 479
a
off the engine the control valve opens to the underside of the differential servo
control piston and allows oil to bleed out and drain to the governor sump. The >o-\ Sp& or fuel
increase
oil pressure on the top of the piston then forces it down and reduces fuel supply
to the engine.
The levers and linkages are arranged so that there is feedback and compen-
sation, and the governoT'.may be termed truly isochronous except for the
transient speed changes when load is increased or reduced. Incorporated within
the lever and linkage arrangement, controls may be fitted to control load limit;
synchronizing control @I raise or h e r speed of engine operation), and speed
droop control.
This type of mechanical hydraulic governor is supplied by specialist firms
which manufacture them as complete units for mounting on the engine. The
casing for the unit also forms the oil reservoir or sump of the hydraulic system.
Rg. 18.1 Woodward hydraulic/mechanical governor with feedback to the
speed sensor sprh.Sl._ --_
The whole of the lever and linkage system is contained within the cagng so it . p p

- - --
always receives adequate lubrication.
control valve upwards. The engine speed is returned to its original value at the a
The advantages of this type of governor over the mechanical centrifugal type
are that, due to the lightness of the parts, inertia effects are at a minimum and new load. The hunting action of the three-point lever moving from the action o#
the differential servo piston is referred to as feedback.
the governor is very sensitive without losing stability. The controls for adjust- a
ment of governor operation make it particularly suitable for diesel engines
generating alternating current and running in parallel, or geared engine installa-
Figure 18.1 shows a governor arranged with feedback. It is of a type
manufactured by the Woodward Governor Company.
*
tions where two or more engines are connected through gearing to a single
propeller. -
Note This action is included in the governor discussed in Question 18.9.
a
18.1 1What do you understand by compensation action within a
What do you understand by the term 'feedback' and how is it mechanical hydraulic governor? Why is compensation introduced?
18.10
arranged for in a mechanical hydraulic governor? a
The mechanism for giving compensation action to a mechanical hydraulim
When there is no change in load on an engine controlled by a mechanical governor consists of two hydraulic cylinders and pistons, one being consider-
hydraulic governor the control valve in the governor remains in one position. ably larger than the other. The bottoms of the cylinders are connected with eat@
There is sufficient bleeding of oil to the underside of the differential servo other. An adjustable needle valve has an opening into the connection betwee
piston to ensure that the total pressure on both sides of the piston remains the
same and the piston therefore maintains a set position. In consequence the
'C
the cylinders and allows oil to bleed into or out of the cylinders from or to the 01
sump formed by the governor casing. The piston in the larger cylinder ,i
discharge of fuel from the fuel pumps remains constant. A three-point lever is referred to as the transmitter piston while that in the smaller cylinder is called
introduced with pivot points at the governor sleeve, the top of the control valve, the receiver piston. The receiver piston is spring loaded in such a manner that ,i
and the top of the differential servo piston, or as shown in Fig. 18.1. Assume acts in opposition to the governor sleeve spring.
that the load on the engine is idcreased. The first effect from this is a speed The compensation mechanism is connected into the governor in the fol16wink
reduction of the engine, followed by the flyweights moving inwards and the
governor sleeve moving downwards. The pivot at the top of the differential
manner: the larger pistonis connected to the differential servo piston through
lever. The lever is pivoted in the middle and has a fixed point, and the larger
a
piston is at this stage a fixed pivot point; the downward action of the governor piston and differential servo pistonare connected to the opposite ends of t h b
sleeve moves the lever downwards around the fixed pivot point and also causes lever. The smaller piston, control valve and governor sleeve are connecte
the control piston to move downwards. This allows flow of oil to take place together through a three-point floating lever. The control valve is connected t
from the hydraulic accumulator into the underside of the differential servo the mid point of the lever. The springs on the governor sleeve and the small*
piston and causes it to move upwards. During this stage of operation the sleeve piston, which act in opposition to one another, always hunt back to the Sam
is the fixed pivot point. As the differential servo point moves upwards the equilibrium position at any constant load and the engine speed remains exactlb
control valve moves upwards from the action of the three-point lever being the same for any load.
moved around the fixed pivot point at the sleeve. The control valve is then
n~ovedbrick to its original position so that the total pressure on each side of the
The compensation mechanism is fitted to a mechanical hydraulic governor t b
control an engine to run at the same speed irrespective of load. Except for t h a
scrvo dil.l.crc~~ti;~l position is thc sime. While the control valve is being moved transient speed reduction which must occur when load changes, the governor
I,n* k 1,) IIIC I I I I < L I I ( I + ~ I I ~O~wU I I I ~ ~ ~ W Si Cn r r i ~ i t i rqwcd :~lsonssistsin nioving the might he described as isochronous. a
458 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Instrumentation and Controls 479

Fuel increase only servicing they require in oper&ion is to check that the system is full of oil
by observing the height of the oil in the sight glass, or dip. In the event of opera-
tional difficulties the engine should be stopped. The connection between the
governor and the control linkage connecting with the fuel pump racks should be
dismantled and checked for stiffness, which will almost certainly be the cause of
the trouble. Once the stiff area is located it can be freed up so that the governor
can operate properly.
Most generators with Bosch, C.A.V. or similar-type fuel pumps have an
arrangement on the shaft arm connected to the fuel pump rack which consists
of a loose clamp held in place by a spring. With this arrangement, if one of the
fuel pump racks sticks or seizes in the full-load position, it does not prevent the
governor from operating the fuel pump racks on the other fuel pumps. The fuel
Fuel pumps on all cylinders except the one with the seized rack cut back the fuel.
increase
When this occurs the claw opens on the seized fuel pump rack and allows the
governor to continue to control engine speed. A runaway or over-speeding
engine is thus prevented. Sometimes a defective fuel pump rack can be located
by observation of the claws when wide load changes occur. If no fault can be
found within the linkage and shafting system between the governor and the fuel
pump racks the fault will be in the governor. "I

This fault may be an imbalance in the governor controls in the needle bleed:!,')
valve in the compensation mechanism. If the governor does not operate
correctly after checking out controls it is the usual practice to change it.
~ u f i e p~ston
r
If it becomes necessary to break the seals and open up a mechanical hydraulic
governor the dismantling must be carried out with extreme care and the various
Fig. 18.2 Isochronous governors: speed droop occurs in this type of governor parts must be handled with a delicate touch. Assembly of the dismantled parts
but is a transient condition. must be carried out on a perfectly clean bench.
(a) Woodward governor with compensation as arranged in a 'UG'-type
governor.
a -
(b) Woodwgrd governor with compensation as arranged in a 'PG1-type 18.13 Develop a statement covering the relationship between power
governor. output, engine speed and torque.
Figure 18.2 (a) shows a diagramatic arrangement of an iSochronous goverdor Power is defined as the rate of doing work, i.e.
of the UG type manufactured by the Woodward Governor Company. Figure
18.2 (b) shows a diagramatic arrangement of an isochronous governor of the
work done +time
PG type manufactured by the same company. Torque is given by
Note The definition of the phrase 'isochronous governors' is given differently tangential force x radius of action
in older text books on the Theory of Machines. Today it is usually accepted that
an isochronous governor will control an engine with zero speed droop under an Work done when force moves through 360" is given by
increasing load with the exception of transients or momentary speed changes tangential force x radius x 2 x = torque x 2~ /
following a load change. After an engine speed change the engine almost imme-
diately comes back to its original speed. The words iso and chronous come from and work done per second by
ancient Greek and mean of equal time or uniform in time. rpm
torque x 2 r -
60
18.12 If a generator fitted with a mechanical hydraulic-type governor Power is equal to
shows evidence of erratic speed control how would you find the fault?
torque x rpm x a constant
Normally mechanical hydraulic governors give ver; little trouble, and the units
are usually sealed to prevent interference with their internal parts. Virtually the (See Note for value of constants).
480

P
Queslwns and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Insrrurnentation and Controls
-
81

with an increase in speed. A machine or engine such as this has to some e x t e e

Power or 1oiQue self-regulating characteristic and the governing of such machinery is relatively
&y to accomplish.
A practical example of this form of self-regulation is the older propuls'
a
steam turbine. Their speed was controlled by the number of nozzles opened r
by fixing the position of the steam manoeuvring valve or throttle. These o l e
'4P
turbines had no speed control governor other than a safety device known as an
overspeed trip. This came into play if the load were entirely removed from k
engine for any length of time such as when the vessel was pitching in he
weather. "Yi
An unsupercharged four-stroke diesel engine will behave to some extent i*
similar manner to the steam turbine. If the fuel lever is put into some fixed
position an increase in speed will increase the pumping losses, the winda*
losses, and the friction in the engine. These increased losses compensate to so
extent for the decrease in load, and the engine approaches the condition
Fig. 18.3 Characteristics of power or torque and speed of a diesel engine used being self-regulating. %I
If an enginedriven supercharger were fitted to the engine and the engine wer
0
to propel a ship. The characteristics of an engine driving a centrifugal pump or
fan are similar. The cubic law is usually used, but in many cases the exponent
has some value other than three. For accuracy in calculations the correct value
operated with a fucd fuel lever position, the increased pumping and other loss
could be ovcr-aompensated by the supercharger and result in an increase
&
C
for the exponent should be used. torque. Such an engine would not be self-regulating as the increase in torque
would produce a further increase in speed. The engine would then be difficult
govern. Figure 18.4 shows two different speed and torque characteristics. (
a
Note -
- - shows the characteristic of increasing torque with increasing speed. (b)sho
the characteristic of decreasing torque with ihcreasing speed.
1 hp = 33 000 ft Ibf/minute
0
-
1 watt = 1 joule/second = 1 Nm/s Note If an engine is operated with a fixed fuel lever position it is sometim
1 joule = 1 newton metre = 1 Nm torque = force x radius referred to as steady state operation. =@
If torque is in Nm then power in kW is equal to
torque x 2 r x rpm -
- torque Nm x rpm
1000x60 9549.3
If torque is in kgf m the power in kW is equal to
torque x 9.807 x 27r x rpm -
- torque kgf m x rpm
looOx60 979.7
If torque is in lbf f t then horsepower is equal to
Speed rprn
torque x 2 r x rpm -
-
torque Ibf ft x rpm
33 000 5252.1 Fig. 18.4 Torque and speed characteristics.
(a) Increasing torque with increasing speed.
(b) Decreasing torque with increasing spped.
18.14 Why is the speed of some forms of prime mover more easily
controlled than that of others? Give examples.
18.15 How do the load characteristics vary with speed for an
When the torque of a prime mover decreases with an increase in speed the prime ungoverned, single-screw propulsion engine and o single diesel engine
mover is easy to control. When the torque increases with an increase in speed
the prirllc mover bceomcs difficult to control.
A steam-driven engine operated with the steam control valve or throttle held
driving a n electrical generator.
A propulsion engine directly driving (no clutch between engine and propeller) a
-
1
in a fixed position is a11exanlplc of a prime mover where the torque decreases screw propeller will always have a load on the engine. As the speed of the engine a
 482 Questions and Answers on the Morine Diesel Engine
'output remains constant for a short delay period bccausc thc flow of fuel to the
is increased the power demand on the engine follows the cube law. That is the engine remains constant during this period.
power given out by the engine varies as the cube of the speed. After a load reduction there is an excess of torque while the power remains
Within load changes where the engine does not over-speed, an engine driving constant during the delay period and the speed of the engine then increases.
a generator will have a slight decrease in speed as the load on the engine After a load increase there is insufficient torque while the power remains
increases, provided the voltage is kept at a constant value. The change will be constant during the delay period and the speed then decreases. The speed
linear or follow the form of a graph where y = mu+ c. changes remain until the governor acts and adjusts the fuel supply to match the
Figure 18.3 shows the torque speed relationship of an engine propelling a ship. new load.
The relationship is similar when an engine is driving a centrifugal pump or a It must be remembered that during the delay period'the energy input to the
centrifugal fan. engine in the form of fuel remains constant and during this period the product
The cubic law is commonly used for this relationship but in many cases the of torque and speed remain constant-(see Question 18.13).
exponent will have some value other than three. For accuracy the correct value
for the exponent should be used when making calculations.
18.18 What do you understand by the term 'elecfronic governor'? Name
the various parts of on electronic governor.
w 18.16 What i s an overspeed trip?
Electronic governors are manufactured in various forms. They contain parts
Overspeed trips are fitted on engines where the governor does not fail safe. which act in a similar manner to the parts in other governors. These parts are a
Their function is t ~ s h uoff
t the fuel supply to the cylinders in the event of the speed-sensing device, some means of comparing the signal from the speed-
speed of the engine rising to a dangerous level. They are always fitted on steam sensing &vice to some selected norm, and a means of processing the signal from
turbo alternators or generators. Ths overspeed trip usually consists of a 'bolt' fhe speed-sensing device to control some form of actuator and give a
with a relatively heavy head. The bolt is fitted at the forward end of the engine mechanical output to control the fuel pump and the flow of fuel from the
shaft where no torque is transmitted. It is fitted in a space bored out across the injection pumps to the individual cylinders of the engine.
diameter of the shaft. The bolt is held in place by a nut and supported by a The speed-sensing device may be a set of flyweights controlled by a spring
spring. When the engine overspeeds the centrifugal force exerted by the bolt and the engine speed. Speed change causes flyweight movement; this movement
head overcomes the support of the spring and flies outwards until restrained by is transferred to an output rodwhen the sp&d of the engine changes. A number
the nut and compression of the spring. The bolt head in the 'thrown' position of electronic governors use a set of spring-controlled flyweights as the speed
strikes a trip lever which is also thrown and shuts off the engine fuel eventually sensor. The spring forms the speed reference device.
bringing the engine to rest. In other cases the field from a rC\rOl~ingpermanent magnet driven by the
The means whereby the fuel is shut off varies with the make of engine. As engine is used to generate an alternating current in a set of stator windings. The
some motor ships have a steam turbo alternator it is worth mentioning that in alternating current output may be rectified to give a direct current output
many turbo sets the overspeed trip often works through the lubricating oil low having a voltage proportional to the engine speed. If the output is not rectified
pressure cut-out and the steam stop valve. In other cases the overspeed trip the frequency changes occuring with changes of engine speed give a form of
operates through a system of levers and links to the turbine steam stop valve. speed sensing.
When the overspeed trip operates, the pawl holding the steam stop valve open is Proximity sensors may also be used as speed-sensing devices on engines (see
released and a spring closes the stop valve. The tripping speed can be adjusted Question 18.52). The proximity sensor is located by the engine flywheel-turning
by adding or removing thin spacing washers under the spring so that its gear teeth. In some engines the voltage impulses generated by the proximity
compression is altered.. sensor may be sufficient without amplification for an input signal giving the
A small permanent magnet alternator driven from the engine camshaft in engine speed.
conjuction with a rectifier can also be used with an electronic governor to In cases where the proximity sensor cannot be located near enough to the
prevent the engine racing. When the engine speeds up the voltage increases, At flywheel or the form of the gear teeth is not satisfactory, the proximity sensor is
some level it will operate the governor to reduce the fuel supply to the engine used as a switching device to control an input voltage in an on/off manner. The
and prevent a dangerous increase in engine speed. impulses from the switch may then be used to act as a speed-sensing device.
Diesel engine-driven alternators may use the frequency of the current
18.17 Why does the speed of an engine change when the load changes. generated as the speed-sensing device. In this case the alternating current is
passed through a frequency converter, which outputs a direct current having a .
When an engine is in operation under the control of a governor it can be voltage proportional to the engine speed in the same manner as the output
considered as acting in a steady state condition. The governor is controlling the frequency was treated in the case of the small permanent magnet alternator.
flow of fuel to the engine. When the load on the engine changes the power
 484 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine

The direct current voltage output proportional to engine speed is then

compared with the output from a Zener diode voltage regulator. If there is a
difference between the voltages it is amplified to control an output to a
solenoid-controlled hydraulic actuator or to supply current to a special form of
electric motor and screw. The motor becomes the actuator used to control the
fuel pump setting. The armature of the motor must have a very low moment of
inertia. (Fig. 18.5)

- 18.19 What are the advantages and disadvantages of electronic

governors?
The advantages of electronic governors are: few mechanical parts and the
ability to build up complex engine-speed control systems incorporating input
from various sources such as engine speed, engine load, electrical load;
overspeed control; load sharing between engines in geared diesel propulsion
installations; and load sharing in engines generating electrical power when
connected in parallel to a common set of bus bars either for isochronous control
or with speed droop.
The disadvantage of an electronic governor is the loss of governing that can
occur if input current to the-&ofernor from any source fails.
It is for this reason that some governor manufacturers combine an electronic
governor with a mechanical- hydraulic governor. If the electronic portion of the
governor supplying currentlo the elect&dly controlled actuator valve fails, the
mechanical portion of the governor acts as an emergency system and takes over
the operation of the actuator control valve. Figure 18.5 shows a diagrammatic
arrangement of an electronic governor as manufactured by the Woodward
Governor Company.
-- -
18.20 Torsionmeters and torsiographs are instruments used in diesel
engine operation. What is the purpose of each instrumentsandwhere and
how are they used?
Torsionmeters are used to obtain the shaft horsepower output of a diesel
engine. In most cases for practical purposes the shaft horsepower may be
considered the same as the brake horsepower (see Note). Torsiographs are used
to obtain a record of the vibratory movement that a shaft undergoes when it is
vibrating torsionally. -
Torsionmeters are fitted on the intermediate shafting between the engine and
the screw shaft. The torsionmeter actually measures the angle of twist over a
measured length of shaft. When the angle of twist is obtained it is possible to
obtain the torque on the shaft by using the torsion formula for shafts, provided
that the modulus of rigidity of the shaft material is known.

and so
where
T = torque
J = polar moment of inertia of shaft
C = modulus of rigidity
0 = angle of twist
I = length of shaft

After the value of Tis found and the speed (revhin) of the shaft is obtained it
is possible to find the power that is being transmitted by the shaft.
Note The brake horsepower measured with a water brake on the engine test
bed is not the same as the shaft horsepower when the engine is in service. This is
due to the friction lost in the thrust bearing and any intermediate shaft bearings
fitted between the torsionmeter and the engine. Normally they are considered as
being approximately the same except in cases where the trial performance of a
ship is being Cery carefully studied or in design calculations involving the power
'

requirements for a new hull design.

Torsiographs used in marine practice are portable and are used at the time a Relot~vem o t ~ o n
of pulley to selsmlc
ship is undergoing builder's trials to check the torsional vibration charac- mossdur~ngpulley rotat~on
teristics of the main engine crankshaft and shafting. They are also used on
prototype diesel generating sets to make checks on the torsional vibration Fig. 18.6 Working parts of an older type mechanical torsiograph.
characteristics of the crankshaft and generator shaft. Torsiographs of various
types are available; they are driven by a belt from a temporary pulley fitted at
the forward end of the crankshaft. When a torsiograph is being used the vibra- reproduces the vibratory amplitudes of the engine shaft on an enlarged scale.
tory movement of the shaft is recorded on specially prepared paper. The record The ribbon moving at constant velocity causes a sinusoidal wave to be drawn on
shown on the paper ribbon requires considerable expertise in its analysis. the paper. Clockwork or electrical means are used to drive the paper ribbon.
Also traced on the ribbon is a time base line which3 used to identify a d find
18.21 Briefly describe the component parts of a torsiograph which can be the vibration frequency. In other torsiographs a third line may be drawn,
used on a diesel engine. Show how the torsiograph is used. showing a small impulse for every revolution of the engine.
Of the three lines traced on the ribbon, the first gives the vibration double
The main parts of a commonly used torsiograph consist of a relatively heavy amplitudes multiplied to some scale, the second line is a sine curve which has a
circular mass fitted concentrically within a lightweight aluminium pulley which known frequency and forms the time base from which the torsional vibration
enshrouds the circular mass. frequency is found. The third line, showing the impulses of every engine
This mass is sometimes referred to as a seismic mass. A spring connects the revolution, is used to obtain the true engine speed (rev/min). The record traced
pulley and the seismic mass so that the pulley drives the mass through the on the ribbon is analysed and used to verify the torsional vibration charac-
spring. The pulley on the torsiograph is driven by a portable pulley of similar teristics found by calculation and also as a check for the stresses found by
size fitted on the forward end of the engine. A non-stretchable belt connects the calculation (see also Question 17.63).
two pulleys.
When the torsiograph is in operation the lightweight pulley movement is Note The torsiograph described is the one most commonly used in the marine
identical with the actual movements of the engine shaft. The inertia of the industry. There are, however, other types of torsiograph; the optical and
seismic mass causes it to revolve at a uniform speed similar to the average speed electrical types. (Fig. 18.6) -
of the crankshaft. The relative movement between the lightweight pulley and
the seismic mass is the same as the vibratory movement of the crankshaft. 18.22 What are engine pressure indicators; for what purposes are they
A lever and bell crank are fitted between the seismic mass and the lightweight used? Are there any limitations on their use?
pulley and revolve with them. The relative motion between the pulley and the
seismic mass is transferred by the bell crank lever and linkage to a pin which Engine pressure indicators used on marine diesel engines are of two types. The
passes right through the centre of the pulley axle. The reciprocating motion of first type is used to record the pressure within the cylinder at any part of the
this pin is trmsferred to a pen and recorded on a specially prepared ribbon and engine cycle. A graph of these pressures on a stroke base (to some scale) is then
488 Ouestions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine -- -
recorded on an indicator paper or shown as a trace on the cathode-ray tube of 1
can be stored and printed as a table of pressures at corresponding crank an&.
an oscilloscope. The model usually used on board ship is of the mechanical type It can also be processed to give a digital readout of the mean indicated pres
and uses small, specially prepared paper sheets called indicator papers. The in each cylinder. The availability of this data expedites the balancing of po
#!
limitations of a mechanical indicator are due to the inertia effects of the moving among tlie cylinders on the engine.
parts. Their mass is therefore kept to a minimum, but even so they are not con- If a torsion meter is incorporated to give input to the computer, a brake
sidered reliable when used on engines with speeds above 150rev/min. Very effective pressure can also be given together with a figure for mech
small lightweight indicators are_also made and some models are considered to efficiency.
be suitable for use on engines up to 350 r e v h i n approximately.
The graph of the pressures recorded during the cycle and shown traced on the
8
The precautions to be taken in the use of this equipment are to ensure that e
pressure transducer is not damaged during handling, and that the coo*
indicator paper is commonly called an indicator diagram or card. The average system is properly used to prevent false outputs caused by high temperatu
pressure throughout the cycle can be obtained from the indicator card and is
referred to as the mean indicated pressure (m.i.p). From the m.i.p. value the
8
There are no limitations on engine speed when electronic equipment is use o
obtain cylinder pressures (see Question 18.49).
e
indicated power of the engine is obtained.
The second type of engine pressure indicator measures maximum pressures
*
4
and is referred to as a maximum-pressure indicator or recorder. These H 18.24 What is a draw-card and what is its use?
indicators are used to obtain the maximum combustion pressure. If the fuel is
shut off a cylinder the maximum-pressure indicator may also be used to find the A draw-card can be obtained when the mechanical indicator is in use on
compression pressure. There are no engine speed limitations restricting the use engine. It is obtained by pulling the indicator cord while the indicator penc
of maximum-pressure indicators. They are often used on medium speed rising so that the maximum pressure is shown at the mid-length of the
engines. From the curve drawn, the maximum pressure can be measured from
atmospheric line. A small impulse and a change of slope is also shown; thi
Note The value for the mean indicated pressure must not be confused with
mean effective pressure (m.e.p.); there is a relation between the two values
given by
used to measure the pressure at which combustion of fuel commences. It m t
not be confused with the true compression pressure although it is someti d
m.e.p.
-
referred to as the compression pressure. On some engines a separate indica
%:*
cam (elliptical shape for 4-stroke cycle engines, eccentric for 2-stroke cy e
m.i. p.
= mechanical efficiency of engine
I engines) is used to obtain a drawcard or out-of-phase card.

There are no speed limitations in the use of electronic indicators.

H 18.25 List the thermal and physical quantities that must be known by a
P
18.23 How is a record of cylinder pressures and other data obtained with
- -
electronic equipment? What are the precautions that must be observed I
!
engineer officer when keeping watch on the main engine of a motor ship.
List the instruments used in an engine room where watches are
maintained.
with the use of this equipmgnt?
Thermal quantity
A piezoelectric transducer is used to measure cylinder pressures. When a
piezoelectric crystal is subjected to a pressure on its surface it generates a
voltage related to the applied pressure. The voltage generated is low, so it is
I
I
Temperature
Physical quantities
usually amplified; the amplified voltage can be used in several ways to obtain (a) Pressures.
the cylinder pressure values. (b) Flow.
The speed of the engine is also obtained by various methods together with a (c) Viscosity.
record of the piston position for one cylinder; this is used to obtain the piston (d) Liquid level.
position for the other cylinders. The voltage changes representing pressure
changes can be supplied to an oscilloscope or an analog computer.
-
Instruments thermal quantity a
(a) Mercury-filled glass thermometers can be used to measure temperatures
The engine speed and crank position can also be processed for supply to an to as high as 400°C (752OF). Alcohol-filled glass thermometers can be used for
oscilloscope for giving a time base. The pressure over the cycle can then be I temperatures up to 65OC (149.F). Alcohol thermometers can also be used f d
shown as a normal indicator card or as an out-of-phase or draw card depending I temperatures as low as - 70°C ( - 94°F). For exhaust gases, pyrorneters o f t
on whcrc t h c piston positio~~ is fixccl on the time base.
The varying voltage representing pressure can be processed in a computer to
I mercury-in-steel type are used for distant readings. '@
(b) Nitrogen-filled mercury thermometers can be used for local readings up @
Klve 11 direct digi(;~lr.c;ldo~rcof'cylinclcr pressure ;it any crank angle. This data I 540°C (104°F).Scr nlqo Q~~rqtion i R ?H
I
m
490 Quesfions and Answers on the Marine Ljiesel Engine

Instruments - physical quantities ' which it undergoes and theincrease in curvature is the strain (mechanical) on
(a) Pressures are often measured with gauges of the Bourdon-tube type. the tube. Instruments such as the Bourdon-tube operate by virtue of the strain
For low pressures, manometers, hydrostatic gauges, or U-tubes using a water or which they undergo when the pressure within the tube is different from that
mercury column, are used. Sub-atmospheric pressures or vacuum can be outside it.
measured with Bourdon-tube type gauges or mercury gauges. Manometers, Other pressure-measuring or sensing devices which use the strain principle
hydrostatic gauges and similar intruments are often referred to as liquid column are the bellows, the bellows with a support spring, and elastic membranes which
gauges. -
(b) Flow rates or volumetric quantities are not usually measured except for the
may or may not be supported with springs. The bellows and spring are often
used as the sensing device in pressure switches, while elastic membranes are
fuel supply to the main engineswhereflawmeters are sometimes used. The rate often used in pressure-reducing valves and pressure controllers.
of cooling water circulation and lubricating oil circulation is measured indi-
rectly with pressure gauges. It is known that as the velocity of a fluid moving in
a pipe or some circuit increases, the frictional resistance to the flow increases; 18.27 How can the Bourdon-tube type pressure gauge be used as a
by this means the flow rate can be related to the cooling-water pump and lubri- temperature measuring device?
cating-oil pump discharge pressures (Bernoulli's Theorem related to total It is known that mosfflquids expLd as their temperature rises. If some liquid
energy and flow). Flow rates related to fuel consumptions for main engines which has this property is contained in a bulb and the bulb is connected to a
(tonnedday) are found by volumetric measurements of fuel used within the pressure gauge, the changes of temperature which occur outside the bulb cause
period of the day and the weight of unit volume of fuel. The product of the vol- a change in volume of the contekd fluid. If the volume of the bulb and the pipe
ume and the weight of unit volume gives the weight. connecting it to the pressure gauge are kept approximately constant or change
(c) Viscosity is measured with a viscometer, fitted in the fuel supplyline to the much less than the change in volume of the liquid, pressure changes will occur
main engine. The viscosity of a fluid is directly related to the pressure drop when the temperature of the contained liquid changes, and the volume changes
which occurs when laminar flow takes place in a pipe. By pumping a fixed or are resisted. If the dial of the pressure gauge is calibrated in temperature units it
constant quantity of fluid through a pipe in unit time to give a constant velocity. can be used to indicate temperature.
and measuring the pressure drop, a value related to the viscosity of the fluid This principle is used in mercury-in-steel type pyrometers used for measuring
being measured can be obtained. A visual readout is given on a suitably ejrhaust gas temperatures locally and also for indicating the temperature at
calibrated differential pressure gauge. some point remote from the sensing position. In this case the connecting tube
(d) Liquid levels can be measured by direct means using a sounding tape in a between the sensing bulb and the indicator is a steel capillary tube.
sounding pipe fitted into the tank. In some cases a sounding rod is used instead
of the sounding tape. Other direct means of ascertaining liquid levels is by the
use of gauge glasses'or sight glasses fitted into the side of a tank. The level in 18.28 Name methods of meosuring temperatures other thon by mercury
fuel tanks is often measured with an instrument which uses an inverted bell and alcohol glass-bulb thermometers and pressure-recording methods.
placed on the bottom of the tank. The bell is filled with compressed air, some of
which bubbles out through the oil. By connecting a pressure gauge to the air Most of us are aware of the compound metallic bar which consists of two flat
supply pipe the head of oil in the tank can b6 measured as a pressure when the metal strips joined together. The two metals have different coefficients of
air supply to the inverted bell is shut off. The head of oil compresses the expansion. When the temperature of the bar is changed the different change in
retained air until balance is reached; the balance pressure gives the head of oil in length of each strip causes curvature of the bar to take place. This principle is
the tank. used in many dial thermometers. The temperature-sensing element is .a
bimetallic filament wound into a spiral or helix. One end of the spiral or hey$$
fastened in the bulb, the other end is connected to a pointer. whenq'&e
18.26 Pressures may be measured with Bourdon tube-type pressure
bimetallic filament senses a temperature change the pointer goes through a part
gauges; how do such instruments operate? What other types of
revolution. The change in the position of the pointer can then be used to register
instrument work on a similar principle?
temperature on a suitably calibrated dial. This type of instrument is used for
The Bourdon-tube consists of an elliptical-section tube bent into a circular local temperature measurements of cooling water, lubricating oil and services
form, making'an arc extending round an angle of approximately 270". If one having similar temperatures. They are also used for local eghaust temperature
end of the tube is sealed and the other end is connected to some source of "measurements on diesel generators and similar smaller-size engines.
pressure so that the pressure inside the tube is greater than that outside, the Other instruments used for exhaust temperature measurement use the
circular-formed tube tends to straighten itself, or increase its rqdius of thermocouple which consists of two different metallic strips; when connected
curvature. The pressure within the tube is related to the increase in curvature electrically a small current is caused to flow between the hot junction and cold
 492 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Instrumentation and Controls 401
junction. The current flow is related to temperature which can be measured on a freqend of the Bourdon-tube is connected through links and levers to a s m 8
suitably calibrated galvanometer or similar electrical instrument. axle which produces rotary movement. This shaft is used with an indicati
needle and dial t o give a local visual readout of the pressure as it is measure?

&
The opposite end of the shaft has fitted to it an arm which is insulated el&.
H 18.29 What are the obiections to fitting Bourdon-type pressure gauges in cally from the other parts. The end of the arm is fitted with a collector or bru
control consoles, ond control room spaces? - - This connects and makes contact with a wire resistance wound on a drum.
ends of the resistance are connected to an-electrical supply with a fixed 1
When Bourdon pressure gauges are fitted remote from the pipe or vessel in
which the fluid pressure is being measured, a connection must be made between
the pipe and the pressure gauge. If oil or similar inflammable fluids are
contained in the pipe or vessel and leakage occurs in the connecting pipe or in
voltage. As pressure changes occur and move the end of the Bourdon-tube, t e
brush or collector moves around the resistance causing a change in the volt
at the brush. The tranducer has two connections to the constant supply volt
3'9s
the tube of the pressure gauge, dangerous materials may leak out and cause a and a third connection to a position where the voltage is variable, which
fire or create other dangers. Should failure occur with a connection or gauge
fitted in a control console, parts of the equipment fitted within the console may
also be damaged. The height at which the gauge is fitted above or below the
point where the pressure is being monitored will affect the accuracy of the gauge
dependent on the pressure being monitored or measured by the Bourdon-tu
The three connections can be connected to a bridge or other type of networ
and arranged to give a visual readout of a pressure value or used as a signal
processing and c o ~ e c t i n into
Eb
g a piece of control equipment such as an elect
cally actuated valve. The signal can also be connected into a data logger
reading. This will be equivalent to the amount of static head above or below the
pressure gauge and the point from where the pressure measurement is taken. similar equipment. a
'a
18.32 List the component parts in any system used for transmitting the
1)
18.30 How ore the magnitudes of the pressures or temperotures at the
various parts of on engine transmitted to the control room or control
magnitude of maln engine exhaust temperatures to the control room or 5
control equipment.
equipment?
Electrical m e . are commonly used to obtain the magnitudes of exhaust
When the pressures and temperatures at various points round an engine are temperatures at some remote point. The equipment used consists o
required to be known in the control room they can be transmitted by various temperature-sensitive resistance filament which is fitted in a metal bulb loc
means. The common methods use electricity or compressed air as a signal which inside the exhaust-gas outlet branch from the cylinder. The temper
is easily transmitted to the control room by wiring or small-diameter tubular sensitive resistance apd the connecting wiring forms part of a Whea
connections. The essential parts of such instrumentation are first, a sensor bridge circuit. The other parts of the circuit consist of fixed resistances,
which monitors the pressure or temperature changes from some normal value
which is commonly zero. If a Bourdon-tube is used as a sensing device the
electrical supply with a constant voltage, and a variable resistance with 3
motorized sliding connection.
temperature or pressure changes are given out as a small mechanical movement. In order to masure the resistance of the sensor the Wheatstone bridged)
The second element is a transducer which is used to convert the small balanced by the variable resistance. The position of the motorized s l i d e
mechanical movement £tam the free end of the Bourdon-tube to an electrical or working on the variable resistdce then indicates the change in resistance of the
compressed air signal. The transmitted signal is proportional to the magnitude
of the temperature or pressure found by the sensor. The signals are received by
sensor and can be used to give a visual readout of exhaust temperature. e
the control equipment which w i l l ~ o c e s sthem to make the desired control
changes. - 18.33 What is a differential pressure gauge?
Ir
If visual readout of the magnitude of the temperatures or pressures is A differential pressure gauge can be formed with two Bourdon pressure-sensin
d
requirgd in the control room, the signal is fed into an indicator which may give
the electrical signal as digital readout of the pressure or temperature on light-
emitting diodes (LEDs), or if compressed air is used as the-s&@, the
transmitting line can be connected to a suitably dibrated pressure gauge.
tubes. They are so arranged that they act in opposition to each other wh
connected through normal linkage t a the shaft which carriestk gauge needl
If two different sources of pressure are connected to each Bourdon-tube th
higher pressure-will overcome the lower psssure and the movement of t e
*
18.31 Briefly describe the parts of a sensor-transducer unit suitable for
needle over the calibrated scale will indicate the difference between the hig
and low-pressure inputs. If one of the pressure inputs rises or falls, moveme b
receiving a pressure measurement and giving out o low-voltage electric01
will be indicated on the needle. If both inputs rise or fall the same amount,
change will be indicated as they will cancel each other. ='@
signol.
Another form of differential pressure gauge uses a liquid contained in a 4
l'hc sensor consists of H Dourdon-tube which gives n lnovcmcnt of the free end
of the tuhc that is clepcntlcnt o n thc change o f pressure being meawrcd. The
-
tube. The upper part of each leg of the U-tube is connected to some part of eac
circuit in which flow takes place. &
494 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Instnrrnentation and Controls 495

The difference in the height of the measuring fluid in the U-tube indicates the with an aircontro!led pressurevalve which is used to control the supply of
pressure difference between the points where the connections are made into the "steam €6the engine fuel oil heater. (Fig. 18.7)
flow circuit.
18.36 How is it possible to control automatically the temperature of the
18.34 Where are differential pressure gauges used? outlet cooling water from the cylinder iackets and heads?
Differential pressure gauges are used wherever it is required to know the Control of the cooling water outlet temperature is often effected by fitting a
differences between two pressures. Common uses for differential pressure special typeof valve in the jacket cooling water line prior to entry into the jacket
gauges are flowmeters working in conjunction with a venturi tube or a water cooler. The valve has one inlet connection or branch and two outlet
restriction orifice. Some types of viscometer also use a differential pressure connections or branches. The inlet connection takes the full flow of cooling
gauge. Differential pressure gauges are also commonly used to measure the water from the engine. One outlet branch is connected to the water cooler while
pressure-drop across the inlet air filter on turbo-blowers and also to measure the the other is connected to the cooler bypass. A valve within the body contr* the
pressure drop across air coolers in the scavenge or air charging system. flow of jacket cooling water into the cooler and-the balance of the flow is
diverted round the bypass. The control of the valve is arranged so that any
18.35 Describe the means whereby the viscosity of the fuel oil supplied increase of the cooling water temperature from the engine will cause an increase
to the main engine is controlled and held at some desired constant value. of flow through the cooler (Fig. 18.8).
The viscosity of the fuel oil is monitored in a viscometer fitted in the supply line
to the engine, downstream of the fuel-oil heater. The viscometer may consist of 18.37 How can the temperature of the lubricating or piston cooling oil
a small electrically driven gear pump which delivers a constant amount of oil. leaving an engine be controlled?
The pump is supplied with oil taken from the engine fuel supply line. The pump The temperature of the lubricating oil leaving the bearings or the cooling oil
discharges into a pressure chamber and capillary tube. The pressure chamber is leaving the pistons can be controlled at the lubricating oil cooler provided thal
connected to one side of a differential pressure gauge while the other side of the nothing is wrong with any bearing and the rate of flow of oil through the piston!
gauge is connected to the fuel supply. The flow from the capillary tube goes into is normal. The temperature of the oil entering the lubricating oil cooler will bt
the supply line. If the viscosity of the fuel oil departs from the desired value, the related to the temperature of the oil leaving the engine. A difference will exis
pressure-drop along the small bore will change. This pressure-drop variation is which will depend on the heat lost by the oil in the drain tank and piping, bu
shown as a deviation in the differential pressure between the pressure chamber these variations are generally negligible in amount over a wide range of ambien
and the main fuel supply line. As the viscosity of the fuel rises the pressure sea and air temperatures. The oil temperature can thtrefore be sensed at the oi
differential will increase in magnitude. A differential pressure gauge can then
inlet to the oil cooler. In order t~ prevent long-term problems (see Questio~
be used as a sensor for the viscosity of the fuel oil. 15.19) from deposits settling on or within tubes or short-term problems arisinr
A transducer can be incorporated with the differential pressure gauge so that
with high pour point oil congealing within tubes (sometimes referred to as colt
a pneumatic signal is given, the pressure of which will be proportional to the
viscosity of the fuel. The signal given out by the transducer can be coupled in plugging) it is usual with larger-powered engines to keep a full flow o
lubricating oil through the cooler and control the flow of cooling water.
This can be done with a valve similar to that described in question 18.36 o
with twovvalves, one being fitted in the cooling-water inlet and one in th
bypass. The valves control the amount of water entering the cooler and flowin

Cap~llarytube
- Row
to the bypass. Naturally the valve actuators work in opposition so that on
valve will be opening while the other is closing, or vice versa. In small engine
such as a generator or alternat~r~drive, control is sometimes carried out b
controlling the oil-flaoP through the cooler with the use of a bypass on th
lubricating oil side of the cooler.

., - - -**
18.38 Control valves when fitted on coolers for purposes of temperature
11
Ccnnecl~onsto
chamber control require a sensor and a valve actuator to effect the control. Briefly
tronsducw describe how control i s effected.
Fig. 18.7 Viscosity meter using a capillary tube and differential pressure gauge The simplest form of flow control valve used for control of temperature c
calibrated with a viscosity scale. jacket cooling water and lubricating oil is the wax-element control valve. In th
496 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine
Instrumentation and Controls 497 4
18.40 Describe the purpose and action of a relay when fitted to a
type, which has three branches, the medium being cooled, either jacket cooling controller or a signal air transmitter of the type mentioned in 18.39.
(I
water or lubricating oil, is passed over a wax-filled sealed bellows which is the
temperature sensing element or thermostat. Changes of temperature alter the Relays can be fitted in pneumatic controllers; they are fitted, where lags are 4
volume of the semi-molten wax and set up a force which is used to position excessive, to give a faster response to changes monitored by the sensor. They
the valve. The valve is arranged to open the inlet to the cooler and close the inlet consist of a small valve in a branch from the air supply to the instrument,,1
to the bypass as the sensed cmg-rature rises. connected t o a bellows or diaphragm which is controlled by the air pressure in fi
In other cases the temperature of the medium being cooled is monitored by a the small line between the nozzle and the restriction orifice. The action of the
sensor and transducer (more information in Questions 18.30 and 18.39). The relay, which may have a direct or reverse action, is such that a greater air d
transducer gives out an air signal w W can be passed to a piston-type valve capacity is available in the signal which is not affected by the capacity of the (
actuator. Linkage from the actuator is connected to the spindle of a butterfly restriction orifice. A relatively large amount of the air flow into the relay valve
valve. As the signal air pressure rises it forces the piston out against a spring and branch can be bled to atmosphere so that a low-pressuresignal is transmitted; as 4
positions the valve to regulate the flow. Where there is insufficient pressure or the relay valve reduces the leak-off to atmosphere the output signal pressure
flow for follow-up in the air signal the signal can be passed to another valve rises. .a
which is used to control the pressure (from a higher pressure source) t ~ ~ v e When the outpufslgnafgressure isdirectly proportional t e t h e value ef the (
actuator. input signal to the relay bellows, it is said to b i a direct-acting relay. If the
Some ships use hydraulically or electrically operated valve actuators, but output signal presiure is inversely proportionztto the value of the input signal d
whichever is used the elements within the system will still consist of a sensor, a
transducer, and an actuator.
to the relay bellows, it is said to be a reverse-acting relay. 1
Note By inversely proportional is meant the action is such that as the input

18.39 Briefly describe the means whereby the movement of the free end
of a Bourdon-tube can be made to produce an air pressure signal propor-
tional in magnityde to the amount of movement.
signal to the relay bellows increases, the output sighl decreases.

