1.

The ancient invention of the steam engine by the Hero of Alexandria

Heron Alexandrinus, otherwise known as the Hero of Alexandria, was a 1 st century Greek
mathematician and engineer who is known as the first inventor of the steam engine. His steam
powered device was called the aeolipile, named after Aiolos, God of the winds. The aeolipile
consisted of a sphere positioned in such a way that it could rotate around its axis. Nozzles opposite
each other would expel steam and both of the nozzles would generate a combined thrust resulting in
torque, causing the sphere to spin around its axis. The rotation force sped up the sphere up to the
point where the resistance from traction and air brought it to a stable rotation speed. The steam was
created by boiling water under the sphere – the boiler was connected to the rotating sphere through
a pair of pipes that at the same time served as pivots for the sphere. The replica of Heron’s machine
could rotate at 1,500 rounds per minute with a very low pressure of 1.8 pounds per square inch. The
remarkable device was forgotten and never used properly until 1577, when the steam engine was
‘re-invented’ by the philosopher, astronomer and engineer, Taqu al-Din.
2. Is the Assyrian Nimrud lens the oldest telescope in the world?

The Nimrud lens is a 3,000-year-old piece of rock crystal, which was unearthed by Sir John Layard
in 1850 at the Assyrian palace of Nimrud, in modern-day Iraq. The Nimrud lens (also called the
Layard lens) is made from natural rock crystal and is a slightly oval in shape. It was roughly ground,
perhaps on a lapidary wheel. It has a focal point about 11 centimetres from the flat side, and a focal
length of about 12 cm. This would make it equivalent to a 3× magnifying glass (combined with
another lens, it could achieve much greater magnification). The surface of the lens has twelve
cavities that were opened during grinding, which would have contained naptha or some other fluid
trapped in the raw crystal. Since its discovery over a century ago, scientists and historians have
debated its use, with some suggesting it was used as a magnifying glass, and others maintaining it
was a burning-glass used to start fires by concentrating sunlight. However, prominent Italian
professor Giovanni Pettinato proposed the lens was used by the ancient Assyrians as part of a
telescope, which would explain how the Assyrians knew so much about astronomy. According to
conventional perspectives, the telescope was invented by Dutch spectacle maker, Hans Lippershey
in 1608 AD, and Galileo was the first to point it to the sky and use it to study the cosmos. But even
Galileo himself noted that the 'ancients' were aware of telescopes long before him. While lenses
were around before the Nimrud lens, Pettinato believes this was one of the first to be used in a
telescope.
3. The Oldest Calendar in Scotland

Research carried out last year on an ancient site excavated by the National Trust for Scotland in
2004 revealed that it contained a sophisticated calendar system that is approximately 10,000 years
old, making it the oldest calendar ever discovered in the world. The site – at Warren Field, Crathes,
Aberdeenshire – contains a 50 metre long row of twelve pits which were created by Stone Age
Britons and which were in use from around 8000 BC (the early Mesolithic period) to around 4,000
BC (the early Neolithic). The pits represent the months of the year as well as the lunar phases of the
moon. They were formed in a complex arc design in which each lunar month was divided into three
roughly ten day weeks – representing the waxing moon, the full moon and the waning moon. It also
allowed the observation of the mid-winter sunrise so that the lunar calendar could be recalibrated
each year to bring it back in line with the solar year. The entire arc represents a whole year and may
also reflect the movements of the moon across the sky.
4. Ancient Roman Concrete was Far Superior to Our Own
Scientists studying the composition of Roman concrete, which has been submerged under the
Mediterranean Sea for the last 2,000 years, discovered that it was superior to modern-day concrete
in terms of durability and being less environmentally damaging. The Romans made concrete by
mixing lime and volcanic rock. For underwater structures, the combination of lime and volcanic ash
with seawater instantly triggered a chemical reaction in which the lime incorporated molecules into
its structure and reacted with the ash to cement the whole mixture together. Analysis of the concrete
found that it produces a significantly different compound to modern day cement, which is an
incredibly stable binder. In addition, the ancient concrete contains the ideal crystalline structure of
Tobermorite, which has a greater strength and durability than the modern equivalent. Finally,
microscopic studies identified other minerals in the ancient concrete which show potential application
for high-performance concretes, including the encapsulation of hazardous wastes. "In the middle
20th century, concrete structures were designed to last 50 years," said scientist Paulo Monteiro said.
"Yet Roman harbour installations have survived 2,000 years of chemical attack and wave action
underwater.”
5. 2000-year-old metal coatings superior to today’s standards

Research has shown that artisans and craftsmen 2,000 years ago used a form of ancient technology
for applying thin films of metal to statues and other items, which was superior to today’s standards
for producing DVDs, solar cells, electronic devices and other products. Fire gilding and silvering are
age-old mercury-based processes used to coat the surface items such as jewels, statues and
amulets with thin layers of gold or silver. From a technological point of view, what the ancient gilders
achieved 2000 years ago, was to make the metal coatings incredibly thin, adherent and uniform,
which saved expensive metals and improved its durability, something which has never been
achieved to the same standard today. Apparently without any knowledge about the chemical–
physical processes, ancient craftsmen systematically manipulated metals to create spectacular
results. They developed a variety of techniques, including using mercury like a glue to apply thin
films of metals to objects. The findings demonstrate that there was a far higher level of
understanding and knowledge of advanced concepts and techniques in our ancient past than what
they are given credit for.
6. The incredible 2000-year-old earthquake detector
Although we still cannot accurately predict earthquakes, we have come a long way in detecting,
recording, and measuring seismic shocks. Many don’t realise that this process began nearly 2000
years ago, with the invention of the first seismoscope in 132 AD by a Chinese astronomer,
mathematician, engineer, and inventor called Zhang (‘Chang’) Heng. The device was remarkably
accurate in detecting earthquakes from afar, and did not rely on shaking or movement in the location
where the device was situated. Zhang's seismoscope was a giant bronze vessel, resembling a
samovar almost 6 feet in diameter. Eight dragons snaked face-down along the outside of the barrel,
marking the primary compass directions. In each dragon's mouth was a small bronze ball. Beneath
the dragons sat eight bronze toads, with their broad mouths gaping to receive the balls. The sound
of the ball striking one of the eight toads would alert observers to the earthquake and would give a
rough indication of the earthquake's direction of origin. In 2005, scientists in Zengzhou, China
(which was also Zhang's hometown) managed to replicate Zhang's seismoscope and used it to
detect simulated earthquakes based on waves from four different real-life earthquakes in China and
Vietnam. The seismoscope detected all of them. As a matter of fact, the data gathered from the tests
corresponded accurately with that gathered by modern-day seismometers!
7. Mythical sunstone used as ancient navigational device

An ancient Norse myth described a magical gem used to navigate the seas, which could reveal the
position of the sun when hidden behind clouds or even before dawn or after sunset. Now it appears
the myth is in fact true. In March 2013, a team of scientists announced that a unique calcite crystal,
which was found in the wreck of an Elizabethan ship sunk off the Channel Islands, contains
properties consistent with the legendary Viking sunstone and that shards of the crystal can indeed
act as a remarkably precise navigational aid. According to the researchers, the principle behind the
sunstone relies on its unusual property of creating a double refraction of sunlight, even when it is
obscured by cloud or fog. By turning the crystal in front of the human eye until the darkness of the
two shadows are equal, the sun's position can be pinpointed with remarkable accuracy.
8. The Baghdad Battery

The Baghdad Battery, sometimes referred to as the Parthian Battery, is a clay pot which
encapsulates a copper cylinder. Suspended in the centre of this cylinder—but not touching it—is an
iron rod. Both the copper cylinder and the iron rod are held in place with an asphalt plug. These
artifacts (more than one was found) were discovered during the 1936 excavations of the old village
Khujut Rabu, near Baghdad. The village is considered to be about 2000 years old, and was built
during the Parthian period (250BC to 224 AD). Although it is not known exactly what the use of such
a device would have been, the name ‘Baghdad Battery’, comes from one of the prevailing theories
established in 1938 when Wilhelm Konig, the German archaeologist who performed the excavations,
examined the battery and concluded that this device was an ancient electric battery. After the
Second World War, Willard Gray, an American working at the General Electric High Voltage
Laboratory in Pittsfield, built replicas and, filling them with an electrolyte, found that the devices
could produce 2 volts of electricity. The question remains, if it really was a battery, what was it used
to power?
9. 1,600-year-old goblet shows that the Romans used nanotechnology

The Lycurgus Cup, as it is known due to its depiction of a scene involving King Lycurgus of Thrace,
is a 1,600-year-old jade green Roman chalice that changes colour depending on the direction of the
light upon it. It baffled scientists ever since the glass chalice was acquired by the British Museum in
the 1950s. They could not work out why the cup appeared jade green when lit from the front but
blood red when lit from behind. The mystery was solved in 1990, when researchers in England
scrutinized broken fragments under a microscope and discovered that the Roman artisans were
nanotechnology pioneers: they had impregnated the glass with particles of silver and gold, ground
down until they were as small as 50 nanometres in diameter, less than one-thousandth the size of a
grain of table salt. The work was so precise that there is no way that the resulting effect was an
accident. In fact, the exact mixture of the metals suggests that the Romans had perfected the use of
nanoparticles. When hit with light, electrons belonging to the metal flecks vibrate in ways that alter
the colour depending on the observer’s position.
10. The ancient Antikythera mechanism

The Antikythera mechanism was discovered in 1900 during the recovery of a shipwreck off of the
Greek island, Antikythera, in waters 60 meters deep. It is a metallic device which consists of a
complex combination of gears, and dates back to the 2nd century BCE. The Antikythera mechanism
is one of the most amazing mechanical devices discovered from the ancient world. For decades,
scientists have utilized the latest technology in attempts to decipher its functionality; however, due to
its complexity, its true purpose and function remained elusive. But in the last few years, a number of
scientists appear to have solved the mystery as to precisely how this incredible piece of technology
once worked. Peter Lynch, professor of meteorology at University College Dublin, explains: “The
mechanism was driven by a handle that turned a linked system of more than 30 gear wheels…The
gears were coupled to pointers on the front and back of the mechanism, showing the positions of the
sun, moon and planets as they moved through the zodiac. An extendable arm with a pin followed a
spiral groove, like a record player stylus. A small sphere, half white and half black, indicated the
phase of the moon. Even more impressive was the prediction of solar and lunar eclipses.”
Amazingly, the device even included a dial to indicate which of the pan-Hellenic games would take
place each year, with the Olympics occurring every fourth year. Just one small cog out of 30
remains a mystery and it is hoped that further research can place this last piece in the puzzle.