UNIT TWO

OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH PROCESS

•BASIC RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY
There is a lot of patient data in clinical documents
Most data is difficult to extract for research or automation
of routine operational tasks
Terminologies may improve accessibility of clinical data
Terminologies are formal representations of entities and
their interrelationships.
Embodied as concepts and terms
Concepts are universal definitional meanings
Terms are evocative words or phrases.
Best terminology help improve research data in terms of:
Interoperability
Clarity
Consistency
Query-ability (accuracy and precision)
Manipulability
• Some of basic research terminology:
– Concepts/Constructs
– Conceptual Framework
– Operational Definition
– Variables
– Data
– Hypothesis (Research Or Null/Statistical)
– Problem Statement
– Sample/Population
– Pilot study
– Validity
– Reliability
• Concept: A general idea referring to a behavior or
characteristic of an individual, group, or nation.
– E.g. pain, coping, happiness, cleanliness, dignity
• Construct: A concept specified in such a way that it is
observable in the real world, in order to facilitate testing
of the idea.
• E.g. position – has different meanings (gynecology,
surgery and management).
• E.g. relationship between "concept" and "construct":
• Weight a concept.
• Weight - By electronic scale, In the morning, Before
breakfast., Without clothes a construct
Variable: A concept that is observable, measurable, and has
a dimension that can vary.
E.g. temperature - is observable, measurable, and varies
from high to low.
• Conceptual definition: The description of study
variables that drawn from theoretical(self construct) or
conceptual (adopted) framework.
• Operational definition: The description of a study
variable that specifies how it will be measured in the
study.
• Assumption: A statement of principles whose
correctness has not been proven, but is taken for granted
on the basis of logical reasoning".
• Problem Statement: A the research question or a
statement about the purpose of the study
• Conceptual Framework: A series of concepts or ideas
connected by statements about the relationships that
exist among them
 – E.g. "health is a priority for all people"
• Hypothesis: A statement of predicted or expected relationships
between the variables of the research (dep. & indep. variables)".
• Hypothesis lead to empirical studies that are seeking to confirm
or disconfirm these predictions.
• Data: Pieces of information that are collected as they pertain to
the study.
• Limitations: Weaknesses in a research. Uncontrolled extraneous
variables, that limit the generalizability of the findings.
• Pilot study: A small scale trial done in preparation of a
major research.
• Validity: Extent to which the tool measures what it is
supposed to measure.
E.g. a ruler measures the height not the weight, while
the scale measures the weight not the height.
• Reliability: Extent of consistency or dependability with
which a study tool measures the variable over time, by
different persons.
• Population: Group of people who are going to be
studied, and to whom should the study result apply.
E.g. bed-side nurses are the population in a research
studying the factors affecting the nurse's workload.
• Sample: Are those persons in the population- from
whom data will be actually collected, and from whom
generalizations about the population will be made.
MAJOR STEPS IN THE RESEARCH ROCESS
•Phases in research process (Quantitative Research)
•Conceptual phase:
1. Formulating and delimiting (establish) the problem
2. Reviewing the Literature
3. Developing a Theoretical Framework
4. Identifying the Research Variables
5. Formulating Hypotheses
• Design and planning phase:
6. Selecting a Research Design
7. Specifying the Population
8. Operationalizing the Variables
9. Conducting the Pilot Study/Making Revisio ns
• Empirical phase:
10. Selecting the Sample
11. Collecting the Data
12. Organizing Data for Analysis
• Analytic phase:
13. Analyzing the Data
14. Interpreting the Results
• Dissemination phase:
15. Communicating Results
• Phases in research process (Qualitative Research)
1. Define/Clarify Broad Topic
2. Review of the Literature?
3. Identify Site/Setting
4. Obtain Access
5. Obtain and Test Equipment
6. Begin Data Collection/Analysis
7. Identify Themes/Categories
8. Triangulation/Saturation
9. Formulate Hypotheses/Theories
10. Communicate Findings
• Basic stages and steps in the research process:
Stage 1 – Planning: with steps of:
1. Selecting the topic / subject: topic must be practical and
interesting
2. Narrowing the topic / subject: ways -
make a semantic map (list of synnyms)
make an analysis list – write down in no special order
every related idea to your topic.
From the list, choose the most specific that interests
you.
Other ways:
– Ask questions about the topic
– Break down the topic to its narrowest form E.g.
types, effects, causes,
3. Formulating the thesis statement / problem:
– What is a thesis statement or problem?
– What kind of sentence is a thesis statement?
– Must indicate the design and direction of the paper as
a whole.
4. Choosing the research design and method
– Quantitative or qualitative?
– Descriptive, historical, or experimental?
– How will you gather information? --- conduct
interviews, observe, send out questionnaire forms?
Stage 2 - Gathering data: with steps of:
1. Using the library:
– OPAC – Online Public Access Catalog
– In some libraries, the OPAC can tell you whether the book
you need is in the library, on order, or with another user.
– Libraries offer:
– general reference works
– periodicals
– books
– journals
– microforms
• For general info, you can consult an encyclopedia.
• For more specific info, consult a book, journal,
newspaper, or magazine.
• You need to sort and evaluate the information you’ve
• Ask yourself the following questions:
• Is the information primary or secondary?
• Is the author or sponsor indicated?
• Is the information verifiable?
• Is the information directly related to your topic?
2. Taking notes:
Purposes in taking down notes:
– To record information you get from reading
– To help you develop and record your own ideas
stimulated by what you have read
– Equip yourself with note cards or index cards.
• These note cards can easily be rearranged according to
their importance or to their logical sequence
3.Conducting interviews / retrieving questionnaires
4. Organizing data: based on their importance
Stage 3 - Interpreting and analyzing data: with steps of:
1. Using statistical tools
2. Making charts or tables
3. Evaluating contents of tables and / or charts
Stage 4 - Writing research report: with steps of:
1. Writing the introduction
2. Writing the body
3. Writing the conclusion
Stage 5 – Editing: with steps of:
1. First editing
2. Second editing
3. Writing the final paper
• ORGANIZATION OF A RESEARCH PROJECT
• The components of a research project:
Rationale- Underlying reasons principle
Objectives- A goal or aim or end result
Project description- includes
 Duration (short-term, medium term, Long-term)
 Methods :
o Practical (Laboratory, Field)
o Theoretical (Using published or written information,
Using IT facilities)
 Materials:
o Equipment (Major, Minor)
o Consumables (Glassware, Chemicals, Stationary)
 Activity plan – time table
 Analyses of data- (Using statistical methods,
Computer programmes)
 How to report the results
o Tables, Graphs, Flow charts
o Photographs, Text, Film
Budget-
o Equipment
o Consumables
o Salaries & Personnel allowances
o Travelling & subsistence
o Stationary
o Unforeseen – 5-10% of the total cost for above items