18.41 What do you understand by the term 'proportional band'?

IQ
Compressed air at low pressure is fed into the instrument used, and bled Proportional-type controllers receive input signals from a sensor and give an
through a small restriction orifice which is fitted into the supply line within the output signal which is proportional to the input signal. The range or change in
instrument. From the orifice the air passes through a tube to a nozzle. Between value of the input signal, which causes the proportional controller to vary the
the nozzle and the orifice there is a T-branch. The signal air flows into the T- output signal over its full range, is referred to as the proportional band.
branch and is piped away to where it is required. If air is bled through the Suppose for example we have a temperature controller arranged to give an air
restriction orifice, the pressure in the tube can be controlled by controlling the output signal of 0.21 bar when the input temperajure is 40°C, and of 1.03 bar 4
amount of air flowing from the nozzle. If the nozzle flow is reduced by blanking when the input temperature is 50°C. The proportional band will then be 10°C
off the nozzle the pressure in the tube rises. If a beam pivoted at one end is fitted (50°C to 40°C), when the output signal varies over its pressure range of 0.82 bar (
over the nozzle so that it is approximately midlength along the beam and the (1.03 to 0.21).
4
free end of the beam is connected to the Bourdon-tube, movement of the tube Note Other names for proportional band are band width, control band, and
will raise or lower the beam. Raising the beam moves it away from the nozzle throttling band. /
4
and the throttling action on the air passing through the nozzle is reduced. This
allows mare air to pass out of the nozzle and so reduces the pressure in the tube Many of the instruments used for proportional control have an adju,sler 4
between the restriction and the nozzle. The pressure of the air supply into the T- which can be used to control the proportional band; the adjuster is used when a
branch is also reduced. To increase the sensitivity of the instrument, feedback is system is being balanced. 4
introduced to the pivoted end of the beam. This is arranged by fitting a spring 4
and bellows with a connection into the T-branch. When movement of the 18.42 The terms 'open loop control' and 'closed loop control' are used in
Bourdon-tube moves the beam towards the nozzle a rise in signal air pressure (
control engineering. What do you understand by these terms? Give an
causes outward movement of the bellows against the spring and in turn causes a example of each. I
slight amount of movement of the beam pivot and beam away from the nozzle.
The pressure of the air supplied to the instrument is 1.37 bar (20 Ib/in2), and the Open loop control refers to manual control systems. In such a system, there i(
signal pressure will vary from 0.21 bar (3 Ib/in2), to 1.03 bar (15 Ib/in2). must be a sensing device, and a display or indication of a variable value which
reauires control within certain limits. The value is read on the display unit, its 4
 1.8.44 Automatic temperature controls on engine cooling and lubrication
significance is interpreted by the operator, who then takes the necessary action systems are sensed at.the inlet to the cooler. What happens if the outlet
to correct any deviations from the required norm or limits.
Closed loop control refers to automatically controlled systems. In closed
loop systems a sensor or sensing device is required to monitor any deviation.
The deviations are fed back as a signal from the sensor to a comparator which
I temperature from an individd-cylinder iacket, piston or bearing rises to
an unsafe value? How are dangerous conditions prevented?
If the coolant outlet temperature from an individual cylinder jacket or piston
measures the deviation or change from a required value. The value of the rises, the rising temperature is masked when the hotter coolant mixes with the
deviation is fed as a signal to a controller which is used to position a regulator. normal-temperature coolant from the uther cylinders. Further, the degree of
The regulator then makes the necessary changes to correct the deviation. The masking increases with the number of cylinders on the engine. It therefore
loop is closed by the connection between the regulator and the sensing device. follows that if temperature sensing is effected at the cooler inlet there could be a
An example of an open loop control is the steam pressure gauge on an
auxiliary boiler. The pressure gauge is the sensing device and display. Any
deviation from the desired steam pressure is regulated by manual control of the
iI considerable time-lag before the temperature rise at the cooler inlet was suffi-
cient to activate an alarm. In older motor ships flow switches were sometimes
fitted in some cooling outlets; these were wired in a fail-safe manner to the
oil burner pressure pump or burner supply bypass. An example of a closed loop engine alarm system.
is the automatic control of the temperature of engine cooling water. F, i In more modern motor ships which have been classified for zero manning in
the engine room, temperature sensors are connected into each outlet line and a
rising temperature will give both a visual and audible alarm at the control
18.43 Where are logic circuits used, what is their purpose and how are
station and an audible alarm outside the engine room.
they built?
Mini digital computers or micro-processing units are also used for engine
Logic circuits are used in the control of processes and have a place in both alarm systems. When these units are used, the individual outlet temperatures at
engineering control systems and computers. Their function in control each of the outlet points are scanned for readout at very short periods. The
engineering is to effect simple decision-making so that a process can be input is then processed for individual high or low temperatures outside the set,,
continued if everything is in order or suspended if some event which should limits or reference values. If the reference values are exceeded an alarm-?@
occur does dot occur. When an engineer officer serving in an older ship activated. The mean temperature from a series of coolant outlets is also fouqd
prepares the main engines for sea he makes a whole series of decisions based on together with the deviation of any unit from the mean. The average value and
certain actions before the engine is started. For example the main switchboard deviations can be given on the display unit.
will be checked to ascertain that sufficient electrical generation capacity is Some engine builders prefer to monitor the piston cooling system tempera-
available to start the various auxiliaries such as starting-air compressors, ture on the outlet from the cooler and the jacket cooling system on the inlet to
pumps, etc. If there is enough reserve electrical capacity, the officer will the cooler. The outlet temperaturepf the piston coolant from the piston cooling
proceed to the next step. Should the reserve electrical capacity be insufficient he system heat exchange? is then kept at the minimum required value. The outlet
thinks to himself 'not' enough capacity and does not proceed to check the temperature of the jacket cooling water from the heat exchanger is then kept at
starting air pressure but instead starts another generator. its maximum value.
If the starting-air pressure is in order he goes to the lubricating oil pumps and When controlled in this manner the temperature of the piston and hence its
will start one 'or' the other. diameter is kept at some minimum value. The jacket cooling water and hence
The next step is to start the jacket cooling water pump after which the officer the inside diameter of the cylinder bore is kept at a maximum value. This is
will say to himself, 'I have started the lubricating oil pump 'and' the jacket considered to be a safer way to operate in engines where there is a tendency for
cooling pump; I will now proceed to the next step.' The steps naturally follow the piston or piston skirts to overheat. When controlled in this manner the
one another in a logical manner. piston clearance is kept at a maximum possible value.
Logic circuits function and make decisions in a series of steps similar to the
engineer officer preparing engines for sea.
Logic circuits are built up of components which are referred to as 'not', 'or', 18.45 Describe a three-way control valve as usedon many heat
-
'and', 'not or', 'not and' circuits. In designing and drawing up logic circuits exchangers to control temperatures.
various symbols are used to simplify the work.
Common uses of logic circuits in marine are automatic engine start- Three-way valves have three branches for the passage of the coolant. The valve
up, bridge control of main engines; automatic start-up, synchronizing and operates in such a manner that the flow of coolant passes into the valve through
switching-in alternators, etc. one branch and may leave the valve by one of the other two branches, or the
flow may be split so that part of the flow leaves from one branch and the
Note The word 'logic' is derived from the Greek words 'logos', which means balance leaves by the other branch. One of the outlet branches is connected to
word or reason, and 'logike', which means the art ~f reasoning.
500 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Instrumentation and Controls 501
a
a
Fixed
18.47 What are the component parts of a data logger of the type found 4
in the engine room of motor ships? What is their purpose?
4
,
To heat In order to write up the log-book in an older ship one has to go around the
exchanger engine room and observe the values given on the various instruments used for
indicating pressures, temperatures, volume and flow, mentally compare the
?
-- value of the reading to some norm, and then transfer the value noted t 6 the /(
engine log-book. The purpose of the data logger is in effect to take the readings 4
of the various temperatures, pressures, and flows and give a print-out of the
readings at set time inte~als;it is also arranged so that warnings are given of (
unacceptable conditions and it continues to give a printsut until the unaccept-
able condition is corrected or acknowledged. 4
Fig. 18.8 Wax element, three-way control valve. The component parts of a data logger are first, the sensor-transducers which (I
give an electrical signal to the scanner. The scanner is timecycled and each of
the electrical signals from the sensor-transducers is taken in turn and trans- a
mitted to an amplifier. The amplifier takes in the signals from the sensor where
the inlet side of the heat exchanger while the other is connected to a bypass and they are brought to standardized analogues in the form of d.c. voltage outputs. (
prevents the passage of coolant through the heat exchanger. The analogues are then converted to digital outputs. These digital outputs are
The inner portion of the-valve is designed to bealwaysapen to the inlet passed into logging printers and display units. The logging printer can be timed
branch over the operating range of the valve. When maximum cooling is to give a print-out after any desired time lapse. The display unit can be used to
required the valve will close off the bypass branch and open fully to the branch obtain a readout of any of the v a l u ~of temperature, pressure, or fl
leading to the heat exchanger. When no cooling is required the bypass branch (whichever is applicable) at each of the sensor locations. Selector switches
opens fully and the other branch is closed off. used for obtaining the individual readings.
Some three-way valves are operated by a wax eIement fitted within the valve; It is common practice to combine the data logger with an alarm system.
other types of valve are pneumatically controlled by air pressure acting on a alarm system consists of a comparator unit which receives the digital inputs
diaphragm. (Fig. 18.8) compares them with the safe reference values. If any signal is received w
falls outside its safe reference value the alarm system is activated and the pnnter
prints-out the alarm condition values. Alarm lamps can also be set to flashing
condition on the mimic board to pinpoint the location which is the source of the
18.46 The terms 'analogue' and 'digital' are used in control engineering. alarm condition.
What do you understand by these terms?
These terms can be understood by reference to a ship's log. Many ships have a
e
. 18.48 For what purposes can computers be used in conjunction with
log which is passed through the bottom of the ship from the engine room space; diesel machinery?
it is used to measure the ship's speed in nautical miles per hour (knots) and the
distance run by the ship in nautical miles. In the engine room a display unit is Pre-programmed mini electronic computers are now used in conjunction with.
diesel machinery. They are connected up with transducers fitted at critical
provided which gives the speed of the ship indicated by a pointer position on a
calibrated dial, and the distance run, from some point in time or place, by a points in the engine. The transducers monitor temperatures, pressures a
horizontal set of figures. (including pressures within the cylinders and combustion spaces), flow rat*
The numerical value of the speed is represented by the distance that the needle and cylinder liner wear. The sensors or transducers feed signals to the computer
has swung from its zero position. Representation of a numerical value by a where they are processed. They are then used in a normal manner for da
stepless physical quantity such as the needle swing is an analogue. The right- logging equipment, alarm annunciation and the like. Further uses ar
hand figure given on the distance-run display changes at the end of each indicate trends in operation changes. For example, it is known that the air
nautical mile covered; it therefore changes a digit or makes a step at the end of filters to the main engine turbo-blowers gradually become fouled and
each mile run and such a set of figures which change in this manner is referred to some time they must be cleaned. In a hard-run ship the problem will someum
as a digital representation.-. - - arise as to whether the filters should be cleaned immediately or at the next p
which is so many hours' sailing away.
Note The analogue computer uses physical quantities for its input which may The computer can handle this problem in the following way. The press
bc voltage, currcnt or resistance to rcprcscnt numerical magnitudes. The digital drop across the filter or pressure differential is accurately measured on
~ the f o r x o f digits.
compliter uses i n p l ~ td a t in
occasions with some reasonable time lapse between measurements.
502 Ouestions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Instrumentation and Controls 503

increase of fouling, shown by the increase of the pressure difference across the conductors to cause a current to flow when the semiconductor is combined with
filter is divided by the time lapse in which the fouling increased, we obtain a other materials and exposed to light. The cell composed of the semiconductor
fouling rate given as pressure-drop per hour. This figure is then divided into the generates its own e.m.f., thereby causing current flow. This type of semi-
maximum allowable pressure drop, the result giving the number of hours the air conductor also has a peculiar effect in that it allows current to flow only in one
filters can remain in operation between successive cleanings. The actual direction when connected to an electrical supply with alternating voltage.
pressure-drop subtracted from the allowable will give the reserve pressure-drop; Semiconductors can be used as transducers for sensing temperature change,
if this is divided by the pressure-drop rate per hour the number of hours to the as transistors in amplifier circuits, as detectors for boiler oil fuel burner flame
next cleaning is obtained. indicators, engine and boiler-room fire detectors, static excitation equipment
With information such as this, which would be readily available before the on alternators, and in computer circuits,.etc.
ship's arrival in port, it is possible to effectively plan the maintenance work load
so that the most advantageous use is made of the man-hours available after 18.50 Describe briefly the action of a cathode-ray oscilloscope and state
planned maintenance and continuous survey items have been covered, or in an where It is often used.
emergency to reschedule planning.
In a similar manner the computer can receive the pressures sensed within the The cathode-ray oscilloscope (referred to as an oscilloscope, scope or C.R.0) is
combustion chambers iydiejate them to a time or stroke base and give a display used to obtain a record of voltages a r currents on a basis of time and bring them
showing the mean indicated pressure in each cylinder. The computer can sum to a visual form where they can be easily analysed.
the values from each cylinder and find the mean value. It can then find the Any electrical variable such as the output voltages in the various parts of an
deviation of the m.i.p. of any cylinder from the mean. This information simpli- electrical circuit can be used for input. Any mechanical variable capable of
fies the balancing of the engine sofKat the indicated horse-power developed in obtaining an electrical output from a transducer can also be used. Some
each cylinder is the same. Within this programme, the engine rev/min which is examples of these are the displacement, velocity, and acceleration components
fed into the computer is used to obtain the indicated power of the engine in both of a mechanical vibratory movement, air-pressure waves in the form of audible
horse-power and kW. or non-audible frequencies, the pressures of the gas expanding in an engine
Other programmes are available in the computer to give indications of hull cylinder, the pressure variations in air inlet and exhaust manifolds, the small
fouling, cylinder liner wear and a whole range of useful informatie~whichcan movement of engineyartswbjected-to vibration or when understress, p r e s s m e
effect the economic operation of the ship and its machinery. In the case of variations in the blood circulatory system in the body, etc.
accelerated cylinder liner wear arising out of the use of very low sulphurcontent An oscilloscope- has a conical-shaped glass casing holding some of the
fuels with high additive cylinder lubricants, the computer would almost pay for components in a high vacuum. The glass casing, commonly called the tube,
itself in giving early-warning of wear-rate increase. Trouble could then be houses the cathodes which emit a stream of electrons and adjust the intensity of
avoided with little or no lost time (see Question 18.29). the light spot on the luminescent screen, anodes or grids to accelerate and focus
the flow of electrons. These parts are sometimes referred to as the electron gun.
An electron beam can be deflected by a magnetic field or by an electrostatic
18.49 What do you understand by the term 'semiconductor'? Where are field.
semicopductors likely to befound in the engine or control room in a motor The other parts fitted in the tube are the horizontal and vertical deflection
ship? plates which control the direction of the beam and deflect it vertically or
Semiconductors, as their name implies, are some form of material which is horizontally by electrostatic fields between the plates. Deflection of the beam
neither an electrical conductor nor an insulator. Their resistance lies somewhere makes the light spot on the screen move vertically or horizontally or with a com-
between that of conductors and insulators. Semiconductors have various bination of both movements at the same time. The amount of movement is pro-
properties. portional to the applied voltage.
One class changes its resistance when it is subjected to changes of tempera- The base of the conical tube forms the viewing screen on which the light spot
ture. The semiconducting material can be bonded with other materials to appears. The inside of the screen is coated with a material that is cathodo-
produce sensor-transducers used to sense temperature changes. When this type luminescent; this glows when struck by electrons moving at a very high velocity
of semiconductor is used for sensing temperature a current is passed through it. and forms the luminous point on the screen.
As the semiconductor is subjected to rising temperature its resistance decreases The other components external to the tube are a high-voltage generator to
so allowing a greater current flow. This type is referred to as thermo-sensitive. supply current to the cathodes and anodes, time-base generators, amplifiers_for
A second classification is referred to as being photo-conductive. Increased amplifying incoming voltages for the deflection plates, synchronizers to hold
T\IXWIIC 10 liy.111()I'one W : I V C ~ C I I ~ I ~ I or nnothcr rcdr~cesthc resistance of the input to horizontal deflection plates in step with input to the vertical deflect&
thilil
\ ~ I I I I C . ~ ~ I I ~ ~AI I L . ~ ~ I~.li~ssif'ic.i~tio~~ refers to Ihc ability of some scmi- plates, potentiometer controls, change-over switches, connecting wiring and
on-off switches. The arrangement and the casing of the equipment will depen .Thin lll*y RWlll VWy t ~ 1 ~ 1 1 ( ~ 1 h v 1 t 1I I~I tI I' I I I ~ U I , , I ,,h(nlt~l~r) t \ l l ~ t t l l . c (tlrmnu
a
on whether it is fitted into a centralized control console for a particular ast of data, hut we I I I I I N ~W I I I ~ I I I ~ Wthat
I t11iu ~ I I I I ~ ~ I I I , ~,~I I II IQ,*I
I 1,. I * , 11~ II I I ~ I I Il ~ ~ ~ t l * t ~
duties, or made up into a portable oscilloscope for use as a test Instrument. dm madllnory and dleswl yrtiarwtors i c Ic.quztc\r >i*.c\l. 11 IS \st \ L V I I ~ . ~ I I ~ C I I I
to have this equipment immediately available In the machinery console t
If the movement of the spot on the screen is considered as a graph of some
function (y =Ax)) the voltage applied to the vertical deflection plates creates
ordinates or 'y' values. The scale of the ordinates is related to the voltage
required to give a unit amount of vertical deflection. If a voltage (obtained from ,
obtain a quick check on cylinder pressures, combustion behaviour and the like
(Fig. 18.9)
Note Some installations have a cylinder-pressure transducer contained in ?i
9.
the time-base generator) varying from zero to some other value in a uniform portable unit with wiring connections to the console. The unit is connected wit*
manner is applied to the horizontal deflection plates the spot moves from left to , each engine cylinder in turn. In other cases a pressure transducer is fitted as a
right and then 'instantaneously' flies back to its starting position: this sequence future in each cylinder unit. It is desirable to get the pressure transducer f i t t e a
is repeated indefinitely and creates the 'x' axis. If a varying voltage is applied to as near as possible to the combustion chamber. If the transducer is connected to
the vertical deflection plates at the same time as the uniformly increasing the combustion chamber through gas passages, extreme care must be taken with a
voltage is applied to the horizontal deflection plates, the spot traces out a graph their design to ensure that spurious echoes or pressure waves which will bc@
showing the variation of 'y' with respect to time 'x'. picked up by the transducer, are not generated.
When the oscilloscope is used to obtain an indicator card the varying voltage -
corresponding to changes in cylinder pressure given out by a piezoelectric
18.51 What a r e proximity sensors, magnetic pickups, displacement
transducer or other form of transducer is amplified and then applied to the
vertical deflection plates. The electronic beam and the spot move up and down pickups, velocity pickups, and accelerometers? What are they used for? -
in unison with the pressures in the cylinder. If the voltage output from the time
base generator is amplified and synchronized with the engine rpm and then .
applied to the horizontal deflection plates the light spot on the screen traces out '
a graph-of cylinder pressure against-time, but without the effect of connecting-
rod angularity on the time base.
Bf using a shaft encoder it is possible to obtain a voltage varying in the same
Proximity sensors, magnetic pickups, displacement pickups, velocity pickup
and accelerometers are the names given to different forms of transducer used t
create an output voltage proportional to some mechanical movement. Th
voltage generated is usually linear in output and normally follows some form o
a sinusoid curve that is repeated at equally spaced time intervals (periodic).
These transducers fall into one of three main tvDes: I
F
#
'a
manner as the piston movement &roughout the stroke. If a voltage variation h
-.
this form is amplified, synchronized and applied to the horizontal deflection nonkontact type (proximity sensors)
plates, a normal indicator diagram is traced out. velocity pickups
accelerometers
One form of proximiijPsensor contains a coil of fine wire which receives a 0
high-frequency current input. A magnetic field is formed at the end of the@
sensor. When some mass of iron or steel passes the tip of the sensor the field is
changed. This change eventttall-y-produces a direct current output that is
proportional to the distance of the tip from the mass. Beyond a certain distance
the sensitivity of the sensor falls away and it ceases to be linear. This type of
lzontal deflect~ngplates
sensor when located at the end of a shaft may be used in studying axial vibration
or used to obtain shaft speeds when located near to some point in the system
Vertlcal deflecl~ngplates
such as gearing teeth or the teeth cut in a flywheel for engaging the turning or 0
jacking gear. Two sensors located at 90" to each other near a rotating shaft
surface can be used to study shaft movement caused by bad balance or shaft
coupling misalignment. 'I
A velocity pickup consists of a permanent magnet housed within a coil of.
wire. Each end of the permanent magnet is held by a spring; axial movement ot'
the magnet can take place between the limit of spring compression. The magnet
and the springs are immersed in oil for damping. If the sensor is fastened to a
piece of machinery subjected to some forct causing vibration, the inertia of the
Simplified diagram showing the internal parts of a cathode ray magnet holds it stationary relative to the upward and downward movement
Fig. 18.9
oscilloscope. The internal and external connections are not shown. of the surrounding coil. The relative movement of the field of the magnet
a
causes a voltage and current flow. The voltage output from the coil is directly
proportional to the velocity of the vibratory movement.
Accelerometers are increasingly used in vibration studies because they are
smaller and respond to a wider frequency range than the other transducers. The
accelerometer consists of a piezoelectric material, part which is held between
some mass and the body of the instrument.
If the instrument is fastened to some piece of vibrating machinery the inertia
of the mass causes the piezoelectric material to be subjected to a stress and an
SAFETY
electrical signal is generated.
As force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration the electrical output
is proportionate to the acceleration of the mass acting on the piezoelectric
material.
These various transducers are used in many fields of investigation
particularly wher'e vibration or noise is concerned. The varying voltage or
output signal from the transducer is separated and analysed in various ways
using computers and programs, some of which are designed, manufactured and
written specifically for this purpose.
The equipment can be used to obtain vibration signatures of rotary machines 19.1 Some ships are fitted with electrical oil heaters. What safety
such as pumps, turbo-chargers and the like, and to make predictions for devices are fitted on electrical oilheaters? How do electrical oil heaters
maintenance programmes. If no change is shown in the vibration signature it differ in th-iiir operation compared with steam heaters?
can be assumed that there is no deterioration in the moving parts of the equip- In steam-heated oil heaters the maximum temperature to which the oil can rise
ment that could lead to increased vibratioo. will correspond with the saturation temperature of the steam. This maximum
temperature will not be exceeded if there is no oil flow through the heater. In
18.52 What is a shaft encoder? electrically operated oil heaters the temperature of the oil can rise to dangerous
limits if the oil flow stops and current is left on the heating elements. The
A shaft encoder is used to obtain a series of electrical impulses or a variable important safety device which should come into operation in such a
output corresponding in amount to some known shaft position during the circumstance is the high-temperature cut-out which switches off the electrical
rotation of a shaft. The output may be impulses occurring at equally spaced supply. The temperature sensor in the heater and the automatic switching
intervals of time or angular motion. Some encoders will give an impulse at devices take various forms; whatever arrangements are used they should be
intervals extending over a fraction of a degree while others may give an impulse carefully checked at regular intervals to avoid failtire of the thermosta't
only at 90' spacing of shaft rotation. The spacing interval required is related to controls.
the equipment and the purpose for which it is used. When used for obtaining
data on a diesel engine, a secondary electrical impulse giving the location of the
piston position for a reference cylinder can also be given - for example, this 19.2 Oil heaters, heating coils in lubricating-oil and fuel tanks, usually
might be No. I piston when in top dead centre position. use steam for heating purposes. Where does the steam go to after it is
Many encoders work by means of a light source and a photocell. The light utilized for heating?
source may be projected through a rotating disc with slots. This interrupts the
action of the light source on the photocell and causes current flow from the cell After the steam enters the heater or heating coils it gives up its latent heat and
in the form of a series of impulses. In some other cases the light source may be condenses to water. The water then passes through the drain trap on the outlet
projected through a screen with an optical pattern on it to give a continuously side of the steam system and eventually collects in a drain tank from where it
varying output that may be used in an analog computer. passes through filters and an observation tank.
Shaft encoders are necessary with some of the electronic equipment used in After passing through the observation tank the water enters into the boiler-
instrumentation equipment used for monitoring diesel engine performance. feed water system and is pumped back into the boiler.
-
19.3 What particular attention must be given to the observation tank?
Should .ny leakage of oil occur in a heater or heating coils, the oil may find its
way into the steam space of the heater and eventually contaminate the feed
 -
508 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Safety 5%

