7.

RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

The propagation of radio waves through With this definition of basic transmission
space (and the atmosphere) is the essential loss, a power budget can be developed. This
phenomenon exploited by a radio is shown graphically in figure 34, which
communications system. As described shows the effects of the major elements in
earlier (sec. 3), this phenomenon has been the radio link.
studied extensively using theoretical and
empirical methods. The simplest mode of
propagation occurs between two point-
sources in free space—the ideal situation.

Radio-wave propagation, in realistic

situations, is affected by reflections from the
earth, scattering by particles, diffraction over
hills, and bending due to atmospheric
refractivity. The study of propagation has led
to models that can be used to predict the
field strength (and/or power density)
expected at a specific receiver location of a
radio wave radiated from a distant Figure 34. Gains and losses as described
transmitter location. in the power-budget equation

7.1 Transmission Loss and the Power It begins with the power output of the
Budget transmitter Pt in decibels relative to some
reference (if referenced to 1 W, this is
The concept of transmission loss is used to
expressed as dBW). The loss, in decibels,
quantify the effects of radio wave
due to the transmitter transmission line Lt is
propagation in the analysis and engineering
subtracted from Pt. Then the transmitter
of radio communications systems. It is
antenna gain Gt is added. The basic
defined as the ratio of power delivered to the
transmission loss Lb is subtracted. Then at
terminals of the transmitter antenna to the
the receive end of the link, the receive gain
power available at the terminals of the
Gr is added; and the receiver transmission
receiver antenna. The transmitter and
line loss Lr is subtracted to arrive at the
receiver antenna gains are implicitly
power delivered to the receiver input Pr.
included in this definition. In practice, this is
not useful, so the concept of basic
Expressed as an equation, the power budget
transmission loss is used. It does not include
is
the antenna gains. Basic transmission loss Lb
is defined as the ratio of the power delivered
to a lossless isotropic antenna at the transmit (11)
location to the power available at the
The received power is in the same units as
terminals of a lossless isotropic antenna at
those used to express the transmitted power.
the receive location.

33
For example, a transmit power of 25 W, (13)
expressed in decibels, would be 10 log10 (25)
or 14 dBW. The result is that the power
available at the receiver input Pr is expressed Using equation 10, the effective area, in
in the same units (dBW in this example). square meters, of a lossless isotropic antenna
(g = 1) is
7.2 Free-Space Basic Transmission Loss
The transmission loss between two lossless (14)
isotropic antennas in free space4 is a
hypothetical, but very useful, propagation
Substituting equations 12 and 14 into
model. It can be used as a “first estimate” in
equation 13, the result is
radio link design or a “best case” value for
transmission loss over any real, terrestrial
path. (15)

The free-space basic transmission loss Lbf is

Rearranging this equation to form the
very easy to calculate. Since the transmit
definition of Lbf as the ratio of Pt to Pr (see
antenna is considered to be a lossless
sec. 7.1),
isotrope (and the transmission line is
considered to be lossless as well), all of the
transmitter power is radiated equally in all (16)
directions. At a distance d selected to be
much greater than the wavelength 8, the
In decibels, this equation becomes,
radiated power density (expressed in watts
per square meter) is simply the transmitter
power divided by the area of a sphere with (17)
radius d, as follows:

(12) By converting wavelength to frequency

using equation 1 and taking the logarithm of
the terms in parentheses, a very practical
Now, looking at the receive side of the link,
version of this equation results.
the signal power output Pr in watts, of a
lossless, isotropic receive antenna can be
computed using equation 9. It is the product (18)
of that antenna’s effective area Ae times the
power density p of the incident wave as
where d is expressed in kilometers and f is
follows,
expressed in megahertz.

This last equation is the propagation model

for free-space, basic transmission loss. It
4
Free space is a theoretical concept of space devoid of all matter. predicts a value of basic transmission loss
In practice, free space implies remoteness from material objects
that could influence the propagation of electromagnetic waves.
under a set of assumptions (i.e., lossless

34
isotropic antennas located in free space). As receiver. Some of these effects are described
an example of how to use this model and the in the following subsections. Although it is
power-budget equation, consider a radio link important for the reader to be familiar with
10 km long operating at 400 MHz. For this these concepts, it is unnecessary for the
link, assume that the transmit antenna has a reader to determine the exact extent that
gain of 10 dB, the receive antenna has a gain each effect affects the antenna system.
of 3 dB, and that both transmit and receive Several computer models are available that
transmission line losses are 1 dB. The provide relatively accurate propagation
transmitter power is assumed to be 20 W predictions. Such models are described in
(13 dBW). section 7.4.

The basic free-space transmission loss is 7.3.1 Effects of Earth

first computed as
The Earth acts as a reflecting surface for
those waves that radiate from an antenna at
angles lower than the horizon. Waves that
strike the Earth are reflected along the same
(19)
direction of travel, at the same angle as the
angle of incidence. The illustration in
figure 35 shows how waves propagate over
both direct and reflected paths to reach a
Then, using the power budget equation 11,
distant location.
we find that

(20)

This result shows a receive power of about

Figure 35. A propagation path illustrating
one one-hundredth of a microwatt, or about
direct and reflected rays
nine orders of magnitude less than the
transmit power. At this level, it is a strong
The reflected waves combine with the direct
receive signal. An actual radio link, over
waves with a variety of results (i.e., they
varied terrain, may have a larger measured
enhance or cancel each other to some
transmission loss by 5 dB to 20 dB. The
degree). Some of the factors that cause this
transmission loss over a realistic link will
variety are the height of the antenna, the
also vary with time.
orientation of the antenna, the length of the
antenna, and the characteristics of the
7.3 Terrestrial Propagation
ground reflecting the wave. As part of the
A variety of natural and man-made objects wave strikes the ground and reflects
and phenomena will affect the radio signal forward, that part of the wave will take a
as it propagates from the transmitter to the slightly longer time to arrive at the receiver.

35
At some reflection angles, the direct wave 7.3.2 Coverage
and reflected wave will arrive almost in
The area over which the signal can be
phase (i.e., the amplitude of each wave will
detected is called the coverage area for the
be at its maximum at the same time). When
antenna. The coverage area is often
this happens, the power of the received wave
displayed as contours on a two-dimensional
is approximately twice that of the direct
drawing or on a map.
wave. At some angles, the reflected wave is
exactly out of phase with the direct wave,
A radiation pattern is not the same thing as a
essentially nullifying the wave. This is
coverage area, although they are related. The
known as cancellation. At other angles, the
radiation pattern for an antenna is a gain
resultant wave will be somewhere in
factor, in every direction away from the
between.
antenna, and is a function only of the
antenna design.
As radio waves strike a radio-opaque object,
some of the signal will be reflected in
The coverage area for an antenna is the area
directions away from the receiver. Some of
over which a signal, of predetermined
the signal will be absorbed by the object.
strength (or greater), can be received. The
coverage area is a function of the transmit
The waves that strike the edges of the object,
power, antenna gain, radiation pattern, noise,
however, will be diffracted into the shadow
and propagation factors related to the
of the object. To a receiver positioned within
environment.
such a shadow, the object’s edge will seem
like another source. This can cause
7.3.3 Noise and Interference
interference with the original signal or
provide signals to areas that should not All things emit some radiation at all
receive them. This phenomenon is shown in frequencies. In most cases, for most objects,
figure 36. the level of this continuous radiation, at any
given frequency, is small and of little
concern. This radiation is called noise. The
most common sources of noise for a radio
receiver are:

• Atmospheric and galactic noise.

• Noise from the first amplifier in the
receiver.
• Man-made noise (motors, flourescent
lights, etc.).

When a radio receiver is far enough away

from a transmitter (or in an antenna pattern
Figure 36. An example of diffraction
null where reception is difficult), the
strength of the transmitted signal is low
enough that ambient radiation noise from
other objects or transmissions in the area

36
can obscure the desired signal. When the account for the time and location variability
strength of a received signal is less than the of that loss, over defined terrain profiles.
strength of the ambient noise for that These terrain profiles are compiled from
frequency, the signal is said to be “lost in the terrain-elevation data tabulated by agencies
noise.” such as the Defense Mapping Agency and
the U.S. Geological Survey. One such
Ambient noise for a specific transmission is computer program, written and maintained
usually measured at the transmission by the U.S. Department of Commerce’s
frequency. Institute for Telecommunication Sciences
(ITS), is the Communication Systems
Interference is the term for unwanted Performance Model (CSPM) [17]. This
signals, generated from other transmitters, program is based on the ITS Irregular
that interfere with clear reception of the Terrain Model [18].
intended signal. Interference is not
technically included under the definition of Usually, manufacturers and vendors of radio
noise, although slang usage of the term and antenna systems and components have
“noise” includes any unwanted signals. computer programs similar to CSPM to
assist customers in defining radio-coverage
7.3.4 Terrestrial Propagation Models areas. Private-industry radio-engineering
consultants also have computer programs
Radio-wave propagation in the terrestrial
like CSPM to perform radio-coverage
environment is an enigmatic phenomenon
analysis for customers. Alternatively,
whose properties are difficult to predict.
agencies can access CSPM on a
This is particularly true for LMR
fee-reimbursable basis through the ITS
applications where terrain features (hills,
Internet site5.
trees, buildings, etc.) and the ever-changing
atmosphere provide scattering, reflection,
7.4 Co-Site Analysis
refraction, and diffraction obstacles with
dimensions of the same order of magnitude Intermodulation (IM) interference (i.e.,
as the wavelengths. “intermod”) and receiver desensitization are
detrimental to the performance of co-sited
Some models are general and some are more repeaters and base stations. There are several
specialized. An example of the former is a different ways intermod interference can be
model that would predict radio coverage generated. One way is when sufficiently
areas in “generic” urban areas or “generic” large power from a transmitter enters into
rural areas, without regard to specific terrain the final output power stage of another
profiles. One of these generalized models is transmitter. This may occur when, for
the Okumura-Hata model [16]. Models such example, the transmitters are connected to a
as the Okumura-Hata model are based on combiner junction and the combining
extensive collections of empirical cavity/isolators of the affected transmitter do
measurements.

Other more sophisticated computer

5
http://flattop.its.bldrdoc.gov/tas.html.
For additional information, contact the Institute for
programs predict transmission loss, and Telecommunication Sciences at 325 Broadway (ITS.E), Boulder,
Colorado 80305–3328, Telephone 303–497–5301.

37
not provide sufficient rejection between Other ways that intermod can occur are by
transmitters. the mixing of signals from two or more
transmitters in the front-end of a receiver.
Intermodulation may also arise when several Off-frequency signals strong enough to
transmitting antennas are located in very overcome the suppression of bandpass
close proximity to each other, such as cavities and preselector filters may saturate
multiple omni-directional antennas on a the nonlinear first or second intermediate
building rooftop. In these situations, mixing frequency (IF) mixers of the victim receiver,
of signals may occur between the offending creating intermod products which adversely
transmitter(s) and the desired signal, thereby affect receiver performance.
generating new signals in the victim
transmitter, at frequencies determined by the External intermod can also be created in
intermod products. These intermod signals elements such as corroded antenna guy
will be emitted by the victim transmitter. wires, anchor rods, and even chain link
fences. As strong signals impinge upon these
items, the corroded objects act as diodes and
detect the signals, mix them, and passively
reradiate the energy at the intermod product
frequencies.

38
 8. ANTENNA SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS AND DESIGN
The selection of a particular antenna system typically inductively or resistively loaded (to
for use in a radio communications system is simulate, electrically, a longer antenna
one of many interrelated decisions that must and/or to provide a better impedance match).
be made to meet the system-level These features and attributes are
requirements for a complete LMR system. accomplished at the cost of decreased
Other system-level decisions include the antenna gain.
number and locations of base and repeater
stations, the antenna heights, and the Selecting appropriate antennas for fixed
transmitter powers. stations is more critical than selecting the
antennas for mobile and hand-held units.
Selecting the appropriate antennas for This is because antennas for fixed stations
vehicular and hand-held units is a much must be chosen to adequately receive signals
simpler process than selecting the from the least-capable mobile/hand-held
appropriate antennas for fixed stations. units (those with low transmitter power, low
Although there are exceptions, the whip antenna gain, low antenna height, etc.).
antenna is, essentially, the only practical
antenna design for vehicular and hand-held When designing a radio system for LMR
radios. The most important aspect for use, a systematic development plan must be
vehicular antennas has to do with where it is created and followed:
mounted on the vehicle. The best location
for vehicular antennas is in the middle of the • Define System Requirements.
roof. This is the highest point and presents • Design System.
the flattest and most symmetric ground plane • Select Appropriate Components.
to the antenna, both important factors to • Procure and Install Components.
optimize communications range and • Perform Routine Maintenance.
performance. Vehicular obstructions, such
as the light bar on law enforcement vehicles, Each of these steps is dependent on the
will, however, distort the radiation pattern previous step in the chain.
and/or alter the antenna’s terminal
impedance slightly. 8.1 Define System Requirements
The design and deployment of an LMR
Bumper mount installations for low-band
communications system, or the upgrade or
VHF, for example, may be selected based
expansion of an existing system, generally
more on the antenna installation structural
begins with some knowledge of what
rigidity requirements than on ground plane
geographic regions need to be “covered” by
symmetry, radiation pattern distortion, and
the radio communications system. This is a
other RF performance parameters.
fundamental requirement that is determined
by the nature of an agency’s jurisdiction,
Choices for hand-held radio antennas are, in
where population and transportation routes
practice, limited to short whip antennas.
are located, and so on. These requirements
These antennas are physically very short, are
must be developed by the agency itself.

39
Several other system-level requirements can Having a working knowledge of these
also be developed by the agency before system-level requirements will help ensure
obtaining the services of a radio system efficiency in the system design process that
vendor or consultant. Larger law follows, and will help ensure the reliable
enforcement agencies will have a performance of the system when it is fully
communications department that will deployed.
perform these services. The number of
mobile and handheld units, for example, is Begin by developing some initial system
usually determined by the number of users requirements. Consider, for example, the
that must be supported. following:

Next, some decisions must be made • At what frequencies will you be

regarding how many channels will be transmitting? Lower frequencies
needed. For example, one or more channels require larger antennas. Higher
may be needed for dispatch functions. frequencies have more limited range.
Additional channels may be needed for A wide range of frequencies will
mobile-to-mobile communications. Other require multiple antennas, multiband
channels that might be needed could antennas, or broadband antennas.
include: • What is the maximum distance over
which your users must communicate?
• A local command channel for Systems to support distant itinerant
operations at an event site. users will require a combination of
• A channel to interoperate with other higher-power transmitters and
agencies in mutual-aid situations. antennas with greater gain.
• A channel dedicated to tactical forces. • What is your coverage area? Required
• Other channels to support the antenna radiation patterns will be
operational and administrative dictated by the location of the fixed
activities of the agency. site relative to the required coverage
area.
Other aspects that may affect system design • Are there other nearby radio systems
include: operating in neighboring frequency
bands or on the same or adjacent
• The typical length of messages for the frequency channels? Your system
various channels and talk groups. might cause interference to these other
• Maximum level of activity for the users, or conversely, these systems
dispatch channel. might cause interference to your new
• The nature of operations that use the system.
local command channel. • What physical limits are there on your
• Geographic coverage requirements. design? Is there sufficient property to
• The specific level of performance (i.e., construct a site, or is there sufficient
speech intelligibility and/or data- space on shared antenna towers for
transmission throughput) required. your system? Will building code and
zoning ordinances impact the
construction of your system?

40
 • What about standby/back-up systems First, coverage predictions are made. Values
at this site or at another antenna site? for transmitter power, operating frequency,
• What level of speech intelligibility is antenna system losses, antenna gain, antenna
required? How much noise and height, antenna pattern, and minimum
distortion can be tolerated? For data acceptable received signal strength for some
transmissions, what data-throughput specified level of speech intelligibility are
rates are required (how large is the required in order to make these coverage
data file and how much time is predictions.
available for transmission)?
Intermodulation interference analysis must
8.2 Design System also be considered during the design phase,
particularly where multiple transmitters,
The decisions that must be made during the
receivers, and/or repeaters are collocated.
design of a new system or the expansion of
Antenna system manufacturers and vendors
an existing system include:
can assist agencies in predicting the
likelihood of IM interference or receiver
• The number of base and repeater
desensitization, either caused by or inflicted
stations and their locations.
upon the proposed new system. To mitigate
• Some initial choices of antennas and
IM interference at repeater and base station
antenna heights for those fixed sites.
antenna sites, their designs will include
isolators, cavity filters, duplexers,
The design process will require the
combiners, and multicouplers. The number
identification of:
of collocated systems and the frequency
separations between them also influences the
• The availability of channels in the
choice of combiner and duplexer
various LMR frequency bands.
components.
• Potential/alternative base and repeater
station locations.
System design and component selection
• The potential for sharing fixed-station
continue by interactively trying different
infrastructure among multiple
antenna gains, patterns, and heights at each
agencies.
potential site location until the desired
• The estimated cost of the system.
coverage is attained. Then, antenna system
installation at each fixed site needs to be
8.3 Select Appropriate Components
considered. Points to consider include:
Once the system performance and system
design requirements have been ascertained, • Antenna tower height—Will the
the antenna characteristics that must be proposed antenna tower conform to
considered are the antenna system gain and local building codes and zoning
radiation pattern. The process of identifying ordinances?
the needed gain and pattern is usually an • Environmental considerations—Will
iterative one. The process might proceed as the antenna system and supporting
follows: structure survive expected wind
loading, ice loading, and other
anticipated environmental

41
 performance factors? EIA/TIA • Co-site analysis and IM
Standard 329-B [19], EIA/TIA interference—Will retrofitting new
Standard 329-B(1) [20], NIJ Standard- systems into existing infrastructures
0204.02 [21], and introduce adjacent-channel
NIJ Standard-0205.02 [22] all provide interference, co-channel interference,
guidance regarding the minimum IM interference, or receiver
environmental, as well as RF, desensitization upon other existing
performance criteria required of all systems or upon the new system? Will
antennas used in the law enforcement other nearby users and systems
and corrections arenas. detrimentally affect the performance
• Security—Is the site secure against of the new system because of these
unauthorized intrusions, yet accessible problems? How will the vendor
to maintenance personnel? mitigate predicted interference
• Accessibility—Could inclement problems? Does the vendor have a
weather (i.e., deep snow drifts, plan to mitigate unforeseen
washed-out dirt access roads) prevent interference problems?
maintenance personnel from reaching • Power source—Is commercial
the site? electrical power available? Will
solar/battery power be required as
primary/backup power?
• Wireline/wireless link—Is telephone
service available? Is fiber optics
service available? Will microwave
radio be required?

42
 9. INSTALLATION, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY
9.1 Vehicular Antenna Systems bonding from the trunk lid to the main
vehicle body. One way to accomplish this is
The procurement and installation of
by using a short length of low-impedance
vehicular antenna systems are relatively
copper grounding strap affixed to bare areas
straightforward. If the design requirements
of (interior) sheet metal on the underside of
have been well thought out and adequately
the trunk deck and the main vehicle body,
described in the procurement documents, a
using noncorrosive bolts, star washers, and
competitive procurement will deliver an
lock nuts. A poor ground connection will
acceptable product.
detrimentally affect antenna operation,
resulting in erratic or unacceptable
When installing a vehicular antenna system,
performance.
care must be given to routing the coaxial
cable between the radio and antenna. The
9.2 Fixed-Site Antenna Systems
cable should not be exposed to the elements
(wind, road salt and sand, rain, intense Most new installations of fixed-repeater and
sunlight, extreme heat, etc.) nor should it be base-station antenna systems will likely be
in a location where it could be severed or performed by contracted installers or
pinched (by opening and closing vehicle equipment suppliers. In many cases,
doors, for example) or where a vehicle’s retrofitting new or upgraded components
occupants might become entangled with it. into existing facilities will similarly be
One preferred routing for a roof-mounted performed by contracted installers or
antenna might be between the roof and equipment suppliers. Procuring agencies
interior headliner of the vehicle, down should, nevertheless, ensure that the installer
through a windshield pillar, and behind the observes sound installation practices. As
dashboard panel to the radio. Other with vehicular grounding, proper ground
equipment, such as duplexers (to combine protection of fixed station antenna facilities
multiple radios operating in different is important.
frequency bands onto one multiband
antenna), should likewise be installed in 9.2.1 Fixed-Site Antenna System
locations not readily accessible to vehicle Grounding and Bonding Practices
occupants. For example, they should be
An effective grounding system is necessary
installed under seats or in trunks where they
for every antenna tower. In addition to the
are “out of the way,” yet reasonably
protection a grounding system offers from
accessible to maintenance personnel.
lightning strikes, grounding also:
RF cable connections should be torqued to
• Reduces the hazards of electrical
the proper force recommended for the
shock resulting from ground/neutral
particular connectors used, and the outer
power faults.
grounded conductor of the antenna base
• Protects wiring and circuitry by
mount must be RF-bonded to the metal of
limiting extraneous over-voltages.
the roof or trunk deck. Trunk deck
installations also require excellent RF

43
 • Facilitates rapid discharge of faulted be at the same entry point as RF cable,
power circuits. telephone, and power connections.
• Reduces noise voltages.
• Provides a path to dissipate any stray 9.3 Lightning Protection
RF current present inside the
The National Fire Protection Association
transmitter station; ungrounded RF
(NFPA) publishes a guideline related to
currents can contribute to equipment
lightning protection [23]. This guideline
malfunction, or create interference
details many additional practices for
with other receivers.
protecting radio equipment from lightning
strikes.
9.2.2 Fixed-Station RF Bonding
RF bonding is another important aspect of Metal antennas and towers should be
fixed-station antenna systems. Simply connected to the building’s lightning
connecting each element of a transmitter protection system. Wires and metallic
facility to a metal pipe stuck in the ground is elements comprising an antenna tower’s
barely adequate to act as a grounding lightning protection system should be
system. The components of such a electrically attached to the Earth. Towers
grounding system are not perfect conductors and guy wires anchored to concrete forms in
and each will have different, finite values for the ground are often assumed to be well
resistance. The resistance and physical grounded, but concrete is a poor electrical
design of the grounding system adds to the conductor. Tower legs should be electrically
overall resistance and reactance of the attached to the Earth with a copper ground
antenna system and transmission line, stake approximately 3 m long. Lightning-
causing the system to have different voltage ground connecting leads connecting the
potentials at different points within the tower to the ground stake should be at least
system, inducing stray currents to flow AWG #10 copper, AWG #8 aluminum, or
between equipment chassis. These stray 3/4 in copper braid.
currents can affect internal circuits of the
equipment and cause erratic operation and The transmission lines must be protected by
unpredictable behavior. lightning arresters, protectors, and discharge
units. Arresters can be placed at both ends of
A bonding system ensures that all equipment the transmission line for added protection.
grounding points are at the same electrical
potential. A good dc and RF bonding system 9.4 During Installation
will use high-quality, low-impedance copper
Be sure the installer knows exactly where on
strap or braid and attach all equipment
the vehicle or on the antenna tower the
chassis to a low-impedance copper bus strap
antenna components are to be installed.
installed on the walls throughout the station
Make sure they are installed in the correct
facilities. The copper bus leaves the station
orientation and positioned correctly.
and is attached to the Earth using a copper
ground rod approximately 3 m long. The
Make sure that the ends of the transmission
point of egress for the facility ground should
line cable have been prepared properly
before affixing RF connectors to the

44
transmission line. Make sure that the RF visual line-of-sight to the repeater or base
connectors are properly installed on the station-antenna tower. A portable transmitter
transmission line. Loose connector could serve as the signal source. A similar
assemblies will result in poor ground method could be used to measure the power
connections between the outer connector received by a portable radio service monitor
shell and the outer shield of the transmission (such as an IFR1500 or Motorola R-2670)
line. Make sure that the center pin is located at the survey-marker point.
securely affixed to the center conductor of
the coaxial transmission line and that the Make a physical inspection of the
center pin’s depth, relative to the connector installation. Be sure all connectors and
shell, is maintained at the correct distance, transmission lines are secured properly.
or an impedance mismatch or connector
damage will result. Make sure that the 9.5 Perform Routine Maintenance
antenna and transmission line connectors
After a vehicular or repeater/base-station
will mate properly before connection to
antenna system has been installed, the
other equipment is attempted. Connectors
system will require periodic maintenance to
can be easily misaligned or over- or under-
ensure optimum performance.
torqued, resulting in degraded or erratic
overall RF performance. Make sure that the
Agencies should practice three tiers of
transmission line has not been damaged in
maintenance. The first is performed by the
any way, such as crushed, severed, or
radio operators and consists of simple,
pinched.
“common-sense” inspection of the
equipment. The second level of maintenance
Check the VSWR as soon as possible after
is performed by site technicians and requires
installation, and, if possible, before the
the use of land mobile radio test equipment.
installer leaves the job site. In addition to
The third level of maintenance is performed
VSWR measurements, time-domain
by factory-authorized technicians.
reflectometry (TDR), line-fault
measurements are helpful. Use a portable
9.5.1 Local Inspection
transmitting unit if the radio transmitter is
not yet installed. Record the VSWR values Radio operators themselves can perform a
and TDR data for future reference. wide variety of simple aural and visual
inspections of their radio equipment and
Measure and record the ambient noise power antennas. For instance:
levels for future reference.
• Isolated problems noted with reception
If possible, the installer should conduct or transmission in the field. Direct
“over-the-air” RF power sensitivity comparison between two radios
measurements immediately after installation, (“I cannot hear the base station when I
and document the test configuration and am in this location.” “Oh, really? I can
measurement results for future reference. hear the base station okay.”) gives an
For example, a portable antenna mast, 7 m excellent indication of a problem with
to 10 m high, could be placed at a geological a subscriber unit.
survey marker that has unobstructed, clear,

45
 • Loose or missing connectors—Over the antenna radiates electromagnetic energy
time, temperature variations, shock, as expected.
vibration, exposure to the elements,
and handling can cause connections Vehicular antenna systems should be
and connector flanges to become loose periodically checked according to an
or missing altogether. Rubber O-ring established maintenance schedule, typically
grommet seals may deteriorate, concurrent with the maintenance schedule of
allowing moisture to penetrate into the mobile radio (perhaps once or twice per
connectors or the transmission line, year). Performance values such as VSWR
altering their performance. should be recorded, compared to the
• Cracked or broken whip antenna base- performance values measured just after
loading coils—Cracks in the plastic installation, and tracked over time in order
housing of vehicular antenna base- to assist in keeping the antenna system
loading coils can permit moisture and functioning at an optimal performance level.
corrosive materials to penetrate into
the loading coil, altering the antenna’s The above statements apply equally to fixed-
electrical performance. Weathering of site repeaters and base stations.
rubber grommet O-ring seals (where Unfortunately, whereas problems with
the loading coil is affixed to the roof mobile and portable radio systems can be
or trunk deck of the vehicle) may readily identified by direct performance
similarly permit moisture and comparison at the operator level, such is not
corrosive materials to penetrate into necessarily the case for fixed sites. Because
the connector between the loading coil performance degradation at the fixed site
and its attachment to the coaxial cable affects all subscriber units equally, slowly
connector, altering the antenna’s occurring degradation in performance,
electrical performance. caused by corrosion effects, weathering, etc.,
may go unnoticed for years until
9.5.2 Site Technician catastrophic failure finally occurs.
Therefore, regularly scheduled site visits to
The site technician will often have an array
conduct maintenance performance
of RF test equipment at his or her disposal.
inspections must be a part of the site
For example, a communications service
technician’s routine. Recording a time
monitor can determine whether a radio is
history of the RF performance, and
transmitting on the proper frequency, at the
comparing it to the RF performance
proper power level, with the proper
measured immediately following the
frequency bandwidth. A VSWR meter gives
repeater or base-station installation, will be
an indication of how well RF energy is
an invaluable maintenance aid.
coupled from the radio system into the
antenna. A time-domain reflectometer can
Remote automated in-line diagnostic test
determine where faults or other
equipment can also provide indications of
discontinuities exist along the length of a
needed maintenance. Several vendors of
transmission line. Portable field strength
antenna system equipment, such as Bird
meters can give an indication as to whether
Electronic Corp., Decibel Products, Sinclair
Technologies, Telewave, and many others,

46
manufacture remote in-line diagnostic • Safety belt.
measurement equipment. This equipment • Safety glasses.
can report the health and status of a fixed • Work boots with firm, nonslip soles
repeater/base-station site’s RF performance, and well-defined heels.
up to the point where the radio wave is • Hard hat.
launched into space. For example,
conditions of low transmitter power and/or It is recommended that antenna tower
excessive VSWR, which might result from installations have a personnel fall-arrester
detuned combiner cavities or duplexers, system. These systems permit maintenance
failing radios, weathering of components, personnel to attach their safety belts at
etc., can be sensed by the automated ground level, and remain attached during
diagnostic equipment. Alarm conditions can tower ascent and descent, as well as while
automatically be reported to a computer by working at height. Antenna tower
preconfigured telephone dial-up to the manufacturers, such as Rohn Tower, offer
centralized maintenance facility. fall arrester systems, which comply with
OSHA regulations.
9.5.3 Factory-Authorized Technicians
In addition to personnel safety while
If an antenna system or radio problem is too
ascending, working on, or descending
complicated for the local site technician to
antenna towers, maintenance personnel must
repair, the manufacturer should be
be cognizant to the danger of RF electrical
contacted. Many large public safety
burns arising from direct contact with
organizations have service contracts with
energized antenna elements, and to exposure
factory-authorized repair facilities to
to high levels of RF radiation. Industry
maintain, repair, and replace equipment.
standards have been developed that specify
Even without a contract, contacting the
the levels of electromagnetic exposure to
manufacturer about specific problems is
which personnel can be “safely” exposed
advised if the problems are beyond the
[24]. Personnel working on transmitting
abilities of the agency to repair.
antenna towers must ensure that all antennas
that they are working on or near are
9.5.4 Antenna Tower Safety
disconnected from their associated
Working on antenna towers can be transmitters, and that the transmitters are
dangerous and potentially fatal. Serious routed into dummy loads (to prevent damage
personal injury and equipment damage can to the transmitter final amplifier in the event
result from personnel falling, improperly of inadvertent transmissions), or that some
installed equipment, and RF radiation sort of fail-safe mechanism for
exposure. disconnecting power to those transmitters
has been engaged.
When maintenance personnel must work on
antenna towers, safety equipment should be Lastly, maintenance personnel should be
selected, used, and cared for as if their lives alert to weather conditions. It is ill-advised
depend on it—because they do! A list of to work on an antenna tower during an
safety equipment should include: electrical storm or in high winds.
Remember—safety first!

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9.5.5 Vehicular Antenna Systems 9.5.6 The Importance of Maintaining
Your Radio System
The same precautions regarding RF
exposure on antenna towers should be It must be stressed that regularly scheduled,
observed when operating or performing periodic testing and preventive maintenance
maintenance on vehicular antenna systems. of the entire radio system is of paramount
For example, personnel should not stand importance. Motor vehicles used by law
outside and next to their vehicle (where they enforcement and corrections, fire,
do not have the benefit of RF shielding emergency medical services, and other
afforded by the vehicle’s roof that they public-safety agencies are maintained by
would have if they were inside the passenger complying with strict maintenance
compartment of the vehicle) while operating schedules. Weapons are maintained by
a 45 W (or greater) mobile radio transmitter, following regular preventive maintenance
nor should they touch the antenna when schedules of cleaning, lubrication, and
transmitting. inspection for worn or damaged parts. The
same must hold true for all parts of a radio
communications system—the lives of fire,
emergency medical services, and law
enforcement and corrections personnel may
depend on it.

48
 10. ANTENNA SYSTEM RESOURCES
This section describes some of the resources or biannual basis. One such periodical that
available to agencies to research information does this is Mobile Radio Technology (URL:
about and identify pertinent products, http://mrtmag.com, telephone
antenna systems and related components. 1–913–341–1300). Another is APCO’s
There are many qualified and conscientious monthly APCO Bulletin (URL:
manufacturers and products available; only a http://www.apcointl.org/bulletin/, telephone
few are cited herein in order to provide a 1–888–APCO–911). Public libraries may
sampling of what is available. maintain subscriptions to this and other
LMR-related periodicals, or they may be
10.1 Internet Resources able to obtain issues under interlibrary loan
agreements.
As the World Wide Web (WWW or Web)
has grown in recent years, many antenna
10.3 Manufacturers’ and Vendors’
manufacturers and suppliers have created
Catalogs
Web pages devoted to their products.
Most antenna manufacturers and vendors
Most Web-page authors will register their distribute free catalogs that describe
page with one or more of the major “search antennas, transmission lines, and related
engines” on the Web. A search engine is a components that they offer for sale. Most
program that will use a search phrase catalogs provide useful technical
provided by a user (usually a single word or information such as antenna patterns,
simple phrase) to search hundreds of operating frequencies, physical dimensions,
thousands of Web pages looking for and costs. Frequently, these catalogs will
occurrences of the phrase. The engine will provide basic explanations about various
then return a list of those Web pages that aspects of antenna systems, such as
most closely match the search criteria (i.e., collocated transmitter-combining
those that contain the search phrase). A few techniques, intermodulation interference,
search engines, such as Metacrawler transmission line theory, etc.
(http://www.metacrawler.com) conduct
searches by simultaneously querying more Many manufacturers have more than one
than one search engine. product line, e.g., antennas and duplexers.
Information about manufacturers’ offerings
10.2 Periodicals can be identified and researched via the
Internet or through the periodicals and
Several periodicals are written for the land
buyers' guides discussed in the previous two
mobile radio industry. Most are free to
subsections.
“qualified” subscribers. These periodicals
contain articles of technical interest related
to land mobile radio, and advertisements for
land mobile radio systems, components, and
services. These periodicals publish, as
special issues, buyers’ guides on an annual

49