UNIT-4(B)

GEOSYNTHETICS

*Geosynthetics:
Geosynthetics are synthetic products used to stabilize terrain. They are generally polymeric products used to solve civil
engineering problems. This includes eight main product categories: geotextiles, geogrids, geonets,
geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners, geofoam, geocells and geocomposites.
*Geotextile:
It is a synthetic permeable textile material used to improve the soil characteristics. It has the ability to separate, filter,
reinforce, protect and drain when used in association with soils. Geotextiles are ideal materials for many infrastructure works
such as roads, harbors, landfills, drainage structures, and other civil projects.
Geotextile composites have been introduced and products such as geogrids and meshes have been developed. Geotextiles are
able to withstand many things, are durable, and are able to soften a fall if someone falls down. Overall, these materials are
referred to as geosynthetics and each configuration—geonets, geosynthetic clay liners, geogrids, geotextile tubes, and
others—can yield benefits in geotechnical and environmental engineering design.
*Geotextiles in Civil Engineering:
Geotextiles are technical fabrics used in civil engineering construction projects such as road
pavements, dams, embankments, drains, and silt fencing for the purpose of soil reinforcement and stabilization,
sedimentation and erosion control, drainage and support, and many other applications.
*Properties of Geotextiles:
The properties and test methods of geotextile material arose first from previously existing materials that resemble
geotextiles, such as textile materials. The property requirements and characteristics of geotextiles used for specific
application depend on their purpose and the desired functions.
There are some properties of geo textiles. They are:
Physical properties
Mechanical properties
Hydraulic properties
Endurance, Degradation, and Survivability properties
Physical properties:
The physical properties of geotextiles which are of primary concern are fiber composition, areal density, thickness, stiffness,
and specific gravity. In geogrids and geonet, the properties such as structure type, junction type, aperture size, and shape are
of prime importance. The structure of the geotextile often dictates the application area for which the material is appropriate.
The physical properties of the geotextile are more temperature and humidity dependent.
Mechanical properties:
Mechanical properties are important for the applications where a geotextile is required to perform as a load-bearing member
under applied loads and where it is required to survive on-field installation related stresses. Mechanical properties of
geotextile are often categorized as in-isolation properties and performance properties. In-isolation properties are determined
on the geotextiles itself with the absence of surrounding soil. Performance properties are determined on geotextiles in the
presence of site-specific soil.
Hydraulic properties:
The hydraulic properties of geotextiles are those that relate directly to filtration and drainage functions of geotextiles. The
filtration function of a geotextile requires the pore size sufficiently small to retain the erodible soil particles and permeability
adequate to allow the free passage of seepage from the protected soil. Filtration properties are controlled by pore sizes, pore
size distribution, and porosity of the fabric. The permeability of the geotextile is determined by measuring the rate of flow of
water through the fabric in the direction normal to the plane of the fabric. Porosity, permittivity, and transmissivity are the
most important hydraulic properties of geotextiles, geonets, and geocomposites, which are commonly used in filtration and
drainage applications.
Endurance, Degradation, and Survivability properties:
The endurance, degradation, and survivability properties (e.g., creep behavior, abrasion resistance, long-term flow capability,
durability—construction survivability, and longevity) of geotextiles are related to their behavior during service conditions,
including time.
Types or Classification of Geotextile:
Geotextile is divided by two ways. They are-
According to Manufacture
According to Time of Use
Classification of geotextiles based on manufacture:
Geotextiles can be manufactured by weaving or knitting or nonwoven technologies. Geotextiles are classified as follows:
1. Woven geotextiles: Woven geotextiles are produced with the interlacement of two sets of yarns at right angles in the
weaving process. Woven geotextiles have high strengths and modulus in the warp and weft directions and low elongations at
rupture.
2. Knitted geotextiles: Knitted geotextiles are produced with the interlooping of one or more yarns in the knitting process.
These geotextiles are highly extensible and have relatively low strength compared to woven geotextiles, which limits its
usage.
3. Nonwoven geotextiles: Nonwoven geotextiles are thicker than woven and are made either from continuous filaments or
from staple fibers. They are produced in the following bonding techniques:
Needle punching
Thermal bonding
Chemical bonding
4. Stitch-bonded geotextiles: Stitch-bonded geotextiles are produced by interlocking fibers or yarns or both, bonded by
stitching or sewing. Even strong, heavyweight geotextiles can be produced rapidly. Tubular geotextiles are manufactured in
a tubular or cylindrical fashion without longitudinal seam.
5. Geogrids: Geogrids are materials that have an open grid-like appearance. The principal application for geogrids is the
reinforcement of soil.
6. Geonets: Geonets are open grid-like materials formed by two sets of coarse, parallel, extruded polymeric strands
intersecting at a constant acute angle. The network forms a sheet with in-plane porosity that is used to carry relatively large
fluid or gas flows.
7. Geomembranes: Geomembranes are continuous flexible sheets manufactured from one or more synthetic materials. They
are relatively impermeable and are used as liners for fluid or gas containment and as vapor barriers
8. Geocomposites: Geocomposites are made from a combination of two or more geosynthetic types. Examples include
geotextile-geonet; geotextile-geogrid; geonet-geomembrane; or a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL).
9. GCLs: GCLs are geocomposites that are prefabricated with a bentonite clay layer typically incorporated between a top
and bottom geotextile layer or geotextile bentonite bonded to a geomembrane or single layer of geotextile.
10. Geopipes: Geopipes are perforated or solid-wall polymeric pipes used for drainage of liquids or gas.

11. Geocells: Geocells are relatively thick 3-D networks constructed from strips of polymeric sheet. The strips are joined
together to form interconnected cells that are filled with soil and sometimes concrete.
12. Geofoam: Geofoam blocks or slabs are created by expansion of polystyrene foam to form a low-density network of
closed, gas-filled cells.
According to time of use:
1st Generation: Geotextile that were being manufactured for another purpose, such carpet or industrial sacking, but
later used for geo technical purpose are known as 1st generation geotextile.
2nd Generation: Geotextile that were manufactured for certain geo-technical purpose, but without adopting modern
technology.
3rd Generation: Geotextile that was manufactured, designed, and produced to meet certain end use. It is actual geo-
textile.
Functions of Geotextile
The mode of operation of a geotextile in any application is defined by six discrete functions :

Fig 5:
Functions of Geotextiles.

1.Separation
the separation function of geotextile is majorly used in the construction of roads. Geotextile prevents the intermixing of two
adjacent soils. For example, by separating fine subgrade soil from the aggregates of the base course, the geotextile preserves
the drainage and the strength characteristics of the aggregate material.
Some of the applicable areas are:

 Between subgrade and stone base in unpaved and paved roads and airfields.
 Between subgrade in railroads.
 Between landfills and stone base courses.
 Between geomembranes and sand drainage layers.

2. Filtration
The equilibrium of geotextile-to-soil system that allows for adequate liquid flow with limited soil loss across the plane of the
geotextile. Porosity and permeability are the major properties of geotextiles which involve infiltration action.
A common application illustrating the filtration function is the use of a geotextile in a pavement edge drain, as shown in the
figure above.

3. Reinforcement
Introduction of geotextile in the soil increases the tensile strength of the soil the same amount steel does in concrete. The
strength gain in soil due to the introduction of geotextile is by the following 3 mechanisms :
Lateral restraint through interfacial friction between geotextile and soil/aggregate.
Forcing the potential bearing surface failure plane to develop an alternate higher shear strength surface.
Membrane type of support of the wheel loads.
4. Sealing
A layer of non-woven geotextile is impregnated in between existing and new asphalt layers. The geotextile absorbs asphalt
to become a waterproofing membrane minimising vertical flow of water into the pavement structure.
Uses of Geotextile in Construction
The scope of geotextile in the engineering field is very vast. The application of geotextile is given under the heading of the
nature of work.
1. Road Work
Geotextiles are widely used in the construction of the road. It reinforces the soil by adding tensile strength to it. It is used as
a rapid de-watering layer in the roadbed, the geotextiles need to preserve its permeability without losing its separating
functions.
2. Railway Works
The woven fabrics or the non-woven ones are used to separate the soil from the sub-soil without impeding the groundwater
circulation where the ground is unstable. Enveloping individual layers with fabric prevents the material from wandering off
sideways due to shocks and vibrations from running trains.
3. Agriculture
It is used for mud control. For the improvement of muddy paths and trails those used by cattle or light traffic, nonwoven
fabrics are used and are folded by overlapping to include the pipe or a mass of grit.
4. Drainage
The use of geotextiles to filter the soil and a more or less single size granular material to transport water is increasingly seen
as a technically and commercially viable alternative to the conventional systems. Geotextiles perform the filtering
mechanism for drainages in earth dams, in roads and highways, in reservoirs, behind retaining walls, deep drainage trenches,
and agriculture.
5. River, Canals and Coastal Works
Geotextiles protect river banks from erosion due to currents or lapping. When used in conjunction with natural or artificial
enrockments, they act as a filter.
Geogrids

Geogrid products are designed for reinforcement and, characteristically, are integrally connected to elements separated by in-
plane apertures.
Geogrids form a distinct category of geosynthetics designed for reinforcement. These products are characterized by a
relatively high tensile strength and a uniformly distributed array of large apertures (openings between the longitudinal and
transverse elements). The apertures allow soil particles on either side of the installed sheet to come into direct contact,
thereby increasing the interaction between the geogrid and some soils. Also, the apertures ensure vertical drainage of a
reinforced free-draining soil.
The geogrid elements vary in polymer type and cross-sectional dimensions. They can sometimes change shape and
dimensions within their length. Geogrids are either integrally manufactured, ultrasonically or adhesive bonded, or joined in a
knitting or weaving process and then coated.
Although geogrids are used primarily for reinforcement, some products are designed for asphalt overlay and
waterprooﬕng or for separation and stabilization. Geogrids also are used as gabions and sheet anchors, inserted between
geotextiles and geomembranes, or used to construct mattresses for ﬕlls or embankments over soft soils.
 HIGH STRENGTH GEOGRIDS

Our range of biaxial geogrids complements our portfolio of woven and nonwoven geosynthetics and enables us to address a
more diverse variety of civil engineering applications.
Biaxial geogrids provide ground stabilisation and reinforcement in a wide range of civil engineering projects. Through the
interlock mechanism, the geogrid is specifically designed to control movement of aggregate materials.

 Reduction in the quantity of fill material required

 Effective reinforcement and soil confinement
 High tensile strength with low elongation
 Cost effective design component
 Available in 3.95 x 50mt rolls
 Applications - Roads, civil engineering, reinforcement, separation, filtration, erosion control, drainage,
embankments, car parks, construction

Login Area

Geogrids is a geosynthetic materials used as reinforcement in construction works. Types of geogrids, its functions and
applications in construction works are discussed.
Geogrids can be categorized as geosynthetic materials that are used in the construction industry in the form of a reinforcing
material. It can be used in the soil reinforcement or used in the reinforcement of retaining walls and even many applications
of the material are on its way to being flourished.
The high demand and application of Geogrids in construction are due to the fact that it is good in tension and has a higher
ability to distribute load across a large area.
Origin of Geogrids and its Manufacture
The geosynthetic material, geogrids, are polymeric products which are formed by means of intersecting grids. The polymeric
materials like polyester, high-density polyethylene and polypropylene are the main composition of geogrids.
These grids are formed by material ribs that are intersected by their manufacture in two directions: one in the machine
direction (md), which is conducted in the direction of the manufacturing process. The other direction will be perpendicular to
the machine direction ribs, which are called as the cross-machine direction (CMD).

Fig. Geogrid’s rib formation in machine and cross machine directions of manufacturing process

These materials form matrix structured materials. The open space, as shown in the above figure, due to the intersection of
perpendicular ribs are called as the apertures. This aperture varies from 2.5 to 15cm based on the longitudinal and transverse
arrangement of the ribs.
Among different types of geotextiles, geogrids are considered stiffer. In the case of geogrids, the strength at the junction is
considered more important because the loads are transmitted from adjacent ribs through these junctions.
Many manufacturing choices are available for ribs. Here we are going to discuss three most used method of manufacturing
of geogrids:
Method-1: By Extruding
This manufacturing method of geogrids involves extrusion of a flat sheet of plastic into the desired configuration. The plastic
material used may be high-density polypropylene or high-density polyethylene. Already set punching pattern is placed over
the sheet to make holes for the formation of desired grids.
The punching of a pattern of holes would result in the formation of so-called apertures. Next step involves the development
of tensile strength, by stretching the material to both longitudinal and transverse direction. A figure representing an extruded
Geogrid is shown below.

Fig. A Geogrid manufactured from the method of extrusion

Method-2: By Knitting or Weaving

In this method of Geogrid manufacture, single yarns of polyester or polypropylene material undergo either knitting or
weaving to form flexible junctions forming apertures. These materials are recommended to have high tenacity, to give the
Geogrid the final desired property.
The product is bought into the market by giving them an additional coating of either bituminous material or a polyvinyl
chloride or a latex. This choice varies with the manufacturer of geogrids.

Fig. A Geogrid sample manufactured by knitting

Method-3: By Welding and Extrusion

This is recently developed a method by Secugrid manufactures. The method involves the extrusion of flat polyester or
polypropylene ribs by passing them through rollers as shown in the figure below. These are done in automated machines that
run at different speeds, enabling stretching of ribs and increasing their tenacity.

Fig. The stretching of ribs through extrusion process

As shown in the figure below, the ribs obtained are sent to the welding section through either side. One in the machine
direction and other in the perpendicular direction. Forming a high-quality Geogrid.
 Fig. The welding of the ribs forming apertures

Functions and Working of Geogrids

The geogrids serve the function of holding or capturing the aggregates together. This method of interlocking the aggregates
would help in an earthwork that is stabilized mechanically. The apertures in geogrids help in interlocking the aggregates or
the soil that are placed over them. A representation of this concept is shown below.

Fig. A representation of Geogrid Confining the aggregates

The geogrids as mentioned above helps in redistribution of load over a wider area. This function has made the pavement
construction more stabilized and strong. It has the following functional mechanisms when applied for pavement
construction:
Tension Membrane Effect
This mechanism is based on the concept of vertical stress distribution. This vertical stress is from the deformed shape of the
membrane as shown in the figure below. This mechanism was initially considered as the primary mechanism. But later
studies proved the lateral restraining mechanism is the major criteria that must be taken into consideration.

Improvement of Bearing Capacity Mechanism for Improved Bearing Capacity

One of the main mechanism happening after Geogrid installation in pavement is the reduction in lateral movement of the
aggregate. This would result in the elimination of stresses; that if exists would have moved to the subgrade.
The Geogrid layer possesses sufficient frictional resistance that opposes subgrade lateral movement. This mechanism hence
improves the bearing capacity of the layer. Reduction of outward stresses means inward stresses are formed, which is the
reason behind the increase in bearing capacity.

Lateral Restraining Capability

The stresses produced by means of the wheel loadings coming over the pavement results in the lateral movement of the
aggregates. Which in turn affects the stability of the whole pavement arrangement. The Geogrid act a restraint against this
lateral movement.
Types of Geogrids
Based on the manufacturing process involved in geogrids it can be of

 Extruded Geogrid
 Woven Geogrid
 Bonded Geogrid

Based on which direction the stretching is done during manufacture, geogrids are classified as

 Uniaxial geogrids
 Biaxial Geogrids

Uniaxial Geogrids
These geogrids are formed by the stretching of ribs in the longitudinal direction. So, in this case, the material possesses high
tensile strength in the longitudinal direction than on the transverse direction.
Biaxial Geogrids
Here during the punching of polymer sheets, the stretching is done in both directions. Hence the function of tensile strength
is equally given to both transverse and longitudinal direction.

Fig. Uniaxial and Biaxial Geogrids manufactured by the method of extrusion

Applications of Geogrids in Construction

Applications of Geogrids in Construction of Retaining Walls
The usage of geogrids in retaining wall construction is in the area of soil backfills. Holding the soil together will help in a
stable retaining wall construction. The soil structural integrity can be increased by reinforcing it by geogrids. This help in
confining backfill as well as help in distributing the loads. The geogrids solve the problems with soft backfill or sloping
ground.

Fig. A Typical Arrangement of Geogrids in Retaining Walls

The increase in the length of geogrids will help in increasing the mass of the structure. This helps in building taller walls.
The concept means the geogrids will make the whole unit to behave as a single mass. The minimum height from which the
geogrid laying has to start depends upon the soil type, the extent of pressure the wall is subjected to from the backfill and
other factors.
Characteristics of Geogrid Retaining Wall System
The geogrid retaining wall system has certain unique characteristics that differ when compared with the traditional retaining
wall construction, like a concrete retaining wall and gravity retaining walls.
The geogrid reinforced retaining wall construction gain the following characteristics:
i)The geogrid system is more flexible in nature. The retaining wall with the geogrid system has the higher adapting ability
with the deformation of the foundation, when compared with traditional construction, which is very stiffer in nature.
ii)More flexibility implies they behave well as earthquake resistant
iii)This construction can be made more economical, compared to traditional method. The landfill can be made steeper, which
shows a cost reduction. More height in wall and steepness are created with the help of reinforced soil system.
The onboard Geogrid arrangement has afforestation protection. This brings environmental benefits, which is an important
parameter in sustainable construction.
iv)The Geogrid retaining wall construction guaranty quality and reduced cost of construction. This helps in rapid and
convenient construction.
v)With time the geogrid reinforcing retaining wall construction and its advantages have earned appreciation, which had
made its demand to increase in the construction in highways, railways, dams, ports, planning city and projects focusing on
the environment.
Applications of Geogrids in Foundation Soil
Geogrids can be used to stabilize the soil below the foundation mainly in shallow foundation. To know that the modes of
failure under the reinforced soil foundation has to be understood.
Four failures are observed to occur:
Failure 1: Bearing Capacity Failure
Failure 2: Pullout Failure of the Geogrid layer
Failure 3: Breaking of the geosynthetic layer
Failure 4: Creep Failure of the geosynthetic layer (Geogrid)
The figure below shows an arrangement of geogrid layer below a rectangular foundation. Let us consider the dimension of
foundation be B x L and that of geogrid layer be b x l (in the width x length form as shown in the figure below).
As shown in figure, ‘h’ is the distance between each geogrid layer. The first geogrid layer is placed at a height ‘u’ below the
ground level.
If there are ‘N’ layers of geogrid reinforcement, the total depth of the geogrid can be given by the equation

d = u + (N – 1) h –> Equation-1

Fig.1: Cross section and top plan of a rectangular foundation supported over a Geogrid reinforced soil
The figure-2, below show a general relation between the load and the settlement caused for a foundation under two cases:
a)Reinforced soil, and
b)Unreinforced soil.
The effect of reinforcement can be measured in terms of bearing capacity ratio (BCR). The bearing capacity ratio is formed
with the help of the ultimate bearing load capacity at a given maximum settlement.
Say BCRU be the bearing capacity ratio when measured in terms of ultimate load. Then from the figure below
BCRU = qu(R)/qu –> Equation-2
If BCRS is the bearing capacity ratio at a given settlement . Let it be S e, then
BCRS = qR/q –> Equation-3
 Fig.2: Load-settlement Curve for a foundation that is supported with reinforced and unreinforced soil
Fig.3: The variation of ultimate bearing capacity with the u/B ratio

The figure 3, above shows the variation of bearing capacity with the variation of u/B ratio. It is seen that BCRu is maximum
at a value of u/B > (u/B)cr. At a value say (u/B)max, the BCRu value is lower.
The first range is said as zone-1, the range between (u/B)cr and (u/B)max is called as zone-2, the range for u/B > (u/B)max is
zone 3.
Figure 4 and 5 shows the respective failure surface for zone 1,2 and zone 3 respectively.

Fig.4: Zone-1 and Zone-2 conditions Fig.5: Failure surface in Zone 3

It can be generalized that under the zone 1, the increase in the bearing capacity ratio is due to the most confining pressure of
the geogrid layers. The zone 3 have a lower bearing capacity, as it acts as semi-rigid in nature.
Applications of Geogrid in Pavement Construction
The Geogrid construction in pavement construction have following features:
Improvement of subgrade: The subgrade, which is the most important load bearing strata, is made solid and strong by the
geogrids. The problem of soft subgrade can be solved by this method.
Reinforcement of pavement base: The thickness of base if increased would increase the stiffness of base. But increasing
thickness enormously is not economical. The reinforcement to a given base layer would give adequate stiffening that helps in
reduction of thickness and time of construction. This also helps in increasing the life of the pavement.
Advantages of Geogrids in Construction
Ease of Construction: he Geogrid can be installed in any weather conditions. This makes it more demanding.
Land Optimization: This method of Geogrid installation in soils makes an unsuitable area suitable for preparing it to meet
desired properties for construction. Geogrid thus helps in proper land utilization.
Geogrid promotes soil stabilization
A higher strength soil mass is obtained
Higher load bearing capacity
It is a good remedy to retain soil from erosion
No requirement of mortar. The material is implemented dry.
No difficulty in material availability
Geogrids are flexible in nature. They are known for their versatility.
Geogrids have high durability reducing maintenance cost. They are highly resistant against environmental influences.
Materials are tested based on standard codes and regulations.

GEOMEMBRANES

A geomembrane is very low permeability synthetic membrane liner or barrier used with any geotechnical
engineering related material so as to control fluid (or gas) migration in a human-made project, structure, or system.
Geomembranes are made from relatively thin continuous polymeric sheets, but they can also be made from the impregnation
of geotextiles with asphalt, elastomer or polymer sprays, or as multilayered bitumen geocomposites. Continuous polymer
sheet geomembranes are, by far, the most common.

Manufacturing[edit]
The manufacturing of geomembranes begins with the production of the raw materials, which include the polymer resin, and
various additives such as antioxidants, plasticizers, fillers, carbon black, and lubricants (as a processing aid). These raw
materials (i.e., the "formulation") are then processed into sheets of various widths and thickness by extrusion, calendering,
and/or spread coating.

Three methods used to manufacture geomembranes.[1]

Geomembranes dominate the sales of geosynthetic products, at 1.8 billion USD per year worldwide, which is 35% of the
market.[2] The US market is currently divided between HDPE, LLDPE, fPP, PVC, CSPE-R, EPDM-R and others (such as
EIA-R), and can be summarized as follows:[citation needed] (Note that M m2 refers to millions of square meters.)

 high-density polyethylene (HDPE) ~ 35% or 105 M m2

 linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) ~ 25% or 75 M m2
 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) ~ 25% or 75 M m2
 flexible polypropylene (fPP) ~ 10% or 30 M m2
 chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSPE) ~ 2% or 6 M m2
 ethylene propylene diene terpolymer (EPDM) ~ 3% or 9 M m2
The above represents approximately $1.8 billion in worldwide sales. Projections for future geomembrane usage are strongly
dependent on the application and geographical location. Landfill liners and covers in North America and Europe will
probably see modest growth (~ 5%), while in other parts of the world growth could be dramatic (10–15%).[citation
needed] Perhaps the greatest increases will be seen in the containment of coal ash and heap leach mining for precious metal

capture.

Properties[edit]
The majority of generic geomembrane test methods that are referenced worldwide are by the ASTM International|American
Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) due to their long history in this activity. More recent are test method developed by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Lastly, the Geosynthetic Research Institute (GRI) has developed
test methods that are only for test methods not addressed by ASTM or ISO. Of course, individual countries and
manufacturers often have specific (and sometimes) proprietary test methods.
Physical properties[edit]
The main physical properties of geomembranes in the as-manufactured state are:

 Thickness (smooth sheet, textured, asperity height)

 Density
 Melt flow index
 Mass per unit area (weight)
 Vapor transmission (water and solvent).
Mechanical properties[edit]
There are a number of mechanical tests that have been developed to determine the strength of polymeric sheet materials.
Many have been adopted for use in evaluating geomembranes. They represent both quality control and design, i.e., index
versus performance tests.

 tensile strength and elongation (index, wide width, axisymmetric, and seams)
 tear resistance
 impact resistance
 puncture resistance
 interface shear strength
 anchorage strength
 stress cracking (constant load and single point).
Endurance[edit]
Any phenomenon that causes polymeric chain scission, bond breaking, additive depletion, or extraction within the
geomembrane must be considered as compromising to its long-term performance. There are a number of potential concerns
in this regard. While each is material-specific, the general behavior trend is to cause the geomembrane to become brittle in
its stress-strain behavior over time. There are several mechanical properties to track in monitoring such long term
degradation: the decrease in elongation at failure, the increase in modulus of elasticity, the increase (then decrease) in stress
at failure (i.e., strength), and the general loss of ductility. Obviously, many of the physical and mechanical properties could
be used to monitor the polymeric degradation process.

 ultraviolet light exposure (laboratory of field)

 radioactive degradation
 biological degradation (animals, fungi or bacteria)
 chemical degradation
 thermal behavior (hot or cold)
 oxidative degradation.
Lifetime[edit]
Geomembranes degrade slowly enough that their lifetime behavior is as yet uncharted. Thus, accelerated testing, either by
high stress, elevated temperatures and/or aggressive liquids, is the only way to determine how the material will behave long-
term. Lifetime prediction methods use the following means of interpreting the data:

 Stress limit testing: A method by the HDPE pipe industry in the United States for determining the value of hydrostatic
design basis stress.
 Rate process method: Used in Europe for pipes and geomembranes, the method yields similar results as stress limit
testing.
 Hoechst multiparameter approach: A method that utilizes biaxial stresses and stress relaxation for lifetime prediction
and can include seams as well.
 Arrhenius modeling: A method for testing geomembranes (and other geosynthetics) described in Koerner for both
buried and exposed conditions.[1][self-published source]

Seaming[edit]
The fundamental mechanism of seaming polymeric geomembrane sheets together is to temporarily reorganize the polymer
structure (by melting or softening) of the two opposing surfaces to be joined in a controlled manner that, after the application
of pressure, results in the two sheets being bonded together. This reorganization results from an input of energy that
originates from either thermal or chemical processes. These processes may involve the addition of additional polymer in the
area to be bonded.
Ideally, seaming two geomembrane sheets should result in no net loss of tensile strength across the two sheets, and the
joined sheets should perform as one single geomembrane sheet. However, due to stress concentrations resulting from the
seam geometry, current seaming techniques may result in minor tensile strength and/or elongation loss relative to the parent
sheet. The characteristics of the seamed area are a function of the type of geomembrane and the seaming technique used.

Applications[edit]
Geomembrane installation as part of the construction of a base liner system of a landfill. [2]
Geomembranes have been used in the following environmental, geotechnical, hydraulic, transportation, and private
development applications:

 As liners for potable water

 As liners for reserve water (e.g., safe shutdown of nuclear facilities)
 As liners for waste liquids (e.g., sewage sludge)
 Liners for radioactive or hazardous waste liquid
 As liners for secondary containment of underground storage tanks
 As liners for solar ponds
 As liners for brine solutions
 As liners for the agriculture industry
 As liners for the aquiculture industry, such as fish/shrimp pond
 As liners for golf course water holes and sand bunkers
 As liners for all types of decorative and architectural ponds
 As liners for water conveyance canals
 As liners for various waste conveyance canals
 As liners for primary, secondary, and/or tertiary solid-waste landfills and waste piles
 As liners for heap leach pads
 As covers (caps) for solid-waste landfills
 As covers for aerobic and anaerobic manure digesters in the agriculture industry
 As covers for power plant coal ash
 As liners for vertical walls: single or double with leak detection
 As cutoffs within zoned earth dams for seepage control
 As linings for emergency spillways
 As waterproofing liners within tunnels and pipelines
 As waterproof facing of earth and rockfill dams
 As waterproof facing for roller compacted concrete dams
 As waterproof facing for masonry and concrete dams
 Within cofferdams for seepage control
 As floating reservoirs for seepage control
 As floating reservoir covers for preventing pollution
 To contain and transport liquids in trucks
 To contain and transport potable water and other liquids in the ocean
 As a barrier to odors from landfills
 As a barrier to vapors (radon, hydrocarbons, etc.) beneath buildings
 To control expansive soils
 To control frost-susceptible soils
 To shield sinkhole-susceptible areas from flowing water
 To prevent infiltration of water in sensitive areas
 To form barrier tubes as dams
 To face structural supports as temporary cofferdams
 To conduct water flow into preferred paths
 Beneath highways to prevent pollution from deicing salts
 Beneath and adjacent to highways to capture hazardous liquid spills
 As containment structures for temporary surcharges
 To aid in establishing uniformity of subsurface compressibility and subsidence
 Beneath asphalt overlays as a waterproofing layer
 To contain seepage losses in existing above-ground tanks
 As flexible forms where loss of material cannot be allowed.