water. If feed water contaminated with oil is pumped into the boiler the oil burner front, an explosion or bad blow back may occur. This can injure tl@
settles on the heating surfaces. The oil film on the heating surfaces acts as a heat person lighting-up the boiler. In lighting-up oil fuel burners with a hand-torc
insulator and in restricting the heat flow across the tubes or furnaces it allows the first essential is always to stand towards the side of the furnace
the temperature of the material forming the tube or furnace to rise to dangerous manipulate the controls. This brings the boiler operator or engineer out of
limits, which causes itsstrength to be reduced. The pressure then deforms the line of any blow back should one occur. The next step is to open-up the
overheated material and failure will occur. The observation tank is usually
arranged as a cascade-type filter so that if a small oil leak occurs the oil will
collect in one space within the tank. This space is often fitted with a set of sight
glasses to allow the surface of the water to be illuminated and kept under
supply to the furnace so that any gases present are cleared. After the gases h

which the oil and the air supply can be opened and the torch withdrawn.
Note In carrying out this operation it is essential to watch over oneself anc,
*a
been cleared, the air can be shut off and the torch entered into the furnace, aft

observation. When steam is being used in heaters and heating coils the return
one's staff to ensure that familiarity with a simple operation does not breel)
condensate must at all times be kept under close inspection while it is passing
contempt for its many dangers.
through the observation tank.
a
Note If any oil is found in the observation tank, a decision must be made as to 19.6 Why is it essential that sea valves fitted on the ship's side be
whether the contamination can be removed by the filter section of the tank. If opened and closed at regular and frequent intervals? What is a bilge
any doubt exists as to whether the filters can handle the oil and separate it out,
the bypass must be opened and the heating condensate return allowed to flow
iniectlon valve? a
into the bilges. On no account should it be fed into the boiler. The oil should be It is essential that sea-water suction and discharge valves fitted on the ship'9sid
separated from the bilge water in the oily-bilge-water separator, when bilge be opened and closed preferably at weekly intervals. This opening and closin
water is pumped overboard. prevents the valve spindle seizing in the valve bridge. If the spindle seizes in th
bridge. it becomes impossible to close or open the valve. If it is
close valves, particularly the large-size vaives associated with the main
19.4 What do you understand by the term 'water hammer'? Why is it water services, the engine room becomes very vulnerable in the event of pi
dangerous and how can it be prevented? failure, and could w i l y be flooded.
When steam lines are shut down it is possible, from various causes, for them to A bilge injection valve is fitted to the end of a branch line connecting with th b
fill with water. If steam is allowed to enter a line filled with water, the steam main sea-water suction line. The bilge injection valve is always of the screw!@
down non-return type. This valve enables the large main sea-water coolin
starts to move the water down the line. The steam in contact with the water
eventually condenses and a vacuum is then formed causing the water to be pump to be used as a bilge pump in an emergency. k
pulled back at a very high velocity. The water at high velocity returns to the
valve which has just been opened and strikefit witha very heavy blow, often 19.7 How is a bilge injection valve brought into use during an
a
fracturing the valve-1f the valve fractures it may end disastrously, with risk of emergency? a
loss of life. In order to prevent water hammer it is necessary to open up the drain
connections on the steam line which is being brought into use. The water in the To bring the bilge injection valve into use during an emergency the bilge injec-4
line must then be completely drained so that it leaves the line clear. The steam tion valve is opened fully and the sea injection or suction valve is fully closed.
valve may then be very slightly opened (cracked open) so that the line is heated After it is established that the sea-water pump is capable of lowering the water4
and brought up to near working temperature. Any condensate formed during level in the engine room, the sea-water valve on the ship's side may be opened4
this period drains out of the line through the drains previously opened. As the slowly. This should be done in stages so that the tank top is not pumped dry, as
line temperature rises and the noise from the drain changes to that of a steam this would cause the sea-water pump to lose its suction. 4
blow, the pressure on the line can be increased by opening the steam valve Note Sea-water cooling pumps are not usually self-priming, if of the4
further. Eventually the drain valves can be closed, after the steam valve is fully centrifugal type.
opened. 4 ?
19.8 Fuel-oil tanks for the supply of fuel to the main engines, boilers or , 4
19.5 What are the precautions which must be taken when using a hand- other services, are usually fitted with two outlet valves referred to as high 4
torch to light-up burners in a boiler? and low suctions. Why are two valves used and what is the purpose of
this?
I f a burner shut-off valve leaks or is not shut off correctly, it is possible for fuel
oil 10 find its w i i y into tllc 1101 fi~rnnce.'l'tlc oil will vaporize and form gases. The high and low valves are actually a safety feature to prevent inadvertent (
Whr~l-11 IOIC.II is pi~sscili n t o the fl~rnnccnntl the air supply is opened nt the shut-down of engines, boilers or generators, due to water contaminating the
4
5 10 Questions and Answers on the Murine Diesel Engine

fuel. Normally the low suction valve is kept in use. If any water should find its should. be stopped and the wholc d thc sc;lvc~lgc11I J I I L cuam~r~rd
: I I:my
~ oil
way into the service tanks it will gradually separate towards the bottom of the residues found round other cylinders removed. The actual cause of the
tank. When it becomes apparent that water is present, either by finding it at initiation of the fire should be investigated.
drains or by the operation of the engine or boiler burners, it is possible to bring If the scavenge fire is of a more major nature it sometimes becomes necessary
the high suction into use and avoid a shut-down. to stop the engine and use the steam or extinguishing arrangements fitted to the
scavenge trunk. The fire is then extinguished before it can spread to surfaces of
Note Drai~valveson fuel tanks should be regularly used to determine
whether any water is present in the service tank. They should also be used prior the scavenge trunk where it may cause the paint to start burning if special non-
to changing-over fuel service tanks. inflammable paint has not been used.
-
-
- Note The fuel should be taken off the cylinder by lifting the suction valve of
the fuel pump or by lifting the fuel pump roller whichever is applicable to the
19.9 List the variou;'factors which must be present for a scavenge fire to fuel pump concerned Xsee Question 4.3). The fuel should not be taken off the
start? cylinder by opening the bypass on the fuel valve; fuel may splash out from
tundishes or save-alls and create an extra hazard.
For any fire to begin there must be present a combustible material, oxygen or air If a scavenge fire occurs, care must be- taken by engine-room staff to stand
to support combustion, and a source of heat at a temperature high enough to clear of the crankcase and zavenge pressure relief devices.
start combustion. In the case of scavenge fires the combustible material is oil.
The oil is usually cylinder oil which has drained down from the cylinder spaces;
19.1 1 How can the incidence of-sevenge fires be prevented or reduced?
in some cases the cylinder oil residues may also contain fuel oil. The fuel may
come from defective injectors, injectors with incorrect pressure setting, fuel One of the first things that must receive attention is maintaining the scavenge
particles striking the cylinder, and other similar causes. The oxygen necessary space in as clean a condition as possible. This can be done by keeping scavenge
for combustion comes from the scavenge air which is in plentiful supply for the drain pipes clear and using them regularly to drain off any oil which comes
operation of the engines. The heat in the scavenge space, around the cylinder, down into the scavenge space drain pockets. The scavenge space and drain
brings the oil to a condition where it is easily ignited. The high temperature pockets should also be cleaned regularly to remove the thicker carbonized oil
required to start combustion may arise from piston-ring blow-past. sludges which do not drain down so easily and which are a common cause of
choked drain pipes. The piston rings must be properly maintained and
lubricated adequately so that ring blow-by is prevented. At the same time one
19.10 How would you become aware of a scavenge fire? How would you
deal with a scavenge fire?
must guard against excess cylinder-oil usage. With timed cylinder oil injection
the timing should be periodically checked. Scavenge ports must be kept clear.
The first indications of a scavenge fire may be a slight reduction in the engine The piston-rod packing rings and scraper rings should also be regularly
speed due to the reduction in power which comes about when a fire starts. Other adjusted so that oil is prevented from entering the scavenge space because of
indications are a higher exhaust temperature at the cylinders where the scavenge butted ring segments. This may and does occur irrespective of the positive
fire has started and irregular speed of turbo-blowers. External indications will pressure difference between the scavenge trunk and the crankcase space.
be given by a smoky exhaust and the discharge of sooty smuts or carbon Crosshead guide adjustment is also important.
particles. If the scavenge trunk is oily the fire may spread back from the space The mean indicated pressure in each cylinder must also be carefully balanced
around or adjacent to the cylinders where the fire started and will show itself as so that individual cylinders are not over-loaded.
very hot spots on areas of the scavenge trunk surfaces. In ships where the engine If cylinder liner wear is up to maximum limits the possibility of scavenge fires
room is periodically unmanned, temperature sensors are fitted at critical points will not be materially reduced until the liners are renewed or re-chromed.
within the scavenge spaces. On uniflow-scavenged engines the sensors are fitted
round the cylinder liner just above the scavenge ports. A temperature higher
.,,
- .,-I /

