Pavement Design 2013 Project
Pavement Design 2013 Project
Pavement Design 2013 Project
CHAPTER - 1
1. Introduction:
1.1. Object and requirement of pavement. (I)
1.2. Types of pavement structure.
1.3. Functions of pavement components.
1.3.1.Soil sub-grade.
1.3.2.Sub-base or Base course.
1.3.3.Wearing course.
1.4. Factors to be considered in design of pavement.
CHAPTER - 2
2. Design of FLEXIBLE pavement :
2.1. General design consideration
CHAPTER -3
3. Details of construction :
3.1.
CHAPTER -4
4. Specification of materials :
4.1. Specification of materials
4.2. Soil sub grade
4.3. Plants and Equipments
CHAPTER - 5
5. Evaluation of existing road :
5.1. Pavement Evaluations
5.2 Sub grade strength Evaluations
5.2 Granular Base or sub base
CHAPTER -6
6. Testing of SOIL
6.1. Grain size analysis
6.2. Consistency limits
6.3. Compaction test
6.4. California bearing ratio (CBR)
CHAPTER -7
7.1 Computation of formation levels.
CHAPTER- 8
8 Estimate for different works.
8.1 . Estimate of Earth works
8.2. Estimate of bitumen road
CHAPTER- 9
9.1 Comparison between flexible and rigid pavements.
CHAPTER -10
10.1 Bibliography.
CHAPTER - 11
11.1 References.
CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Objective
This study provides a comprehensive guideline to be followed by engineering consultants for
pavement design for new roadway and final stage pavement construction, including
reconstruction and widening, and rehabilitation. Engineering consultants are responsible for the
surfacin strategy and detailed structural pavement design on roadway design project assignments.
For the purposes of this Manual, pavement refers to all layers of the pavement structure above
the sub grade. An objective of the Manual is to ensure a degree of consistency in designs
provided by engineering consultants by following specific structural design methodologies
within a general framework. At the same time the design process provides sufficient flexibility to
allow for the judgement and innovation by experienced pavement design engineers to address the
specific conditions of each project. Alberta Transportation and Utilities (AT&U) will continue to
be the custodian of all pavement evaluation, management and inventory data. These data will be
available for use by engineering consultants. AT&U=s role in the design process will be to
review pavement designs provided by consultants for completeness, conformance to the design
philosophies and methodologies outlined in the Manual, and to ensure that the design is
supported by appropriate engineering investigation and evaluation.
Scope and Limitations
Always where traffic speeds, drainage conditions etc. may b different. The design of seal coat,
slurry seal and micro-surfacing applications, which are generally considered to be maintenance
or preservation strategies, are not addressed. The Manual reflects the most appropriate design
methodologies, adapted for Alberta conditions and experience that are available at the present
time. Changes in technology related to non-destructive [TRB], Transportation Association of
Canada [TAC], Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists [AAPT], Canadian Technical
Asphalt Association [CTAA], etc.) that form the technical background to the design and
performance of flexible pavement structures. This Manual must be used in conjunction with the
AASHTO Guide [AASHTO 93]. The details and background included within the Guide are
extensively referenced within the Manual.
In general, this Manual reflects past AT&U design practices that have resulted in decades of
cost-effective pavement performance experience under Alberta environmental, traffic and
materials conditions. AT&U chooses to design new pavement structures to last 20 years before
rehabilitation becomes necessary according to Department standards of acceptance and
performance expectations. The Department places a high priority on the ride quality and
serviceability of pavements. Pavements are design and constructed as economically as possible
and, on a network basis, the occasional failure for structural reasons is deemed acceptable and
the methodologies provided in this Manual apply to the design of flexible (granular base course)
and semi-rigid (cement stabilized base course) pavement structures on Alberta Primary
Highways and Secondary Highways. These methodologies apply to the design of rural highways
only and may not be directly transferable to urban demonstration that pavement structures are not
being over designed. The general philosophy to stage the design and construction of new
construction pavements has been maintained. The Manual includes state-of-the-art methods for
the structural design of new roadway construction, final stage pavements and rehabilitation. The
Manual will allow for the use of granular sub base and cement stabilized base courses where
proven cost-effective. Rehabilitation design will require life cycle cost analysis in order to assess
various alternative strategies and to identify the preferred alternative.
