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The Heat Generator

by Reinhold Metzler

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Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology (SKAT)

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HARNESSING WATER POWER ON A SMALL SCALE
Publication No. 11,Vol. 6

A device to convert mechanical power

directly into process heat

Author: Reinhold Metzler, Fachhochschule Furtwangen

Varnbiielstrarje 14, CH-9000 St. Gallen,

Switzerland, Tel. 071 23 34 81
 HARNESSING WATER POWER ON A SMALL SCALE
Publication No. 11,Vol. 6

THE HEAT GENERATO

A device to convert mechanical power
directly into process heat

Author: Reinhold Metzler, Fachhochschule Furtwangen,

Postfach 28
D-7743 Furtwangen (Federal Republic of Germany)

b
Photographs: by R. Metzler (except where mentioned otherwise)

Edited & published by:

Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology ~1 ILE.

Institute for Latin-American Research and for Development
Co-operat101-1. Unwcrsiry 0r Saint-Gall

Comments, enquiries: All questions and comments concerning this

publication are welcome at SKAT.
The author also welcomes queries regarding
technical details at his own address.

Copyright: Material of this publication may be freely quoted,

translated or used otherwise. Acknowledgement is
requested.
 FOREWORD
BY THE PUBLISHER

Increasing production is very often the only way to

achieve economic development. In rural societies, it is often
small, agro-based industry which lends itself to this.
However, the energy issue inevitably involved, has never
before in history been as critical as today. Where the
potential exists, small hydropower development offers a very
effective escape from the energy-bottle-neck. Recent
experience in Nepal proves this point. Small, turbine driven
mills spring up at the rate of forty to fifty units a year,
providing much needed processing facilities to the population
at economical rates, and an attractive income to growing
numbers of enterpreneurs.

The research project at Furtwangen, of which the heat

generator is the result, very appropriately applied the
principle of matching energy sources and harnessing devices to
tasks or end uses. According to this principle, the aim is to
avoid unnecessary conversions of energy to the largest
possible extent, thereby achieving the highest possible ratio
of energy efficiency versus investment cost. Specifically,
the conversion of the kinetic energy of falling water into
electricity - the highest grade of energy at present known -
and thereafter reconversion into a lower grade of energy such
as medium range process heat, is not according to the
aforementioned principle. The heat generator on the other
hand, strictly adhers to the principle outlined and is
therefore - at least in the context discussed here - much

I
preferable. This is not a preference on merely philosophical
grounds but rather for practical reasons. The heat generator
introduced with this publication considerably widens the scope
for small village industries. It is not only relatively
simple to build and operate, but is also energy efficient,
requires comparatively low capital investment and is very
versatile in the end use of process heat. It is perhaps the
most important factor that the technology involved does not
require levels of skill which are higher than those already
existing.

Efforts are under way to disseminate the technology

developed in Nepal, where, in many cases, the heat generator
can rather simply be added to existing turbine mills. There
is evidence that the potential for small water turbine
installations, combined with a heat generator, is large also
in other countries. The SKAT publication series "Harnessing
Water Power on a Small Scale" in general, and the manual on
the heat generator presented here in particular, are aimed at
creating interest in these development subjects. Likewise, it
is the aim of SKAT and of the project at Fachhochschule
Furtwangen. to provide technical assistance in the
implementation of such projects.

St. Gall, Oktober 1983

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I sincerely thank the many individuals who have

contributed to this work. A special thanks to Prof.Dr.
Helmut Krinn, without his advice and untiring engagement, this
project would not have been possible.

This project has been sponsored by the Ministerium fuer

Wirtschaft, Mittelstand und Verkehr, Baden-Wuerttemberg, West
Germany, who provided the grant to the Fachhochschule
Furtwangen through the E-vangelische Landeskirche Wuerttemberg.

Thanks also to our partner in Nepal the United Mission to

Nepal, who activly cooperated in this project at the Nepal
end.

III
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION....................1
1.1 THE AIM OF THIS MANUAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 THE MAIN ENERGYSOURCEIN NEPAL: FIREWOOD . l . . 3
1.3 THE ROLE OF MICRO HYDROPOWER . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.0 HEAT REQUIREMENTSIN RURAL NEPAL . . . l . . . . . . 8

2.1 DRYING OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.1 SPICES AND HERBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.2 RICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.3 VEGETABLEAND FRUITS . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.4 TEA AND TOBACCO . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 BUTTERFAT..... . . . . . . . . . . l 13
2.3 PAPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l . . . 14
2.4 SOAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l . . . 17
2.5 PARBOILING OF RICE . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6 CONCENTRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6.1 LEMON- AND LIME CONCENTRATE . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6.2 BROWNSUGAR . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . 22
2.7 DISTILLATION PROCESSES. . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.7.1 VOLATILE OILS . . . . . . . . . . . . l . . . . 23
2.7.2 ALCOHOL . s . e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.8 DYING OF YARN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.9 CHEESEMAKING . . . . . . . ‘ . . . . . . . . . 26

IV
 PAGE
2.10 SQUASH ................. 0 . . 28
2.11 BAKING OFBREAD ............. . . . 29

3.0 ALTERNATIVES TO FIREWOODAS HEAT SOURCEFOR COTTAGE

INDUSTRY .................... 31
3.1 ELECTRICITY ................. 31
3.2 SOLAR ENERGY ................. 33
3.3 MECHANICALHEATGENERATION. ......... 33
3.4 ECONOMICCONSIDERATIONS: THE HEAT GENERATOR
COMPAREDWITH OTHERENERGYSOURCES . . . . . 34
3.4.1 COMMONCOST FACTORS . . . . l . . . . . . . 35
3.4.2 SYSTEMSPECIFIC COSTS . . . . . . . 3 . . . 36
3.4.3 COST COMPARISON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.4.4 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4.0 THEHEATGENERATOR.............. . . 41
4.1 THEHEATTRANSFERMEDIUM.......... . . 42
4.2 THE DESIGN PRINCIPLE OF THE HEAT GENERATOR. . . 44
4.3 THEKETTLE........ . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.4 PERFORMANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

5.0 THE MANUFACTURINGPROCESS . . . l . . . . . . . 52

5.1 BALANCING THE RUNNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.2 ASSEMBLING THE HEAT GENERATOR . . . . . . . . 56
5.3 ASSEMBLING THE KETTLE . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.4 FINAL ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.5 INSULATING THEi SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

V
 PAGE
5.6 THEBELTDRIVE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

6.0 POSSIBLE FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . 62

7.0 BIBLIOGRi'HY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

APPENDIX

A.1 PART LIST FOR HEAT GENERATOR-KETTLESYSTEM . . . . A-2

A.2 BILL OFMATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-3
A.3 CONSTRUCTIONDRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . A-4

VT
1.O INTRODUCTION

1.1 THE AIM OF THlS MANUAL

The application of waterpower on a small scale has become

more and more attractive. The issues of developing sites for
hydropower and appropriate turbines and generators is widely
discussed Cl, 14, 153. Very little consideration, however, is
given to the productive enduse of the power developed. The
result of this is on one hand well built hydro plants with a
very poor utilisation factor, which makes them often enough
totally uneconomical and on the other hand plants producing
electricity with a high standard where perhaps only mechanical
power or heat is required.

There are a few projects which have recognized this

problem, and are trying to develop hydropower from the user's
point of view C14, 15, 16, 173. Approaching the problem from
the consumer side, leads to plants very different from
commercialy available ones. A lot of work in this direction
has been done over several years in Butwal,Nepal C173. One
result of these efforts is the development of the heat
generator. This machine represents basically a fluid brake,
converting mechanical energy of a turbine directly into heat.
This heat can be used in processes where firewood is up to now
the only possible heat source. In 1979, the first tests began
and by 1981 two pilot plants where installed, one for drying
ginger the other for drying fruits and vegetables. Both were
merely used to dry foodstuff using air of less than 60 degr.C.
In order to be able to apply the heat generator principle to
processes which need higher temperatures, more development

1
work needed to be done. With the infrastructure available in
Nepal it was difficult to thoroughly test the heat generator
and do the necessary research. In 1981, a research and
development project was started at the Fachhochschule
Furtwangen in West Germany with the following goals:

1. To develop a heat generator-ketlystem which is able to

develop high enough temperatures for boiling processes.

2. To optimise the design with respect to efficiency and

cost.

3. To design the equipment in such a way that it can be

manufactured in the small workshops existing in Nepal and
elsewhere.

After reaching this goal, two demonstration units, which

included heat generator and kettle, were built in Nepal in
1983. Additionaly, two small workshops started immediately to
build units which are now used in paper making and rice
drying.

Results of these efforts are recorded here with the aim

of making the specific development experience available to
others. It is important to realize, that the processes
described and the design used here are related to the specific
situation in Nepal. Generally speaking, this means:
mountaineous areas with many small rain and spring fed rivers;
no roads, all transport done on porter's back; the only
available fuel is firewood and kerosene; the workshops for
manufacturing the equipment have only basic machinery and

2
general workshop equipment. Therefore this manual cannot be a
cook book for heat generators. If the approach, or the
designs described in this manual should be applied in another
country, they will certainly need changes to be appropriate to
the different situation found there.

This manual attempts to give an idea of the Nepali

context and of the approach taken within the project.

1.2 THE MAIN ENERGY SOURCE IN NEPAL: FIREWOOD

If the Nepalese proverb "The forest is the country's

wealth" is correct, then the dramatic situation of Nepal is
indicated by its depleted forests. A study by Tribhuvan
University Cl3 has shown, that if there is no change in the
present rate of consumption there will be no commercial forest
left in the hills by 1985. Then the forests of the plains
will have to supply the hills as well and they too will be
exhausted by 1989. Keeping in mind that 96% of the population
cooks its food with firewood, a disastrous energy future is
predicted for the rural population.It will severely affect the
two most vital necessities: food production and its
preparation.

- The forests are the only natural way to control, by

retention, the enormous water masses brought down by the
monsoon. One of the reasons for the annual heavy floods
in the Ganges plains is the extensive deforestation of the
hills of Nepal.The resulting erosion means loss of
urgently needed top soil for the production of food for

3
 Nepals growing population.

- Firewood, practically the only source of energy for the

rural population (approx. 96% of the population),
accounts for 87% of Nepal's total energy consumption ClJ.