19.12 In carrying out an inspection after a scavenge fire where would

than reference or normal then activates the alarm system. you direct your attention?
If a scavenge fire starts, two immediate objectives arise; they are to contain
the fire within the scavenge space of the engine and to prevent or minimize Heat causes distortion, which sometimes becomes permanent. If the scavenge
damage to the engine. The engine must be put to dead slow ahead and the fuel trunk plating is substantial in thickness as is found on some engines, a bad fire
must be taken off the cylinders affected by the fire (see Note). The lubrication c a m u s e distortion and may upset j5i-?on alignment. A check should be made
to these cylinders must be increased to prevent seizure and all scavenge drains by turning the engine and watching the movement of the piston in the cylinder
must be shut to prevent the discharge of sparks and burning oil from the drains liner; care must be taken to ascertain that no binding occurs at any part of the
into the engine room. In some cases this allows the fire to burn itself out without stroke. Binding may also be the indication of a bent piston rod. The other
damage. Once the fire is out and navigational circumstances allow it, the engine points which require attention are springs on scavenge space pressure-relief
5 12 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Safety 513

devices if they were near the seat of the fire. Piston-rod packing should also be should also be noted that when fuels are heated more than is necessary it may
examined for garter or other springs which may have become weakened by reduce the effective calorific value because of the possibility of releasing volatile
overheating. constituents.
- - -.
19.15 Name the factors which must be present for an explosion to occur
19.13 List the safety devices fitted on fuel-oil settling tanks and daily in the crankcase of a diesel engine.
service tanks. What attention do these devices require?
Normally when an engine is in operation the lubricating oil used in the bearings
The safety devices fitted on fuel-settling tanks and daily service tanks are as is splashed around the crankcase and broken down into moderate-sized
follows. particles. When a bearing, guide, piston rod, piston trunk, or skirt becomes
Fuel outlet valves. Remote closing devices with control arranged for operation overheated, the particles contacting the heated area easily vaporize and form a
external to the engine room. white vapour which spreads around the crankcase. Some of the vapour
condenses to form very small particles which may eventually permeate the
A i r pipes. The air pipes are led to above the upper-deck level and external to whole of the crankcase space. If the mixture of air, very small particles and
deck house. The outlets are fitted with metallic gauze screens. vapour reaches a certain proportion and the temperature of the hot spot is high
Thermometers. For measuring the temperature of the oil. enough to initiate combustion, an explosion can occur. In some cases the
mixture of oil vapour, particles and air may be too rich to allow combustion to
Overflow pipes. An overflow pipe is fitted to the top of the tank and led to an occur. If this condition is present and a crankcase door is opened the ingress of
overflow tank in the double bottom. An alarm activated by an overflow condi- air may then bring the mixture into the explosive range and allow an explosion
tion is sometimes fitted to the tank on the overflow pipe. to occur.
In ships where the engine room is periodically unmanned, alarms are also The factors that must be present for an explosion to occur are as follows.
fitted to warn of high fuel temperatures and low fuel levels. The remote valve- 1 A source of heat to cause the lubricating oil to vaporize and permeate the
closing devices should be tested at weekly intervals. The rod or wires leading to crankcase or part of it with very small oil particles.
the deck controls require lubrication, as do wire pulleys and leads. Care must be 2 The correct quantity of air mixed in with the small oil particles to make the
exercised when painting to prevent paint from jamming the pulleys. With wire oil-air mixture explosive.
controls, the upper section of the wire is liable to suffer from corrosion before 3 A source of heat at a temperature high enough to initiate combustion in the
the lower sections; the upper section should be carefully watched and protected. oil-air mixture; in most caies the source of heat that causes the crankcase to
The metal gauzes fitted on the open ends of air pipes also need attention for become permeated with the very small oil particles or mist is also the source
deterioration. The gauzes should also be examined after the air pipes have been of heat which initiates combustion.
repainted in case pa& bas got on to the gauze. The alarms must also be
subjected to periodic testing. When maintenance has been carried out on safety Note The source of heat is sometimes referred to as the hot spot, which is a
devices and testing programmes have been run through, appropriate entries carry-over of the common name for the flame or ignition tube fitted in the cylin-
der covers of hot-bulb engines.
-
must be made in the engine-room log-book.

19.14 What is the reason for fitting thermometers and alarms which give 19.16 How would it be possible for high pressure to arise in the
warning of high fuel temperatures in fuel-settling and daily service tanks? crankcase of a diesel engine? How is high pressure prevented from
building-up if the factors which make it possible are present? I

If fuel oil is heated to temperatures above its flash-point, inflammable vapours

are given off. It large quantities of oil vapour are produceditis~bviousthat If some internal p W P an enginebecomesoverheated the creation of lubricat- I
dangerous conditions are being created. In order to prevent this danger from ing-oil vapour occurs and mist can permeate the atmosphere in the crank-
arising, thermometer pockets and thermometers are fitted in the settling
tanks and daily service tanks on all ships. In ships where the engine room is
case. When the overheated part initiates combustion of the minute oil particles
in the oil mist a pressure rise occurs. The rate of the pressure rise depends ini-
tially on the weakness or richness of the oil-particle/air mixture. If the mixture '
,1
periodically unmanned, alarms are fitted to warn of dangerous temperatures.
The alarm should be set to go off when the temperature of the fuel approaches is in the explosi;. range the pressure-rise occuring after combustion has com- i
within 8°C' o f its flash-point. For example i f the flash-point is 80°C, the menced is so rapid that it is defined as an explosion. In order to combat any
alarnl should give a warning when the temperature of the oil is not more than
72°C'. 111 ~ I ; I C ~ I C C11 u wiw 10 SC( 1 1 1 ~nl;~rm at some lower figure. It
pressure rise and cancel out its possible disastrous effects, pressure-relief I
devices (which must be self-closing) are fitted to the crankcase. They are ,
5 14 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine .
4;
'J Spring-loaded valves of the type fitted on medium-speed engines should have
placed at various points along the crankcase to relieve any pressure wave
irrespective of its origin. The pressure-relief devices are often fitted with I the valve checked to ascertain that it is free to rrlovc on its spindle. This check
internal metallic gauzes to prevent flame emerging from the relief device, and also ensures that the sealing ring on the valve spindle and the sealing ring on the
F
seat-are notcausing the-valve to stick. The hinged-type of valve used on large

1$
external guards to deflect it away from operating localities if the gauze fails.
The necessity for the valve to be self-closing is to prevent a secondary explo- engines often becomes stuck following repainting of the engine. Paint enters
sion. The self-closing action of the valve is to prevent ingress of air to the crank- between the faces of the parts holding the hinge pin and eventually dries out.
case. If there were some oxygen deficiency following the first pressure-rise, Paint between the coils of the spring will also reduce its efficiency. Care must be
exercised during painting, and any excess paint which could interfere with the
ingress of air could trigger off a secondary explosion by supplying the air for + working of the door must be cleaned off. Hinged-type doors require periodic
combustion. k lubrication of the hinge pin to prevent rusting and seizing. Most hinge doors are
Note The pressure-relief devices are also called safety doors, explosion doors, fitted with a handle so that the valve or door can be tested by lifting it and
or explosion relief valves. observing that it quickly returns to its seat. If any flame guards or deflectors are
removed during examination they must be refitted before the engine is started.
After carrying out an examination of the crankcase-relief devices an appropri-
19.17 Describe a pressure-relief device of the type fitted on a diesel ate entry covering the examination and the conclusions should be entered in the
engine crankcase. Are these devices fitted an all sizes of engine? engine-room log-book or port log. .. -
Crankcase pressure-relief devices are of two main types. One type is hinged with
a near-horizontally placed, upward-opening door. The door has a coiled spring 19.19 Describe briefly a device which may be used to detect dangerous
fitted around the hinge pin, and is made self-closing both by the action of grav- conditions within a crankcase. Is the same device used on the main
ity and the spring. The amount that the door can open is restricted by butts on engine when the engine room is periodically unmanned?
the door. The other type consists of a circular door or valve disc mounted on a
central spindle and spring loaded. The spring holds the valve shut and makes it Dangerous conditions come about in a crankcase due to some part over-heating
self-closing. Several thicknesses of wire gauze are sometimes fitted over the and the creation of oil-vapour mist. We are all aware that mist affects visibility
opening to the device on the inside of the crankcase. Naturally the free area and therefore interferes with the free passage of light. This property of a mist is
through the meshed wires is kept well in excess of the area through the valve. Oil utilized to detect its presence in an engine crankcase. If mist is detected at its
tightness on the spring-loaded type door is maintained by having a joint or O- onset dangerous crankcase conditions can be avoided. The devices are referred
ring of suitable non-stick material fitted into a groove machined around the to as crankcase mist detectors. They consist of a suction fan and rotary valve. In
sealing face of the door. Hinge-type pressure-relief doors are sometimes sealed the connecting tube between the suction fan and the rotary valve a photo-elec-
by a thin plastic sheet held in place by a rubber ring. The thin plastic sheet covers tric cell and light source are fitted. Piping is led from the upper part of the
the opening on the inside of the crankcase and prevents oil leakage. Other types crankcase under each cylinder unit to the mist detector. The pipe from each
of hinged doors have a gutterway on the exterior lower part of the door. Any oil crankcase section is led separately to the rotary valve. When the fan and rotary
which leaks out is then drained back to the crankcase through a drain tube valve are in operation each section of the crankcase is connected in turn with the
which is self-sealing by the leakage remaining in a U-bend at the lower end of fan by the action of the rotary valve. The air from each section of the crankcase
the drain pipe. is then monitored in turn. If mist exists in any part of the crankcase the fan will
All marine diesel engines with the exception of the very small sizes are fitted suck it through the tube where the photo-electric cell and light source are fitted.
with pressure-relief devices on the crankcase. Generally the hinged type are The mist will restrict the passage of light which is detected by the photo-electric
fitted en slow-speed propulsion engines, while the other type is fitted on cell.
medium-speed engines used eithei f s propulsion or electrical generation. There are various ways of arranging the electronic circuits in mist-detection
equipment, but in all any reduction in the amount of light reaching the photo-
electric cell activates .both visual and audible alarms. Mist detectors are very
19.18 What attention do crankcase pressure-relief devices require? sensitive and able to detect mist levels in the very-weak mixture range. Time is
then available to slow down or stop the engine before the mixture comes within
Crankcase relief devices are normally examined by the surveyors carrying out
machinery surveys. It is also the duty and responsibility of engineer officers to the explosive range. -
Mist daectors are fitted on many engines. When a ship is classified for
see that they work freely at all times; as they are such simple, trouble-free periodic unmanned working in the engine room, the regulations of the govern-
devices there is a risk that they may go neglected during the period between sur- ing authorities in some countries- and the rules of some of the classification
veys. If gauzes are fitted they should be examined at the time of a crankcase societies are such that a mist detector or similar suitable equipment must be
inspection. The openings in the mesh should be inspected to see that they are
fitted on the main engine.
clear. -
 (
516 Questions and Answers on the Marine Diesel Engine Safety 517

19.20 Why ore bwsting devices fitted on starting-air valves or adjacent The temperature of the exhaust from the individual cylinders should be noted
to the valve on the starting-air manifold? because at very slow engine speeds some cylinders may not be getting fuel; this
makes for bad power balance between the various cylinders. If all the bearings
If a starting-air valve sticks open during an engine start the starting-air line are cool the engine may be started and run at its slowest speed again but for
becomes subje&to the mflmum pressure in the cylinder which, if the cylinder double the previous time, say up to six minutes; it should then be stopped and
fires, will be the combustion pressure. Should the inside of the starting-air line the feeling of all bearings repeated. If any bearings show a slightly abnormal
be moist with oil it will ignite and the starting-air lines right back to the temperature rise the cause must be ascertained, and rectified, as it will be
automatic valve will be subjected to very high pressures. In order to prevent the obvious that a slight temperature rise at these speeds will most likely be a large
starting-air line being subject to these high pressures some form of pressure- and dangerous temFature Tiseathigbersp&ds. After a six-minute run at the
relieving device is fitted on the starting-air valves or on thZ briffnch connecting slowest speed, and finding all in order, the engine speed can be increased by ten
the starting-air valve to the starting-air manifold. The most commonly used revolutions per minute and the engine run forTwo-minute, four-minute and
safety device is the bursting cartridge. In external appearance the bursting car- eight-minute periods. The bearings should be felt after each run. Any signs of a
tridge looks like a top hat. The wall of the cartridge is machined to a thickness temperature rise in one bearing being more than in other similar bearings must
that will ensure that it fractures when the safe pressure is exceeded. The car- be investigated and the cause rectified before the trial proceeds. After this series
tridges are usually made of steel which has been tested so that its tensile strength of runs, the speed may again be put up by tenzrevolutionsper minute and the
is known accurately. In order to protect the steel cartridges from corrosion they engine run for two-, four- and eight-minute periods, with stops between each
are often copper-plated. Another form of relief device is the lightning full-bore run for feeling bearing temperatures. In this way any temperature rise on a
safety valve. This consists of a normal-type valve which is held in place by a pis- bearing becomes known early and while it is still safe to open the crankcase
ton fitted within a cginder instead of a spring. Air pressure taken from the doors to enter the engine for feeling bearings.
starting-air system holds the valve in place. In the early stages of a trial there will sometimes be slight temperature differ-
ences among bearings that are similar; small differences may be caused by
19.21 Whot ottention do the bursting cartridges fitted on the engine scraped surfaces bedding themselves in, and by slight differences in the power
starting-air valves require? If a safety cartridge bursts how can the engine developed in each cylinder. The power differences are found by carefully noting
storting system be restored temporarily? the exhaust temperature at each cylinder as the trial proceeds.
The power of the engine is gradually increased up to the allowable limits of
The starting-air system bursting cartridges require periodic examination to the berth where the ship is moored. The engine is then run at this power for
ascertain that they have not corroded and become weakened. If a safety car- increasing time periods up to one hour. Full-power trials will then be completed
tridge bursts and the loss of air prevents starting the engine, starting-~rservices when the vessel gets to sea. Some safe operating speed should be arrived at
can be quickly restored by fitting a loose piece of pipe over the holes in the car- before the ship leaves the trials berth, and this speed and power should not npr-
tridge cover. Some ships have pieces of pipe for this purpose placed in a rack on mally be exceeded during the river or channel passage to the sea.
the top platform of the main engine. The emergency pieces should not be used During the dock trials after major repair work on the main engines the num-
m e r the cartridge cover until it is seen that the starting-air valve is freely work- ber of people allowed in the engine room during the trial should be kept to a
ing and closing itself properly. minimum. It often transpires that work on the rest of the ship comes to a halt
and the engine room f a s with spectators during the trial.
19.22 How would you conduct the trials on a main engine after major For working the main engines it is usual for the engine room to notify the
repair work on bearings? Assume that the engine is not fitted with a mist bridge of the intended movement (such as slow ahead) by ringing the telegraph.
detector. When the Master is ready an answer is made on the telegraph which then signi-
fies that the intended movement may be carried out. If it is not safe to carry out
In order to carry out a trial safely the vessel should be taken to a trials berth, or the movement the telegraph is rung to stop.
moored at a berth which is strong enough to take the thrust set up by the pro- Before running trials, the Master and chief engineer should confer to ensure
peller. The trial should be conducted in such a manner that any temperature rise I that there is no possibility of misunderstanding in communication between
on any bearing or guide slipper is found before the bearing or slipper damages
itself or its temperature rises to a dangeroudevel. Tbe usual way to conduct the
/ engine room and bridge.
trial is to ran the engine at its slowest possible speed for a period of up to three / Note The turning gear must be engaged each time the engine is stopped. The
minutes, then stop the engine and feel all the bearings for any abnormal tem- crankcase may then be entered for examination and feeling round bearings
pcralurc risc. without fear of injury to the person carrying out the examination.
19.23 What attentton must be glven to personol satety when pressure-
testing fuel valves or fuel iniectors? INDEX
The hands and face must be kept well clear of the lip nozzle and piping connec-
tions between the test pump and the injector. Fuel under ? high pressure and
discharging from a leak in the piping or its connections, and also fuel dis-
charged from the nozzle when the needle lifts, leaves with a very high velocity
and a large amount of kinetic energy. The fuel has a velocity high enough to
puncture and penetrate the eyes or surface of the skin. If penetration occurs it
can lead to blindness or to fuel entering the bloodstream and causing poisoning
which may be fatal. It is considered a good and safe practice to wear goggles or
some form of protective eye-wear.

