DC Intro - COEP

Introduction to Data Communications
Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

College of Engineering Pune (COEP) 1
Forerunners in Technical Education
Contents
• Data Communication,
• Networks and Internet,
• Protocols and Standards,
• Network Models: OSI, TCP/IP
• Analog and Digital data,
• Periodic Analog Signal,
• Digital Signal,
• Transmission Impairments,
• Data Rate Limits,
• Performance.
• Signal Conversion: digital-to-digital, Analog-to-Digital, Analog-to-Analog,
Digital-to-Analog Conversion

Introduction
• When we communicate - we are sharing information.
• This sharing can be local or remote.
• Between individuals, local communication usually occurs
face to face
• While remote communication takes place over distance.
• The term telecommunication, which includes telephony,
telegraphy, and television, means communication at a
distance (tele is Greek for "far").
• The word data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data.

Data Communications
• DC is the exchange of data between two devices via
some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
• For data communications, the communicating devices
must be part of a communication system made up of a
combination of hardware (physical equipment) and
software (programs)
• The effectiveness of a DC system depends on four
fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy,
timeliness, and jitter.

Effectiveness of DC System
• Delivery
• The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
Data must be received by the intended device or user
and only by that device or user.
• Accuracy
• The system must deliver the data accurately.
• Data that have been altered in transmission and left
uncorrected are unusable.

• Timeliness
• The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
• Data delivered late are useless.
• In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means
delivering data as they are produced, in the same order
that they are produced, and without significant delay
• This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.

• Jitter
• Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
• It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video
packets.
• For example,
• let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms.
• If some of the packets arrive with 30 ms delay and others
with 40ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the
result.

Components of DC System
• Message
• Sender
• Receiver
• Transmission Medium
• Protocol

• Message
• The message is the information (data) to be
communicated.
• Popular forms of information include text, numbers,
pictures, audio, and video.
• Sender
• The sender is the device that sends the data
message.
• It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset,
video camera, and so on.

• Receiver
• The receiver is the device that receives the message.
• It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset,
television, and so on.
• Transmission Medium
• The physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver.
• Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable,
and radio waves.

• Protocol
• A set of rules that govern data communications.
• It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices.
• Without a protocol, two devices may be connected
but not communicating,
• Just as a person speaking French cannot be
understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.

A protocol performs the following functions:
• Data sequencing
• It refers to breaking a long message into smaller
packets of fixed size.
• Data sequencing rules define the method of
numbering packets to detect loss or duplication of
packets, and to correctly identify packets, which
belong to same message.
• Data routing.
• Data routing defines the most efficient path between
the source and destination.

• Data formatting - Data formatting rules define which
group of bits or characters within packet constitute
data, control, addressing, or other information.
• Flow control A communication protocol also prevents

a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver. It
ensures resource sharing and protection against traffic
congestion by regulating the flow of data on
communication lines.

• Error control These rules are designed to detect
errors in messages and to ensure transmission of
correct messages. The most common method is to
retransmit erroneous message block. In such a case,
a block having error is discarded by the receiver and is
retransmitted by the sender.
• Precedence and order of transmission These rules

ensure that all the nodes get a chance to use the
communication lines and other resources of the
network based on the priorities assigned to them.

• Connection establishment and termination These
rules define how connections are established,
maintained and terminated when two nodes of a
network want to communicate with each other.
• Data security Providing data security and privacy is

also built into most communication software packages.
It prevents access of data by unauthorized users.

• Log information Several communication software are
designed to develop log information, which consists of
all jobs and data communications tasks that have
taken place. Such information may be used for
charging the users of the network based on their
usage of the network resources.

Data Representation
Information today comes in different forms such as
• Text,
• Numbers,
• Images,
• Audio, and
• Video.

1. Text
• Text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits
(Os or 1s).
• Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to
represent text symbols.
• Each set is called a code, and the process of
representing symbols is called coding.
• Today, the prevalent coding system is called Unicode,
which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character
used in any language in the world.

1. Text
• The American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII), developed some decades ago in
the United States
• Now constitutes the first 127 characters in Unicode
and is also referred to as Basic Latin

2. Numbers
• Numbers are also represented by bit patterns.
• However, a code such as ASCII is not used to
represent numbers;
• The number is directly converted to a binary number to
simplify mathematical operations

3. Images
• Images are also represented by bit patterns.
• In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix
of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a
small dot.
• The size of the pixel depends on the resolution. For
example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or
10,000 pixels.
• In the second case, there is a better representation of
the image (better resolution), but more memory is
needed to store the image.

