HISTORY OF AQUACULTURE

by
Herminio R. Rabanal
Consultant (Aquaculture)
ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale
Coastal Fisheries Development Project
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. EARLY BEGINNINGS

1.1 Oxbow theory

1.2 Catch-and-hold theory

1.3 Concentration theory

1.4 Trap-and-crop theory

2. MILESTONES IN AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

2.1 2000–1000 B.C.

2.2 500 B.C. (473 B.C. or 475 B.C.)

2.3 500 B.C.-500 A.D.

2.4 618 to 906 A.D. (Tang Dynasty in China)

2.5 906 to 1900 A.D.

2.5.1 906 to 1120 (Sung Dynasty)

2.5.2 1368 to 1644 (Ming Dynasty)

2.5.3 1644 to 1911 (Ching Dynasty)

2.6 Independent developments in other areas

2.6.1 French Indochina

2.6.2 Sub-continent of India

2.6.3 Indonesia

2.6.4 Europe

2.6.5 North America

2.6.6 Africa

2.6.7 Elsewhere
2.7 1900–1700 - Expansion in operation and breakthroughs in seed production

2.8 1970-near future - Continued expansion and selective culture of high value
and exportable species and intensification
1. EARLY BEGINNINGS
Students of aquaculture have advanced various theories on how aqua-culture started. It is noted
that all these versions could really be factual but are perhaps applicable in different areas of the
world where aquaculture may have started independently from each other. It is only within
recent period when means of communication and transportation and exchanges beyond
continental and national boundaries were possible that aquaculture development has become
unified, intensified and in some cases, integrated.

Examination of available literature on aquaculture history shows that there are at least 4
theories that may explain the beginnings of aquaculture. These are described in the following
paragraphs.

1.1 Oxbow theory

This version on the origin of aquaculture relates the beginnings of this industry to existing
natural rivers and streams especially in inland areas. These rivers, in the course of time,
develop curves and oxbows which, due to natural topography and physiography of the area,
may farther result into long, winding oxbows of varying sizes. As time went on, under varying
flood levels that occurred in different years such rivers may have changed their courses, leaving
behind the formed oxbows together with the fish and other living organisms in them. Human
population along the rivers, who by adaptation are natural fishermen, discovered a good harvest
of fish could be derived from these naturally formed oxbows. It was also found that seasonal
flooding of these water areas restocked them with fish which again could be harvestable during
the ensuing dry season. Taking full advantage of this occurrence, enterprising individuals in the
surrounding communities would begin to improve the embankments, enclosing such oxbow
areas. Subsequently, in addition to the seasonal natural stock of fish that enter the modified
oxbows, additional stock may be planted, thus starting aquaculture management in them. This
continued on till complete aquaculture management was attained. Development of this nature is
exemplified by extensive low-lying level areas with a network of rivers and a distinct monsoonal,
annual rainy and dry period. Bangladesh may be a good example of this type of terrain.

1.2 Catch-and-hold theory

Fish and other aquatic products have always been held in high esteem by the early rulers of big
empires. At the same time, it was a practice to build water areas as source of water, recreation,
or a means of defense around castles. Such water areas were not really intended for rearing
fish but some of the rulers demanded fish, regardless of the season so that the responsible
officers around these rulers had to provide means to obtain fish even during winter. Due to this
necessity, the practice has developed to stock fish caught from natural waters into the water
areas constructed around castles or communities. As it turned out, some of the fish planted in
these artificial waters were able to survive and grow while others perished. In the course of time,
the species that survived and grow such as the common carp were selected for this catch-and-
hold system of providing fish. As a further development, stocking of the right amount and kind of
fish and feeding them when necessary also developed resulting in actual aquaculture practice.
The monasteries of Europe and the palaces of emperors and other rulers exemplified this type
of venue for aquaculture development.
1.3 Concentration theory

Many tropical areas of the world are affected by monsoons, one bringing strong rains with some
floods and the other the dry season. During the rainy system, the rivers which provided the
waterways get swollen and if the watershed was extensive, wide-level lowland places were
likewise flooded. Extensive marshlands rich in vegetation and aquatic organisms, including fish,
provided wide and favourable habitat for growth and reproduction during the flood season of the
year. When the rainy season decreases until it finally stops, the water in these floodlands also
gradually receded. As the dry season progressed, the water further receded, draining almost all
the flood plains but leaving only spots of deep areas and the rivers with water. These resulted in
the concentration of the fish that have grown and reproduced during the wet season into the
watered depressions or back into the rivers. Fishermen from the surrounding communities catch
fish from these concentrated depressions. At the beginning, most of the fish were caught
without regard to size or kind. Later on, the small ones were left behind or gathered and
transferred to other rearing areas. If suitable, some of these depressions would be provided with
embankments in which culture of suitable fish stock in them was conducted, thus starting
aquaculture management which began through the concentration version. The low level
extensive plains in the African continent exemplified the environment suitable for this type of
management. As a matter of fact, the prevailing practice which could be described mainly as
capture fisheries but with some element of culture management have been in existence in such
areas.

1.4 Trap-and-crop theory

While the first three versions have been observed as developments from inland freshwater
areas, this fourth development is characteristic of brackish and marine areas affected by tidal
fluctuations. Coastal areas usually abound with coves, lagoons, permanent ponds, enclosed
swamps or even depressions which were periodically watered and fully or partially drained
during ordinary or extreme low tides. The population along these coastal communities or owners
or leassors of tidal lands with these types of water areas have long realized that these areas
were regularly stocked with fin-fish, crustaceans and even molluscs and other aquatic economic
resources naturally found in these waters. With these knowledge, they started to install traps
that would block the exit of these fish and crustaceans that may have entered the water area
during a flood tide. A fisherman realized that by this management, he could be regularly
provided with fish for his table and some extra for the market. As time developed, however, and
as more fishermen fish in the surrounding waters, the amount trapped in these water areas
declined. Therefore, instead of harvesting at each periodic tide fluctuations, the barricade to the
watered area was kept in place for sometime, say, one to three months before the fish that have
entered have grown to good size. Thus starting a primitive form of aquaculture. Later on, actual
aquaculture management was developed consisting of providing the necessary dikes for the
watered area, excavating and levelling the area to provide more space and stocking additional
finfish or crustacean seeds to augment the trapped fish and crustaceans brought in by the tide.
This chronology of development was what actually happened in the development of
brackishwater aquaculture which probably began in Indonesia and spread to the Philippines,
and later into Thailand, Malaysia, India and other areas in the world.
2. MILESTONES IN AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT
2.1 2000–1000 B.C.

C. F. Hickling the English aquaculture author, citing S. Y. Lin a noted Chinese aquaculturist,
considered the earliest beginnings of aquaculture as during the period 2000–1000 B.C. This
indicated that aquaculture has a long history dating as far as 4000 years ago. However, during
the period, and especially before the advent of printing, no records were available except the
narratives handed down from one generation to another especially those found in the seat of
power during those periods. Admittedly, China was the cradle of the beginning of aquaculture
utilizing mainly the common carp (Cyprinus carpio). It is said that aquaculture as a husbandry
developed in China resulting from the fact that population started to have a settled condition and
has been kept as an unbroken tradition. No detailed description of aquaculture practices was
however available during that early period.

2.2 500 B.C. (473 B.C. or 475 B.C.)

This year is considered of very great significance in the annals of the history of aquaculture.
Many authors round the year as 500 B.C. although most agree that the exact year is 475 B.C.
and some even use 473 B.C. as the period when Fan Lai (also spelled Li or Lee by some
authors) wrote his book, “The Classic of Fish Culture”. This book consisted the earliest
monograph of, fish culture. Although the narrative also dealt on fantasies and metaphysical
aspects, it is the first to record and describe the structure of ponds, the method of propagation
of the common carp and the growth of fry. Excerpts of an English translation and Chinese
facsimile of this book are appended (Appendix 1 and 2).

2.3 500 B.C.-500 A.D.

This period can be considered the Golden Age of common carp culture which has continued to
develop in China as well as in neighboring countries where the Chinese people migrated or
have some form of foreign relations. Not only is actual progress attained in the techniques of
culture but also scattered records of the culture systems were made during this period. At about
this time in the Indian sub-continent, specifically during the period 321 to 300 B.C., the use of
reservoirs to hold fish was first described.

2.4 618 to 906 A.D. (Tang Dynasty in China)

The reign of the Tang Dynasty is particularly significant in the history of world aquaculture. The
Tang emperor in China had the family name of Li which happened to be the common name of
the widely-cultivated common carp. Because of this coincidence, an imperial decree was issued
prohibiting the culture as well as other activities connected with this fish. This decree, however,
instead of putting a constraint to the development of aquaculture turned to be a blessing in
disguise. The Chinese people who were then at the time very much engrossed in fish culture as
a source of food and livelihood, looked for other species of fish for pond culture. This resulted in
the discovery of the silver carp, the big-head carp, the grass carp and the mud carp, all very
suitable pond culture species. It was also found that when raised in polyculture in the same
pond, these species complement each other by eating different types of food and staying in
different environmental strata within the pond. This led not only in the discovery of new species
for culture but also in maximizing the productivity of freshwater pond culture,

2.5 906 to 1900 A.D.

The initiative to collect fry of cultivable species seasonally along the rivers was started during
the Tang Dynasty as a result of the prohibition decree on the common carp, Systematic fry
collection and dispersal in natural waters was highly developed during following period under
the Sung Dynasty, At about this time in India, the published work Namasollasa presented a
compilation describing the fattening of fish in reservoirs. In China, in 1243, Chow Mit published
his Kwei Sin Chek Shik which described fry transport in bamboo baskets.

2.5.2 1368 to 1644 (Ming Dynasty).

It was during the Ming period that works describing the complete aquaculture process were
detailed. Methods for culturing fry to adult, the structure of ponds, rearing density, polyculture,
stocking/catching rotation, application of food and fertilizer and disease control were dealt with
in aquaculture works during this period. In the year 1400 brackishwater aquaculture was
recorded as having been started in Indonesia. This was suggested in the penal laws of the
country (Kutara Menawa) which provided for the prohibition of stealing fish from ponds. In
China, in 1639, the Complete Book of Agriculture which included pond fish culture was
released.

2.5.3 1644 to 1911 (Ching Dynasty).

During this period, further detailed description of fish culture methods were emphasized. This
included fry production, season of occurrence of fry, differentiation and separation of fry and
transport.

2.6 Independent developments in other areas

In the French Indochinese countries, the waves of Chinese migration had influenced the
development of aquaculture. Due to the indigenous species in this area which became of value
to the native population, cage culture of siluroids and related species developed independently
and became a distinct aquaculture practice in this area. This practice has continued up to the
present time (e.g. cage culture along Mekong River in Kampuchea).

2.6.2 Sub-continent of India.

The practice of building water reservoirs of varying sizes as source of water and for religious
purposes, started at very early period in this area. At the beginning, they were not used for fish
culture. Subsequently, however, they were initially used to hold fish and later on to culture them.
2.6.3 Indonesia.

The early development of brackishwater aquaculture is attributed to this country at the

2.6.4 Europe.

Aquaculture in Europe also started during early period. Palaces of the early rulers, as well as
temples and monasteries of the religious, were provided with water areas. Later on, these were
used for temporary holding of fish and subsequently, they were used as environment for the
culture of fish. Common carp and trout were recorded as the major species.

2.6.5 North America.

There were attempts to develop aquaculture during the 19th century specially aimed at the
development of sport fishing. A book, A Manual of Fish Culture, was published by the United
States Commis sion of Fish and Fisheries in 1897. This dealt mainly on established hatcheries
for the production of seeds to stock game waters but also includes some food species of finfish,
oysters, clams, etc.

2.6.6 Africa.

There were earlier attempts mainly from Europe to spread aquaculture in African countries. Due
to the nomadic nature of most African communities at the time, the establishment of aquaculture
became difficult. However, the presence of extensive flood plains provided environment for
growth and reproduction of indigenous species during the rainy season and concentrating them
in depressions or marshes during the dry season. This stimulated the early beginnings of
aquaculture in that continent. At the present time, many initiatives for aquaculture development
are being started in several countries in Africa. The tilapia, common carp and catfish are the
selected species for culture.

2.6.7 Elsewhere.

a) Latin America. There is no local tradition of aquaculture in this region but widespread
development are being initiated at the present time which are gaining interest and support,

b) Australia and New Zealand. Aquaculture development in these countries has been very
recent and is just gaining momentum. Trout and other cold water species and mollusc culture,
mussels and oysters, are developed.

c) Pacific Island countries. Varied types of development, especially seafarming activities, are
just being initiated in the various Pacific Island countries,

d) Middle East and Israel. Although there are existing rivers which can be focal points of
development for aquaculture in this region, early historical records did not mention any early
aquaculture activities. Religious tradition in this area, however, indicated heavy utilization of fish
for food. Present development show that much progress in aquaculture has occurred in the area
especially in Israel. Here carp and tilapia culture have attained advanced state, and the other
countries in the region have initiated aquaculture development programs.

e) Japan and Korea. There is no doubt that aquaculture developed in these two countries during
very early period. Perhaps China had some influences in this development such as in the use of
goldfish and carp for culture. But at same period in their history especially in Japan, the “closed
door policy” was enforced in that country. At that time aquaculture continued to flourish
especially in the culture of a very wide variety of species. This is probably the reason why in that
country most any aquatic species of high economic value are subjected to culture - finfishes,
crustaceans, molluscs, other vertabrates and many kinds of marine invertebrates that could be
the subject of trade. Development of efficient and high culture technology is also a characteristic
of Japanese and Korean aquaculture.

2.7 1900–1700 - Expansion in operation and breakthroughs in seed

This period witnessed worldwide expansion of aquaculture. Easy means of communications and
widespread exchange of information through national and international agencies have
stimulated the acceleration of the expansion in aquaculture.

The urgent need for seeds to fill the expanded aquaculture industry resulted in technology
breakthroughs in inducing the spawning of cultivable species, the seeds or fry of which were
only formerly obtained from wild waters. In this period the cultivated Asiatic carps and the Indian
major carps were induced to spawn under controlled conditions. Likewise the penaeid shrimp
species and the giant freshwater prawns used in culture were also hatched under control in
hatcheries.

2.8 1970-near future - Continued expansion and selective culture of high

In this period more species were brought into culture. The industry continued to expand both in
area and in quantity of production,

A new trend to select species that are most profitable to culture was adopted by operators in the
industry. Therefore, high value species especially those with high export demand were
emphasized. Penaeid shrimps, high value finfishes (seabass/groupers), seaweeds and related
species became important aquaculture items.

As demand and high market value for selected species persisted, high technology methods and
intensification of operations became the norm of the industry. There is competition for major
markets and maintenance of product quality standards also became a major concern.