19.24 Should contact lenses be worn when carrying out welding

operations? What dangers are contact lens wearers exposed to when
welding?
On no account should wearers of contact lenses carry out welding operations
without removing the lenses and replacing them with corrected safety glasses.
The danger that contact lens wearers are exposed to is one of blindness. This
comes about when the wearer is exposed to flashes from checking electrode
tongs, moving welding cables before being grounded or earthed, pulling open
switches and smiliar activities where an electrical flash can occur.
The contact lenses act in a similar manner to when a magnifiying glass is used
to converge the suns rays and cause burning or scorching on the surface exposed
to the concentrated rays. In the case of the contact lens wearer, the contact lens
in contact with the cornea of the eye converges the light and heat rays from an
electrical flash onto the surface of the cornea and causes it to fuse with the lens
surface. This results in blindness for the wearer and its tragic consequences.
A welder in the course of his work in a British shipyard has unfortunately
suffered blindness from this cause. The opthalmic surgeon attending was not
able to save his sight.
 Anodic materials 406 on cylinder liners 187
Antinode 466,468 Bernoulli's law 413
Apparent slip, propeller 349 h m e r steel 137
Articulated connecting rods 271 Bevel gears 299, 300
Atomization 72,76, 83 Bigcnd bearings 260
of fuel 31 Bilge injection valve 509
INDEX Atoms and molecules 1
Austenitic steels 139
Automatic valve, starting air 283, 287,
Binding wire. turbine blade 118
Blade vibration 118
Blending fuels 67
2% Blocking devices, reversing gear 291
Auxiliary engine flywheels 437 Blowers, scavenge 107
Avogadro's law 16 Boiler feed system 400
Axial vibration 468 Boundary lubrication 33
Bourdon tube, pressure gauges 491,492
Babbitt metal 141 Brakes, pneumatic 304, 305
Balance, turbo-blower rotor 456 Braking gear, shafting 291
weights 441 Brazing 145
Balancer, secondary inertia force 443 Breakdown, turbo-blower 132
primary forces 441 Bridge gauge 322, 358
A-frames 160, 161, 164, 179, 183 materials 120 moments 447,451 errors 359
guides on 172.179 Air in cooling water 173 secondary forces 443, 445 Bridged bearings 259, 365
Acceleration 2 ingress 411 moments 447,451 Brinell hardness number 152
of a piston 436,439,440 inlet valves 206 Barred speed range 461, 462 Bubble impingement 356, 407
Acidity, test for locking in cooling system 398 spare propeller 463 Bulk modulus 5, 193, 194
in lubricating oil 48 locking in steam system 400 tachometer marking 462 Bursting cartridges 207. 516
Addendum of gear tooth 309,312 pipes, tank 512 Bearing alloys 141 discs 207, 516
Adhesives 146 starting system 283 bolts 261, 263, 265 Bypass valves 413
Adiabatic compression 422 starting valves 206,283, 284 clearance measurements 272
process 13 surge 126 liners or shims 264 Cam adjustment, fuel 89
Aft peak floors 351 turbulence 72.94 oil grooves 258 Cams 33, 266, 268
After-burning 79 Alarm, thrust bearing 412 oil seals in turbo-blowers 122 -
fitting of, on camshaft 268
effects of 79,210 Alignment, effect on, from trim 378 shims or liners 264 Camshaft bearings 269
Air admission point 19 from vessel grounding 386 support 383, 384 drive 266
Air charge ratio 23 Alignment of gearing 324 Bearings, air compressor 429 chains 267
Air compressors 421 of shafting 371. 377 bottom end 260 reversible engines 288, 289
attention required 429 optical methods 383 examination of 260 torque 266
bearings 429 taut wire methods 372 crosshead 273, 274, 276, 277 Carbon, effect of, on steel 137
clearance volume 429 Alloys 136. 139, 141 dismantling 260 Carbon residue 47 I

cooling 428 Alternating stresses 6 intermediate shaft 350 Carbon trumpets 83

discharge temperature 429 Alternator drive 305 main 258 petal formation 83
effect of sluggish and restricted air inlet Alternators, rotational speeds 435,457 precision or thin wall 141 Carburizing 138
valves 423,424,425 Alumina (aluminium oxide cataly! reduction gearing 315 Carnot cycle 14
intercoolers 421,422 39 wear down 322 Cast iron 136, 140, 142
lubrication 426,427 Aluminium oxide (ceramic) 144 thin wall or precision 141 for cylinder liners 142
oil free type 428 Analogue 500 thrust 352, 353, 354, 412 piston rings 140
rating 423 Annealing 138 Bedplate, Catalytic cracking fines 40
suction and delivery valves 425 Annealing, of castings and forgin medium speed engine 161 effect of 102
Air coolers, drains 123 218 opposed-piston engine 449 Catenary 374
effect of fouling 123 of copper joint rings 206 strength members 157, 158, 161 Cathode ray oscilloscope 503
scavenge and charge air 121 Anodes, transverse members 158 Cathodic metals 406
Air Cycle, theoretical I5 damage caused by 407 Bedplates 158 Cavitation 356. 401
Air filters, turbo blower 120 effectiveness of 407 Bending moments on bearing bolts Centrifugal force 3
cleaning 120 location of 356 264 clarifiers 57, 58. 61, 64. 65
 I
I
Anodic materials 406 on cylinder liners 187 'governors 471 through 481 compensation rings 43 1
Antinode 466, 468 Bernoulli's law 41 3 pumps 408 mountings on 432
Apparent slip, propeller 349 Bessemer steel 137 purifiers 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 144 sizes of 432
Articulated connecting rods 271 Bevel gears 299, 300 separators, See purifiers Compression pressure 487, 489
Atomization 72, 76, 83 Bigznd bearings 260 Centripal force 3 ratio 23, 24
of fuel 31 Bilge injection valve 509 Ceramics 144 Compressive stress 5..
Atoms and molecules 1 Binding wire, turbine blade 118 Characteristic curves, engine 91 Compressors 421
Austenitic steels 139 Blade vibration 118 pumps 409 Computers, use of 501
Automatic valve, starting air 283, 287, Blending fuels 67 Charpy impact testing machine 15 1 Condensate returns 507, 508
2% Blocking devices, reversing gear 291 Chocks 164, 166, 169, 170, 171 Conduction, thermal 12
Auxiliary engine flywheels 437 Blowers, scavenge 107 elastic 170. 171 Connecting rod failure 270
Avogadro's law 16 Boiler feed system 400 fitting of 167 Connecting rods 270, 27 I
Axial vibration 468 Boundary lubrication 33 plastic 169 articulated 271
Bourdon tube, pressure gauges 491, 492 I slack, correction for 165, 169 fork and blade 27 1
Babbitt metal 141 Brakes, pneumatic 304, 305
I
Chromium plated crosshead pins 279 Constant pressure process 13
Balance, turbo-blower rotor 456 Braking gear, shafting 291 cylinder liners 201 turbo-charging 114, 127
weights 441 Brazing 145 piston ring grooves 232 Constant volume process 13
Balancer, secondary inertia force 443 Breakdown, turbo-blower 132 Chromium plated, piston rings 240 Constrained elastic systems 452, 454
primary forces 441 Bridge gauge 322, 358 Cleaning of air coolers 123, 124 Contra-flow heat exchangers 397
moments 447,451 errors 359 Cleaning of heat exchangers 124, 402 Control of cooling water temperature
secondary forces 443,445 Bridged bearings 259. 365 turbo-blower blading 125 495, 499
moments 447,451 BrineU hardness number 152 Clearance volume 23 engine speed 47 1
Barred speed range 461, 462 Bubble impingement 356, 407 Clearances, measurement of 272 closed loop 497
spare propeller 463 Bulk modulus 5, 193, 194 bearings 273 open loop 497
tachometer marking 462 Bursting cartridges 207, 516 cams and rollers 268 Controllable pitch propellers 344, 345,
Bearing alloys 141 discs 207, 516 crosshead guides 181 346, 347
bolts 261, 263, 265 Bypass valves 413 gear teeth 323 Controllable pitch propellers, attention
clearance measurements 272 opposed piston side rod bearings required 348
liners or shims 264 Cam adjustment, fuel 89 473 blade seals 347, 348
oil grooves 258 Cams 33. 266, 268 - - giston 227, 228 . Controllable pitch propellers, exami-
011seals in turbo-blowers 122 fitting of, on camshaft 268 piston rings 234. 237 nation in dry dock 348
shrms or liners 264 Camshaft bearings 269 thrust bearings 354, 356 servo motor oil 347
support 383, 384 drive 266 on sides of bottom end bearings Convection thermal 12
Bearings, air compressor 429 chains 267 388 Coolers, air, oil in 122
side of crankwebs 388
bottom end 260
examination of 260
reversible engines 288, 289
torque 266 Clock gauge, checking of 360 - c l e i n g 124
Cooling cylinder heads 30
crosshead 273, 274, 276, 277 Carbon, effect of, on steel 137 use of 367 liners 30
dismantling 260 Carbon residue 47 Closed loop control 497 service pumps 408
intermediate shaft 350 Carbon trumpets 83 Cloud point 42 ..systems 392
main 258 petal formation 83 Clutches 300, 301 temperature control 495. 499
precision or thin wall 141 Carburizing 138 friction 300 water contamination 197
reduction gearing 315 Carnot cycle 14 pneumatic 304, 305 Copper sealing rings 33, 194, 206
wear down 322 Cast iron 136, 140, 142 rate of air pressure rise 305 annealing of 33. 206
thin wall or precision 141 for cylinder liners 142 Coalescers 55 Corrosion in heat exchangers 405
thrust 352, 353, 354, 412 piston rings 140 Cocktail shaker cooling 230 Couple 3
Bedplate, Catalytic cracking fines 40 Columns, see A-frames Coupling bolts 332, 333
medium speed engine 161 effect of 102 Combustion chambers 3 1 fitting of 332
opposed-piston engine 449 Catenary 374 after burning 79 hydraulically loaded 333
strength members 157, 158, 161 Cathode ray oscilloscope 503 of fuel 78 tapered 332
transverse members 158 Cathodic metals 406 Compensation rings 43 1 Coupling face flange angles 384
Bedplates 158 Cavitation 356, 401 Compressed air, types of 301, 333
Bending moments on bearing bolts Centrifugal force 3 working pressure, systems 420 Couplings, flange 331, 333
264 clarifiers 57, 58, 61, 64, 65 reservoirs 430, 432 muff 333
 Index 525

primary and secondary elements in Cylinder alignment 216, 386 Dissociation 12 Exhaust port bars 242
30 1 cover, loads on 35 Double bottom drain tanks 410 Exhaust valve, air piston closing 211,212,
Crankcase explosions 5 13 cutting out 71 Dowel pins 252 213
mist detectors 515 jackets 185 Drain tanks 410 burned seats 139, 209. 210
relief valves 514, 515 liners 185 Drains on air coolers 123 cooling spaces 207, 208
safety devices 514, 515 bending moments in 187 Dual cycle 15 hydraulic operated 21 1, 212, 213
Crankshaft alignment 358 change of wear rate 201 Ductility 151 leakage 209.210
deflections 36 1, 383 chromium plated 240 Duplex filters 67 springs 469
dowel pins 252 circumferential alignment 216 Dye penetrant testing 154. 265. 329 Exhaust valves 206,208 through 215
examination of 258 copper sealing rings 194, 206 Dynamic balance 450 Exhaust, loop and cross-scavenge
failure 261, 262, 263 fastening of 189 engines 110
fatigue resistance 262 forces acting on 186 Effect of after burning 79 Expanding tubes 3%
fully built 245 hoop stresses in 186 heat on matter 11 Expansion gases 13
fillet rolling 262 hydraulic test on 216 Efficiency of clutches, couplings 315,316 heat exchangers 395, 397
grain flow in 247,248 limiting diameter of 188, 190 gearing 315,317 Explosion in crankcase 513
journal wear 338, 339 . - maximum wear of 202 Exothermic action 12
scavenge 23
manufacture 245 recondition of 201 Efficiency volumetric 23
oil holes in 257 scuffing in 234, 242 Elastic chocks 170, 171 Failure, definition of 8
reference marks 253
sag line 371 - - temperature on gas side of 187. 190
wear of 198, 199
limit 5 corrections of 8
Failure of automatic valve 287
curve line 461,467
semi built 245, 452 wear ridges in 234 Elastomers 144 components 8
shrink fits 247, 251 Cylinder lubrication 172,416,511 Electric welding, see welding crankshaft 261,262
shrink fit slip 253 timed 417 Electro-magnetic couplings KIZ- crosshead bearings 274, 276
solid forged 246, 248
stresses 250, 255
Cylinder oil quills 174, 195
alignment of 216
-- - Electromotive series 406
Electron microscope 10 -
piston rings 241
screwshaft 3 3 9
stresses in 255 leaking 197 Electrons 1 welded joints 147, 148
web proportions 25 1 Elongation percentage 150 Fatigue cracks 9, 253, 270
Crankshaft welded construction 249 Damage to gear teeth 325. 329 Emergency bilge suction 509 failure 9
Crankweb deflections 361, 362, 367 Damped vibrations 453 Emulsions 68 welded joints 147, 148
measurements 367 Damping 453 End relief, screw shaft liners 340 resistance 132, 135
Creep in steel 152 Dark smoke, causes of 81 Endothermic action 12 Feedback 476
testing 152 Data loggers 501 Energy 2 Ferrographic analysis 50
Crevice corrosion 406 Dedendum. tooth 309.3 12 Kittic 2 Fer~ousmaterials 136
Critical s ~ e e d461 Deflection gauge, see dial micrometer potential 2 F i t e element analysis 10
Cross scavenging, improvements 110
-A Deflection, of crank webs 361, 362, 367 Engine balance 440 Filters, duplex 66, 67
Crosshead and trunk piston engines, effect of bearing wear on 364 maintenance 34 exhaust turbo blower 119, 120
comparison of 22 gauge position 362, 363 speed control 471 magnetic 329, 330
Crosshead bearings 273,274, 276, 277 of diesel generator crankshafts 369 starting gear 281 simplex 66, 67
failure 274 running gear weight 361 type classification 34 Fir-tree root, turbine blading 119
examination 277 Detuners 463, 465, 466 Epicyclic gearing 315 Fire ring 190
Crosshead guide cooling 172 spring loaded 464 Epicycloid 308, 309 Firing pressure, effect of, crosshead
guides 179 Dew point of exhaust gases 48 Examination, bottomend bearings bearings 273
lubrication 181 Dial Micrometer gauges, checking of 260 Fitting piston rings 234
pin surface finish 273 360 Examination, crosshead bearings Flaking, gear teeth 325, 326
Crude oil, types of 38 uses of 367 273,264,277 Flame hardening 139
Cutting out cylinder 71 Diaphragm oil seal 172 Exhaust gas blowdown 110 ring 190
Cyaniding 189 Diesel oil 37 discoloration 81 Flash point 41
Cycle, dual or mixed I5 Differential pressure gauge6 493 flow through ports 110 Flexible chocks 170, 171
four stroke 19 uses of 494 release 110 Flow, air through scavenge ports 110
two stroke 19 Diffuser 115 silencers 134 coolant, through pistons 230
Cyclic stress 6 Digital 500 temperature, distant readings 492 meters 490
in crankshafts 255 Discharge piping from fuel injection turbo blowers 114. 121, 122 paths in heat exchangers 394, 395
Cvcloid 308. 3 0 9 . 3 10 pumps 74 Exhaust pipe arrangement 112, 519 rate 49
Flow switch 499 Fuels, blended 47, 67 ~ a r d n e s s152
Fluctuating stress 6 Full penetration welding 147 Harmonics 454
Fluctuation in energy 347 Heat 11
- - ..-
speed 347 balance 394
Fluid film lubrication 32 Gamma rays 153 effects of I I
Fluorescent materials 404 Gas constants 13 specific heat 12
Flushing fluids 416 Gas oil 37, 38 transfer in pistons 220 Ignition 19, 7 X
Flywheel 436 Gaseous fuels 37 transmission 12 Ignition delay 78
Force 2 Gear boxes 313, 328 treatment 137, 138, 140 Impact testing 151
centrifugal 3 Gear hobbing machines 318 Heat exchangers 390, 391 Impulse system, turbo charging 116, 127
centripetal 3 Gear tooth, backlash 309 cleaning of 402 Impurities in fuel oil 39, 40, 47, 48
moment o f 3 clearance 309 corrosion 405 Increase in viscosity with increase of
Forced vibration 453 contact 324 flow path 384 pressure 80
Forces and moments from thermal damage 325, 329 - fresh water production 393 indicator cocks 363 .
expansion 397 end relief 323 fuel system 392 Indicators 487, 488
Forces in hydraulic couplings 317 friction 314 jacket cooling 392 cornpresqion pressure 487, 489
Forces, primary and secondary 44 1, 442, grinding 318 leakage 403, 404 maximum pressure 487, 489, 490
443, 444 hobs 318 Heat exchangers, lubricating oil 392, 393 Induction hardening 139
Fossil fuels 37 lacquer 324 piston cooling 393 inertia governors 47 1, 472
Fouled scavenge ports 109 lapping 319 plugging tubes 404 niorrlents o f 4
Fouling factor heat exchangers 401,402 shaving 319 protection from corrosion 405 Inhibitor\ 406
sea water strainers 413, 415 trip relief 323 scavenge air 392 Injection o f fuel 2, 14
Fretting, bearing pockets 258 wear 323 steam and feed water systems 393 cornmencement o f 18, 74, 75
chocks 165, 168, 169 Gear wheels, camshaft drive 269 testing 404 end of 18, 70, 75, 76
foundation plate 165, 169 Geared propulsion drives 298 thermal expansion 395, 397 lnjection valve, fuel. size of nozzle
tie bolt landings ' 164 Gears, types of 299, 323 types of 391 holes 72
Friction, gear tooth 314 Generators, rotational speeds 435. 457 Heating coils 400 Intercoolers, air compressors 421, 422
Fuel atomization 3 1, 72, 76, 83 Governor, compensation 477 Heavy weather, effects o n shaft align- Interlocks, reversing gear 291
cam adjustment 89 control valve 475 ment 371 Intermediate shaft 334
degradation (microbial, growth) 5 1 speed droop 473 Helical gears 299, 312 bearings 350
injection period 3 1 effort 473 Hertz equations 325 slip lings 354
oil standards-69 hunting 473 High a e s s u r e fuel piping 7 4 Internal combustion engines 18
penetration 72, 83 hydraulic accumulators 475 unmanned engine rooms 89 Involute 308
piping high pressure 74, 89 malfunction 474, 473 High suction valves 509 Ions I
priming pump 85 sensitivity 473 High viscosity fuel, effect of low tem- Isochronous governors 477, 478
purification 55, 59, 61, 62, 63 stability 473 perature 8 0 Isothermal coriipression 422
spray direction 84 Governors 47 1 preparation 53, 57, 59, 61, 63, 64 lsotopes !
surcharge pump 85 electronic' 483, 484 Hobbing machines 3 18 Isotropic ri~a[cr~al.;
4
system 392, 393 inertia 471, 472 Hobs 318 17od irnpi~~.rre\t~ngmachine 151
tank safety devices 5 12 mechanical/hydraulic 475 Holding down bolts 164, 165. 167
viscosity control 490, 494 Grease 68 checking 167
injection pump 70 Grounding of ship, effect on shaft methods of tightening 167
pump damage 7 1 alignment 386 reduction gear boxes 328
pump suction valves 71 Gudgeon pin 21, 227, 139 slack 145
injection valve 72 Guide, crosshead alignment 386 Homogenizer 55
pintle type 74 clearance 18 1 Hooke's law 5
carbon build up 82 cooling 172 H o o p stress 186
noules 73, 84 Guides, crosshead 179 'Hot' bearings 328, 5 16
seat angles 83 Gyration, radius of 4 Hull stiffness 371
spray pattern 74 Hull structure under engines 16 1
testing 74 Hunting tooth 307
resting services 69, 103 Hydraulic couplings 302, 303
!IIIIIIIV XO i
forces in 317
Lamt's theory 251, 341 Magnetic filters 329 Neutrons 1 cooling media 220
Lantern spacer ring 3% cleaning of 330 Nitriding 138 cooling systems 220, 392
Latent heat, fusion 11 periods between cleaning 330 Nitrile rubber 144 crown shape 218
vaporisation 11 Magnetic particle testing 153, 344 Nodal drive, see quill drive pins see gudgeon pins or wrist pins
Leakage, cylinder .liner sealing rings Main bearing, examination 258, 259, 260 point 455,466, 468 displacement see swept volume
194, 195 dismantling 260 Node 455,468 lubrication 195
exhaust valves 209 weardown 358, 359 Nodes, number of 461 materials 217
heat exchangers 403, 404 Main engine, trials 516 Non destructive testing 153 removal from engine 195
screw shaft seals 335, 336, 337 flywheels 436,437 Non-ferrous alloys 141 revolving 226
sea watcr, shaft seals 335, 336, 337 Main thrust bearing 352, 353, 354, 412 Normaliz@~g140 skirts 223, 226, 228
starting air valves 284 Maintenance 34 Nylon 143 speed 438
Lighting oil burners 508 Malleable iron 137 stresses 219
Linear regression 205 Mass 2 Observation tank 505, 506 trunks 223, 226, 228
Liners, bearing 264 Materials, choice of I36 Oil burners 508 wearing ring renewal 227
Liquid fuel 37 Matter 1 Oil control rings 231, 233, 238, 239, 240 wearing rings 226, 227
Liquid level gauges 490 Maximum cylinder pressure 89, 90 cooled pistons 220, 221 Piston rings
Load on cylinder cover 35 firing pressure 90 drainage from scavenge spaces 239 breakage 234, 241
Load on gear teeth 320 pressure indicators 487, 489, 490 free compressors 428 chromium plated 232, 240
Logging printer 501 Mean effective pressure 488 heaters 507 end preparation of, for ported
Logic circuits 498 indicated pressure 488 quills, dry 195, 1% liners 242
Loop scavenge engine improvements
110 -
Mechanical properties,
Mechanite 137
-
-- metals I 50
leakage from 197
quills, wet 195
fitting of 234
free gap 237 -
Loss of suction, lubricating oil pumps Metallic packing, piston rod 172 refining processes 39 gap 237
41 1 Metering fuel 75 vapours in crankcase 513, 514, 515 groove clearance 237
Low suction valve (ships side) 509 Microbial degradation of fuel oil 51 water emulsions 68 groove life 237, 240, 241
Low temperature fuel, effect on com- lubricating oil 5 1 wedge 32, 352 materials 140, 233
bustion 80 Mini electronic computers 501 Open hearth process 137 preformed 244
Lubrication Mist detectors 5 15 Open loop control 397 radius o n corner edges 236
air compressors 428 Mixed cycle I5 Opposed piston engines 448 renewal 235
bearings 32 Modulus, bulk 5, 193 Optical alignment 372, 373 scuffing 234, 242
boundary 33 rigidity 5 Oscilloscope 154, 503 surface pressure 233
coolers 392. 393 shear 5 Overhauling fuel injection valves 86 Piston rod packing 172, 179, 233
crosshead guides 18 1 Young's 5 Overheated bearings 328 Pitch circle, toothed gears 309
cylinders 172, 416. 5 1 1 Mol 16 Overspeed trip 482 Pitting, gear tooth 326
drain tanks 410 Molecules, diatomic I Planetary gearing 313
drainage to drain tanks 17 1 , 172 monatomic 1 Paraffinic-base crude oils 38 Plasma flame spraying 145
fluid films 32 Moment of force 3 Pedestal bearings 309 Plastics 143
hydrodynamic 32, 47 Inertia 4 Penetration, fuel injection 72, 83 Plate type heat exchangers 390
oil additives 45 Moments and forces, bedplates 450 Perspex 143 Plugs, heat exchanger tubes 404
pumps 408,409 engine 451 Phenolic resins 143, 35 1 Pneumatic brakes 305
Lubrication out of balance 446 Photoelasticity 155 clutches 305, 394
purrip~,loss ol \uctiurr 4 1 I p p e flanges 397 Piano wire 373 cracking of clutch ring 306
purification 56, 59 Mufflers see silencers Pilgrim nut 342 rate of rise of air pressure 305
quills 174, 195, 416 Multitubular heat exchangers 3% Pinions and wheels 307 Poissons ratio 5
quills leakage from 197 Music wire see piano wire Pipe branches, forces and moments Polarized light 155
scavenge air pumps 107 on 397 Polyrnethyl methacry late 143
screw shaft bearings 336, 418, 419 Natural aspiration 23 Piston Polytetrafluoroethylene 143
sprayers, reduction gearing 313 Natural frequency 462 acceleration 438, 439 Positive displacement pumps 408, 413
system 392, 410 -. -Needle angles, fuel mjection valves aluminium alloy 217, 224 Potential energy 2
temperature control 499 83 cleaning cooling space 230 Pour point 47
turbo blower bear~ngs120 Negative deflection values 364 clearance 227, 228 Power 2
l ubr~catlnp, 011 degradation (rn~crob~al N e o p ~ n e144 coolant flow 230 Power losses, reduction gearing 316
g1ow111)5 1 - Nct pos~tlvesuctlorl h c d , NPSH 409 cooling 230, 220, 221 Precautions, lighting oil burners 508
Pressure chargmg 30 sun and planet 3 13 Screw, slip 349 oscllli~lloll 4
drop, suction lines 41 3 tooth flaking 326 Screwshaft 33 1 , 334, 335 pcr iodic I I I I I C 4 1')
gauges 489.490, 491 tooth pitting 326 bearing, weardown 338 Sin~plexfilters 67
on piston 35 tooth spalling 326 cone 335 Slack holding dow11 bolt5 I65
Prevention of scavenge fires 5 10 fractures 335 tie bolts I44
troubles 325
Primary balance, opposed piston Reduction in area, test piece 150 keyless 341 Sled runner key 330
engines 448 Reference marks, shrunk crankshafts keys 339. 340 Slip couplings 30 1
Primary forces 441 keyways 335, 339 Slip of propellers (apparent) 349
253
Propeller blade roughness 356, 357 Relative stiffness, hull and shafting liner 335, 339 of shrink fits 253, 254, 255
Propeller, boss bore, end radius 339 liner end grooves 339 ring on intermediate shaft 357
371
liner sealing rings 335 Sludge tank 63
cavitation 356 Removal of propeller 343
protection of, from sea water 335 Soft soldering 145
fit 341 Repair of crankshafts 253
stresses on 334 Solid fuels 37
pitch 349 Reservoirs, compressed air 430
survey 344 Specific heat 12
removal 343 welded construction 430. 431
wear down measurement ,338 volume 13
shaft see screwshaft Resilience 6
slip 349 Scuffing, cylinders, piston rings 234, 242 Spectrographic analysis 50
Resilient chocks 170
thrust 352 gear teeth 326 Speeds barred and critical 462
Resin chocking system 169, 170, 328
torque to drive 435 Sea valves 509 Spherical bearings 276
Resonance 454
Propellers, keyless 341 Sea water suction line pressure drop Spiral gears 300
Resonant condition 462
Proportional band 497 413 Spray coverage of fuel valves 74
Reversing direction 288, 289, 300
Protons 1 Sealing ring grooves 193 Sprocket wheels, camshaft drive 269
gear, blocking devices 291
PTFE 143 Sealing rings, jacket and liner 191, 193, Spur gears 300
interlocks 291
Pulse system turbo-charging 116 194 Starting air compressors 429
Rockwell hardness 152
Pump characteristics 409 screwshafts 336, 337 distributor 283, 295
Roller chain 267
Pumps, scavenge 107 Secondary forces 443, 444 minimum pressure 287
dampers 269
surcharge 35 moments 446,447 pressure 286
stretch 267
Purifying fuel oil 55, 59, 61, 62, 63 Seismic mass 486, 487 reservoir sizes 432
Roots blower 108
lubricating oil 56, 59 Semiconductors 502 system, automatic valve 283, 287, 296
Rotary pumps 408. 409
Push rods, hydraulically loaded 268 Sensors 492, 505 valves 283. 284
Rotational s p e d , alternators and gen-
Pyrometers 491 Series lubricating oils 52 attention required 283
erators 437
S u l i n g tanks 62, 512 . , leaking 284
Rubber screw shaft bearings 35 1
Quasi pulse turbo charging systems safety devices 512 open period 286
Running gear weight, effect on deflec-
118 Shaft brakes 291. 292. 305 operation 283
tion ' 361
Quill drive 304 sag 385 Starting and reversing when a piston is
Running temperature of crankshafts
Quills, cylinder lubrication 173 support from bearings 383, 384, 385 hung 292
388
Shear modulus 5
strength 150
- remwed 292, 293
Starting of pumps 413
Rack and pinion 300 S.A.E. Numbers 52
Radiation of heat 13 stress 5 small engines 282
Safety devices, crankcase 513, 514, 515 Shims, (bearing adjustment liners)
Radiography 153 Static balance 450
fuel tanks 512
Radius of gyration 4 264 S t e m heating 400
starting air lines 516
Rate of pressure rise when loading Shipside valves 509 Steel, austenitic 139
Sag in a taut wire 373, 374, 375 SHM see simple harmonic motion
pneumatic clutches 305 Bessemer 137
Scavenge air pressure 109
Reciprocating pumps 108 Shrink fit slip 253, 254 hardening 138
system 106 Shrouding of valves 210
Reduction gearing 298, 299 hot working 140
blowers 107 Side-rod bearings 265
bearings 3 15, 322 manufacture 137
Scavange efficiency 23 bottom end bolts 265, 266
epicyclic 3 13 tempering 138
fires 510, 511 Silica (silicon oxide catalyst) 39
examination 324, 326 Stellite 139
prevention 51 1 Silicon carbide (ceramic) 144
hot bearings 328 Stern gland 335
Scavenge port bars 242 Silicon dioxide (ceramic) 144
hunting tooth 307 tube bearing lubricant 336
ports, radius o n edges 242 Silicon nitride (ceramic) 144
lubrication 3 I 5 drains 337
pumps lubrication 78 Simple harmonic motion (SHM)
noise 328 lubrication 336. 737
valve construction 11 1 displacement 439
Power loss 316 seal leakagc 337
Scraper rings 238 frequency 439 tubes 7 5 I
ratios 306, 307 Scraping crosshead bearings 274