Semiconductor Processing

EE-805
Review of Basic Concepts

Muhammad Raffi
PhD (Materials Engineering)

Department of Electrical Engineering

EME College, National University of Science and Technology (NUST)
Islamabad, Pakistan
10/22/2016 1
 Basic Concepts

SI Units

Volume And Density

Pressure And Vacuum

Heat And Temperature

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 International System of Units
The International System of Units (abbreviated SI from the French
Systme international d'units)
meter-kilogram-second system
SI Base Units

Name Unit symbol Quantity Symbol

meter m length l (a lowercase L)
kilogram kg mass m
second s time t
ampere A electric current I (a capital i)
kelvin K thermodynamic temperature T

Iv (a capital i with
candela cd luminous intensity
lowercase v subscript)

mole mol amount of substance n

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 SI Units
The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international prototype of
the kilogram.
The meter is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of
1/299 792 458 of a second.
The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium 133 atom.
The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary
entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12; its symbol is "mol."
The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel
conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section and placed 1 meter apart
in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 Newton per
meter of length.
The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature is the fraction
1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point
of water.
The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction of a
source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency
540x1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction
of 1/683 watt per steradian.

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 Standard Prefixes of SI Units

Name deca- hecto- kilo- mega- giga- tera- peta- exa- zetta- yotta-

Multiples Symbol da h k M G T P E Z Y

Factor 100 101 102 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018 1021 1024

Name deci- centi- milli- micro- nano- pico- femto- atto- zepto- yocto-

Fractions Symbol d c m n p f a z y

Factor 100 101 102 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018 1021 1024

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 Length Scales

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 Intensive And Extensive Properties
In physical sciences, an intensive property (also called a bulk
property, intensive quantity), is a physical property of a system
that does not depend on the system size or the amount of
material in the system: it is scale invariant. For example,
temperature, density, pressure, velocity, viscosity, resistivity are
intensive properties of a substance because they do not
depend on the amount of that substance;
An extensive property (also extensive quantity, extensive
variable) of a system is directly proportional to the system size
or the amount of material in the system. For example, mass,
volume, energy, resistance, stiffness, which are measure of the
amount of the substance, are extensive properties.

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 Volume and Density
Volume is three-dimensional space occupied by a substance (solid, liquid, gas,
or plasma), its symbol is v
The volumes of simple and complicated shapes can be calculated by simple
and integral calculus
Any unit of length gives a corresponding unit of volume
The volume of a cube whose side has the given length. For example a cubic
centi-metre (cm3)
Units such as cubic inch, the cubic foot, the fluid ounce, the pint, the quart,
the gallon, the barrel, are used
Density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume
Symbol most often used for density is
Density of a material varies with temperature and pressure
Density is an intensive property. If the amount of substance increases in a
system, it does not increase its density

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 Pressure
Pressure (P) is the force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the
surface of an object.

where:

P = pressure
F = normal force
A= area.

The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per square meter
(N/m2 or kgm1s2)

Example: Standard atmosphere = 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa

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 Pressure

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 Pressure Units

Pound-force per
Pascal Bar Atmosphere Torr square inch
(Pa) (bar) (atm) (Torr) (psi)

1 Pa 1 N/m2 105 9.8692106 7.5006103 145.04106

1 bar 100,000 106 dyn/cm2 0.98692 750.06 14.5037744

1 at 98,066.5 0.980665 0.96784 735.56 14.223

1 atm 101,325 1.01325 1 atm 760 14.696

1 torr 133.322 1.3332103 1.3158103 1 Torr; 1 mmHg 19.337103

1 psi 6.894103 68.948103 68.046103 51.715 1 lbf/in2

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 Vacuum
Vacuum is a volume of space that is essentially empty of matter, such that its
gaseous pressure is much less than atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric Pressure is variable but is standardized at 101.325 kPa (760 Torr)
Low vacuum, called rough vacuum or coarse vacuum, is vacuum that can be
achieved or measured with rudimentary equipment such as a vacuum cleaner and
a liquid column manometer
Medium Vacuum is vacuum that can be achieved with a single pump, but the
pressure is too low to measure with a liquid or mechanical manometer. It can be
measured with a McLeod gauge, thermal gauge or a capacitive gauge
High Vacuum is vacuum where the MFP of residual gases is longer than the size of
the chamber or of the object under test. High vacuum usually requires multi-stage
pumping and ion gauge measurement. Some texts differentiate between high
vacuum and very high vacuum.
Ultra High Vacuum requires baking the chamber to
remove trace gases, and other special procedures.
British and German standards define ultra high vacuum
as pressures below 106 Pa (108 Torr).

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 Vacuum: The Grades
Pressure (torr) Molecule/ cm3 Mean free path (cm)
760 2.46x1019 6.7x10-6
1 3.25x1016 5.1x10-3
10-3 3.25x1013 5.1
10-6 3.25x1010 5.1x103
10-9 3.25x107 5.1x106
10-12 3.25x104 5.1x109
10-15 3.25x100 5.1x1012
Pressure (torr) Pressure (Pa)
Atmospheric pressure 760 101.3 kPa
Low vacuum 760 to 25 100 kPa to 3 kPa
Medium vacuum 25 to 1103 3 kPa to 100 mPa
High vacuum 1103 to 1109 100 mPa to 100 nPa
Ultra high vacuum 1109 to 11012 100 nPa to 100 pPa
Extremely high vacuum <11012 <100 pPa
Outer Space 1106 to <31017 100 Pa to <3fPa
Perfect
10/22/2016vacuum 0 0 Pa 13
 Heat and Temperature
Heat energy (or heat) is a form of energy which transfers among particles in
a substance (or system) by means of kinetic energy of those particle.
The amount of heat transferred is usually denoted with the symbol Q.
It is something which may be transferred from one system to another,
according to the second law of thermodynamics
It is a measurable quantity, and thus treated mathematically.
It cannot be treated as a substance, because it may be transformed into
something that is not a substance, e.g., mechanical work
It is one of the forms of energy

Thermal vibration of a segment

10/22/2016 of protein alpha helix 14
 Heat and Temperature
As a form of energy heat has the unit joule (J) in the International System
of Units (SI).
The joule is a derived unit of energy or work in the International System of
Units. It is defined as the energy expended or work done in applying a
force of one Newton through a distance of one metre (1 newton metre or
Nm)

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 Heat and Temperature
Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses
the common notions of hot and cold.
Temperature is a property determined by the average of a property of
many particles and is defined in a state of at least local thermodynamic
equilibrium
As a system receives heat, its temperature rises; similarly, a loss of heat
from the system decreases its temperature. If two systems are at the same
temperature, no heat transfer occurs between them.
Absolute zero is the theoretical temperature at which entropy reaches its
minimum value
Kelvin (K), water freezes at 273.15K and boils at 373.15K
Celsius (C), water freezes at 0 C and boils at 100 C
Fahrenheit (F), water freezes at 32 F and boils at 212 F

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 Heat and Temperature

oF oC oK

Water Freezes 32 0 273

Water Boils 212 100 373

Room Temperature 72 23 296

Absolute Zero -460 -273 0

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 Vapor and Vapor Pressure
A vapor is a substance in the gas phase
at a temperature lower than its critical
point
Vapor can be condensed to a liquid or to
a solid by increasing its pressure without
reducing the temperature
A vapor may co-exist with a liquid (or
solid). When this is true, the two phases
will be in equilibrium, and the gas
pressure will equal the equilibrium vapor
pressure of the liquid (or solid)
Vapor in its natural state is a solid or
liquid at room temperature
A gas in its natural state at room The vapor-liquid critical point in a
temperature would still be a gas pressure-temperature phase diagram

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 Vapors and Vapor Pressure
To make it more simple, a vapor is a substance which has experienced
a phase change.
Whereas, a gas is a substance which has not and will not experience a
phase change.
Vapor is a substance which is near the condensation but gas is very
far away from condensation.
Gas is a state of matter while vapor is not
Vapor Pressure or Equilibrium Vapor Pressure is the pressure of a
vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases in a
closed system
All liquids and solids have a tendency to evaporate into a gaseous
form and all gases have a tendency to condense back to their liquid
or solid form

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 Matter
Stuff that has mass and occupies space
It is composed of molecules, which themselves are composed of atoms
Arrangement of molecules in a substance determines phase of the matter
Phases of matter
Gas- Liquid- Solid

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 Gas- Liquid- Solid

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 Introduction
to
Engineering Materials

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 Engineering Materials
Substances of which things are made
Wood, glass, rubber, paper, plastic, concrete, bricks, steel, aluminum,
copper, iron

Properties of materials
Thermal, mechanical, electrical, chemical, biological

Applications
Cars, airplanes,, homes, food, clothes, computers.

Multidisciplinary efforts
Scientists, Engineers

Economic impact of materials

Progress is evaluated by consumption of energy and materials
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 Materials Science And Engineering

Materials science
Investigating relationships that exist between the internal structure,
properties and processing of materials.

Materials engineering
Use of fundamental and applied knowledge of materials to make useful
products

Materials science Materials science and engineering Materials engineering

Basic knowledge
of materials Knowledge of structure,
properties, performance,
Applied
processing and performance of
knowledge of
engineering materials
materials
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 Types of Materials

Metals and Alloys

Ceramics and Glasses
Polymers
Composites
Biomaterials
Nanomaterials
Electronic Materials

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 Metals and Alloys
Valence electrons are detached from atoms and spread in an
'electron sea' that "glues" the ions together
Strong, ductile, tough, high density, conduct electricity and heat
well, shiny surfaces when polished
Inorganic and composed of one or more types of elements
copper, nickel, iron, aluminum, titanium
Good conductors
May contain non metallic elements such as carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen
Alloys are combinations of metals and other elements but their
behavior is like metals

10/22/2016 26
 An afterburner glows on an F-15 Eagle engine following a repair during
an engine test run at the Florida Air National Guard base in Jacksonville
International Airport, Florida, US
10/22/2016 27
 Animated two stroke engine in operation

An automobile engine partly

opened to show components

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 Ceramics and Glasses
Atoms behave like either positive or negative ions and are
bound by Coulomb forces.
They are usually combinations of metals or semiconductors
with oxygen, nitrogen or carbon (oxides, nitrides, and
carbides)
Are usually oxides and silicates
Hard, brittle, strong, low density, insulators, corrosion
resistant
Examples: glass, porcelain, cement, concrete, alumina

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 Radial rotor made from Si3N4
for a gas turbine engine

18th century (Qing

dynasty) Chinese
porcelain vase

Si3N4 bearings and parts

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Ceramic parts
Ceramic household utensils/ crockery

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Mica tiles on underside of
space shuttle
Silicon wafer

10/22/2016 Quartz (SiO2)wafer 32

 Space shuttle Columbia disaster on
February 1, 2003

Space Shuttle Columbia, December 2002

10/22/2016 33
 Polymers
A polymer is a large molecule
(macromolecule) composed of
repeating structural units
Bound by covalent bonds and also by
weak van der Waals bonds
Usually composed of C and H
Weak, ductile, low density, insulators
They decompose at moderate
temperatures (100 400 C), and are The repeating unit of the Polypropylene
lightweight
Examples: plastics, rubber, liquid
crystals, adhesives
Engineering polymers, Teflon, PVC,
Polypropylene, PET (Poly-ethylene-
terephthalate)

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 Appearance of real linear
polymer chains as recorded
using an atomic force
microscope on surface under Microstructure of part of a DNA
liquid medium. Chain contour double helix biopolymer
length for this polymer is
~204 nm; thickness is
~0.4 nm.

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 Polymers Products

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 Composites
Mixing two or more chemically dissimilar materials to achieve
the properties that are otherwise unreachable in individual
components
RCC:- Reinforced concrete cement
High strength, light weight, low cost, environmentally resistant,
electrically and thermally conductive
Particulate composites (small particles embedded in a different
material)
Laminate composites (golf club shafts, tennis rackets, Damaskus
swords)
Fiber reinforced composites (e.g. fiberglass)
Strong, ductile, low density, conductors, insulators
Wood: mixture of flexible cellulose fibers and stiffer lignin
Bone: mixture of soft collegen (protein) and brittle apatite
(mineral)
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 Products made up of composite materials
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 Biomaterials (bio-mimetic)
A biomaterial is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with
biological systems
It encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue
engineering and materials science
Man-made proteins, heart valve, hip implants dental applications,
Drug-delivery colloids (polymer based)
Biosensors (Au-nanoparticles stabilized by encoded DNA for
anthrax detection)
A biosensor is an analytical tool consisting of biologically active material
used in close conjunction with a device that will convert a biochemical
signal into a quantifiable electrical signal
Biosensors have many advantages, such as simple and low-cost
instrumentation, fast response times, minimum sample pretreatment,
and high sample throughput.
Joint replacements, Bone plates, Bone cement, Artificial ligaments and
tendons, Dental implants for tooth fixation, Blood vessel prosthesis, Heart
valves, Skin repair devices (artificial tissue), Cochlear replacements,
Contact lenses, Breast implants

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 Biomaterials
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What Are Nanomaterials?
Miniaturization is a general aim of the technology development
to produce smaller, faster, lighter and cheaper devices with
greater functionality while using less raw materials and
consuming lesser energy
The term nanoparticle, came into frequent use in the early
1990s by the materials science community to represent particles
that are composed of up to tens of thousand of atoms but
confined to size less than 100 nm

Rotating view of
Buckminsterfullerene C60

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Properties of Nanomaterials
o Properties of nanomaterials are different and often superior to
their conventional counterparts available in polycrystalline form
o Properties depend upon the microstructure which is determined
by the chemical composition, grain size, atomic structure,
crystallographic orientation, coordination number and
dimensionality

o Significant volume fraction of atoms in nanomaterials is

located at the grain boundaries that confer special attributes to
them
10/22/2016 Ref: J. Dutta and H. Hoffman, Nanomaterials, December (2003) 42
Surface To Volume Ratio: Variation With Particle Size
9
3.0x10

9
2.5x10

Surface Area/Volume
9
2.0x10

9
1.5x10

9
1.0x10

8
5.0x10

0.0

0.0 -8
2.0x10
-8
4.0x10
Particle Size (m)

Nanoparticles, due to their smaller size and a large surface to volume ratio,
exhibit interesting novel properties which include nonlinear optical behavior,
increased mechanical strength, enhanced diffusivity, high specific heat,
magnetic behavior and electric resistivity etc.
Research in nanomaterials is a multidisciplinary effort that involves
interaction between researchers in the field of physics, chemistry, mechanics,
materials science, biology and medicine

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 Electronic Materials
The goal of electronic materials is to generate
and control the flow of an electrical current.
Electronic materials include:
1. Conductors: have low resistance which allows
electrical current flow
2. Insulators: have high resistance which
suppresses electrical current flow
3. Semiconductors: can allow or suppress
electrical current flow

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 Electronic Materials
The types of bonding is covalent (electrons are shared
between atoms)
Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are widely used
electronic materials
Their electrical properties depend strongly on minute
proportions of dopants/ impurities/ contaminants
Weak, brittle, low density, semi-conductors
Used in electronics, photocells, LED, lasers
Exemples: Si, Ge, GaAs, ZnS, CdS, CdTl, SiC, AlP

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 Silicon Wafers

Printed Circuit Boards

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 Cell Phone PCB

PC Motherboard

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 Conductors
Good conductors have low resistance so
electrons flow through them with ease.
Best element conductors include:
Copper Cu), Silver (Ag), Gold (Au),
Aluminum (Al) and Nickel (Ni)
Alloys are also good conductors:
Brass and Steel
Good conductors can also be liquid:
Salt water

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 Conductor Atomic Structure

The atomic structure of

good conductors usually
includes only one electron in
their outer shell.
It is called a valence
electron.
Copper
It is easily striped from Atom
the atom, producing
current flow.
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 Insulators
Insulators have a high resistance, so
current does not flow in them.
Good insulators include:
e.g. Glass, ceramic, plastics and
wood
Most insulators are compounds of
several elements.
The atoms are tightly bound to one
another so electrons are difficult to
strip away for current flow.
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 Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials that
essentially can be conditioned to
act as good conductors, or good
insulators, or any thing in between.
Common elements such as Silicon,
and Germanium are
semiconductors.
Silicon is the best and most widely
used semiconductor.

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 Semiconductor Valence Orbit
The main characteristic
of a semiconductor
element is that it has
four electrons in its
outer or valence orbit.

Silicon: Germanium
Atomic Number (Z) 14 32
Atomic Weight 28.085 72.630
Crystal Structure FFC (diamond) FFC (diamond)
Band Gap 1.12 eV (300 K) 0.67 eV (300K)
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 Crystal Lattice Structure
The unique capability of
semiconductor atoms is
their ability to link
together to form a
physical structure called
a crystal lattice.
2D Crystal Lattice Structure
The atoms link together
with one another
sharing their outer
electrons.
These links are called
covalent bonds.
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 Semiconductors Can Be Insulators
If the material is pure semiconductor material
like Silicon, the crystal lattice structure forms an
excellent insulator since all the atoms are bound
to one another and are not free for current flow.
Good insulating semiconductor material is
referred to as intrinsic.
Since the outer valence electrons of each atom
are tightly bound together with one another, the
electrons are difficult to dislodge for current flow.
Silicon in this form is a great insulator.
Semiconductor material is often used as an
insulator.
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 Doping
An impurity, or element
like Arsenic, has 5 valence
electrons.
Adding Arsenic (doping)
will allow four of the
arsenic valence electrons
to bond with the
neighboring silicon atoms.
The one electron left over
for each Arsenic atom
becomes available to
conduct current flow.
Its N-type semiconductor
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 Resistance Effects of Doping
If lots of Arsenic atoms are used for
doping, there will be lots of extra
electrons so the resistance of the material
will be low and current will flow freely.
If you use only a few Boron atoms, there
will be fewer free electrons so the
resistance will be high and less current
will flow.
By controlling the doping amount,
virtually any resistance can be achieved.

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 Another Way to Dope
Dope a semiconductor material with
an atom such as Boron that has only 3
valence electrons.
The 3 electrons in the outer orbit do
form covalent bonds with its
neighboring semiconductor atoms as
before. But one electron is missing
from the bond.
This place where a fourth electron
should be is referred to as a hole.
The hole assumes a positive charge so
it can attract electrons from some
other source.
Holes become a type of current
carrier like the electron to support
current flow.
Its P-Type semiconductor
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 Types of Semiconductor Materials
The silicon doped with extra electrons
is called an N type semiconductor.
N is for negative, which is the charge
of an electron.
Silicon doped with material missing
electrons that produce locations called
holes is called P type semiconductor.
P is for positive, which is the charge
of a hole.

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 Current Flow in N- Type Semiconductors
The DC voltage source has a
positive terminal that attracts
the free electrons in the
semiconductor and pulls them
away from their atoms leaving
the atoms charged positively.
Electrons from the negative
terminal of the supply enter the
semiconductor material and are
attracted by the positive charge
of the atoms missing one of their
electrons.
Current (electrons) flows from
the positive terminal to the
negative terminal.

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 Current Flow in P- Type Semiconductors
Electrons from the negative
supply terminal are
attracted to the positive
holes and fill them.
The positive terminal of the
supply pulls the electrons
from the holes leaving the
holes to attract more
electrons.
Current (electrons) flows
from the negative terminal
to the positive terminal.
Inside the semiconductor
current flow is actually by
the movement of the holes
from positive to negative.
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 Summary
In its pure state, semiconductor material is an
excellent insulator.
The commonly used semiconductor material is
SILICON.
Semiconductor materials can be doped with
other atoms to add or subtract electrons.
An N-type semiconductor material has extra
electrons.
A P-type semiconductor material has a shortage
of electrons with vacancies called holes.
The heavier the doping, the greater the
conductivity or the lower the resistance.
By controlling the doping of SILICON the
semiconductor material can be made as
conductive as desired.
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