3. Images
• After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is
assigned a bit pattern.
• The size and the value of the pattern depend on the
image.
• For an image made of only black-and-white dots (e.g.,
a chessboard), a 1-bit pattern is enough to represent a
pixel.
• If an image is not made of pure white and pure black
pixels, you can increase the size of the bit pattern to
include gray scale.

3. Images
• For Example
• To show four levels of gray scale, you can use 2-bit
patterns.
• A black pixel can be represented by 00,
• A dark gray pixel by 01,
• A light gray pixel by 10, and
• A white pixel by 11.

3. Images
• There are several methods to represent color images.
• The intensity of each color is measured, and a bit
pattern is assigned to it.
• One method is called RGB, so called because each
color is made of a combination of three primary colors:
red, green, and blue.
• Another method is called YCM, in which a color is
made of a combination of three other primary colors:
yellow, cyan, and magenta.

3. Audio
• Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound
or music.
• Audio is by nature different from text, numbers, or
images.
• It is continuous, not discrete.
• Even when we use a microphone to change voice or
music to an electric signal, we create a continuous
signal.
• we learn how to change sound or music to a digital or
an analog signal.

3. Video
• Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a
picture or movie.
• Video can either be produced as a continuous entity
(e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of
images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the
idea of motion.
• Again we can change video to a digital or an analog
signal, as we will see in next content.

Data Flow
• Communication between two devices can be
• Simplex,
• Half-Duplex, or
• Full-Duplex

Simplex
• The communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way
street
• Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the
other can only receive (see Figure)
• Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of
simplex devices.
• The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor
can only accept output.
• The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the
channel to send data in one direction.

Simplex
• BogusBus is an example of simplex communication,

where the transmitter sent information to the remote
monitoring location, but no information is ever sent
back to the water tank. If all we want to do is send
information one-way, then simplex is just fine. Most
applications, however, demand more:

Half-Duplex
• Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at
the same time
• When one device is sending, the other can only
receive, and vice versa (see Figure)

Half-Duplex
• The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with
traffic allowed in both directions.
• When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going
the other way must wait.
• In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a
channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices
is transmitting at the time.

Half-Duplex
• Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both
half-duplex systems.
• The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is
no need for communication in both directions at the
same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be
utilized for each direction.

Full-Duplex ( Duplex)
• both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously
(see Figure)
• The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with
traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.

• In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction
share the capacity of the link with signals going in the
other direction.
• This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link
must contain two physically separate transmission
paths, one for sending and the other for receiving; or
the capacity of the channel is divided between signals
traveling in both directions

• One common example of full-duplex communication is
the telephone network.
• When two people are communicating by a telephone
line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
• The full-duplex mode is used when communication in
both directions is required all the time.
• The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided
between the two directions.

Networks
• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as
nodes) connected by communication links.
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network
• Distributed Processing
• Most networks use distributed processing, in which a
task is divided among multiple computers.
• Instead of one single large machine being responsible
for all aspects of a process, separate computers
handle a subset.

Network Criteria
• A network must be able to meet a certain number of
criteria.
• The most important of these are
• Performance
• Reliability and
• Security

Performance
• Performance can be measured in many ways,
including transit time and response time.
• Transit time is the amount of time required for a
message to travel from one device to another.
• Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry
and a response.
• The performance of a network depends on a number
of factors, including the number of users, the type of
transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected hardware, and the efficiency of the
software.

Performance
• Performance is often evaluated by two networking
metrics: throughput and delay.
• We often need more throughput and less delay.
• However, these two criteria are often contradictory.
• If we try to send more data to the network, we may
increase throughput but we increase the delay
because of traffic congestion in the network.

Reliability
• In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is
measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes
a link to recover from a failure, and the network's
robustness in a catastrophe.
• (Catastrophe -an event causing great and usually

sudden damage or suffering; a disaster.)

Security
• Network security issues includes
• Protecting data from unauthorized access,
• Protecting data from damage and development,
and
• Implementing policies and procedures for recovery
from breaches and data losses.

Physical Structures : Type of Connection
• A network is two or more devices connected through
links.
• A link is a communications pathway that transfers data
from one device to another.
• For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine
any link as a line drawn between two points.
• For communication to occur, two devices must be
connected in some way to the same link at the same
time.
• There are two possible types of connections: point-to-
point and multipoint.

Point-to-Point
• Provides a dedicated link between two devices.
• The entire capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two devices.
• Most p2p connections use an actual length of wire or
cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such
as microwave or satellite links, are also possible(see
Figure )

Point-to-Point
• When you change television channels by infrared
remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point
connection between the remote control and the
television's control system.

Multipoint
• A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one
in which more than two specific devices share a single
link (see Figure)

Multipoint
• In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the
channel is shared, either spatially or temporally
• If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is
a spatially shared connection
• If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection

Physical Topology
• Topology refers to the way in which a network is laid
out physically.
• Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more
links form a topology.
• The topology of a network is the geometric
representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
• There are four basic topologies possible.

Categories of topology

Mesh Topology
• Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to
every other device.
• The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic
only between the two devices it connects.
• To find the number of physical links in a fully
connected mesh network with n nodes,
• We first consider that each node must be connected to
every other node.
• Node 1 must be connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must
be connected to n – 1 nodes, and finally node n must
be connected to n - 1 nodes.

A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

Advantages
• The use of dedicated links guarantees that each
connection can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when
links must be shared by multiple devices.
• Robust If one link becomes unusable, it does not
incapacitate the entire system.
• Privacy or security When every message travels
along a dedicated line, only the intended recipient
sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from
gaining access to messages.

Advantages
• Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault
isolation easy. Traffic can be routed to avoid links with
suspected problems. This facility enables the network
manager to discover the precise location of the fault
and aids in finding its cause and solution.

Disadvantages
• The amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports
required. Because every device must be connected to
every other device, installation and reconnection are
difficult.
• The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the
available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can
accommodate.
• The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports
and cable) can be prohibitively expensive.

Mesh Topology
• For these reasons a mesh topology is usually
implemented in a limited fashion, for example, as a
backbone connecting the main computers of a hybrid
network that can include several other topologies.
• One practical example of a mesh topology is the
connection of telephone regional offices in which each
regional office needs to be connected to every other
regional office.

Star Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to
a central controller, usually called a hub.
• The devices are not directly linked to one another.
• Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow
direct traffic between devices.
• The controller acts as an exchange: If one device
wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the
controller, which then relays the data to the other
connected device (see Figure)

Star Topology
Figure : A star topology connecting four stations

Star Topology : Advantages
• A star topology is less expensive than a mesh
topology.
In a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O
port to connect it to any number of others.
This factor also makes it easy to install and
reconfigure.
Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions,
moves, and deletions involve only one connection:
between that device and the hub.

Star Topology : Advantages
• Robustness
• If one link fails, only that link is affected.
• All other links remain active.
• This factor also lends itself to easy fault
identification and fault isolation.
• As long as the hub is working, it can be used to
monitor link problems and bypass defective links.

Star Topology : Disadvantages
• Dependency the whole topology on one single point,
the hub
If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh,
each node must be linked to a central hub
For this reason, often more cabling is required in a star
than in some other topologies (such as ring or bus).
• The star topology is used in local-area networks
(LANs) and High-speed LANs often use a star
topology with a central hub.

Bus Topology
• A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint.
• One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the
devices in a network (see Figure)
Figure : A bus topology connecting three stations

Bus Topology
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines
and taps.
• A drop line is a connection running between the device
and the main cable.
• A tap is a connector that either splices into the main
cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a
contact with the metallic core.
• As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its
energy is transformed into heat.

Bus Topology
• Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels
farther and farther
• For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a
bus can support and on the distance between those
taps.

Bus Topology : Advantages
• Ease of Installation
A bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.
In a star, for example, four network devices in the
same room require four lengths of cable reaching all
the way to the hub.
In a bus, this redundancy is eliminated. Only the
backbone cable stretches through the entire facility.
Each drop line has to reach only as far as the nearest
point on the backbone.

Bus Topology : Disadvantages
• Difficult reconnection and fault isolation
• A bus is usually designed to be optimally efficient at
installation.
• It can therefore be difficult to add new devices.
• Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in
quality.
• This degradation can be controlled by limiting the
number and spacing of devices connected to a given
length of cable.
• Adding new devices may therefore require
modification or replacement of the backbone.

Bus Topology : Disadvantages
• In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all
transmission, even between devices on the same side
of the problem.
• The damaged area reflects signals back in the
direction of origin, creating noise in both directions.
• Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used
in the design of early local area networks.
• Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but they are
less popular now.

Ring Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection
with only the two devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from
device to device, until it reaches its destination.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
• When a device receives a signal intended for another
device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes
them along (see Figure)

Ring Topology
Figure : A ring topology connecting six stations

Ring Topology : Advantage
• Easy to install and reconfigure
• Each device is linked to only its immediate
neighbors (either physically or logically).
• To add or delete a device requires changing only
two connections.
• The only constraints are media and traffic
considerations (maximum ring length and
number of devices)..

Ring Topology : Advantage
• Fault isolation is simplified
• Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all
times.
• If one device does not receive a signal within a
specified period, it can issue an alarm.
• The alarm alerts the network operator to the
problem and its location.

Ring Topology : Disadvantage
• Unidirectional traffic
• In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a
disabled station) can disable the entire network.
• This weakness can be solved by using a dual
ring or a switch capable of closing off the break.

Ring Topology : Applications
• Ring topology was prevalent when IBM introduced its
local-area network Token Ring.
• Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has made this
topology less popular.

Hybrid Topology
• A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a
main star topology with each branch connecting
several stations in a bus topology as shown in Figure.

Network Models
• Computer networks are created by different entities.
• Standards are needed so that these heterogeneous
networks can communicate with one another.
• The two best-known standards are the OSI model and
the Internet model.
• The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model
defines a seven-layer network;
• The Internet model defines a five-layer network.

Categories of Networks
• Today when we speak of networks, we are generally
referring to two primary categories: Local-area
networks and wide-area networks.
• The category into which a network falls is determined
by its size.
• A LAN normally covers an area less than 2 miters; a
WAN can be worldwide.
• Networks of a size in between are normally referred to
as metropolitan area networks and span tens of miles.

Local Area Network
• LAN is usually privately owned and links the devices in
a single office, building, or campus
• Depending on the needs of an organization and the
type of technology used, a LAN can be as simple as
two PCs and a printer in someone's home office; or it
can extend throughout a company and include audio
and video peripherals.
• Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.

Local Area Network
An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

Local Area Network
• LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared
between personal computers or workstations.
• The resources to be shared can include hardware
(e.g., a printer), software (e.g., an application
program), or data.
• A common example of a LAN, found in many business
environments, links a workgroup of task-related
computers, for example, engineering workstations or
accounting PCs.
• One of the computers may be given a large capacity
disk drive and may become a server to clients.

Local Area Network
• Software can be stored on this central server and used
as needed by the whole group.
• In this example, the size of the LAN may be
determined by licensing restrictions on the number of
users per copy of software, or by restrictions on the
number of users licensed to access the operating
system.

Local Area Network
• LANs are distinguished from other types of networks
by their transmission media and topology.
• In general, a given LAN will use only one type of
transmission medium.
• The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and
star.
• Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per
second (Mbps) range.
• Today, speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.
• Wireless LANs are the newest evolution in LAN
technology

Wide Area Network
• WAN provides long-distance transmission of data,
image, audio, and video information over large
geographic areas that may comprise a country, a
continent, or even the whole world
• A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that
connect the Internet or as simple as a dial-up line that
connects a home computer to the Internet
• We normally refer to the first as a switched WAN and
to the second as a point-to-point WAN (Figure )

Wide Area Network

Wide Area Network
• The switched WAN connects the end systems, which
usually comprise a router (internetworking connecting
device) that connects to another LAN or WAN.
• The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from
a telephone or cable TV provider that connects a
home computer or a small LAN to an Internet service
provider (lSP).
• This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet
access.

Metropolitan Area Networks
• MAN is a network with a size between a LAN and a
WAN.
• It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.
• It is designed for customers who need a high-speed
connectivity, normally to the Internet, and have
endpoints spread over a city or part of city.
• A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephone
company network that can provide a high-speed DSL
line to the customer.

Metropolitan Area Networks
• Another example is the cable TV network that
originally was designed for cable TV, but today can
also be used for high-speed data connection to the
Internet

Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork
• Today, it is very rare to see a LAN, a MAN, or a LAN in
isolation; they are connected to one another.
• When two or more networks are connected, they
become an internetwork, or internet.

Internetwork : Example
• Assume that an organization has two offices, one on
the east coast and the other on the west coast.
• The established office on the west coast has a bus
topology LAN; the newly opened office on the east
coast has a star topology LAN.
• The president of the company lives somewhere in the
middle and needs to have control over the company
from her home.
• To create a backbone WAN for connecting these three
entities (two LANs and the president's computer), a
switched WAN (operated by a service provider such as
a telecom company) has been leased.

• To connect the LANs to this switched WAN, however,
three point-to-point WANs are required.
• These point-to-point WANs can be a high-speed DSL
line offered by a telephone company or a cable
modern line offered by a cable TV provider as shown
in Figure.


The Internet
• The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our
daily lives.
• Count the ways you've used the Internet recently.
• Perhaps you've sent electronic mail (e-mail) to a
business associate, paid a utility bill, read a
newspaper from a distant city, or looked up a local
movie schedule-all by using the Internet or maybe you
researched a medical topic, booked a hotel
reservation, chatted with a fellow , or comparison-
shopped for a car.

The Internet
• The Internet is a communication system that has
brought a wealth of information to our fingertips and
organized it for our use.
• The Internet is a structured, organized system.

The Internet Today
• The Internet has come a long way since the 1960s.
• The Internet today is not a simple hierarchical
structure.
• It is made up of many wide- and local-area networks
joined by connecting devices and switching stations.
• It is difficult to give an accurate representation of the
Internet because it is continually changing-new
networks are being added, existing networks are
adding addresses, and networks of defunct companies
are being removed.

The Internet Today
• Today most end users who want Internet connection
use the services of Internet service providers (lSPs).
• There are international service providers, national
service providers, regional service providers, and local
service providers.
• The Internet today is run by private companies, not the
government.
• Figure shows a conceptual (not geographic) view of
the Internet.

The Internet Today

International Internet Service Providers
• At the top of the hierarchy are the international service
providers that connect nations together.

National Internet Service Providers
• These are backbone networks created and maintained
by specialized companies.
• There are many national ISPs operating in North
America; some of the most well known are SprintLink,
PSINet, UUNet Technology, AGIS, and internet Mel.
• To provide connectivity between the end users, these
backbone networks are connected by complex
switching stations (normally run by a third party) called
network access points (NAPs).

National Internet Service Providers
• Some national ISP networks are also connected to
one another by private switching stations called
peering points.
• These normally operate at a high data rate (up to 600
Mbps).

Regional Internet Service Providers
• Regional internet service providers or regional ISPs
are smaller ISPs that are connected to one or more
national ISPs.
• They are at the third level of the hierarchy with a
smaller data rate.

Local Internet Service Providers
• Local Internet service providers provide direct service
to the end users.
• The local ISPs can be connected to regional ISPs or
directly to national ISPs.
• Most end users are connected to the local ISPs.
• Note that in this sense, a local ISP can be a company
that just provides Internet services, a corporation with
a network that supplies services to its own employees,
or a nonprofit organization, such as a college or a
university, that runs its own network.

Local Internet Service Providers
• Each of these local ISPs can be connected to a
regional or national service provider.

Protocols and Standards
• In this section, we define two widely used terms:
protocols and standards.
• First, we define protocol, which is synonymous with
rule.
• Then we discuss standards, which are agreed-upon
rules.

Forerunners in Technical Education 0
Protocols
• In computer networks, communication occurs between
entities in different systems.
• An entity is anything capable of sending or receiving
information.
• However, two entities cannot simply send bit streams
to each other and expect to be understood.
• For communication to occur, the entities must agree
on a protocol.

Protocols
• A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated.
• The key elements of a protocol are
• Syntax,
• Semantics, and
• Timing.

Syntax
• It refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning
the order in which they are presented.
• For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8
bits of data to be the address of the sender, the
second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and
the rest of the stream to be the message itself.

Semantics
• The word semantics refers to the meaning of each
section of bits.
• How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what
action is to be taken based on that interpretation?
• For example, does an address identify the route to be
taken or the final destination of the message?

Timing
• The term timing refers to two characteristics: when
data should be sent and how fast they can be sent.
• For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps
but the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the
transmission will overload the receiver and some data
will be lost.

Standards
• Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an
open and competitive market for equipment
manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and
international interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and processes.
• Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers,
vendors, government agencies, and other service
providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity
necessary in today's marketplace and in international
communications.

Standards Organizations
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• International Telecommunication Union-
Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA)


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Introduction to Data Communications

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

• Flow control A communication protocol also prevents

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

• Precedence and order of transmission These rules

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

• Data security Providing data security and privacy is

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

• BogusBus is an example of simplex communication,

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

• (Catastrophe -an event causing great and usually

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology