PHY101

Lecture Note

on

THE TOPIC: SPACE AND TIME

By

Mr. Farouk Jiya Muhammad

22nd October, 2024.

In physics, space and time are two fundamental concepts that are deeply connected.

SPACE
Space refers to the three-dimensional expanse that comprises the universe, it is often described as
a fabric that combines with time to form spacetime, it is also seen as the arena in which matter
and energy exist and interact
TIME
Time is seen as dimension that allows us to understand the sequence of events and the way they
unfold, it’s also the measurement of the duration between events, time is relative, meaning it
measurement depends on the observers frame of reference.
UNITS AND DIMENSION
Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a certain basic, arbitrarily
chosen, internationally accepted reference standard called unit. The result of a measurement of a
physical quantity is expressed by a number (or numerical measure) accompanied by a unit.
Although the number of physical quantities appears to be very large, we need only a limited
number of units for expressing all the physical quantities, since they are interrelated with one
another. The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called fundamental or base units.
The units of all other physical quantities can be expressed as combinations of the base units.
Such units obtained for the derived quantities are called derived units. A complete set of these
units, both the base units and derived units, is known as the system of units.
THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
In earlier time scientists of different countries were using different systems of units for
measurement. Three such systems, the CGS, the FPS (or British) system and the MKS system
were in use extensively till recently. The base units for length, mass and time in these systems
were as follows :
• In CGS system they were centimetre, gram and second respectively.
• In FPS system they were foot, pound and second respectively.
• In MKS system they were metre, kilogram and second respectively.
The system of units which is at present internationally accepted for measurement is the Système
Internationale d’ Unites (French for International System of Units), abbreviated as SI. The SI,
with standard scheme of symbols, units and abbreviations, was developed and recommended by
General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1971 for international usage in scientific,
technical, industrial and commercial work. Because SI units used decimal system, conversions
within the system are quite simple and convenient. We shall follow the SI units in this book. In
SI, there are seven base units as given in table below. Besides the seven base units, there are two
more units that are defined for (a) plane angle d θ as the ratio of length of arc ds to the radius r
and (b) solid angle dΩ as the ratio of the intercepted area dA of the spherical surface, described
about the apex O as the centre, to the square of its radius r, The unit for plane angle is radian
with the symbol rad and the unit for the solid angle is steradian with the symbol sr. Both these
are dimensionless quantities.
Fundamental Quantities and their Units
Fundamental units Name Symbol Definition
Length Metre m The metre is the length of the path travelled by light
in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of
a second. (1983
Mass Kilogram kg The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international
prototype of the kilogram (a platinum-iridium alloy
cylinder) kept at international Bureau of Weights and
Measures, at Sevres, near Paris, France. (1889)

Time Second s The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods

of the radiation corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state
of the cesium-133 atom. (1967)
Electric current Ampere A The ampere is that constant current which, if
maintained in two straight parallel conductors of
infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section,
and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce
between these conductors a force equal to 2×10–7
newton per metre of length. (1948)
Amount of substance Mole mol The mole is the amount of substance of a system,
which contains as many elementary entities as there
are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon - 12. (1971)
Thermodynamic Kelvin K The kelvin, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the
temperature thermodynamic dynamic temperature of the triple
point of water. (1967)
Luminous intensity Candela cd The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given
direction, of a source that emits monochromatic
radiation of frequency 540×1012 hertz and that has a
radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per
steradian. (1979)

DERIVED QUANTITIES
Besides the fundamental quantities of length, mass, and time, there are also many derived
quantities which can always be expressed in terms of the fundamental quantities. One will also
be seeing derived quantities defined in terms of other derived quantities, but ultimately
everything can be expressed as combinations of length mass and time. For now we look at
examples of such quantities.
 Derived symbol SI unit symbol Unit dimension
quantities
acceleration a meter per second m/s2 m/s2
squared
Area A square meter m2 m2
Capacitance C farad F C2.s2/kg.m2
Concentration [C] molar M mol/dm3
Density D kilogram per kg/m3 kg/m3
cubic meter
Energy E joule J kg.m2/s2
Force F newton N kg.m/s2

Scientific Notation
Expression of very large and very small quantities uses scientific notation which employs power
of 10
E,g 3805,000,000,000 = 3.805 x 1012
0.000000441 = 4.41 x 10-7
On computer it usually takes briefer look e.g 3.56E7 or 9.56E6
E stands for exponent of 10, on other computers its briefer where E is replaced with an empty
space
Other units of notation
Symbol prefix multiplier symbol prefix multiplier
da deca 101 d Deci 10-1
h hecto 102 c centi 10-2
k Kilo 103 m milli 10-3
M Mega 106 µ micro 10-6
G Giga 109 n nano 10-9
T Tetra 1012 p pico 10-12
P Peta 1015 f fento 10-15
E Exa 1018 a atto 10-18
Z Zetta 1021 z zepto 10-21
Y Yotta 1024 y yocto 10-24

Some Important Units of Length:

(i) 1 micron = 10–6 m = 10–4 cm (ii) 1 angstrom = 1Å = 10–10 m = 10–8 cm (iii) 1 fermi = 1
fm = 10–15 m (iv) 1 Light year = 1 ly = 9.46 x 1015m (v) 1 Parsec = 1pc = 3.26 light year
Some conversion factor of mass:
1 Kilogram = 2.2046 pound
1 Pound = 453.6 gram
1 kilogram = 1000 gram 1 milligram = 1/1000 gram = 10-3 gram 1 centigram = 1/100 gram =
10-2 gram
1 decigram = 1/10 gram
1 quintal = 100 kg
1 metric ton = 1000 kilogram
DIMENSION
The powers, to which the fundamental units of mass, length and time written as M, L and T are
raised, which include their nature and not their magnitude.
For example, Area = Length x Breadth
= [ L1] × [L1]
= [L2]
= [M0L2T0]
Power (0,2,0) of fundamental units are called dimensions of area in mass, length and time
respectively.
e.g. Density = mass/volume
= [M]/[L3]
= [ M1L-3T0]
Dimensional Formula: An expression along with power of mass, length & time which indicates
how physical quantity depends upon fundamental physical quantity.
e.g. Speed = Distance/Time
= [L1]/[T1]
=[M0L1T-1]
It tells us that speed depends upon L & T. It does not depend upon M.
Dimensional Equation: An equation obtained by equating the physical quantity with its
dimensional formula is called dimensional equation.
The dimensional equation of area, density & velocity are given as under-
Area = [M0L2T0]
Density = [M1L-3T0]
Velocity = [M0L1T-1]
Dimensional formula SI& CGS unit of Physical Quantities

Sr. Physical Quantity Formula Dimensions Name of S.I unit

No.
1 Force Mass × acceleration [M1L1T-2] Newton (N)
2 Work Force × distance [M1L2T-2] Joule (J)
3 Power Work / time [M1L2T-3] Watt (W)
4 Energy ( all form ) Stored work [M1L2T-2] Joule (J)
5 Pressure, Stress Force/area [M1L-1T-2] Nm-2
6 Momentum Mass × velocity [M1L1T-1] Kgms-1
7 Moment of force Force × distance [M1L2T-2] Nm
8 Impulse Force × time [M1L1T-1] Ns
9 Strain Change in [M0L0T0] No unit
dimension / Original
dimension
10 Modulus of Stress / Strain [M1L-1T-2] Nm-2
elasticity
11 Surface energy Energy / Area [M1L0T-2] Joule/m2
12 Surface Tension Force / Length [M1L0T-2] N/m
13 Co-efficient of Force × Distance/ [M1L-1T-1] N/m2
viscosity Area × Velocity
14 Moment of inertia Mass × (radius of [M1L2T0] Kg-m2
gyration)2
15 Angular Velocity Angle / time [M0L0T-1] Rad.per sec
16 Frequency 1/Time period [M0L0T-1] Hertz
17 Area Length × Breadth [M0L2T0] Metre2
18 Volume Length × breadth × [M0L3T0] Metre3
height
19 Density Mass/ volume [M1L-3T0] Kg/m3
20 Speed or velocity Distance/ time [M0L1T-1] m/s
21 Acceleration Velocity/time [M0L1T-2] m/s2
22 Pressure Force/area [M1L-1T-2] N/m2

Classification of Physical Quantity: Physical quantity has been classified into following four
categories on the basis of dimensional analysis.
1. Dimensional Constant: These are the physical quantities which possess dimensions and
have constant (fixed) value.
e.g. Planck’s constant, gas constant, universal gravitational constant etc.
 2. Dimensional Variable: These are the physical quantities which possess dimensions and
do not have fixed value.
e.g. velocity, acceleration, force etc.
3.DimensionlessConstant: These are the physical quantities which do not possess dimensions
but have constant (fixed) value.
e.g. e, 𝜋, 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 1,2,3,4,5 etc.
4. Dimensionless Variable: These are the physical quantities which do not possess dimensions
and have variable value.
e.g. angle, strain, specific gravity etc.

Example.1 Derive the dimensional formula of following Quantity & write down their
dimensions.
(i) Density (ii) Power
(iii) Co-efficient of viscosity (iv) Angle
Sol. (i) Density = mass/volume
=[M]/[L3] = [M1L-3T0]
(ii) Power = Work/Time
=Force x Distance/Time
=[M1L1T-2] x [L]/[T]
=[M1L2T-3]
Force x Distance
(iii) Co-efficient of viscosity =

Area x Velocity
Mass x Acceleration x Distance x time

length x length x Displacement

=[M] x [LT-2] x [L] [T]/[L2] x [L]

=[M1L-1T-1]
(iv) Angle = arc (length)/radius (length)

= [L]/[L]
=[M0L0T0] = no dimension
Example.2 Explain which of the following pair of physical quantities have the same dimension:

(i) Work &Power (ii) Stress & Pressure (iii) Momentum &Impulse

Sol. (i) Dimension of work = force x distance = [M1L2T-2]

Dimension of power = work / time = [M1L2T-3]

Work and Power have not the same dimensions.

(ii) Dimension of stress = force / area = [M 1L1T-2]/[L2] = [M1L-1T-2] Dimension of pressure

= force / area = [M1L1T-2]/[L2] = [M1L-1T-2]

Stress and pressure have the same dimension.

(iii) Dimension of momentum = mass x velocity= [M1L1T-1]

Dimension of impulse = force x time =[M1L1T-1]

Momentum and impulse have the same dimension.

PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENEITY OF DIMENSIONS

It states that the dimensions of all the terms on both sides of an equation must be the
same. According to the principle of homogeneity, the comparison, addition & subtraction of all
physical quantities is possible only if they are of the same nature i.e., they have the same
dimensions.
If the power of M, L and T on two sides of the given equation are same, then the physical
equation is correct otherwise not. Therefore, this principle is very helpful to check the
correctness of a physical equation.

Example: A physical relation must be dimensionally homogeneous, i.e., all the terms on both
sides of the equation must have the same dimensions.

In the equation, S = ut + ½ at2

The length (S) has been equated to velocity (u) & time (t), which at first seems to be
meaningless, But if this equation is dimensionally homogeneous, i.e., the dimensions of all the
terms on both sides are the same, then it has physical meaning.

Now, dimensions of various quantities in the equation are:

Distance, S = [L1]
Velocity, u = [L1T-1]
 Time, t = [T1]
Acceleration, a = [L1T-2]
½ is a constant and has no dimensions.
Thus, the dimensions of the term on L.H.S. is S=[L1] and Dimensions
of terms on R.H.S.

ut + ½ at2 = [L1T-1] [T1] + [L1T-2] [T2] = [L1] + [L1]

Here, the dimensions of all the terms on both sides of the equation are the same. Therefore, the
equation is dimensionally homogeneous.
APPLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS;

Dimensional Analysis: A careful examination of the dimensions of various quantities

involved in a physical relation is called dimensional analysis. The analysis of the dimensions of
a physical quantity is of great help to us in a number of ways as discussed under the uses of
dimensional equations.

Uses of dimensional equation: The principle of homogeneity & dimensional analysis has put
to the following uses:

(i)Checking the correctness of physical equation.

(ii) To convert a physical quantity from one system of units into another.
(iii) To derive relation among various physical quantities.
1. To check the correctness of Physical relations: According to principle of Homogeneity of
dimensions a physical relation or equation is correct, if the dimensions of all the terms on
both sides of the equation are the same.If the dimensions of even one term differs from
those of others, the equation is not correct.

Example 3. Check the correctness of the following formulae by dimensional analysis.

(i) 𝐹 = 𝑚v2/r
Where all the letters have their usual meanings.

Sol. 𝑭 = 𝒎𝐯𝟐/𝐫
Dimensions of the term on L.H.S
Force, F = [M1L1T-2]
Dimensions of the term on R.H.S
𝒎𝐯𝟐/𝐫 = [M1][L1T-1]2 / [L]
 =[M1L2T-2]/ [L]
=[M1L1T-2]

The dimensions of the term on the L.H.S are equal to the dimensions of the term on R.H.S.
Therefore, the relation is correct.
Limitations of Dimensional Equation: The method of dimensionshas the following
limitations:

1. It does not help us to find the value of dimensionless constants involved in various physical
relations. The values, of such constants have to be determined by some experiments or
mathematical investigations.
2. This method fails to derive formula of a physical quantity which depends upon more than
three factors. Because only three equations are obtained by comparing the powers of M, L
and T.
3. It fails to derive relations of quantities involving exponential and trigonometric functions.
4. The method cannot be directly applied to derive relations which contain more than one
terms on one side or both sides of the equation, such as v= u + at or s = ut + ½ at 2 etc.
However, such relations can be derived indirectly.
A dimensionally correct relation may not be true physical relation because the dimensional
equality is not sufficient for the correctness of a given physical relation.
 PHY101

Lecture Note

on

THE TOPIC: SCLARS AND VECTORS

By

Mr. Farouk Jiya Muhammad

29th October, 2024.

In physics, we have physical quantities classified into two; Scalars and Vectors
Scalar Quantities:
Scalar quantities are those quantities which are having only magnitude (or numerical value)
but no direction.
Examples: Mass, length, density, volume, energy, temperature, electric charge, current, electric
potential etc.
Vector Quantities:
Vector quantities are those quantities which are having both magnitude as well as direction.
Examples: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, electric intensity, magnetic intensity etc.
Differences between scalar and vectors
Scalars Vectors
Scalar quantities has only magnitude Vector quantities has both magnitude and
direction
It is specified by number and not a unit It is specified with number along with the
direction and the unit
It is represented by quantity symbol It is represented by quantity symbol in bold or
with arrow sign above
It possesses only one dimension It possesses more than one dimension
Examples are speed, distance, temperature Examples are velocity, force, acceleration etc.
etc.

Notation of Vector: A vector is represented by a straight line with an arrow head. Here, the
length of the line represents the magnitude and arrow head gives the direction of vector.

Types of Vectors

Negative Vectors: The negative of a vector is defined as another vector having same
magnitude but opposite in direction.
i.e., any vector 𝐴⃗ and its negative vector [–𝐴⃗] are as shown.

direction. If 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗⃗ are two equal vectors then

Equal Vector: Two or more vectors are said to be equal, if they have same magnitude and
 Unit Vector: A vector divided by its magnitude is called a unit vector. It has a magnitude one
unit and direction same as the direction of given vector. It is denoted by𝐴̂.

Collinear Vectors: Two or more vectors having equal or unequal magnitudes, but having
same direction are called collinear vectors.

Zero Vector: A vector having zero magnitude and arbitrary direction (be not fixed) iscalled zero
vector. It is denoted by O.
ADDITION OF VECTORS, TRIANGLE & PARALLELOGRAM LAW

Addition of Vectors

(i) Triangle law of vector addition.

If two vectors can be represented in magnitude

and direction by the two sides of a triangle taken in
the same order, then the resultant is represented in
magnitude and direction, by third side of the triangle
taken in the opposite order (Fig. 2.5).

Magnitude of the resultant is given by

And direction of the resultant is given by

(ii) Parallelogram (||gm) law of vectors:

 It states that if two vectors, acting simultaneously at a point, can have represented both in
magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, the resultant is
represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point.

Magnitude of the resultant is given by

And direction of the resultant is given by

SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCT

Multiplication of Vectors
(i)Scalar (or dot) Product: It is defined as the product of magnitude of two vectors and the

𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗⃗ is defined as

cosine of the smaller angle between them. The resultant is scalar. The dot product of vectors

(ii) Vector (or Cross) Product: It is defined as a vector having a magnitude equal to
the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and the sine of the angle between them and
is in the direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors.

Thus, the vector product of two vectors A and B is equal to

𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛̂

DEFINITION OF DISTANCE, DISPLACEMENT, SPEED, VELOCITY,

ACCELERATION

Distance: How much ground an object has covered during it motion. Distance is a scalar
quantity. SI unit is meter.

Displacement: The shortest distance between the two points is called displacement. It is a
vector quantity.
SI unit is meter.
 Dimension formula: [L]

Speed: The rate of change of distance is called speed. Speed is a scalar quantity. Unit:
ms-1.

Linear Velocity: The time rate of change of displacement.

Units of Velocity: ms-1

Dimension formula = [M0L1T-1]

Acceleration: The change in velocity per unit time. i.e. the time rate of change of velocity.

If the velocity increases with time, the acceleration ‘a’ is positive. If the velocity decreases
with time, the acceleration ‘a’ is negative. Negative acceleration is also known as
retardation.

Units of Acceleration:
C.G.S. unit is cm/s2 (cms-2) and the SI unit is m/s2 (ms-2). Dimension
formula = [M0L1T-2]
Example questions
1. An object moves 20m in 2sec, what is it velocity
2. A car increases it speed from 30 to 50km/h in 3hr, what is it acceleration, leaving your
answer in m/s2
3. An object has a displacement of 30m and a velocity of 5m/s, how long did it take to cover
this distance

Solution
1. We write out the given components
D = 20m
Time = 2sec
Velocity = ?

Remember,

V= 20/2
V= 10m/s
2. The given components are
Initial velocity (u) = 30km/hr
Final Velocity (v) = 50km/h
Time = 3 hrs
Acceleration = ?

We first convert the given values from km/h to m/s

Change in Velocity = Final Velocity – Initial velocity
= 50 – 30
= 20km/h
Also 1km = 1000m
Therefore, 20km = 20 x 1000
= 20,000m
And time 1hr = 60min x 60sec
= 3600sec
Change in velocity = 20000m
3600s
= 5.56m/s
From the given values
Time = 3hrs which is equivalent to
3 x 3600 = 10800sec

A = 5.56m/s
10800s
A = 0.000514m/s2