CHAPTER – 4
MATERIAL
Introduction
Te components and definitions of materials essential to Alberta flexible pavement structures
include the sub grade, a granular base course, and a surfacing of asphalt concrete. Granular base
pavement structures comprise about 75 percent of the secondary and primary highway network.
To a lesser extent, cement stabilized base courses (soil cement) or full depth asphalt concrete
pavements have been designed and constructed in the past. These latter two pavement types
together would represent about 25 percent of the secondary and primary highway network
pavement structures. The sub grade is comprised of the uppermost materials placed in the road
bed embankment or the soil remaining at the base of a cut. The sub grade soil is often referred to
as the foundation or road bed soil. This foundation component is usually constructed of native
inorganic soil often in combination with imported soils from select borrow sources, and would
be compacted to a specified density and moisture content. The granular base course (GBC) is
that material placed immediately above the prepared sub grade. The GBC used in Alberta
consists of a well graded crushed gravel with a maximum particle size varying from 20 mm to 40
mm. On occasion the GBC is separated from the sub grade by a granular sub base course of
lower quality and less expensive material. Granular sub base course (GSBC) generally consists
of pit run gravel fill with a maximum particle size of 80 mm to 125 mm. Asphalt stabilized base
courses (ASBC) were traditionally used as temporary wearing courses on first stage granular
base or cement stabilized base course projects. Based upon AT&U analysis, 50 mm of ASBC has
been superseded by 60 mm ACP. Presently ASBC is only used under special circumstances by
some municipalities. The top layer of the flexible pavement structure is comprised of a densely
graded, hot mix, asphalt concrete pavement (ACP). In addition to functioning as a structural
component of the pavement structure, the ACP must also resist the abrasive forces of traffic and
climatic and environmental conditions, minimize surface moisture infiltration to the underlying
pavement structure, provide a skid resistant surface, and provide a smooth riding surface. The
selection of asphalt concrete mix types has
Sub grade Soils
Soil Classification
The basic components of soils are differentiated on the basis of grain size as follows:
Cobbles plus 300mm
Gravel 80mm to 4.75mm
Sand 4.75mm to 0.075mm
Silt 0.075 mm to .002 mm
Clay minus .002 mm
Fine grained soils are defined as materials having more than 50 percent of the dry mass smaller
than the 0.075 mm particle size. Although size limitations are arbitrary, such limitations allow
standardization by definition. It is necessary to understand as well that plasticity is an extremely
important property to differentiate between silt and clay, and to predict behaviour. The pavement
design engineer is most interested in the strength of the soil and the extent to which this strength
varies with climate, environment and drainage effects. A typical soil profile for highway design
purposes consists of three horizons. The surface or 'A' horizon materials will consist of organic
soils, followed by 'B' horizon which is a semi-weathered zone followed by 'C' horizon which
represents the parent material type. A significant portion of Alberta=s near surface soils utilized
for road building purposes originated from the glaciations process. As the glaciers advanced and
retreated, materials were mixed, segregated and deposited. Some materials became
homogeneous, some materials were deposited as granular outwash, while others settled out in
still waters and formed some of Alberta=s lacustrine clays. The Modified Unified Soil
classification system originally developed by Casagrande is the basis for the system utilized in
Alberta. This system uses plasticity to differentiate between silts and clays. A plasticity chart
symbols presented in follows which correlates liquid and plastic limit test results to Soil Group
used for soil description. For all new construction it is very important that in-situ moisture
contents, Atterberg limits and grain size analysis of sub grade soil materials be determined to
assess sub grade soil characteristics and to infer resilient modulus (MR) values.
CHAPTER - 5
1.
In order to take maximum advantage of this property, material layers are usually arranged in
order of descending load bearing capacity with the highest load bearing capacity material (and
most expensive) on the top and the lowest load bearing capacity material (and least expensive)
on the bottom. This section describes the typical flexible pavement structure consisting of:
Surface course. This is the top layer and the layer that comes in contact with traffic. It
may be composed of one or several different HMA sublayers.
Base course. This is the layer directly below the HMA layer and generally consists of
aggregate (either stabilized or unstabilized).
Subbase course. This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer. A subbase is not
always needed.
After describing these basic elements, this section then discusses subsurface drainage and
perpetual pavements.
A typical flexible pavement structure (see Figure 2.3) consists of the surface course and the
underlying base and subbase courses. Each of these layers contributes to structural support and
drainage. The surface course (typically an HMA layer) is the stiffest (as measured by resilient
modulus) and contributes the most to pavement strength. The underlying layers are less stiff but
are still important to pavement strength as well as drainage and frost protection. A typical
structural design results in a series of layers that gradually decrease in material quality with
depth.
As seen in Figure 2.4, a flexible pavement structure can vary greatly in thickness. The signs on
top of the pictured cores indicate the State Route (SR) and the Mile Post (MP) where the core
was taken. The scale at the right edge of the photo is in inches.
The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and normally contains the highest
quality materials. It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, noise control, rut and
shoving resistance and drainage. In addition, it serves to prevent the entrance of excessive
quantities of surface water into the underlying base, subbase and subgrade (NAPA, 2001). This
top structural layer of material is sometimes subdivided into two layers (NAPA, 2001):
1. Wearing Course. This is the layer in direct contact with traffic loads. It is meant to
take the brunt of traffic wear and can be removed and replaced as it becomes worn. A
properly designed (and funded) preservation program should be able to identify
pavement surface distress while it is still confined to the wearing course. This way,
the wearing course can be rehabilitated before distress propagates into the underlying
intermediate/binder course.
2. Intermediate/Binder Course. This layer provides the bulk of the HMA structure. It's
chief purpose is to distribute load.
The base course is immediately beneath the surface course. It provides additional load
distribution and contributes to drainage and frost resistance. Base courses are usually constructed
out of:
1. Aggregate. Base courses are most typically constructed from durable aggregates (see
Figure 2.5) that will not be damaged by moisture or frost action. Aggregates can be
either stabilized or unstabilized.
2. HMA. In certain situations where high base stiffness is desired, base courses can be
constructed using a variety of HMA mixes. In relation to surface course HMA mixes,
base course mixes usually contain larger maximum aggregate sizes, are more open
graded and are subject to more lenient specifications.
Figure 2.5: Limerock Base Course Undergoing Final Grading
The subbase course is between the base course and the subgrade. It functions primarily as
structural support but it can also:
1. Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the pavement structure.
2. Improve drainage.
The subbase generally consists of lower quality materials than the base course but better than the
subgrade soils. A subbase course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement
constructed over a high quality, stiff subgrade may not need the additional features offered by a
subbase course so it may be omitted from design. However, a pavement constructed over a low
quality soil such as a swelling clay may require the additional load distribution characteristic that
a subbase course can offer. In this scenario the subbase course may consist of high quality fill
used to replace poor quality subgrade (over excavation).
2.2 Perpetual Pavements
"Perpetual Pavement" is a term used to describe a long-lasting structural design, construction and
maintenance concept. A perpetual pavement can last 50 years or more if properly maintained and
rehabilitated. As Michael Nunn pointed out in 1998, flexible pavements over a minimum
strength are not likely to exhibit structural damage even when subjected to very high traffic
flows over long periods of time. He noted that existing pavements over about 370 mm (14.5
inches) should be able to withstand an almost infinite number of axle loads without structural
deterioration due to either fatigue cracking or rutting of the subgrade. Deterioration in these
thick, strong pavements was observed to initiate in the pavement surface as either top-down
cracking or rutting. Further, Uhlmeyer et al. (2000) found that most HMA pavements thicker
than about 160 mm (6.3 inches) exhibit only surface-initiated top-down cracking. Therefore, if
surface-initiated cracking and rutting can be accounted for before they impact the structural
integrity of the pavement, the pavement life could be greatly increased.
Researchers have used this idea as well as pavement materials research to develop a basic
perpetual pavement structural concept. This concept uses a thick asphalt over a strong foundation
design with three HMA layers, each one tailored to resist specific stresses (TRB, 2001):
1. HMA base layer. This is the bottom layer designed specifically to resist fatigue
cracking. Two approaches can be used to resist fatigue cracking in the base layer.
First, the total pavement thickness can be made great enough such that the tensile
strain at the bottom of the base layer is insignificant. Alternatively, the HMA base
layer could be made using an extra-flexible HMA. This can be most easily
accomplished by increasing the asphalt content. Combinations of the previous two
approaches also work.
2. Intermediate layer. This is the middle layer designed specifically to carry most of the
traffic load. Therefore it must be stable (able to resist rutting) as well as durable.