"By all indications this supply is worsening rapidly. It

is reported that fuelwood prices are up 80 to 100% over
those of five years ago.... The physical and temporal
costs of firewood collection by individual contractors are
reflected in the price charged for fuelwood. The
significance of collection costs becomes readily apparent
during the monsoon season, when suppliers raise their
prices, sometimes as much as 100%" C183.

- "Much of the processing of agricultural products and

small-scale manufacturing requiring process heat also
depend, wholly or partially, on wood as a source of
energy. It is not only the traditional cottage and
village industries that are dependent on wood fuel,
however, but also the more modern establishments...
Several aspects of industrial wood-fuel consumption render
industrial demands particularly important from an
environmental point of view. Industrial requirements tend
to be significant not only in absolute quantity but also
in concentration, both in terms of time and space. The
essentially seasonal nature of processing and
manufacturing in Nepal often focuses the heavy fuel
demands of industry during a few months of the year. The
limited and rudimentary nature of the nation's road
network, especially in the hill region, virtually
guarantees that industrial wood fuel needs, particularly
rural industrial needs, will be met by local forest
resources. The concentration of manufacturing enterprises
in response to the development of local markets, further
compounds the impact of industrial wood fuel use." Cl83
1.3 THE ROLE OF MICRO HYDROPOWER

Water power is the only form of energy, Nepal has

indigenously and abundantly. The hydropower potential is
estimated to be 83.000 MW. but only 0,07% of it is used to
date. His Majesty's Government recognizes the keyrole
microhydro (under 100 KW) could play in the decentralized
development of the remote hill areas of Nepal. Power plants
smaller than 100 KW would make it possible to rely on Nepals
OWn resources and enable the production of the necessary
equipment in indigenous workshops.C23

Several workshops and institutions have been trying for a

number of years to contribute their share to solve the energy
crisis in Nepal. One of them is the United Mission to
Nepal(UMN), an organisation of about 30 international mission
societies. Part of UMN's Butwal Technical Institute, a
training-cum-production unit, is the Butwal Engineering Works
Pvt. Ltd. (BEW). This mechanical workshop has manufactured
small water turbines for the past seven years. From the
experience of other workshops it became apparent, that the
surveying- and installation side is the bottleneck of
developing small hydro and disseminate appropriate
technologies. Experienced people are needed in the field and
if they are taken off the production in the workshop,
manufacturing is hampered badly. A separate "Small Turbine
and Mill Project" was established, with the responsibility for
surveys, installations and keeping in contact with customers.
The project consists of four field teams of two men, a
business chief and an accountant.

5
 The project has installed 90 turbines by (19831, all in
the remote hill areas. Most run village mills, which consist
generally of three machines: rice huller, flour mill and oil
press.

In these cases the turbine either substitutes for the

expensive diesel engine or for the hard manual work needed for
the traditional ways of crop processing. The advantage of a
turbine driven mill over traditional methods is best shown in
oilpressing. The "khol". a wooden oil press, takes about 25
times longer to process the same amount of mustard seed as the
oil expeller in the mill. With maize and wheat the hand
driven "janto" takes 9 times longer than the mill. Prior to
the installation this hard work was done exclusively by women,
who are responsible for food preparation. Manual labour is
very short in the peak season and therefore the mill is
appreciated for saving time and labour C33.

A second area in which micro hydro should play an

important role, is to aid small industry in the hills by
reducing dependency on wood as fuel and to encourage the
establishement of new cottage industries by supplying its
energy needs. Looking at some of these industries two points
become evident:

- there exists an established small scale industry for the

processing of agricultural products in the hills, which
unfortunately uses only firewood as a heat source.(see
chapter 2)

6
 - newly introduced processes could strengthen the economy
and could provide alternative employment. But they should
not, as some examples show, use the already scarce
firewood as energy source.

To be able to apply micro hydro for this field of small

scale industry the heat generator was developed. The machine
converts the mechanical power of the turbine directly into
heat, which can be used for processes described in chapter 2.
In principle the heat generator works very much like a fluid
brake.In these brakes the rotor stirs a liquid, thereby
creating eddies which heat up the liquid. The heat created is
equivalent to the mechanical input at the shaft of the rotor
(Joule's experiment). If heat is the energy form required,
this principle is the simplest and cheapest method of
converting mechanical energy. The heat generator described
here uses air instead of a fluid for reasons described later.
It produces temperatures up to 250 degrC, which make the
generator applicable to processes using firewood up to now.
The application covers especially drying, boiling, destilling
and concentrating of agricultural products.

If used for drying, the heat generator forces hot air

((80 degr. C) over or through the products to be dryed. This
gives, apart from the saving of firewood, a definite advantage
over the traditional ways, which rely on natural convection.

At higher temperature levels, a kettle is added in which

boiling, distilling and concentrating can be done. It is also
possible to produce steam, needed for many processes in food
technology.

7
2.0 HEAT REQUIREMENTS IN RURAL NEPAL

In this chapter some processes shall be described which

are already established in Nepal and have a high heat energy
consumption. In each of these processes, the use of the
turbine driven heat generator could substitute for firewood.
The list of possible uses of the generator is by no means
complete, but is only an attempt to give an idea how it could
be applied.

2.1 DRYING OF AGRICUL- PRODUCTS

2.1.1 SPICES AND HERBS

Spices are a cash crop in Nepal and therefore any

improvement in processing means a direct increase of the
farmer's income. Ginger C43 may stand as an example: It is a
rhizome with a moisture content of 80-85% which has to be
reduced to 12% by drying for save storage. To achive this, 10
kg of firewood is needed to dry 1 kg of ginger. One panchayat
(roughly 600 inhabitants) in the midwest of Nepal grows 100
metric tons of ginger per year. This amounts to roughly 1000
tons of firewood per panchayat!

Another fuel consuming process is drying cardamom. Being

a member of the ginger family, this perennial plant grows in
shady, damp ravines in the eastern hill region of Nepal. Its
seed pods, which must be dried immediatelly after harvesting,
provide the spice known as green cardamom. Because of the
generally wet weather conditions prevailing during the harvest
period, the cardamom must be dried in ovens heated by

8
firewood. Popular as a cash crop with the farmers, cardamom
is being promoted by government officials. Commercially this
spice figures significantly in Nepal's export trade. However,
12 kg of firewood is consumed for every kilogram of cardamom
introduced into the oven.

Other spices like pepper and chilli are traditionally

dried in the sun. With larger quantities this is difficult
since a lot of space is required, which needs to be guarded
against animals. Unexpected rain and unreliable sunshine
slows down the drying process, thereby endangering the crop by
mold and germination.

Herbs, containing essential oils, are found widely in the

hills and their oils are used for medicinal purposes and for
the perfume industry. A rather big project has been initiated
by the Government to use this resource. Prior to extraction
of the oils, the plants need to be dried. A controlled
temperature is necessary, otherwise oil is lost by evaporation
or is destroyed by too high temperatures, which can occur when
drying in the sun.

9
2.1.2 RICE

Improper drying is one of the main reasons for

postharvest losses in rice. Studies ES,63 have shown, that
those losses, caused by insufficient drying, can be as‘high as
5% of the whole harvest. Sun drying is the most frequently
used method. Since sun drying is difficult to control, cracks
in the kernels may develop, causir? a high percentage of
broken grains in the hulling- and pc_ishing process. This
leads in the end to losses and lowe) lrket value.

Another point is that, the c‘im=cic conditions in Nepal

would allow a second rice cr . The harvest however, would
fall in the monsoon season, which makes sun drying too
unreliable with mold and germination endangering the harvest.
This is one reason why growing this early rice is not common.
Those farmers who do, have to sell their crop right after the
harvest for a low price to big rice mills, thus growing of
early rice is discouraged.

Decentralized, village owned dryers, powered by water

turbines, could efficiently decrease losses of valuable
foodstuff and income, thus improving food availability and the
economic situation of the farmers in the hills.

10
FIG.l: A HEAT GENERATOR, INSTALLED IN A MILL, DRYING RICE

71
2.1.3 VEGETABLE AND FRUITS

The Government of Nepal emphasises the value of vegetable

and fruit growing. One of the biggest problems, however, is
the difficulty of storage and transport. Fruits and
vegetables can be stored and transported easier when dried
because of reduced weight and volume C23.

There exists a significant market in dried fruits,

especially for trekkers. Up to now this demand has been met
by expensive imports. Vegetables, an important supply of
minerals and vitamins are only seasonally available in most
areas of Nepal. The profit margin is small, since, at the
time of harvesting, the market is flooded with vegetables. As
a result, growing vegetables is of little economic interest.
Also, the erratic availability of vegetable is one of the
reasons of malnutrition in Nepal.

Artificial drying could change the situation considerably

by prolonging the possible storage period, and by opening new
markets.

2.1.4 TEA AND TOBACCO

The East of Nepal is well known for its "Ilam Tea". This
is one of the few exportable commodities of the country and
therefore a source of urgently needed foreign currency. To
dry the tea leaves, artificial heating is necessary. For 1 kg
of dryed tea, 4.8 kg firewood is required!C183

12
 Growing tobacco for the only cigarette factory in the
country provides a good cash income for another group of
farmers in the area. To cure the tobacco leaves, artificial
drying is necessary. Huge amounts of firewood are used to
achieve this: 7.5 kg wood, for every kg of tobacco !C187

Some figures, given by the Tobacco Development

'_
Corporation in Janakpur, may give an idea of the absolute
quantities used in tobacco drying:
The corporation has 800 curing barns to cure the tobacco grown
in the Janakpur area. Each curing barn uses approximately
28,000 kg of firewood per year. This makes a total
consumption of 22,400 metric tons per year in this area! The
demand exceeds the regenerative ability of the forests and it
gets more and more difficult each year to find this enormous
quantity of wood. The national newspaper "Rising Nepal"
reported on 2.Nov 1980, that the situation is so serious, that
even fruit trees are felled to heat the curing barns.

2.2 BUTTER FAT

In order to prevent butter from turning rancid, the water

is driven out by heating it up to the boiling point. Thereby
the butter turns into butter fat, the "ghee". This process is
done in the farmhouse over the open fire. Apart from the lo:-?
efficiency of an open fire, firewood consumption for this
process is relativly high: 4 kg of wood for every kg of ghee
1183. Butter fat can function as cash in the village economy
and can be saved or sold according to the financial situation.
Although the bulk of the product is consumed locally, a

13
considerable amount is exported to India, thus it has become
an important source of cash income for the hill farmer.

For processing the relativly small amounts I village

scale cooking kettles could be installed. Again, a turbine
driven mill, complemented with a heat generator, would readily
lend itself to this purpose.

2.3 PAPER

Paper making has a very old tradition in Nepal, the craft

having been handed down from generation to generation. Since
ancient times, hand made paper has been used extensively for
such diverse purposes as manuscripts, horoscopes, incense
making, kites, curtains for windows, tanka printing, stamps,
wrapings etc. Nepali hand-made paper also finds a special use
in legal and other special documents in the country. Today it
is also used for making files, albums and invitation and
visiting cards. Due to its unique nature, its high tensile
strength and folding capacity, the product is now gaining
popularity on the international market. C73

To produce it, the bark of the Daphne plant is soaked in

water, cleaned and then cooked in ash lye or caustic soda for
5-6 hours. The pulp is then poured,on moulding frames. Water
is drained off, leaving a thin film of pulp on the screen of
the mouldinq frame - the paper. The frame is then put out in
the sun for drying.
The consumption of firewood during the boiling process is
quite hiqh, and amounts to 21 kg per kg of paper. It is

14
expected that lack of firewood rather than pulping material
will be a constraint to further hand made paper production in
the central hills C183.
Another problem is the sun drying of the sheets:

- if the weather changes after the sheet has been put out
into the sun, and drying takes too long, mold is likely to
destroy the sheet.

- due to the slow sun drying, only thin paper can be

produced, since thicker sheets would take too long to dry.
This puts an economic limit to production, since it
increases the required number of frames. Additionaly,
mold becomes a problem again.

FIG.2: TRADITIONAL PAPER MAKING

(Photo by HELVETAS)

15
 A turbine powered heat source would have a twofold
advantage:

- The enormous firewood consumption would be eliminated and

with it the significant work input necessary to collect
it.

- Mechanical drying would eliminate sun drying as a major

bottleneck in paper making.It would also enable the paper
makers to produce a larger range of paper qualities,
especially thicker paper.

First trial runs have been undertaken in Butwal using the

heat generator to boil the pulp and dry the paper.

16
2.4 SOAP

To produce soap on a village scale, oil from seeds, for

instance of "Chiuri" trees (Bassia Butyracea) is pressed out
and carried to the closest commercial centre, which is often 2
days walk away. There, the oil is boiled together with
caustic soda for 10 to 12 hours in a small factory, poured
into moulds and after setting, cut and packed.

FIG.3: TFUDITIONAL SOAP BOILING

A small, turbine powered soap factory in the hills would

have several advantages:

17
- In place of the very inefficient hand press, used to date,
the already available oil-expellor of a mill could be
used. A higher yield of oil, and at the same time less
labour input, would make collecting and processing
"chiuri" fruit economically more interesting.

- A hydro-powered heat generator would substitute for

firewood. A small soap factory, producing 400 kg of soap
per day, burns 200 kg firewood a day. Together with the
processing problems of the seed, this is one of the major
reasons, why soap factories on a small scale are only
found in the plains, where transportation is not too big a
problem. There they import their oilstock from India and
are able to get firewood by truck from the few forests
left over in the plains. The soap is then sold back into
the hills. In this way the already disadvantaged hill
areas loose important income and employment. Hydropower,
the wealth of the hills, could bring soap factories into
the hill villages. Hydropower has the advantage of a
cheap energy source, an indigenous oil supply, and shorter
transportation of both raw material and end product. The
soap could be produced where the raw material and the
market for the end product is located, instead of
attracting the people of the hills to the plains.

- The growing of Chiuri trees would be encouraged. This

tree, already indigenous to the country, grows relativly
quickly. Bees make good honey from its flower nectar, the
fruit pulp yields alcohol (and can therefore be used
instead of grain) and the leaves can be used for cattle
fodder, and the wood for cooking food.

18
 In this way a soap factory could contribute to afforesta-
tion instead of adding to the depletion of the forest as in
the present situation and give employment and income to the
rural population.

2.5 PARBOILING OF RICE

Hulling of rice is heavy work, and is part of daily food

preparation. Since ancient times man tried to make this
process both easier and faster. Only the quite recently
introduced rice mills have brought a significant improvement
C83. But, as is often the case with new technologies, the
introduction of rice hullers resulted in severe drawbacks:

- Vitamines, especially thiamin, are found in the outer

layer of the rice kernel. Due to the polishing effect of
the huller, this outer layer is removed, together with the
protein rich germ. This results in vitamin deficiencies.
Nevertheless this machine has become quite popular. This
shows how important it is to ease the hard work of manual
rice hulling.

- In addition to the decrease in nutritional value there is

a significant loss in rice through breakage and grinding
dust. In India the loss to human consumption is estimated
to be on the order of 9,6 to 11,6% of the country's
harvest! C9J

19
 These disadvantages can be prevented by parboiling which
is one of the oldest processes in food technology ClOJ.
Approximately a fifth of the world's rice production is
parboiled. The process consists of basically 5 steps C123:

1) cleaning
2) soaking (3-4 hours in water of 65 deg.C)
31 steaming (steam of a pressure of l-3 bar)
4) drying (air of 45 deg.C)
5) hulling

The advantages of the process are considered to be:

- During treatment, the kernel hardens and the husk splits

half open, which makes hulling much easier and at the same
reduces breakage.

- The processed rice contains more protein, vitamines and

minerals, since they diffuse into the kernel and are then
not removed by the polishing process.

- Since the hardness of the kernel is higher, it is more

resistant against insect infestation during storage.

- By parboiling, less nutrients are lost in the cooking

water, which is usually discarded, thus increasing the
nutritional value of rice produced by this process.

- Parboiling is approximately 6% cheaper than other common

methods.Cl23

20
 Again, a problem is the heat source for water, steam and
drying. A heat generator could produce the heat for soaking
and drying, as well as the necessary steam. For the latter,
further development work is to be done on the heat generator.
With the implementation of this new heat source, parboiling on
a village scale becomes feasible, especially if an already
existing mill can be utilized.

2.6 CONCENTRATION

-2.6.1 LEMON- AND LIME CONCENTRATE

Generaly speaking, growing of citrus fruits could be a

good source of income. However, since they do not store well,
the crop has to be sold when the market supply exceeds demand,
and consequently, prices are low. It is very common to
concentrate the juice in an attempt to avoid this loss of
income. This is done by pressing out the juice of lemon or
limes. The juice is then poured into thick walled pans, where
it is heated by a wood fire, reducing the water content by
evaporation. The concentrate plays an important role in the
Nepali kitchen and is used as a flavouring. However, people
complain about the expense in its preparation, firewood
playing the biggest part in it.

21
2.6.2 BROWNSUGAR

In many areas of Nepal, sugar cane is grown on small

plots. The cane is not processed in sugar factories as is
done in the plains, because of prohibitive high transport
costs. It is rather pressed in a simple crusher powered by an
animal, then cooked in pans with a volume of about 100 ltr.
The concentrated juice is then poured out into small moulds
and sold as "gur", a substitute for the expensive, refined
sugar. Firewood consumption amounts to 1 kg for every kg of
gur f183.

These concentration processes are examples, where heat

input helps to decrease weight and thereby the cost of
transportation, to increase storage shelf life of foodstuffs,
and most important, to increase the profit margin. In these
and similar processes a turbine driven heat generator could
substitude for firewood. There would be a definite advantage
over the traditional method, as long as the installation is
close enough to the village and processing costs are not
excessive. The necessary investment would be quite low, as
long as the concentrating equipment could be added to an
existing turbine mill.

77
2.7 DISTILLATION PROCESSES

2.7.1 VOLATILE OILS

The Government of Nepal has clearly realised, that herbs

growing in the hills represent a valuable source of exportable
goods such as volatile oils for medicinal applications and as
raw material for the cosmetic industry. To be able to start
using this resource, the Herbs Production and Processing
Company had been formed by the government. Since its
beginning this company has quite actively pressed the case for
small, decentralised processing centers, the only economic way
to process herbs in the mountainous areas of Nepal. The idea
is to gather herbs in a region, to dry them artificially and
to extract the volatile oils by distillation.

Unfortunately, for drying and distilling, a lot of

firewood is necessary. Therefore the company has approached
BEW to supply a suitable heat generator driven by a 20 kw
turbine, to produce hot air for the drying cabinet, and steam
for the distillation plant.

It was found that a dryer installation together with a

distilling plant for ginger oil would be a feasible village
industry. One product of processed ginger is Ginger oil. It
is obtained by distilling dried ginger slices. Fresh ginger
contains 2% of oil, so that transporting ginger means actually
transporting water and fibre. By this fact alone, it makes
sense to process ginger on the spot where it is grown. Since
ginger plays an important role in the village economy, every
addition to on-the-spot processing, would improve the
situation of a disadvantaged part of Nepal1 society - the

23
farmer in the hills.

Other sources of volatile oils are eucalyptus- and citrus

plants.

2.7.2 ALCOHOL

FIG.4: ALCOHOLDISTILLERY

It seems to be important to every culture to produce

alcohol. Fermenting and distilling, both at home and in small
factories, can be found all over Nepal. The energy source is
inevitably firewood and astonishing amounts are needed by any
village distillery: 2.8 kg of wood for every kg of

24
distillate! Cl83

The process is quite crude. The control of critical

temperatures is difficult to achieve and is one of the reasons
why the end product is often of poor quality and can even be
lethal. If alcohol production cannot be avoided, it could at
least be improved by using an easily controlled heat generator
and thereby saving scarce firewood in the process.

2.8 DYING OF YARN

During the early sixties, Nepal was confronted with many

immigrants from Tibet entering the country. Camps were
established in the hills, where today Tibetan carpets are
produced. These carpets are number two on Nepal's export
list, only exceeded by jute, thus earning urgently needed hard
currency.

However, these small industries need enormous quantities

of firewood to heat the dying vats for yarn dying. 2 kq of
wood are needed to dye one kg of yarn. Cl83 One of these
camps, Chialsa in Solukhumbu, uses 500 kg of firewood per day!
This amount is increasing every day, since hiqh grade wood is
no longer available in the area.

25
FIG.5: MET FIREWOODIN FRONT OF A TIBETIAN HANDICRAFT CENTRE

Dying of yarn is important not only in the carpet-, but

also in the qrowing textile industry of Nepal and firewood,
the only heat source in the village, is increasingly difficult
to obtain.

2.9 CHEFSE MAKING

Approximately 20 years ago, the Swiss Assosiation for

Technical Assistance (SATA) introduced cheese processing in
the hill areas. This was aimed at increasing the productivity
of remote areas by improving the economics of dairy farming

26
through processing of milk. This programm is one of the few,
which has proved to work without any foreign assistance after
it had been handed over. It is one of the models which shows
how important it is to introduce small scale plants for the
processing of agricultural products and how this could be
done.

Unfortunately, despite its obvious advantages, the

project developed severe drawbacks. The energy requirement,
which is not small, is met by firewood. The Pauwa cheese
factory processes 1000 ltr of milk daily to make cheese and
butter. The energy requirement for it, is given in table 1:
Table 1: Energy requirement for processing
1000 ltr. milk

PROCESS QUANTITY t2-tl dT Q CkcalJ

PASTEURISING
milk: 900 ltr 70-15 55 47.000
cream: 92 ltr 70-15 55 5.000

CHEESEMAKING
heating: 828 ltr 45-30 15 12.000
culture
preparation: 10 ltr 95-15 80 1.000
warm water
for cleaning: 300 ltr 60-15 45 13.500

total energy requirement

for processing of 1000 ltr milk 78.500 kcal
-----------

t1... starting temperature

t2... end temperature
dT . ..temperature difference
Q . . ..required heat quantity to achieve dT

27
 Using an efficiency of open fires, which can be taken as
12%, and a heat value of 3.000 kcal/kg for air-dried firewood,
this is equal to a daily fuel requirement of 220 kg of wood.
In the cases tihere hydropower is available, this requirement
can be met by turbine driven heat generators instead of the
less reliable and more expensive power sources of solar
heaters and bioqas plants.

2.10 SQUASH

Several years ago the Government began to encourage the

growing of fruit trees in the hills, to create alternative
income. However, profit on fruit growing is low since high
transport costs is a major constraint.

Apples and citrus fruits have a high water content. It

would be a great advantage to be able to process the fruits
right on the spot to make squash, marmelade or jam, thereby
increasing the market value of the end product leaving the
hills. As an example, the energy requirement to produce 30
ltr squash is given in table 2:

28
I.
Table 2: Energy requirement to produce 30 ltr. squash

PROCESS deq C kcal I

-pasteurisation of 10Oltr juice 15-100 8000
-boiling of sugarsyrup 270 kg 15-100 17000
-bottle cleaning water 6 ltr '15-80 40000
100 ltr 15-35 20000
-water for cleaning 500 ltr 15-60 22500

Total energy requirement approx. 100.000. kcal

-------------

One turbine driven heat generator of only 5 kW output

could provide this energy, saving approximately 280 kg of
firewood for each 30 ltr. batch of product.

2.11 BAKING OF BREAD

Baking of bread on a village scale is also a process

worth looking at. The enormous number of tourists trekking in
the hills, and their different food requirements, resulted in
the opening of many small scale bakeries along the main
trails. Unfortunately, they produce exclusively white bread
with low nutritional value. It has become a status symbol for
Nepalis to buy this expensive low quality bread for their
children.

A turbine mill in connection with a heat generator could

supply the flour and the necessary heat for baking.
Waterpower would take the place of the considerable amount of
firewood needed by a bakery: 1,2 %i wood per kg bread! Cl83
Additionally, the bread would be more nutritious, since the

I 29
flour mills installed in these units can only produce brown
flour. All those factors should contribute to a decrease in
price and to an increase in nutritional value of the bread.

30
3.0 ALTERNATIVES TO FIREWOOD AS HEAT
SOURCE FOR COTTAGE INDUSTKY

3.1 ELECTRICITY

At first glance, it seems obvious to convert waterpower

into electricity for heating. A closer look, however, reveals
that electricity is 'in many instances not appropriate at all.

In most places in the hills of Nepal, electricity is not

known at all. Therefore, skilled manpower for repairs and
maintainance of electrical gadgets is not available.
Maintaining a power plant becomes very difficult, especially
if it involves electronics, as it is the case with e.g. the
voltage control of most commercialy available generators. The
main advantage of electricity is to be able to conduct it to
wherever it is needed. Of course, it is handy to have a mill
or village processing center in the middle of the village, but
it is expensive. The most decisive factor in this connection
is capital investment. The following two examples give an
idea of the price difference between direct heat generation
and heating with electricity:
a) the energy from an existing turbine (25 kw output) is
converted first into electricity, then into heat
through heating elements and into kinetic energy
through a fan, to be able to use it for a dryer.

b) the energy is converted directly into hot air by a

heat generator and blown into a dryer close to the
turbine.

This involves the following costs:

31
a) Electrical generator US$ 4,200
Control panel US$ 1,500
Heating and blower uss 300

total US$ 6,000

If the electricity is used for lighting as well,

which would be the case in most villages, the
additional cost would be US$ 7,600 (transformers
US$ 1,300; transmission line 4km long US$ 6,300)

b) If the energy is converted to heat directly and the

dryer is placed close to the turbine it would
involve only:

one heat generator with drive US$ 800.-

The advantage of a) over b) is to be independent with the

location of the dryer and to power lights. The investment for
this is 7.5 times higher than the installation with
heatgenerator. If a transmission line with transformers is
needed it is even 17 times higher. In very few cases this
high investment can be justified. In most irlstances the
convenience of location plays a small role, since the crop
does usually not grow close to the village, and has to be
carried anyway. The high price of electric light has been one
of the main reasons why rural electrification'projects have
had a hard time to succeed.

32
 Another aspect is efficiency: Supposing efficiencies of:
Generator 80%, transformer 95%, transmission line 90% and fan
and heater 95%, we get an overall efficiency of 60%, against
75%-80% in direct conversion with a heat generator.

3.2 SOLAR ENERGY

For many processes in cottage industry, solar power is

the appropriate heat source. Up to now it has been
successfully applied in drying and low temperature heating.

Main drawbacks, however, have been the relatively high

investment costs and the unreliability of sunshine. up to
now, it can not be used economically for applications where
higher temperatures are necessary, such as boiling and
distilling, or where forced air is needed as is the case in
larger grain dryers. Therefore, the strength of solar power
seems to be in smaller scale- and low temperature
applications, and where hydropower is not available.

3.3 MECHANICAL HEAT GENERATION

Where friction occurs, mechanical energy is changed into

heat. Usually one tries to avoid this effect, because it
means losses of energy. If, however, heat is required, this
can be a very effective and easy way to generate heat.

33
 The mechanical energy can be produced by either a wind-
or waterturbine. It is interesting to note, that a heat
generator in conjunction with a windturbine is an ideal match,
since both machines have a similar 'power to speed'
characteristic.

The principle of converting mechanical energy directly

into heat through friction, is applied in the heat generator:
If a medium, such as air, water or oil is stirred, friction,
in the form of eddies, will occur and the medium will heat up.
In this way the mechanical energy needed for stirring will be
changed into heat. With the help of the medium, this heat can
be moved to the place where it is needed.

3.4 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS: THE HEAT GENERATOR

COMPARED WITH OTHER ENERGY SOTJRCES

It is not possible to give solid facts about the economy

of the heat generator operation here. Too much depends on the
local situation and the costs of alternative heat energy
sources.

For practical purposes however, one may look at the

specific situation in Nepal where many turbine mills exist to
which a heat generator could be attached. These mills operate
different agro-processing machines and spare capacity is often
available that could be utilized to run a heat generator. A
calculation of the specific economies of the heat generator
operation must therefore consider only an appropriate portion
of the investment which went into the turbine installation.

34
 A calculation of the return on investment can not be done
at this point since this would be subject to the actual income
achieved in the end-use of heat energy generated. However, a
comparison of the operating costs of generating heat energy by
different methods will reveal whether it is preferrable to use
a heat generator rather than an alternative. As basis for
comparison, systems producing 10 kw of useful energy will be
taken.

Electricity generated by a small turbine may be ruled out

as a competitor right at the outset because of its rather
exorbitant level of investment and slightly higher maintenance
costs in comparison to a heat generator. The use of fuel oil,
firewood, mains electricity and bio-gas may be considered as
an alternative.

3.4.1 COMMONCOST FACTORS

Independent of the end-use of heat energy, labour costs

may be assumed approximately equal in different methods of
heat generation and must therefore not be taken into
consideration. Operating costs then consist of capital
interest, depreciation, maintenance costs and fuel costs where
required. The total will determine unit costs of useful
energy produced, if the efficiency of heat generation is taken
into account. Uniform cost rates will be used for capital
interest, depreciation and maintenance even though the life
time and maintenance requirements may not be exactly the same
for all systems. In the Nepalese context, we shall consider
the following costs:

35
CAPITAL INTEREST: Loans obtainable for development activities
are at 14% interest. An adjustment must be made for inflation
to calculate real costs. The result is a real rate of
interest of 5.5%:
(lOO+p)
Real rate of interest i = * 100 - 100
(lOO+a)
where: p = bank's rate of interest (14%)
a = inflation (8%)

DEPRECIATION: A working life of the equipment of 10 years is

assumed and linear depreciation is considered, i.e. a rate of
10%.
MAINTENANCE: Neglecting labour costs, the expenses for
material and spare parts are assumed at 3.5% of the investment
per year.

3.4.2 SYSTEM SPECIFIC COSTS

TURBINE DRIVEN HEAT GENERATOR: According to the outline

given earlier, 30% of the turbine-mill installation costs is
taken into account. The average costs of a 15 kw turbine mill
have been computed Cl93 at US$ 6,300. 30% of this amounts to
US$ 2,100. To this we have to add the actual cost of the heat
generator installation of US$ 800 including ducts and a drying
bin. Total investment is therefore US$ 2,900. The overall
efficiency of heat generation and use is taken at 75%.

FUEL OIL: A relativly simple atmospheric burner is

assumed to cost US$ 1,200 including air ducts, a drying bin
and a chimney for self-induced draft. Fuel costs are US$ 0.45
per liter f203. Overall efficiency is taken at 50%.

36
 FIREWOOD: A low-cost furnace and drying bin are assumed
to cost US$ 200, working with an overall efficiency of 20%.
The price of firewood varies extremly from place to place,
depending mainly on the degree of deforestation. One has to
consider that fuelwood prices reflect only the collecting- and
transporting costs and not the cost caused by the fast
depletion of Nepal's forests. In 1981 the government price
for firewood was 0.054 US$ per kg C203.

MAINS ELECTRICITY: Electric heating elements and a motor

driven fan are assumed to cost US$ 300.-, including air ducts
and a drying bin. Where available, the unit cost of
electricity will be US$ 0.07 per kwh. The system would work
at an overall efficiency of 70%.

BIO GAS: Assuming a system efficiency of 60% in the

conversion of biogas into useful heat, a biogas plant with a
capacity of approx. 500 cft. gas production per day will be
required. Based on cost figures from Nepal C213, such a
plant, including the drying equipment, would cost US$ 3,600.-.
It is assumed that no operating costs arise, implying that the
fertilizer value equals labour costs of biogas plant
operation. The actually required 3,050 cbm of biogas can be
produced with the plant in question at a utilisation rate of
about 65%, which is realistic.

37
3.4.3 COST COMPARISON

The following table shows a computation of fixed and

variable costs for the different heat generating systems.
Taking 1,000 operating hours per year, equivalent to the
turbine driven heat generator system capacity, unit costs at a
yearly production rate of 10,000 kwh low/medium temperature
end-use energy, are calculated.

COST COMPARISONOF DIFFERENT HEAT ENERGYSYSTEMS: operating costs for 10'000 kWh end-use energy

Energy System Invest- Fixed costs Fuel Effici- Quan- Fuel Varia- Total Costs Ranking
ment fc heat ency tity unit ble opera- per
costs value of price costs ting unit
c31 CR lx/ ,
yr [kcall '%I fuel [$I [US $1 costs cc/
.
CUS $1 kWh1
yr.1
I 4 eta Q fp “C yc c

Turbine/Heat Generator 2900 19 551 - 75 - - - 551 5.5 1

Fuel oil 1200 19 228 8000 50 2150 0.45 967 1195 11,9 5
/l liter /l
Firewood 200 19 38 3000 20 14330 0.05 716 754 7,5 3
/kg kg /kg
Mains electricity 300 19 57 - 70 14286 0.07 1000 1057 10.6 4
kWh /kWh
Biogas 3600 19 684 4700 60 3050 - - 684 6.8 2
/m3 m3

For a first approximation it is sufficient to produce a

table as shown above. Calculations were done using the
following formulae of general validity:

FIXED COSTS: fc = (i+d+m) * I

where: i = real rate of interest

d= rate of depreciation
m = maintenance cost
I = investment costs

VARIABLE COSTS:

where: Q = quantity of fuel

fp = fuel unit price

38
 t*P
QUANTITY OF FUEL: Q =
q * eta

where: t = yearly operating hours

P = plant capacity
q = specif. heat value
eta = overall conversion
efficiency

YEARLY OPERATING COSTS: I YC =' fc + vc

COST PER UNIT: I c = (t * p)/ ycl

3.4.4 CONCLUSION

Where the potential exists, the heat generator system

gives the best economic performance under the circumstances
considered. Biogas seems quite attractive and may be of
interest especially where plant costs are still lower. In the
Nepalese hills the relatively cool climate however, clearly
makes it a less attractive solution, because the system
performance may be severely affected during several months of
the year.

The use of firewood ranks third in terms of unit costs of

energy. It must be pointed out here that the regenerative
capacity of a good forest in the hills is about 5 tons per
year. The relatively small operation would therefore require
a forest area of three hectares or the establishment of an
energy plantation which would incur additional costs, and
would probably better reflect firewood costs with a higher

39
price. Because of low capital involvement, the wood fired
plant would incur practically the same unit costs even if
utilization of the plant's capacity is only 50%, while in that
case, unit costs for the heat generator operation would
double. A heat generator system of 15 kw output on the other
hand, would incur practically the same investment cost,
resulting in a lower unit price of energy, while for a larger
wood fired plant unit costs would remain the same.

Operation of a heat generating plant with fuel oil or

mains electricity is far from being competitive with the heat
generator in the Nepalese context. Elsewhere, these
alternatives may be competitive, if fuel oil/electricity costs
are about one third of the rates given.

One may conclude from this, that wherever small

hydropower potentials exist, the heat generator may well be a
serious contender in economic operation compared to other
sources of heat energy.

40
4.0 THE HEAT GENERATOR

FIG.6: THE HEAT GENERATOR(LEFT) WITH PIPES CONVEYINGTHE HOT

AIR TO THE KETTLE (RIGHT).

41
4.1 THE HEAT TRANSFER MEDIUM

The choice of the heat transporting medium depends mainly

on circumstances. The following table shows some advantages
and disadvantages of a few of them.

advantage disadvantage

no cost, low specific weight,

small sealing problems, low heat transfer coefficier t
high temperatures

c
makes equipment bulky
possible

water low cost, low boiling point,

hiqh specific weight, for temperatures >80 deqr.
hiqh heattransfer coeff pressurisation neccessary,
water treatment important,
corrosion problems

thermo- high boiling point hiqh cost,

oil no need for oxidation problem therefore
pressurisation, closed system needed,
high specific weight thermal expansion,
and heat transfer coeff sealing problems

Work done on the heat generator centered around the

processes "drying" and "boiling". The first application of
the heat generator for a boiling process was planned for soap-
and paper making. It involved a 80 ltr kettle to contain the
soap or pulp. The paper making process involves both, boiling
and drying. Therefore a solution was looked for where both
applications are possible.

Air seemed to be the right transporting medium for these

applications. The difficulty in developing this solution was
to overcome the problems resulting from the low heat transfer
coefficient of air. A heat generator churning water or oil
*seemed to be: too difficult to seal and too expensive and

42
complicated. This led to the decision to use air as
transporting medium. The solution utilizes a specially
designed kettle, where the air has enough contact area to
transfer its heat.

With the experience in using this design, it can be

safely said that this approach apears to be correct for most
applications. One disadvantage however became evident: The
shape of the kettle can not be choosen freely, since the
necessary fins can economically only be welded to straight
walls. This is a disadvantage in applying the heat generator
to processes where the shape of the kettle can not easily be
changed. For example in distilleries and cheese dairies a
spherical shaped copper vat is used. This shape cannot be
changed without influencing the accepted method of processing.
Secondly, to exchange existing vats is expensive and
therefore, it is unlikely that a new heating method is applied
in established factories, if it is not possible to keep the
vat as it is and just heat it up with pipes built into the vat
and containing the heating medium. This would necessitate a
liquid medium like oil or water, or even better steam. This
area is one subject of phase II of the heat generator project.

43
4.2 THE DESIGN PRINCIPLE OF THE HEAT GENERATOR

In principle the heat generator is a fan with a housing,

which creates eddies. FIG.7 shows the basic layout of the
machine

FIG.7: THE HEAT GENERATOR

Air is drawn in by the runner (1) through the inlet (2) and
part of it leaves the housing through the outletpipe (3), the
other part flows over the baffels (4) which are arranged
radially. The abrupt change in direction causes eddies which
create friction of the air molecules, thus heat is generated.
The hot air passes the valve (51, mixes with cold air coming
in through the inlet (2), and is drawn in again by the runner.
The amount of air leaving the generator and its temperature is
dependent mainly on the position of the valve (5). When it is
in closed position, the generator is simply a fan blowing air
at ambient temperature. If the valve is fully open, nearly
all of the air leaving the fan is drawn over the baffles (41,
thereby being heated up to the maximum temperature. Between
those two extremes, all temperatures can be obtained by the
infinitely variable valve.

4.3 THEKETTLE

The consumer of the heat produced, is the kettle. It is

designed to hold a volume of 80 ltr, with a valve at the
bottom to discharge its contents. The applications of soap-
and paper making require that there be no obstruction in the
kettle itself, which is the reason for the fins on the
outside.

The problem in designing the kettle is to get the heat of

the air into the liquid fast enough. The following formula
describes the factors involved in this problem:
*************?k*******?++c**?k*
* *
ze = ALPHA * A * DEL.T
*****A*7+****P+*****h**?k*****
*
*

where: Q = Heat flow Ckcal/h3

ALPHA = heat transfer coefficient Ckcal/(h*deqr*sqrm)3
A = Surface of heat transfer Csqrm3
DEL.T = Temperature difference Cdeqr3

According to this formula, there are three factors involved

which influence heat transfer:

1. Alpha: this coefficient is dependent on the medium and

its velocity. If air passes the kettle wall very fast,
alpha is hiqh and with it the transfer rate. In our case

45
 the relation is:
0.78
ALPHA = 6.14 * air velocityCm/s3

This states, that ALPHA is almost proportional to the air

velocity i.e the velocity should be kept at a maximum.

The value of ALPHA for air to the steel wall is

roughly 60 to 80, with air velocities between 20 and
25 m/s. The value for the transfer from the wall into the
liquid is about 2,000. Which means that the limiting
factor is the transfer from the air to the wall of the
kettle.

2. Surface : heat transfer is proportional to the surface

the air is in contact with. Therefore the surface of the
outside wall is increased by fins to make up for the lower
ALPHA of this side of the transfer.

3. Temperature difference: Since the temperature of the

liquid is fixed at boiling point, it can be said that the
higher the temperature of the air the higher the heat
flow.

In order to make use of this, fins were welded to the

outside wall of the kettle in such a way that the surface of
the fins is maximum but the area for the air to flow through
is a minimum in order to keep air velocity high. With
decreasing distance between the fins, pressure loss over the
fins, and manufacturing costs, increase. This sets a limit to
attempts to enlarge the contact area. The result of computer
aided optimising are the Z-shaped fins. Fin- and kettle size

46
are chosen carefully and can not be changed without
influencing the efficiency of the whole system!

4.4 PERFORMANCE

Some theory is necessary to understand the performance of

this heat generator-kettle system.

1. Basically, the heat generator is a blower. Therefore, the

laws of fan design apply here as well. In this connecton
only one formula is important:
*zk*****************+c***
j,*
*
*
P =c*N*D
3 5 *
*
* *
***********************

where: P= power to run machine

= a constant factor
k= rotational speed
D= outside diameter of the runner

This means: the power, necessarry to run the machine

increases with the

- third power of the speed of the runner ie. if the rpm

is doubled, the power increases eight fold (2 to the
power of 3 = 8).

- fifth power of the runner diameter, ie. if the

diameter is doubled the power increases 32 fold (2 to
the power of 5 = 32).

47
 It has been asked frequently whether the heat
generator could be made smaller in diameter for smaller
driving powers. This question can be answered by applying
the above formula: If the diameter is decreased only by a
small portion the driving power decreases very rapidly,
ie. with the fifth root. It is more advantageous to
lower the already quite high speed in order to obtain
smaller driving powers. This reduces problems caused by
vibration and noise. It is also important to keep the
step up ratio between turbine and machine as small as
possible, which again asks for lower rotational speeds.

The above formula is only correct as long as the air

in the generator remains at the same temperature. With an
increase in temperature, the specific weight of the air
decreases, the air becomes "lighter" and the power
necessary to move it becomes smaller.

2. If connected, heat generator and kettle influence each

other. It is important to understand this relation, when
talking about temperatures. For a given speed, the
generator takes a certain amount of power. This energy
changes into heat- and kinetic energy and can leave the
generator only as a combination of air temperature and
-velocity. The rate at which this heat energy will be
transferred into the liquid of the kettle deeends largely
on the air temperature. As long as there is less heat
transferred than produced by the heat generator, the
temperature will rise. It will rise until heat "used up"
by the kettle is equal to the heat produced. This means

48
 at the same time that a higher power input into the heat
generator means a higher temperature level of the air,
resulting in a higher heat transfer into the kettle.

3. If a fan has to blow against a backpressure, its driving

power decreases. If the valve of the generator is closed,
a backpressure builds up in the housing and the driving
power becomes less. As mentioned above, the temperature
also has to fall. In this way the heat input into the
kettle can be regulated between certain limits.

These relations are shown in FIG.8. Here an example

how to use this graph: If a turbine can deliver 10 kw at
full gate opening the belt drive to the heat generator
should be such that the generator runs at 1770 rpm. At
this, the generator-kettle system takes 10 kw. If the
system should take less power at the same speed, the valve
can be closed, thereby decreasing the driving power down
to 3.8 kw. This can be necessary for example if a second
machine has to be run from the turbine or if less water is
available in the dry season. In this way the heat
generator can be adjusted easily to use excess power and
lends itself readily to integration into a system of
machines driven by the same turbine.

49
FIG.8: PERFORMANCE OF HEAT GENERATOR-KGIITLE SYSTEM

50
4. The efficiency of the whole system depends mainly on two
factors: the quality of the insulation against heat
losses, and how air tiqht the system is. The system
tested in Furtwanqen was insulated with 50 mm mineral
wool. This resulted in an overall efficiency of 0.76,
i.e. 24% of the energy was lost through the insulation.
Of course any type of insulation can be used, as long as
:t can stand temperatures of 250 degr.C.

In this connection it is important to note, that the

temperature will rise considerably higher, when there is
no liquid in the kettle. When using organic insulation,
this fact has to be considered!

The system has air tight ducts. The only air leak is
where the shaft of the runner enters the housing.
However, this leakage was found to be insignificant. Air
tiqht joints and ducts have a significant influence on
-fficiency. This can be explained by the fact, that air
of 200 degr.C has a relativly hiqh heat value compared to
air at ambient temperature. Thus, even small losses of
air through leaks, result in a significant drop in
efficiency.

51
5.0 THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

This section deals only with some difficulties which have

been experienced during the production in Nepal. Most
problems arise during assembly, where not all steps can be
given in the drawings. This chapter will describe the steps
of assembly following the production of the individual parts.

5.1 BALANCING THE RUNNER

The runner is revolving at relativly high speed and

vibration problems will result, if not enouqh care is taken to
eliminate imbalance. During welding of the runner, it is
extremly important to keep the seams equally long on opposite
sides.

52
 FIG.9: WELDING THE RUNNER.
Note: Here the hub was welded first to the cones which
resulted later on in distortion and consequently imbalance
problems!

The following welding procedure of the runner (drawing

07/00)avoids problems of distortion and imbalance:

1. Bolt the bearings to the stand (Ol/OO);

2. Insert the shaft and check with a square that shaft is at

right angle to the stand. This unit is shown in FIG.lO:
 FIG.lO: STAND AND SHAFT ASSEMBLED.
Note: Stand is of previous design where "teeth" are cut
out to reduce heat transfer from generator housing to the
stand. This has been made easier by welding pieces of
flat iron to the housing as described later.

3. Insert runner hub (07/01) into cone (20/02) and weld cone
(20104) to previous cone. Weld runner blades (07103) to
(20/02), taking care that beads are equally long and that
blades are positioned accurately (balance!). Weld cone
(20/03) to the blades.

54
4. bolt the runner hub (07/01) to the shaft.

5. Put the finished runner on the hub and tack while checking
whether this assembly runs true. Any deviation smaller
than 5 mm plus/minus on the outside diameter can be
tolerated.

6. After final welding, the runner needs careful static

balancing. For this, the assembly of runner, shaft and
pulley i.e. all rotating parts, are placed on two dead
levelled edges. These can be part of a small jig of two
machined pieces of angle iron on stands, or the bed of a
lathe (check level first!). The assembly is left alone on
these edges and the unit will stop rolling as soon as the
point of imbalance comes to the lowest point. Radially
opposite of this, a piece of equal weight of the imbalance
has to be welded. The assembly is checked again, until
the unit does not start rolling by itself anymore. This
process is time consuming but very important, especially
if the generator is to run at high speed.

55
5.2 ASSEMBLING THE HEAT GENERATOR

Put shaft-runner assembly into housing (08/00), and clamp

both together with C-clamps. This will ensure that runner and
housing will be aligned to each other. Insert the shaft of
this unit into the bearings until the cone of the housing
touches the stand. In this position, the 6 flat iron pieces
are welded to housing and stand. The C-clamps can be
removed.The runner is now positioned with a 5mm qap between
housing and runner.

Inlet pipe (13/00) is inserted into cover (ll/OO), the

valve (14/00) and handle (15/00) assembled, and flange (17/01)
bolted to cover, with seal (9100) inbetween. Flange (17/01)
will be welded after the final assembly of the whole system.
After bolting the cover to housing with seal (09/00)
inbetween, check that runner is not touching while rotating,
otherwise move the shaft axially in the bearings.

5.3 ASSEMBLING THE KETTLE

While welding the fins to the kettle make sure that the
gap between the separate fins is kept to the minimum. The
idea of the z-shaped fins is to form two air ducts, the one
guiding the hot air first up along the kettle wall, and after
reversing, down again through the outer duct, thereby having
intimate contact with both the kettle wall and the fins. Any
big gap between the seperate fins will result in a shortcut
between the two ducts, thereby reducing the efficiency of heat
transfer.

56
 Also, care should be taken to keep measurement 15 mm in
the kettle drawing (18100) as accurate as possible, in order
to let cone (20/07) fit nicely into the step formed by the
fins, so that not too much air will short cut at this point.

FIG.ll: WELDING THE FINS TO THE KETTLE WALL

To weld the kettle housing (17100) follow this procedure:

1. Bolt flange to the kettle flange and put the kettle upside
down on the floor.

2. Weld pipe sections together, put cone (20108) on pipe

(23/03) and weld cone (20/07) to it. Put these parts in
place, so that cone (20/07) rests in reset formed by the
fins.

3. Weld jacket to flange, then cone (20/08) to jacket and

pipe.

57
4. Pipe secton (23/01) is carefully aligned and welded to
cone (20/08)

5. The hole for discharge pipe (16/00) is mavked and cut out.

The parts will look simmilar to FIG.12:

FIG.12: PARTS READY FOR FINAL ASSE"IBLY

Note: FIG.12 shows the demonstration unit in Nepal. Changes
in design have been done since then in omitting the two
separate pipes between generator and kettle, and in changing
the flanges of the kettle itself.

58
5.4 FINAL ASSEMBLY

For the final assembly follow this procedure:

1. Align heat generator with turbine and tighten foundation

bolts.

2. Put kettle housing in place so that the generator’s outlet

pipe (23/05), pipe (19100) and the kettle's inlet pipe
(23104) align.

3. Align generator's inlet pipe (13100) with kettle's outlet

pipe (23/02). (13/00) should be inserted 25 mm into
generator's cover (ll/OO).

4. Bolt together all pipe flanges (17/01) and weld flanges to

the pipes.

5. Insert kettle into kettle housing, fix discharge pipe

(16100) and tighten its nut. Its cone will then seal any
air leak between housing and pipe.

6. Run heat generator and check for any air leak at the
flanges.

5.5 INSULATING THE SYSTEM

At this stage, the system needs to be insulated against

heat losses. The easiest is to cover all surfaces ,with 50 to
100 mm thick mineral wool. Since this material was not
available in Nepal, a different solution was used:
 Around the final assembly, a brick wall was built and the
whole space gained was filled with ricehusk. This is a very
cheap but effective insulation material. Tests in Nepal
proved this method of insulating as nearly as effective as
mineral wool.

FIG.13: THE PLANT READY TO RUN!

60
 Another way to reduce heat losses is to insulate the hot
generator parts against the cooler ones. This is the reason
for the six flat iron pieces welded between stand and housing.
The aim is here to reduce contact between these two parts.

Heat will also escape through the shaft, thereby heating

up the bearing. To reduce this effect, an insulating disc
(071021, made of asbestos or
any other heat resistant
material, is introduced between shaft and runner. It must not
be ommitted, since heat will shorten the bearing's life! For
the same reason the bearings should be regreased every other
month.

5.6 THEBELTDRIVE

The belt drive between turbine and heat generator has to

convey the driving power and step up the rotational speed.
Since turbine speeds, power levels and possible arrangements
of the machine are site specific, only a few hints for the
design of the drive can be given:

1. Since turbine and heat generator are fixed to the ground

the belts have to be tightened by an idler pulley.

2. In most cases a diameter of 170 mm is appropriate for the

generator pulley (2100).

3. The recommended v-belt size is the B-section. With this

section, use 3 belts for driving powers under lOkw, 4
belts for lo-15kw and 5 belts for 15-20kw. Only use
matched sets of belts!

61
4. For bigger step up ratios, the angle of contact between
the belts and the small pulley gets less than 130 deqr.
In these cases the bigger pulley needs no grooves and can,
therefore, be manufactured much easier in a small
workshops.

6.0 POSSIBLE FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

The heat generator as heat source for dryers has proven

its usefullness. It now becomes apparent that it is necessary
to find suitable designs for drying cabinets appropriate to
Nepal.

The heat generator-kettle system as it stands now, is a

solution appropriate to most processes involving boiling. The
next step in applying this development would be to find
solutions for processes, where the form of the kettle can not
easily be changed. This is especially true for cheese making,
wool dying and distilling. An appropriate solution seems to
be, to incorporate into the housing of the heat generator a
steam boiler and convey the steam in heating pipes to the
vessel to be heated.

Another area of need for R&D is steam production for

processes like parboiling of rice, steaming of seeds prior to
pressing and other food processing, where steam is needed
directly. Parallel to steam production, it is possible to
store small heat.quantities in the form of pressurised water.
In this way, the heat generator could store energy, as and

62
when the turbine is not utilised otherwise.

As an example of application of these ideas the inquiry

of the Herbs Production and Processing Center can serve to use
the heat generator for drying the herbs and heating the still
(volume 3 cubic meter). Fig.14 shows, how such a system could
look like.

63
 --m----
-
I
3 .
4
E
I
In -
16

I I\ I I
-7
I r-Y--

FIG.14: HEAT GENERATORFOR DRYING AND STEAM PRODUCTIONFOR

DISTILLING

1) heat generator 5) still

2) steam boiler 6) available steam
3) steam pipe 7) pipe for condensate
4) safety valve 8) drying cabinet

64
7.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Nepal, The Energy sector, Energy Research and Development

Group, Institute of Science, Tribhuvan University,
Kathmandu 1976.

2. Minihydel Development Program in Nepal, B.P. Adhikari,

HMG Nepal 1979

3. Socio-and Economic Evaluation Study of Small Turbines and

Mill Installations, East Consult, Kathmandu 1982

4. Fact Sheet on Ginger, Tinau Watershed Project 1979

5. Drying Farmcrops, C.W. Hall, Michigan State University

1957

6. Vertical Bin Dryer, J.R. Arboleda, International Rice

Research Institute, Philippines 1978

7. Technical Report on Community Development Through

Production of UNICEF Greeting Cards, Om Prakash Suvedi,
Kathmandu 1980

8. Selection of Rice Milling Processes for the Remote Areas

in the Hills of Nepal, J.R. Williamson, Dept. of Aqric.
Eng.,Cornell University 1979

9. Stages of Modernisation in the Rice Milling Industry,

Gupta V.K. Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad
India 1974

65
10. Improvement in Commercial Sun Drying of Parboiled Paddy

for better Milling Quality, K.R. Bhattacharya, Rice

Journal V.73

11. Rice Parboiling, F. Gaboldi, FAO Agricultural Development

Paper No.97, Rome 1974

12. Rice Postharvest Technology, E.V.Araula, D.B. de Padua,

International Development Centre, Ottawa 1976 Page 163-204

13. Renewable Energy Resources for the Cheese Plant in Pauwa

Nepal, Paper presented to ESCAP Working Group on Biogas
Development, Bangkok 1978, by SATA Kathmandu

14. Local Experience with Micro-Hydro Technology, U. Meier,

SKAT, St. Gall 1981

15. A Case Study: Micro-Hydropower Schemes in Pakistan, A.

Inversin, National Rural Electric Cooperative Association,
Washington 1981

16. A Viewpoint about Small Water Power Developments,

J.L.Guerrero, Universidad de Los. Andes, Bogota, paper
presented to the regional workshop on small hydropower in
Africa, Abidjan, Ivory Cost, March 1982

17. Nepal, Private-Sector Approach to Implementing

Micro-Hydropower Schemes. A Case Study. Allen R.
Inversin National Rural Electric Cooperative Association,
Washington 1982.

66
18. The Utilization of Wood Fuel by Small-Scale Industry in
Nepal, D.G.Donovan 1981, Research Center for Applied
Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University Kathmandu

19. Technical Report on the Water Turbine Component, U,

Meier, ADB Manila, 1982

20. Renewable Energy Resources in Nepal, Recast Kathmandu,

1981

21. Technical Report on the Biogas Component, U. Meier, ADB

Manila, 1982

67
APPENDIX

A-l
A.1 PART LIST FOR HEAT GENERATOR-KETTLE SYSTEM

NO. PARTNAME PART NO. REMARKS

1 HEAT GENERATOR-
KETTLE ASSEMBLY oo/oo
1 STAND Ol/OO
1 PULLEY ASSEMBLY 02100 see chapter 5.6
1 RUNNERSHAFT 03100
1 BEARING PLATE 04/00
2 BEARING 05/00 FY 50 FJ (SKF)
1 BEARING PLATE 06/00
1 RUNNERASSEMBLY 07100
1 HOUSING ASSEMBLY 08100
-7mtr SEAL 09100 asbestos string dia.6mm
24 BOLT AND NUT lO/OO M8 x 25
1 COVERASSEMBLY ll/OO
32 BOLT AND NUT 12/00 M6 x 15
1 INLET PIPE ASSEMBLY 13/00
1 VALVE 14/00
i HANDLE 15/00
1 DISCHARGE PIPE ASSEMBLY 16/00
KETTLE HOUSING ASSEMBLY 17/00
i KETTLE ASSEMBLY 18100
1 PIPE SECTION 19/00
additional drawings:
CONES 20/00
DEVELOPMENT(BENDS) 21/00
PIPE SECTION 22100
PIPE SECTION 23/00

A-2
A. 2 BILL OF MATERIALS

MATERIAL SIZE AMOUNT USED IN

CmmIl

Sheet 1.5 2.4 sqm 08102, 13101, 13/02, 16103,

17100, 22100, 23100, 24100;
Sheet 2 7.0 sqm 01100, 07100, 08101, ll/OO
14100. 18/00, 20/00;
Sheet 3 1.0 sqm 18100;
Sheet 0 . 15 sqm 04/00, 06/00;
flat 3*15 2.2 m 11100, 17/00;
flat 6*30 12.2 m 01100, 06100, 08103, 17/00;
angle 7*45*45 3.0 m 01100, 17/00;
cast iron 1800 .lO m 02/01;
rod 1200 06 m 03100;
rod 650 141 m 07.01;
rod 500 .06 m 16102;
rod 300 .40 m 15/00;
rod 88 . 04 m 16/02;
asbest.plate 3*60*60 07/02;
asbest.string 60 7.0 m 09/00;
GI-pipe 1" .45 m 16/01;
Hex.bolt M6*15 32 pcs 17101;
Hex.bolt M8*25 30 pcs 03/00, 08103;
Hex.bolt M12*30 1 pcs oz/oo;
Hex.bolt M14*45 8 pcs 05100;
Nut M6 32 pcs 17/01;
Nut M8 24 pcs 08/03;
Nut Ml4 8 pcs 05/00;
Springwasher 6 32 pcs 17/01;
Springwasher 8 30 pcs 03100, 08103;
Springwasher 12 1 pcs 02100;
Springwasher 14 8 pcs 05100;
key 9*14*75 1 pcs 02/00;

A-3
 A.3 CONSI’RU~ON DRAWINGS ( 37 NOS. )

i I
;;: i
:
-. c

.-
.-.
..:
1 .

..-.

‘,
9 ---I’ I
/ .. I
7\ -----18

M 1:20

660

M 1:lO

1450
1
1900 _
r 1

heatgenerator-kettle surrounded by brickwall

holding the insulation (e.g. ricehusk)

1 HEATGENERATOR-KETTLE1oo/oo
 680--
-m

+
k-..-- 600 '
I

section A-A

ofhousing

I
I section B-B
M I: IO
130
I--
--~ .--
5 flat 6~30x2
?Yi%jlF 7x45x45xSlkT"&
-.- ----. -
' plate 2x200~496-__- MS
I plate 2x500x500 MS
plate 2x680~1500 MS
partno.04/00
parino. 06/00

STAND
 --~
,/--.-. --_-.-_--
-.-.
_
,‘
/>M- /
oz/oI--~ --

- -- .._, -_

1 hex. bolt ~l$q~3~~ with sprinawasher

1 key ---
I disk -- 02;OzY
____._
--_-
7 pulley 02/01

PULLEY ASSEMBLY 02/o 0

A3
 7
-

4/

L-----i
,
78 !

driving nos.0 f
power grooves L

up to 10 kW 3 63
70 to 75 kW 4 82
upto 20 kW 5 107

--------_~
1 castiron ti 180

PULLEY 02/o I
A0
 ,,6, 1 -

-
1 plate 8x70~70

DISK 02/02
A9
 P4J -o,l73

Ml2 -

1
I
T
I
,74 1
i-----t
+- t
i
I
1
-
r
i
2
Lr
h
T
/ 4 -LI
r;;, yt \
f
/ ‘\

IT er44 6xM8

bS9,97.-0,03
l-< -

-- _. -
.tj t~qx~olf._Md~Zj .wifh-s~@-~qwg~her .~ _...__. .-
I rod @65x405 MS --..-.

RUNNERSHAF T 03/00
A10
 r

,
.-
------c f
-?--

10
/ h

-4
h
h

b0--‘s
-i
i
-.
f f

‘; t

: III

160

1 sheet 8x160~480 MS

BEARINGPLATE 04/00
All
 h
h
h

I
I I !
M7:2

7 bearina FY SO FJ ISKFI

BEARING (2 nos. required) OS/O0

A12
 M 7: 2, s

2 flat bx3OxGPS MS _
7 flat 8x 160x495 MS

BEARINGPLATE 06/00
A13
 / 07/01

L20/03
MI:5

I cone 20104
I cone 2om
1 cone 2om2
4 runner blade 07/03
I insulation disc 07102
1 runnerhub 07/01

RUNNER
 I
/ /

Id44x6hz -"; -

I rod ~120x60 MS
I
RUNNERHUB 07/01
Al5
 -f-l-

thick 3mm

M 7:1

1 asbestos plate 3x660

INSULATION DISC 07/02

Al6
 I-- __-- 770

792

M 7:2,5

- -
1 sheet 2x 192x 135

RUNNER BLADE (74 nos. required) 07/03

A17
 Ml:10 77/01 welded
during assembly
/
08/03-

Note: toavoid distorted flanges, bolt two 08/03 together and

weld 08/O 7 to one of them.
_-._- _..._-_----_--.---- - .__.___ ---.__ -_--___
7 flange 17/01
I pipe section i3/os
7 pipesection 22/00
I cone 20/01
I flanqe 08/03
7 pipesection 08/02
7 housing rinu 08/07

H 0 USING ASSEMBLY owoo

A18
MI: 2,s

___- -
1 sheet 2x200x 2700 MS

HOUSINGRING 08/01
Al9
 400
t

_ 249
182 3r
97

I
<

_ 298
--
324

\
ht---
332 _-

MI:5

I sheet 1.5~400~476 MS

38/02
PIPE SECTION A20
I flatiron 6x30~2796 MS

FLA NGE /2nos. required)

 flange 17101 tapered
tn fit rnnn 20/05
I
i /
/ ! \\-I.
!
- boltlZ/OO and flange
filed foenableremoval
i
i
08103 17/01 -
I

' 12/dO welded to20/05

Note: to avoid distorted fhlnges, bolt 08/03 tohousing 08100

and weld cone20/05 .to flange

M I:10

-___ .__- .-.--- -- ..-_-____--..~-- ---.--~

_Z_.flat 15x 3x2114
1 flanqe 77/01_-.......~__._--___- --._-_-.
I cone 20105
__ ---_.,._
~~o~leplnfe IV01
______~__ - ---
12/00 _-
I flanoe 08/03

C 0 VER ASSEMBLY
 I

/B
i-

MI: 2

BAFFLEPLATE (24nos. required)

 17/01 welded during assembly
/-

--l--b= --,;_/

22100
17/0lwelded
duringassembly
13/02-

I
Ml: 5 23106

.
iNL E T PIPE A33EblBLY 13/00
A24
I
 \ development

butt weld

M 1:s

I sheet 15x470~476 MS

VAL VEGUIDE
 416

Ml.'5

1 sheet 1,5x 476x 315 4

PIPE SECTION 13/02

A26 ~
 ( 20/06

M 1.2,s

4148

I cone 20106
I sheet 2X410x458 MS

VALVE IUOO
A23
 knurled

knurled

Ml: 2,s

' rod 1630x278 MS

'md --*,@30x 103 MS
I

HANDLE IS/O0
A28
 16/03
16/02

16/01

I
I I
I ! I
I I
t!

1 cone 16/03
I nut 16/02
1 pipe 16/01

DISCHARGEPIPE ASSEMBLY 16/00

A29
 R I”

Ul +- I
I I
I I
1
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I i
I t
I
J;

t RI”

Mf:l

I U-pipe 1”x 450

PIPE ..B
Id/O1
A30
 - I -___
zI2 > -.- -.
,? +I I /sjcp

M I:1

2 rod tiax20
I rod ~550x20

NUT 16/02
A 31
 ,-p;.j

Ml: I

--
I sheet 1.5x80x80

CONE 16/03
A 32
 according to
kettle 18100

23/01-
23/02----

600 Manufacturing-process.
Ibolt flange to flange of
keftlel8/00 and weld
jacket
cut hole witi 8155 2.weld pipes, puf20/08
in cone 20/07 for on23/03 and weld20107
pipe section 23/01 lputihese parts in place
sothat20/07rests in
reset formedbyfins
4. weld 20/08to23/03 ..
andjacket.
Ml: 10 mark hole for discharge
pipe 16/00, take kettle
off andcufhole 630.
I pipesection 23/04
I ll 23103
1 II 23/02
1 II 23/01
2 " 22/00
1 'cone 20108
7 cone 20107
2 flanqe 17/01
3 unqle 45x45~550
I-__Iflat 6x30~1870
I sheet 1,5x 350x1780

KETTLE HOUSING ASSEMBLY 17/00

A 33
 - -
r-xI

-.-

Ml: I

1 flaf 3xl!ix530

FL A NGE (7nos. required) 17/01

A 34
30 fin 18/01--..-
I rod !sox35
7 sheet 3x450x1%1
I sheet 3x 625x 625 cut outof this both bottom and flanae

KE.TTLEASSE/YBLY woo
A35
 --

-t- I

48 --i

development

hII: 7

I sheet 2x48x2.55 MS

FIN (%Onos required)

18/01
A 36
 butt weld
i

Note: Flanges 17/01

I,5
I
4
welded during
assembly

4 I
-77/07

e 153
M 1:5

PIPE SECTION
 \
formulas: section
R= = 0,577D
2~0s 72O
x =JR, sin (~‘z-Dz)PO
-=0,07D,
R2
H=2+(D>BDl tanIZO)

devilopment

U/O8 750 570 47 40 77297 7 kettle housing 17/00

?0/07 750 530 42 37 77 277 7 kettlehousing 77100
?0/06 750 325 21 23 77 766 7 valve 74/00
'O/OS 760 660 76 60 82 440 I cover II/O0
?0/04 . 720 325 24 23 67 766 I runner 7100
?0/03 330 670 38 47 769 343 7 runner 7/00
XV02 7.20 670 67 47 63 343 7 runner 7100
D/O1 50 860 88 60 26 440 I housing 8/00 --
3nc req.no. used in
.lO. 0, Dz H X R, Rz

CONES
Note: This is half /he developmentof
a 45'bend, Pr 750,usedtir allbends
of the piping system

brmarkingusethis drawing to
to obtain the full development
looking like this:

DEVELOPt’lENT (BENDS) 21/00

A 39
 I \

-.- -.

\ J-
/

r
-5'76

7 sheet 1,5x 776x476 MS

PIPE SECTION! 5nos. required) 22/00

A40
 according to drawing 21/00

buttweld

M 1:s

I sheet 1,5x 476x L= 712 used in 13100 no. 23106

#I ,, II 1, 100 " " 08/00 11 23/05
,, II 0 ,I 772 'I 'I 17100 11 23/04
I, II II I, 300 " " 17100 11 2YO3
II II #I I, 112 . -- 8, II B 8 23/02
II II II I,
245 II I, n #I I
I
23/00
PIPE SECTION
A 41
 SKAT PUBLICATIONS

ENGLISH PUBLICATIONS:

Manual for Rural Water Supply, by Helvetas, 3rd. unrevised edition,

1983, 175 pp., SFr. 34.00
Elements of Solar Architecture, by Roland Stulz, 2nd unrevised
edition, 1983, 22 pp., SFr. 6.50
Local Experience with Micro-Hydro Technology, by Ueli Meier, 2nd un-
revised edition, 1383, 169 pp., SFr. 32.00
The Segner Turbine - A Low-Cost Solution for Harnessing Water Power
on a Very Small Scale, by Ueli Meier et al., 1983, 16 pp., SFr. 4.00
Appropriate Building Materials - A Catalogue of Potential Solutions,
by Roland Stulz, 2nd edition, 1983, co-publication with Intermediate
Technology Publications, London, 332 pp., SFr. 24.00
New and Renewable Energies, by Ueli Meier and Urs Rentsch, 1st edition,
1983, co-publication with ENDA, Dakar/Senegal, 73 pp., SFr. 10.00
Survey, Design and Construction of Trail Bridges for Remote Areas,
by Helvetas, 5 volumes, 1st edition 1983/1984, 950 pp. and 200 design
drawings, SFr. 356.00

FRENCH PUBLICATIONS:

- Manrtel Technique pour 1'Approvisionnement en Eau des Zones Rurales,

by Helvetas, 2nd unrevised edition, 1983, 175 pp., SFr. 39.00
- Energies Nouvelles et Renouvelables, by Ueli Meier and Urs Rentsch,
1st edition, 1983, co-publication with ENDA, Dakar/Senegal, 73 pp.,
SFr. 10.00
- Le Compendium des Fourneaux B Bois, by the Woodstove Group of the Uni-
versity of Eindhoven, 1st French edition, 1984, co-publication with
Association Bois de Feu/Marseille, Edisud/Marseille and ENDA/Dakar,
approx. 379 pp., approx. SFr. 30.00

SPANISH PUBLICATIONS:

- Desecador Solar Simple, by SKAT, 1st edition, 1980, 26 pp., SFr. 7.50
- Manual Tecnico de Aprovisionamiento Rural de Agua, by Helvetas, 1st
edition in Spanish, 1984, co-publication with SEMTA, La Paz/Bolivia,
approx. 80 pp., approx. SFr. 30.00
- Experiencias Locales con Micro Hidro Tecnologia, by Ueli Meier, 1st
Spanish edition, 1984, co-publication with CETAL, Valparaiso/Chile,
approx. 160 pp., approx. SFr. 30.00
- Alternativas al Transporte en America Latina: La Bicicleta, by Ricardo
A. Navarro, 1st edition, 1984, co-publication with CESTA, El Salvador,
approx. 200 pp., in preparation

GERMANPUBLICATIONS:

- Angepasste Technik und die Dritte Welt - Ein Arbeitsbericht der SKAT,
by J.-M. Baumer et al., 1st edition, 1983, 143 pp.# SFr. 8.00