UNIT 1

Fundamentals of Data
communication
 1.1 Data
• Data is defined as information which is stored
in digital form.
• A single data unit is called Datum
• Data communication is a process of
exchanging the digital information between
two points.
 Data…..
• The term telecommunication means
communication at a distance. The word data
refers to information presented in whatever
form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data. Data communications are
the exchange of data between two devices via
some form of transmission medium such as a
wire cable.
 Types of Data
• Data correspond to alphabets , numeric or
symbols.
• It consists of any one of following :
Microprocessor , Opcodes , control codes , User
addresses , program data or data base
information.
At source or destination the data is in digital form
but during transmission it may be in the form of
analog or digital signals.
 Types of Data
• The aim of data communication and networking
is to allow the exchange of data such as audio ,
text , and video between any point in world.
• The transfer of data takes place over a
computer network
• A network is like a path or a road over which
the data travels smoothly from sender to
destination.
1.2 Introduction to data communication

• Data communication refers to the

exchange of data between a source and a
receiver via form of transmission media
such as a wire cable. Data
communication is said to be local if
communicating devices are in the same
building or a similarly restricted
geographical area.
 Definition of Data communication
• Data communications are the exchange of
data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable. For
data communications to occur, the
communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a
combination of hardware (physical
equipment) and software (programs)
 For example,
• a common example of data communications is a
computer connected to the Internet via a Wi-Fi
connection, which uses a wireless medium to send
and receive data from one or more remote servers.
• Some devices/technologies used in data
communications are known as data communication
equipment (DCE) and data terminal equipment
(DTE). DCE is used at the sending node, and DTE is
used at the receiving node.
 Characteristics of data communication

• The effectiveness of a data communications

system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness,
and jitter.
Characteristics of data communication

1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the

correct destination. Data must be received by
the intended device or user and only by that
device or user.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data
accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
Characteristics of data communication
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely
manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case of
video and audio, timely delivery means delivering
data as they are produced, in the same order that
they are produced, and without significant delay. This
kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet
arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of
audio or video packets.
1.3 Components of a data communication system
1.3 Components of data communication

A data communications system has five

components.
1. Message: The message is the information (data)
to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures,
audio, and video.
2. Sender :The sender is the device that sends the
data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
 Components of data communication
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives
the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium:The transmission medium
is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission
media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-
optic cable, and radio waves
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern
data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices.
 Protocols & Standards
• For successful communication to occur , it is
not enough for the sender to simply transmit
the message and assume that the receiver will
receive it properly.
• There are certain rules that must be followed
to ensure proper communication.
 Definition

• A protocol is defined as set of rules agreed

upon by the sending and receiving computer
system to facilitate a proper communication
between them.
• Such rules and procedures are called as
protocols.
• Different types of protocols are used in data
communication.
 Process of data communication
• In data communication a message consist of
more than one character . A group of
characters forms a block.
• In order to send a message it is broken up into
smaller blocks and each block is separately
identified by transmitting one or more special
characters before or after each block.
 Process of data communication
• Some of the characters at the beginning and end
of each block are used for handshaking purpose.
• Demonstrates the basic handshaking process
1. The transmitter start by sending a Ready signal
to the receiver to indicate to the receiver that it
wants to send a character.
2. The receiver identifies this signal and
communicates its status (busy/ready) on the
busy line to the transmitter,
 Process of data communication
3. If the receiver is busy then it is indicated by
the receiver by sending a character on busy line.
4. The transmitter will wait the receiver is busy
and will send the data only when the receiver
isnot busy and the transmitter becomes ready.
 Important Elements of protocol
• The most important elements of a protocol are :
1.Syntax : Generally the data is presented in a particular
structure or format or order . The structure or format or order
in which the data is presented is known as its syntax. or
format or order

2.Semantics : A protocol defines the meaning of each section

of data bits or interprets a particular pattern of data bits. This
is known as semantics of a protocol .

3.Timing: The third element of a protocol is timing. It takes

into consideration the instant of sending the data is to be
sent.
 standards

• Definition :
Data communication standards are defined
as the guidelines to the product manufacturers
and vendors to ensure national and
international interconnectivity.
Need : standards are needed for ensuring the
interconnectivity and interoperability among
various hardware and software components.
Without standards , it is not possible to ensure
connectivity and interoperability worldwide.
 Standards
• Classification : Data communication standards
are classified into two categories :
1. De facto standards 2.De jure standards
1. De facto standards : The meaning of De facto is ‘
by fact’ or ‘ by convention’
These standards are established by manufacturers
and adopted as standards due to their widespread
use , but they are not approved by standards
organizations.
 Standards
• 2.De jure standards : The meaning of this word
is ‘by law’ or ‘ by regulation’ . So De jure
standards are standards which have the
backing of law or have been approved by
standard organizations.
 Standards
Advantages :
1.Many computers from all the world can
connect together for communicating , because
they are using the international standards.
2.Easier maintenance and installation because
you get used on the standard.
3.Upgradation and adoption of standard
becomes easy.
 Standards
Disadvantages :
1.Problems occur in standards , it takes time to
solve as it involves all international regulating
bodies,
2.All companies and manufacturers must
compulsorily follow standards to communicate.
3.The standards cannot be modified or
customized as per the need by individuals.
 Standard organizations
• Need of Standard organizations : the Standard
organizations are needed due to following
reasons
1.create and maintain an open and competitive
market for manufacturers.
2.They guarantee national and international
interoperability of data and telecommunication
technology and processes.
3.They provide guideline for manufacturers.
 Standard organizations
• The data and communication standards are
developed through collective efforts of
committees , forums and government
regulatory agencies specially formed for
creation of standards.
 Standard organizations
Standards Creation Committees
a) International Standards Organization (ISO)
b) International Telecommunications Union
(ITU)
c) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
d) Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE)
e) Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
f) Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 a) International Standards Organization (ISO)

- A multinational body whose membership is drawn

mainly from the standards creation committees of
various governments throughout the world
- Dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards in a variety field.
- Currently includes 82 memberships industrialized
nations.
- Aims to facilitate the international exchange of
goods and services by providing models for
compatibility, improved quality, increased quality,
increased productivity and decreased prices.
 b) International Telecommunications Union
(ITU)
- Also known as International
Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication
Standards Sector (ITU-T)
- An international standards organization related
to the United Nations that develops standards
for telecommunications.
- Two popular standards developed by ITU-T are:
i) V series – transmission over phone lines
ii) X series – transmission over public digital
networks, email and directory services and
ISDN.
 c) American National Standards Institute
(ANSI)
- A non-profit corporation not affiliated with US
government.
- ANSI members include professional societies,
industry associations, governmental and
regulatory bodies, and consumer groups.
- Discussing the internetwork planning and
engineering, ISDN services, signaling, and
architecture and optical hierarchy.
 d) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

- The largest national professional group involved

in developing standards for computing,
communication, electrical engineering, and
electronics.
- Aims to advance theory, creativity and product
quality in the fields of electrical engineering,
electronics and radio.
- It sponsored an important standard for local
area networks called Project 802 (eg. 802.3,
802.4 and 802.5 standards.)
 e) Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

- An association of electronics manufacturers in

the US.
- Provide activities include public awareness
education and lobbying efforts in addition to
standards development.
- Responsible for developing the EIA-232-D and
EIA-530 standards
f) Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

- Concerned with speeding the growth and

evolution of Internet communications.
- The standards body for the Internet itself
- Reviews internet software and hardware
 Signals
• A signal is an electromagnetic
or electrical current that carries data from one
system or network to another. In electronics,
a signal is often a time-varying voltage that is
also an electromagnetic wave carrying
information, though it can take on other forms,
such as current.
 Analog & Digital data
• Analog data : The human voice is the best
example of analog data .When a person
speaks , an analog wave is created in air.
• Digital data : The data is stored in computer
memory in the form of 0s & 1s is digital data.
 Analog & Digital data
Analog signals : There are the signals which can
have infinite number of different magnitudes or
values . They are continuously with time . Sine
wave , triangular wave etc. are the examples of
analog signal.
An analog signal is any continuous signal for
which the time-varying feature of the signal is a
representation of some other time-varying
quantity, i.e., analogous to another time-
varying signal
• Digital signal : A signal is called as digital signal
if has only a finite number of predetermined
distinct magnitudes.
Comparison of analog and digital signal
 Classification of Signals
• signals
 Periodic and Non periodic Signals
• A signal which repeats itself after a fixed time period
in called a Periodic Signal. The periodicity of a signal
can be defined mathematically as follows :
• x(t)=x(t+T o) : condition of periodicity
• Where T o(zero) is called as the period of signal x(t)
in other words , signal x(t) repeats itself after a
period of T o sec.
• Examples of periodic signals are sine wave , cosine
wave , square wave
 Periodic signal
• Periodic signal
 Non Periodic signal
• Non Periodic signal
 Non periodic signal
• A signal which does not repeat itself after a fixed
time period or does not repeat at all is called as a
non periodic or aperiodic signal.
• The non periodic signals do not satisfy the
condition of periodicity signal
• I,e For a non periodic signal
x(t) not equal to x(t+T o)
Sometimes it is said that an aperiodic signal has a
period T o = infinity
Composite signal and Transmission medium

• The data is generally in the form of pulses and

pulse is a Composite signal contain many
frequencies.
• Note that the peculiar shape of a pulse is due to
the sum of specific frequencies at specific
amplitudes and phases.
• If there is any change in the amplitudes or phase
of these frequency components , then the shape
of the pulse will not remain the same.
 Transmission medium
• The signal always travels over some medium from
sender to destination
• Transmission media is a communication channel that
carries the information from the sender to the receiver.
Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic
signals. The main functionality of the transmission
media is to carry the information in the form of bits
through LAN(Local Area Network)
• The medium can be a coaxial cable , optical fibre etc.
 Transmission medium
• Transmission medium
 Bandwidth of a Signal
• Bandwidth is defined as the portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a Signal.
• Bandwidth as frequency range over which an
information signal is transmitted .
• Bandwidth is the difference between the upper
and lower frequency limits of the signal.
• We already know the different types of
bandwidth signals such as video signal , music
signal , TV signal etc.
 Bandwidth of a Signal
• Each of these signal will have its own frequency
range.
• This frequency range of signal is known as its
bandwidth
Sr.no. Types of signal Range of Bandwidth in Hz
frequency in Hz

Sr.no. Types of Range of Bandwidth in

signal frequency in Hz
01 Voice 300-3400
Hz 3,100
signal(speech) for
01 Voice
telephony 300-3400 3,100
signal(speech)
for telephony
02 02 MusicMusic
signalsignal 20-15000
20-15000 14,980
14,980
03 TV 0-5 MHz 5 MHz
03 TV signal(picture)
signal(picture) 0-5 MHz 5 MHz
04

04 Digital data *300 -3400(If it is 3,100

using the
telephone line for
its transmission)
 Frequency spectrum
• Frequency spectrum is representation of a signal
in the frequency domain .
• It can be obtained by using either Fourier series
or Fourier transform.
• It consist of the amplitude and phase spectrums
of the signal.
• Frequency spectrum indicates the amplitude and
phase of various frequency components present
in the given signal.
Bandwidth of Medium (Channel Bandwidth)

• The range of frequencies that contain the

information is called as the bandwidth.
• But the term channel bandwidth is used to
describe the range of frequencies required to
transmit the desired information.
• Example : Amplitude modulation (AM)
systems needs a channel bandwidth of 10kHz
to transmit a signal of 5kHz bandwidth.
Bandwidth of Medium (Channel Bandwidth)

• But the single sideband system(SSB) needs

only 5 kHz channel bandwidth to transmit the
same signal.
• Bandwidth of medium ( also called as channel
bandwidth) is defined as the maximum
frequency it can allow to pass through it
without distorting the shape of the signal.
 Digital signals
• A digital signal is a discrete time signal having finite
number of amplitudes. Example : A 0 is represented
by zero volt and 1 by some positive voltage.
• Bit Interval : The bit interval is the time
corresponding to one single bit (0 or 1)
• The bit interval is the time required to send one
single bit . This means that the bit rate is number
of bits sent in one second, usually expressed
in bits per seconds (bps)
 Digital signals
• Bit rate : It is defined as the number of bits
transmitted or sent in one second .
• It represented in bits per second(bps)
• Relation between bit rate and bit interval is as
follows :
• Bit Rate = 1 / Bit interval
• Bit rate is also called as signaling rate and is
defined as the number of bits which can be
transmitted in a second.
 Digital signals
• Baud Rate : It is defined as unit of signaling
speed or modulation rate or the rate of
symbol transmission.
• It indicate the rate at which a signal level
changes over a given period of time.
Modes of Communication
 Digital to Analog conversion
• In the process of D to A conversion the digital
data at the input is converted into an analog
signals.
• These analog signals are transmitted over the
transmission medium.
• The most important application of D to A
conversion is for transmitting digital data
through the public telephone network.
 Digital to Analog conversion
• The D to A conversion is done by the modems
to convert the digital data from the computer
into the analog signals that are sent on the
lines for the Internet.
 Needs of Digital carrier wave modulation

• D to A Conversion is also called as digital carrier

wave modulation.
• PCM(Pulse code modulation) converts analog
message signal into a digital signal
• Now we will learn some techniques which
convert the digital message signal into an analog
signal and then transmits it.
• Such modulation schemes are called as digital
carrier modulation schemes.
Types of Digital Carrier Modulation
• There are three types of Modulation
techniques for transmission of digital signals.
• These methods are based on the three
characteristics of a sinusoidal signal ,
amplitude , frequency and phase. The
corresponding modulation methods are then
called as :
 Modulations
 Amplitude Shift Keying
 Frequency Shift Keying
 Phase Shift Keying
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
 Amplitude Modulation
• A carrier signal is modulated only in amplitude
value
• The modulating signal is the envelope of the
carrier
• The required bandwidth is 2B, where B is the
bandwidth of the modulating signal
• Since on both sides of the carrier freq. fc, the
spectrum is identical, we can discard one half,
thus requiring a smaller bandwidth for
transmission.
 Amplitude Modulation
• ASK is the digital carrier modulation in which
the amplitude of the sinusoidal carrier will
take one of the two predetermined values in
response to 0 or 1 value of digital input signal.
Amplitude Modulation
 Frequency Modulation
• The modulating signal changes the freq. fc of
the carrier signal
• The bandwidth for FM is high
• It is approx. 10x the signal frequency
• FSK is the type of digital modulation in which ,
the frequency of a sinusoidal carrier is shifted
between two discrete values, in response to
value (0 or 1) of the digital signal.
 Frequency Modulation
• One of the frequencies (f1) represents a
binary ‘1’ and the other value (fo) represents a
binary ‘0’.
FM
FM band allocation
 Phase Modulation (PM)
• The modulating signal only changes the phase
of the carrier signal.
• The phase change manifests itself as a
frequency change but the instantaneous
frequency change is proportional to the
derivative of the amplitude.
• The bandwidth is higher than for AM.
 Pulse code modulation
• PCM is type of Pulse modulation PAM but there is
an important difference between them.
• PAM is analog pulse modulation system whereas
PCM is a digital pulse modulation system
• That means PCM output is in coded digital form.
• It is in the form of digital pulses of constant
amplitude, width and position.
 Pulse code modulation
• The information is transmitted in the form of
‘code words’. A PCM system consists of a PCM
encoder(transmitter) and a PCM
decoder(receiver).
• Essential operations in the PCM transmitter are
sampling , quantizing and encoding.
• All these operations are usually performed in
the same circuit called as analog - to – digital
(A to D) converter.