Stability can best be provided by using stone-on-stone contact in the coarse aggregate
and using a binder with the appropriate high-temperature grading.
3. Wearing surface. This is the top layer designed specifically to resist surface-initiated
distresses such as top-down cracking and rutting. Other specific distresses of concern
would depend upon local experience.
In order to work, the above pavement structure must be built on a solid foundation. Nunn (1998)
notes that rutting on roads built on subgrade with a CBR greater than 5 percent originates almost
solely in the HMA layers, which suggests that a subgrade with a CBR greater than 5 percent
(resilient modulus greater than about 7,000 psi (50 MPa)) should be considered adequate. As
always, proper construction techniques are essential to a perpetual pavement's performance.
Figure 2.6 shows an example cross-section of a perpetual pavement design to be used in
California on I-710 (the Long Beach Freeway) in Los Angeles County.
Figure 2.6: Example I-710 Long Beach Freeway Perpetual Pavement Design
(from Monismith and Long, 1999)
Finally, the most important point in this brief perpetual pavement discussion is that it is possible
to design and build HMA pavements with extremely long design lives. In fact, some HMA
pavements in service today are living examples of perpetual pavements. For instance, two
sections of Interstate 40 in downtown Oklahoma City are now more than 33 years old (built in
1967) and are still in excellent condition. These sections, which support 3 to 3.5 million ESALs
per year, have been overlaid but the base and intermediate courses have lasted since construction
without any additional work (APA, no date given).
Factors affecting pavement design
Overview
In the previous chapter we had discussed about the types of pavements and their failure criteria.
There are many factors that a_ect pavement design which can be classi_ed into four categories as
tra_c and loading, structural models, material characterization,
environment. They will be discussed in detail in this chapter.
Traffic and loading
Traffic is the most important factor in the pavement design. The key factors include contact
pressure, wheel load, axle conjuration, moving loads, load, and load repetitions. Contact pressure
The tyre pressure is an important factor, as it determine the contact area and the contact pressure
between the wheel and the pavement surface. Even though the shape of the contact area is
elliptical, for sake of simplicity in analysis, a circular area is often considered. Wheel load The
next important factor is the wheel load which determines the depth of the pavement required to
ensure that the subgrade soil is not failed. Wheel con_guration a_ect the stress distribution and
deection within a pavemnet. Many commercial vehicles have dual rear wheels which ensure that
the contact pressure is within the limits. The normal practice is to convert dual wheel into an
equivalent single wheel load so that the analysis is made simpler.
Axle con_guration The load carrying capacity of the commercial vehicle is further enhanced by
the introduction of multiple axles. Moving loads The damage to the pavement is much higher if
the vehicle is moving at creep speed. Many studies show that when the speed is increased from 2
km/hr to 24 km/hr, the stresses and deection reduced by 40 per cent.
Repetition of Loads The inuence of tra_c on pavement not only depend on the magnitude of the
wheel load, but also on the frequency of the load applications. Each load application causes some
deformation and the total deformation is the summation of all these. Although the pavement
deformation due to single axle load is very small, the cumulative e_ect of number of load
repetition is signi_cant. Therefore, modern design is based on total number of standard axle load
(usually 80 kN single axle). Introduction to Transportation Engineering 20.1 Tom V. Mathew
and K V Krishna Rao
FACTORS AFFECTING PAVEMENT DESIGN
Structural models
The structural models are various analysis approaches to determine the pavement responses
(stresses, strains, and detections) at various locations in a pavement due to the application of
wheel load. The most common structural models are layered elastic model and viscous-elastic
models. Layered elastic model A layered elastic model can compute stresses, strains, and
detections at any point in a pavement structure resulting from the application of a surface load.
Layered elastic models assume that each pavement structural layer is homogeneous, isotropic,
and linearly elastic. In other words, the material properties are same at every point in a given
layer and the layer will rebound to its original form once the load is removed. The layered elastic
approach works with relatively simple mathematical models that relates stress, strain, and
deformation with wheel loading and material properties like modulus of elasticity and poisons
ratio.
Material characterization
The following material properties should be specie for both exile and rigid
pavements. When pavements are considered as linear elastic, the elastic module and Poisson
ratio of sub grade and each component layer must be specie. If the elastic modulus of a material
varies with the time of loading, then the resilient modulus, which is elastic modulus under
repeated loads, must be selected in accordance with a load duration corresponding to the vehicle
speed. When a material is considered non-linear elastic, the constitutive equation relating the
resilient modulus to the state of the stress must be provided. Environmental factors
Environmental factors affect the performance of the pavement materials and cause various
damages. Environmental factors that affect pavement are of two types, temperature and
precipitation and they are discussed below:
Temperature
The effect of temperature on asphalt pavements is different from that of concrete pavements.
Temperature affects the resilient modulus of asphalt layers, while it induces curling of concrete
slab. In rigid pavements, due to difference in temperatures of top and bottom of slab,
temperature stresses or frictional stresses are developed. While inflexible pavement, dynamic
modulus of asphaltic concrete varies with temperature. Frost heave causes differential
settlements and pavement roughness. The most detrimental effect of frost penetration occurs
during the spring break up period when the ice melts and sub grade is a saturated condition.
Precipitation
The precipitation from rain and snow affects the quantity of surface water in_ltrating into the sub
grade and
Introduction
Soil is a principle material for the construction of fill or embankment and subgrade of
highway. Soil is also used in other pavement layers such as stabilized soil sub-base and base
course. The pavement layers are laid over the prepared soil subgrade which provides the support
to the pavement. The design and performance of pavement, particularly the flexible pavement,
depend to a great extent on the type of subgrade soil and its properties including the support or
stability values. Even the subgrade layer is supported by soil of the fill or the ground. Therefore
soil is a essential highway material.
Soil are normally classified on the basis of simple laboratory tests such as grain size
analysis and consistency tests.
There are a number of test for measuring soil strength. The test used to evaluate the
strength property of soil may be divided in three groups, (1)-shear test (2)-bearing test (3)-
penetration test (CBR TEST). The cbr test is essential an empirical penetration test, which is
generally carried in laboratory. This test is suitable for evaluating the strength of soil and CBR
TEST result used in design of flexible pavement.
All soils are not suitable for use in subgrade directly as pavement component layer. The
strength and durability characteristic of such soil can be improved to the desire extent by
adopting a suitable soil stabilization technique.
GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS
INRODUCTION
Grain size analysis also known as mechanical analysis of soil, is the determination of the
% of individual grain size present in the soil sample or grain size distribution of the soil. Coarse
grained soil may have rounded to angular bulky, hard rock particle with following size shown in
table-
COFFICIENT OF CURVATURE
It may be estimated as
Ce = (D30)(D30)/D10.D60
D60 = dia at 60% finer
D30 = dia at 30% finer
D10 = dia at 10% finer
It should be lie between 1&2 for well graded gravel and sands. Uniformity coefficient.
Cu = D60/D10
Its value should be more than 4 for well graded gravels and more than 6 for well graded
sands.(I.S.; 1498-1970)
APPARATUS
1. Sieve size – 4.75 mm ,2.8mm , 2mm, 1.7 mm, 425 mic, 150mic, 75 mic, 0 mm(pan)
2. Brush
3. Mechanical shaker
4. Balance
5. Crucible
6. Tray etc.
SIEVE ANALYSIS
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION
SOIL SAMPLE NO. – 1- NATURAL SOIL
Type of sieve analysis: Dry
Total wt. of soil sample : 1 kg
Sieve Size of opening (mm) Wt of soil retained (g) Cumulative wt Cum % retained
no retained
Liquid limit =
( mass of water content/mass of dry sample) x 100
= (38 – 32 /32 – 14)x100
= 33.33%
Plastic limit =
Plastic limit = (mass of water / mass of sample)x100
= 20% (1)
= 14.29%(2)
Avg pl = 17.145
Natural Soil+5%sand
Sieve analysis
LIQUID LIMIT –
LIQUID LIMIT-
= (38 – 34/32 – 34 ) x100
= 20%
PLASTIC LIMIT
1. 25%
2. 26.67%
AVG PL = 25.835%
(3)NATURAL SOIL + 10% SAND
LIQUID LIMIT –
PLASTIC LIMIT –
= (38 – 34 / 34 – 14)x100
= 10%
PLASTIC LIMIT-
1. 50
2. 40
Avg pl = 45
SIEVE ANALYSIS-
SIEVE 4.75 2.8 2 1.7 .425 .150 .075 pan
RETAINED 5.32 82 28 58 108 176 12 16
LIQUID LIMIT-
PLASTIC LIMIT
No Wet wt Dry wt
1 28 24
2 27 25
3 28 26
Liquid limit-
= (36 – 34 / 34 – 24)x100
= 10%
Plastic limit-
1. 40%
2. 18.18%
Avg pl = 29.09%
NATURAL SOIL + 20%SAND
SIEVE ANALYSIS
Sieve 4.75 2.8 2 1.7 .425 .150 .075 Pan
Liquid limit –
Plastic limit –
No Wet wt Dry wt
1 24 22
2 25 20
3 24 21
Liquid limit –
= (35 – 34 /34 – 14)x 100
= 5%
Plastic limit –
1. 25%
2. 83.3%
Avg pl = 54.165%
COMPACTION TEST
INTRODUCTION
Compaction of soil is a mechanical process by which the soil particles are constrained to be
packed more closely together by reducing the air voids. Soil compaction cause decrease n
airvoids and consequently an increase in dry density. This may result in increase in shearing
strength. The possibility of future settlement or compressibility decrease and also the tendency
for subsequent changes in moisture content decreases. Degree of compaction is usually measured
quantitatively by dry density. Increase in dry density of soil due to compaction mainly depends
on two factor
(a) The compaction moisture content and
(b) The amount of compaction
APPARATUS
Calculation
= (W – Wm)/Vm(1+w/100)g/cc
OBSERVATION SHEET
SAMPLE 1st
Determination no. 1 2 3 4
SAMPLE 2nd
Determination no 1 2 3 4
Wt of mould 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4
(Wm)
Wt of mould + 12.334 12.438 12.568 12.769
compact soil (W)
Moisture 19 13 5 4
container no.
Wt of moisture 14 14 14 14
container, (W1)
Wt of container 114 82 90 100
+ wet soil, (W2)
Wt of container 102 74 82 81
+ dry soil (W3)
Wet density, 2.6 2.7 2.74 2.83
(Ym)
Moisture 12.0 12.7 10.05 12.8
content,(W%)
Dry density 2.32 2.39 2.45 2.36
Void ratio (e)
Porosity, (n%)
Maximum dry density = 2.4 g/cc
Determination no. 1 2 3 4
Wt of mould,(Wm) 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4
Wt of mould+ 12.106 12.426 12.740 13.642
compact soil, W
Moisture content 20 11 10 6
no
Wt of moisture 14 14 14 14
container(W1)
Wt of 82 102 95 100
container+wet
soil,(W2)
Wt of container + 78 94 85 87
dry soil ,(W3)
Wet density,(Ym) 2.54 2.68 2.82 2.96
Moist.cont. (w%) 5.80 9.10 12.30 13.10
Dry density,(Yd) 2.40 2.46 2.51 2.42
Void ratio, (e)
Porosity (n %)
Maximum dry density = 2.5g/cc
Determination no. 1 2 3 4
Wt of mould (Wm) 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4
Wt of mould + 12.485 12.512 12.688 12.563
compacted soil(W)
Moist. Cont. no 8 6 12 15
Wt of moisture 14 14 14 14
container(W1)
Wt of moisture 102 112 100 110
container + wet soil
(W2)
Wt of moisture 94 100 86 98
container + dry soil
(W3)
Wet density, (Ym) 2.60 2.72 2.79 2.63
Moisture 9 12.2 16.3 16.66
content(W%)
Dry density,(Yd) 2.38 2.42 2.40 2.25
Void ratio,(e)
Porosity(n%)
RESULTS
Point are plotted with moisture content on the X – axis and dry density on Y – axis and a smooth
curve is drawn connecting the points.
DISCUSSION
From the compaction test, the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of soil is
found for the selected type and amount of compaction.
The OMC of the soil indicates the particular moisture content at which the soil should be
compacted to achieve maximum dry density. The OMC of soil is use full to performing CBR
test.
CALCULATION
The swelling or expansion ratio is calculated from the observation during the swelling test using
the formula –
/ unit load carried by standard crushed stones at above penetration level) x100
OBSERVATION TABLE
Unsoaked sample
CBR at 5 mm = 17.1
SAMPLE SOAKED
The California bearing ratio test (CBR)developed by the California division of highway as a
method of classifying and evaluating soil –sub grade and base course materials for flexible
pavement.
INTRODUCTION
The test consist of causing a cylindrical plunger 50 mm dia to penetrate a pavement component
material at 1.25 mm/min. the loads for 2.5 mm and 5mm are recorded. This load is express as %
of standard load value at are respective deformation level to obtain the CBR value.
APPARATUS
Cylindrical mould – 150mm dia and 175mm height provided with a collar of about 50mm length
and detachable perforated are used for this purpose a spacer disc of 148mm dia and 47.7 mm
thickness is used to obtain a specimen of exactly 127.3mm
Compaction rammer – the material is compacted by a rammer of 4.98kg with a free fall of 45
cm and give 56 blows for compaction.
Adjustable stem, perforated plate, tripod and dial gauge.
Annual weight – in order to stimulate the effect of the overlaying pavement weight , annualar
weight each of 2.5kg and 147 mm dia are placed on top of the specimen.
Beside above equipment coarse filter paper,sieve , oven, balance etc are required.
SAMPLE PREPARATION –
About 180 kg of material is dried and sieved through 20mm. The material passes through 20mm
sieve and retained on 4.75 mm sieve used for this purpose.
Divide the sample into four part and prepare sample with different sand content as shown in table
–
SAMPLE
Take the 5.5kg of each sample &mixed with water according to their corresponding maximum
water content thoroughly. Keep the mould on the base plate with the spacer.
Now divided the sample into 5 part and fill in the mould layer by layer with 56 below in each
layer.
RESULT(unsoaked sample)
From the table we can see that the CBR value for the unsoaked sample
(SOAKED SAMPLE)-
1. Natural soil
Penetration CBR
2.5 2.70
5.0 2.40
2.
2 Natural soil + 5%sand
Penetration Load
2.5 2.90
5.0 2.76
11.1 REFRENCE
In 1928 california divison of highways in the U.S.A. developed CBR method for pavement
design. The majority of design curves developed later are based on the original curves proposed
by o.j.porter.at the beginning of second world war, the corps engineer of USA made survey of
the existing method of pavement design and adopted CBR method The CBR tests were carried
out by the California state highway department on existing pavement layers Including subgrade
sub-base and base course. Based on the extensive CBR test data collected on pavement design
chart was developed correlating the CBR value and the pavement thickness. Basis of design
chart is that a material with a given CBR required a certain thickness of pavement layer as a
cover.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
For exible pavement, structure design is mainly concerned with determining appropriate layer
thickness and composition. The main design factor are stresses due to traffic load and tempreture
variations. Two methods of exible pavement structure design are common today : Empiricle
design and mechanistic empirical design.
EMPIRICAL DESIGN
Empirical- Mechanistic method of design is based on the mechanics of materials that relates
input, such as wheel load. To an output or pavement response. In paement design, the responses
are the stresses ,strains and detection within a pavement structure and the physical causes are the
loads and material properties of the pavement structure. The relationship between these
phenomenon and their physical causes are typically described using some mathematical models.
Along with this mechanistic approach empirical element are used.
There are three different approaches for considering vehicular and traffic characteristic, which
acts pavement design. Fixed traffic thickness of pavement is governed by single load and number
of load repetition is not considered. The heaviest wheel load anticipated is used for design
purpose. This is an old method and is rarely used today for pavement design.
Fixed vehicle : In the xed vehicle procedure ,the thickens is governed by the number of repetition
of a standard axle load is not a standard one, then it must be converted to an equivalent an
equivalent axle load by number of repetition of given axle load and its equivalent axle load
factor.
Variable and vehicle: In this approach, both traffic and vehicle are considered individually, so
there is no need to assign an equivalent factor for each axle load. The loads can be divided in to a
number of group and the stresses ,strains and dictation under each load group can be determined
separately and used for design purpose. The traffic and loading factors to be considered include
axle loads, load repetition an
To carry maximum load with in the spaced limit and to carry greater load, dual wheel, or dual
tandem assembly is often used. Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) is the single wheel load
having the same contact pressure, which produces same value of maximum stress diction tensile
stress or contact pressure at the desired depth. The procedure of the ESWL for equal stress
criteria is provides below. This is a semi- rational method, Known as Boyd and foster method ,
based on the following assumption: