BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

 MAPMC 621
 CREDIT HOURS 2

By: Feyera Abebe (PhD)

Assignments

1. Select an article from a refereed journal of

your choice based on your specialization
from a referred journal and conduct an
article review on that article (4-5 pages)
2. Select a title of your interest and prepare a
research proposal (20 pages including
preliminary and reference parts)
CHAPTER OUTLINE

 Definition of research
 Purpose of research
 Characteristic goods research
 Types of research
 Scientific method as a source of knowledge
 Process of research
Chapter one: Introduction

 1.1. Definitions of Research

 The word research is composed of two syllabuses, re and search.

 RE=Is a prefix meaning again, anew or over again

 SEARCH =Is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test

and try or to probe.

 Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient

study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to
establish facts or principles.
Cont’d

 Research comprises
- defining and redefining problems,
- formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions;
- collecting, organizing and evaluating data;
- making deductions and reaching conclusions;
and last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.
Cont’d

 Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical

and critical method consisting of
 enumerating the problem
 formulating a hypothesis,
 collecting the facts or data,
 analyzing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solutions toward
the concerned problem or in certain
generalizations for some theoretical formulation.
1.2.Characteristics of (Good) Research

 From the above definitions it is clear that research

is a process for collecting, analyzing and
interpreting information to answer questions.
 But to qualify as a research, a process must have
certain characteristics as listed below:
a. Controlled

 In exploring the causality relation to two

variables, the study must be set in way that
minimizes the effects of other factors affecting
relationship.
 In social science research, however, since
controlling is almost impossible, the effect of the
other variable must be quantified rather.
b. Rigorous

 One must be very careful (scrupulous) in ensuring

that the procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.
c. Valid and verifiable

 This concept implies that whatever you conclude

on the basis of your findings is correct and can be
verified by you and others.
d. Empirical

 This means that any conclusions drawn are based

upon hard evidence gathered from information
collected from real life experiences or
observations.
 e. Critical

 The methods employed and procedures used

should be critically scrutinized.
 The process of investigation must be foolproof
and free from any drawbacks.
 The process adopted and the procedures used
must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
Systematic

 A good research will satisfy the steps to be taken

in an orderly sequence according to a set of
defined rules
Logical

 This logical process used could be induction or

deduction.
 Induction is the process of reasoning from a part
to the whole whereas deduction is the process of
reasoning from some premise to a conclusion
which follows from that very premise.
 CONTD….

 Purpose clearly defined.

 Research process detailed.
 Research design thoroughly planned.
 High ethical standards applied.
 Limitations frankly revealed.
 Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs.
 Findings presented unambiguously.
 Conclusions justified.
 Researcher’s experience reflected.
1.3.Objectives of Research

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to

achieve new insights into ( studies with this
objective in view are termed as exploratory
or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of
a particular individual, situation or a group
3. (studies with this objective are called
descriptive research studies);
Cont’d

3. To determine the frequency with which

something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies
with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies).
Cont’d

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship

between variables (such studies are known
as hypothesis testing research studies).
1.4.Motivations in Research

 What makes people to undertake research?

The possible motives for doing research may
be either one or more of the following among
others:
a. Desire to get a research degree along with
its consequential benefits;
Cont’d

b. Desire to face the challenges in solving the

unresolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems;
c. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some
creative work;
d. Desire to be of service to society;
e. Desire to get respectability.
1.5.Types of Research

 There are different bases in classifying

researches; however we will see only the
most common bases
1. First, there are two broad classification of
research that follows:
a. Research in physical sciences
b. Research in social sciences
Cont’d

– Physical sciences deal with things, which can be

put to laboratory tests under guided conditions.
These researches deal with physical phenomena
upon which man has complete control.
Cont’d

 Researches in social sciences are based on

human behavior, which is influenced by so
many factors, such as physical, social,
temperamental, psychological and economic.
Cont’d

2. Research can also be classified from other

three perspectives. However, these perspectives
are not mutually exclusive.
a. The application of the research study;
b. The objectives in undertaking the research ; and
c. The type of information sought.
Classification of research based on Application of the research
study

– From this perspective, there are two broad categories of

researches: pure research and applied research.
a. Pure research involves developing and testing
theories and hypothesis that are intellectually
challenging to the researcher but may or may not
have practical application at the present time or in
the future.
Cont’d

 The knowledge produced through pure

research is sought in order to add to the
existing body of knowledge of any branch of
knowledge.
Cont’d

b. Applied researches are conducted to solve the

practical problems or concerns such as for policy
formulation, administration, and the enhancement of
understanding of a phenomenon.
 Most of the researches in the social sciences are
applied researches.
Cont’d
 Classification of researches based on Objectives
of the study
a. Descriptive Research
– Its major purpose is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present.
– In social science and business research it is often
called expost fact research.
Cont’d
– Researcher has no control over the variables, he can only
report what has happened or what is happening.
– Also includes attempts by researchers to discover causes
even when they can not control the variables.
b. Correlational Research
 Its main emphasis is to discover or establish the
existence of a relationship/association/
interdependence between two or more aspects
of a situation.
Cont’d
 Examples
 What is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale of a
product?
 What is the relationship between stressful living and the
incidence of heart attacks?
 What is the relationship between technology and employment?
 What is the effect of home environment on educational
achievement?
c. Explanatory Research
 attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship
between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
 This type of research attempts to explain, for example,
why stressful living results in heart attacks; or how the
home environment affects children’s level of academic
achievement.

Cont’d

d. Exploratory Research
 Is carried out to investigate the possibilities
of undertaking a particular research study.
 Is also called a ‘feasibility study’ or a ‘pilot
study’.
 It is usually carried out when a researcher
wants to explore areas about which s/he has
little or no knowledge.
Cont’d

 Exploratory studies are also conducted to

develop, refine and/or test measurement
tools and procedures.
Classification of researches based on the type of information
Sought

a. Quantitative Research
– Is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount.
– Is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity.
b. Qualitative Research

– Is concerned with qualitative phenomenon,

i.e., phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind.
– Is especially important in behavioral
sciences where the aim is to discover the
underlying motives of human behavior.
1.6. Research and scientific Methods

 The two terms research and scientific

methods are closely related.
 Research, as already stated, can be termed
as an inquiry in to the nature of , the reasons
for, and the consequences of any particular
set of circumstances, whether these
circumstances are experimentally controlled
or recorded just as they occur.
Cont’d

 On the other hand, the philosophy common

to all research methods and techniques,
although they may vary considerably from
one science to another, is usually given the
name of scientific method.
1.7. The research process

 Research process consists of series of actions or

steps necessary to effectively carry out research and
the desired sequencing of these steps.
 These activities indeed overlap continuously rather
than following a strictly prescribed sequence.
 A brief description of these activities is as follows:
1. Formulating the Research Problem

 Formulating a research problem is the first

and most important step in the research
process.
 Formulation of the problem means defining
the problem precisely.
 Formulation of problem is essential because
when the problem is formulated, an
appropriate technique can easily be applied to
generate alternative solutions. In other words,
a problem defined is half solved.
Cont’d
 Formulation of a problem involves the following
steps:
1. Statement of the problem in a general
way
2. Understanding the nature of the problem
3. Surveying the available literature
4. Developing the idea through discussion
5. Rephrasing the research problem into a
working proposition.
2. Extensive Literature Review

 Once the problem is formulated, a brief summery

of it should be written down.
Reasons for Reviewing Literature
 Literature review has three functions:
 Bringing clarity and focus to the
research problem
 Improving the methodology
 Broadening the researcher knowledge
in the research area.
3. Development of Working Hypothesis

 After extensive literature survey, researcher

should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis.
 Working hypotheses is tentative assumption
made in order to draw out and test its logical
or empirical consequences.
 Hypotheses should be very specific and
limited to the piece of research in hand
because it has to be tested.
Cont’d
 The role of hypotheses is to guide the
researcher by delineating the area of
research and keep him on the right track.
 It sharpens his thinking and focuses
attention on the more important facets of the
problem.
 It also indicates the type of data and the type
of methods of data analysis to be used.
4. Preparing the Research Design
 Research design is defined as a blueprint or detailed
plan for how a research study is to be completed,
operationalizing variables so they can be measured,
selecting a sample of interest to study, collecting
data to be used as a basis for testing hypothesis and
analyzing the results.
 It is the complete scheme or programme of the
research.
Cont’d
 A research design should include the following:
a) The study design
b) The logistical arrangements that you purpose to
undertake
c) The measurement procedures
d) The sampling strategy
e) The frame of analysis
f) Time frame
5. Determining Sampling Design

 All the items under consideration in any field of

inquiry constitute a universe or population.
 A complete enumeration of all the items in the
population is known as a census inquiry.
 Because of the difficulty, relative inaccuracy and
biasness related to census study determining
sample, few elements from the population,
becomes mandatory.
Cont’d

 In such cases, the researcher must decide

the way of selecting a sample or what is
popularly known as the sample design.
 In other words, a sample design is a definite
plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given
population.
Cont’d

 Samples can be either probability samples or

non-probability samples.
 With probability samples each element has
unknown probability of being included in the
sample but in the non-probability samples do
not allow the researcher to determine this
probability.
Cont’d
 Probability samplings are those based on simple
random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified
sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-
probability samples are those based on convenience
sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling
techniques??.
6. Collecting the data

 There are several ways of collecting the

appropriate data which differ considerably
in context of money (costs), time and other
resources at the disposal of the researcher.
 Primary data can be collected either
through experiments or through survey.
Cont’d

 In the case of a survey, data can be

collected by any one of the following
specific ways:
1. Observation
2. Interview
3. Questionnaire
Cont’d
 The researcher should select one of these
methods of collecting data taking in to
consideration
a) The nature of investigation
b) Objective and scope of the inquiry
c) Financial resources
d) Available time
e) The desired degree of accuracy.
7. Execution of the project

 The researcher should see, during this

phase that the project is executed in a
systematic manner and in time.
8. Analysis of Data

 The analysis of data requires a number of

closely related operations such as:
a) Establishment of categories,
b) Coding,
c) Tabulation and
d) Drawing statistical inferences.
9. Hypothesis Testing

 After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a

position to test the hypothesis, if any, he/she had
formulated earlier.
 Do the facts support the hypotheses or they
happen to be contrary?
 Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test
may be applied.
10. Generalization and Interpretation

 If a hypotheses is tested and accepted, it may be

possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalization, i.e., to build a theory.
 If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with,
s/he might seek to explain his findings on the basis
of some theory.
11. Preparation of the Research Report

 Finally, the researcher has to prepare the

report of what has been done by him
following the appropriate formats and
appropriate language.
 Chapter 2

Formulating Research Problem,

Reviewing Literature and Formulating
Hypothesis
2.1. Formulating Research Problem
2.1.1.Meaning of the research problem

 A research problem refers to some difficulty

which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical
situation and wants to obtain a solution for
the same.
Cont’d

 Often we say that a research problem does

exist if the following conditions are met:
1. There must be an individual or a group
which has some difficulty or the problem.
2. There must be some objective(s) to be
attained. If one wants nothing, one cannot
have a problem.
Cont’d

3. There must be an alternative means( or the

course of action) for obtaining the
objective(s) one wishes to attain.
4. There must remain some doubt in the mind
of a researcher with regard to the selection
of alternatives.
5. There must be some environment(s) to
which the difficulty pertains.
2.1.2. Selecting the problem

 The identification of a research problem is an

important phase of the entire research
process.
 Therefore, a considerable care must be
taken while selecting a research problem.
 It requires a great deal of time, energy, and
logical thinking.
Cont’d

 There are some important sources which are

helpful to a researcher for selecting a
problem. These include the following:
1. Professional Experience
 The day-to-day observation of the incidences
in the working places and out of the working
places.
Cont’d

2. Contact and Discussion with People

 Contacts and discussions with research
oriented people in conferences, seminars or
public lectures serve as important sources of
problem.
3. Inference from Theory
 A research problem can be derived from a
critical look into various theories .
Cont’d

4. Professional Literature
 Consultation of research reports, bibliographies of
books and articles, periodicals, research abstracts…
5. Technological and social Change
 Changes in technology or social environment such
as changes in attitudes, preferences, policies of a
nation…
2.1.3.Considerations in selecting a research
problem

 When selecting a research problem/topic

there is a number of considerations to keep
in mind.
– These considerations are:
A. Interest
B. Magnitude-(scope)
C. Measurement of concepts-Do not use concepts in your
research problem that you are not sure how to
measure.
Cont’d

D. Level of expertise-Make sure you have an

adequate level of expertise for the task you are
proposing.
E. Relevance
F. Availability of data
G. Ethical issues
2.1.4. Formulating (Definition and
Statement) of the problem

 To define a problem means to put a

fence round it, to separate it by careful
distinctions from like questions found in
related situations of need.
 Defining a problem involves the task of
laying down boundaries within which a
researcher shall study the problem.
Cont’d

 Formulation of a problem involves the

following steps/techniques involved in
defining a problem:
 Statement of the problem in a general way
 Understanding the nature of the problem
 Surveying the available literature
 Developing the idea through discussion
 Rephrasing the research problem into a working
proposition.
Cont’d
 In addition to what has been stated above, the
following points must also be noted while defining a
research problem:
1. Technical terms and words or phrases should be
clearly defined.
2. Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to
the research problem should be clearly stated.
3. A straight forward statement of the value of the
investigation (i.e., the criteria for the selection of the
problem) should be provided.
Cont’d

4. The suitability of the time period and the

sources of the data available must also be
considered .
5. The scope of the investigation or the limits
within which the problem is to be studied
must be mentioned explicitly.
2.1.5. Importance of formulating a research problem

a) It determines the research destine. It

indicates a way for the researcher. Without
it a clear and economical plan is impossible.
b) Research problem is like the foundation of a
building. The research problem serves as
the foundation of a research study: if it is
well formulated, one can expect a good
study to follow.
Cont’d

c) The way you formulate your research problem

determines almost every step that follows: the type
of study design that can be used; the type of
sampling strategy that can be employed; the
research instrument that can be used; and the type
of analysis that can be undertaken.
d) The quality of the research report (output of the
research undertakings) is dependent on the quality
of the problem formulation.
2.2. Literature review
2.2.1. Reasons for reviewing the literature

 Is one of the essential preliminary tasks of a

researcher.
A literature review has three functions. It helps
you to:
1. Bring clarity and focus to your research
problem.
Cont’d

2. Improving the methodology

Cont’d
3. Broadening the researcher knowledge in the
research area.
2.2.2. Procedures in reviewing the literature

 Reviewing a literature is a continuous

process.
 Often it begins before a specific research
problem has been formulated and continues
until the report is finished.
Cont’d
 There are four steps involved in conducting a
literature review:
 Search for existing literature in your area of study
 Review the literature selected
 Develop a theoretical framework
 Develop a conceptual framework.

 The skills required for these tasks are different.

Developing theoretical and conceptual frameworks
are more difficult than the other tasks.
Cont’d

Search for Existing Literature

 Effectively search for literature in your field of inquiry.
 Next compile a bibliography.
Cont’d

 There are two sources that you can use to

prepare a bibliography:
 Books ; and
 Journals
 The best way to search for a book is to look
at a library catalogues
Cont’d
 There are several sources designed to make
your search for journals easier and these can
save enormous time. They are:
 Indices of journals e.g SSRN, JSTOR,
BLACKWELL, EMERALDS, ..
 Abstract of articles e.g. ERIC
 Citation indices, e.g. social sciences
Citation Index
Cont’d

Review the selected Literature

 Now that you have identified several books
and articles as useful, the next step is to start
reading them critically to pull together
themes and issues that belong together.
 If you do not have a theoretical framework in
mind, to start with, use separate sheets of
paper for each article or book.
Cont’d

Develop a Theoretical Framework

 The information obtained from different books and
journals needs to be sorted under the main themes
and theories
 Highlight agreements and disagreements among the
authors and identify the unanswered questions or
gaps.
Cont’d

Develop a Conceptual Framework

 The conceptual framework stems from the
theoretical framework and concentrates, usually, on
one section of the theoretical framework.
 It describes the aspects you selected from the
theoretical framework to become the basis of your
study.
 It is the basis for your research problem.
Cont’d
 Literature pertinent to your study deal with
two types of information:
 Universal; and
 More specific, i.e., local trends or a specific
program.
 In writing about such information you should
start with the general information, gradually
narrowing it down to the specific.
 Theoretical Framework

 The theoretical framework is the foundation on which

the entire research work is based.
 It is logically developed, described and elaborated
network of associations among variables deemed
relevant to the problem situation and
 identified through interviews, observation and
literature review
 To arrive at good solution to the problem, one should
first correctly identify the problem, and then the
variable that contribute to it.
 Cont’d
 After identifying the appropriate variables, the next
step is to elaborate the network the association
among the variables,
 Then relevant hypothesis can be developed and
subsequently tested.
 Based on the results of hypothesis testing, the
extent to which the problem can be solved become
evident.
 The theoretical framework is thus an important
step in the research process.
R/N B/N LR. And TFW

 Literature review identifies the variables that might be

important, as determined by previous research
findings.
 The theoretical framework represents and elaborates
the relationships among variables, explain the theory
underlying these relations, and describe the nature and
directions of the relationships.
Components of the theoretical
framework

 A. the variables considered relevant to the study

should be clearly defined.
 Well- chosen guiding definitions of concepts are
needed. b/c
 It will help you to provide an explanation for the
relationships between the variables in the model.
 And serve as a base for the operationalization or
measurement of your concept.
Cont’d

 B. a conceptual model that describe the

relationships b/n the variables in the model
should be given.
 A schematic diagram of the conceptual model
help the reader to visualize the theorized
relationships.
C. There should be a clear explanation of why
we expect these relationship to exist.
 Example
 In April 2008, the Federal Aviation Administration announced its second
effort in three years to stop its manager in Texas from covering up air safety
violations after a new investigation found the misconduct had continued. The
FAA announced that the top managers of an air traffic control facility in
Dallas-Fort Worth had been removed from their jobs. According to the FAA,
the transportation department's inspector general found that in addition to
letting airlines ignore their safety directives, FAA managers in Dallas-Fort
Worth routinely and intentionally misclassified instances where airplanes
were flying closer together than they were supposed to.
 Air safety violation put the safety of airplane passengers at risk. At worst, air
safety violations have the potential to cause mid-air collisions, and at the
very least, air safety violations lead to increased workload for air traffic
controllers and pilots. Four important factors that seem to have influenced
air safety violations are poor communication among the cockpit crew
members themselves, poor coordination b/n ground staff and cockpit crew,
 Cont’d
 Training given to the cockpit crew, and a management philosophy that has
encouraged a decentralized structure. It would be nice to know if these
factors did indeed contribute to the safety violations and if so, to what extent.
 The theoretical framework
 The dependent variable is safety violation, which is the variable of primary
interest. we attempt to explain the variance in the dependent variable by the
four independent variables 1. communication among crew members, 2.
communication b/n ground control and the cockpit crew, 3. training received
by the cockpit crew, 4. decentralization.
 Communication is the process of conveying information from a sender to
receiver by the use of a medium in which the communicated information is
understood the same way by both sender and receiver. Training refers to the
acquisition of knowledge, skills and competences as a result of the teaching
of vocational or practical skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful
 Step 2

 … competencies of the cockpit crew. Decentralization is the dispersion of

decision-making governance closer to employees.

Communication among
cockpit members

Communication b/n ground Air safety violations

control and cockpit

Decentralization

Training of cockpit
crew
 Step 3
 The less the communication among the crew members themselves, the
greater is the probability of air safety violations since very little information is
shared among them. For example, whenever safety is threatened, timely
communication b/n the navigator and pilot is most unlikely. Each member
will be preoccupied with his or her work and lose sight of larger picture.
When ground crew fails to give the right information at the right time,
mishaps are bound to occur with aborted flights and collusions. Coordination
b/n ground cockpit crew is at the very heart of air safety. Thus, the less
coordination b/n ground control and cockpit crew there is, the greater the
possibility of air safety violations taking place. Both of the above factors are
exacerbated by the management philosophy of airlines, which often
emphases decentralization. This philosophy might have worked before the
deregulation of the airlines when the number of flights was manageable. But
with deregulation and increased flights overall in mid-air, and with all airlines
operating many more flights, centralized coordination and control assume …
Cont’d

 ……finally poor training also adds to the

probability of increased safety violations.
 2.3. Hypothesis Development
Once we have identified the important variables in a situation and
established the relationships among them through logical reasoning
in the theoretical framework, we are in a position to test whether
the relationships that have been theorized do, in fact, hold true?
By testing these relationships scientifically through appropriate
statistical tools we are able to obtain reliable information on what
kind of relationships exist among the variables operating in the
problem situation.
The result of these test offer us some clues as to what could be
changed in the situation to solve the problem.
Formulating such testable statements is called hypothesis
development.
 Definition of Hypothesis
 Hypothesis can be defined as a tentative, yet testable, statement,
which predicts what you expect to find in your empirical data.
 Hypotheses are derived from the theory on which your conceptual
model is based and are often relational in nature.
 It is logically conjectured relationships b/n two or more variables
expressed in the form of testable statement.
 By testing the hypothesis and confirming the conjectured
relationships, it is expected that solution can be found to correct
the problem encountered.
 Example
 From previous example
 If the pilots are given adequate training to handle the mid-
air crowded situations, air safety violations will be
reduced.
 By measuring the extent of training given to various pilots
and the number of safety violations committed by them
over a given period of time, we can statistically examine
the relationships.
 If there is a significant negative correlation b/n the two,
then the hypothesis is substantiated; unless the hypothesis
will be rejected.
 Cont’d

By convention in the social sciences, to call a

relationship “statistically significant” we should be
confident that 95% time out of 100 the observed
relationship will hold true.
There should be only 5% chance that the relationship
will not be detected.
Statement of Hypothesis: Format
If -then statement
Hypothesis can be set as propositions or in the form of if-
then statements.
a. Employees who are more healthy will take sick leave
less frequently.
b. If employees are more healthy, then they will take sick
leave less frequently.
 Directional and Non-directional hypothesis

 In stating the relationships b/n two variables or comparing two

groups, terms such as positive, negative, more than, less than and the
like are used these are directional hypothesis.
 A. the greater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job
satisfaction of employees.
B. Women are more motivated than men.
 On the other hand, non-directional hypotheses are those that do
postulate a relationship or difference, but offer no indication of the
direction of these relationships or differences.
 There is relationship b/n age and job satisfaction.
 There is a difference b/n the work ethics of American and Asian
employees.
 When it is appropriate to develop it?

 Null hypothesis and Alternate
hypothesis
 In hypothesis testing, we have two options to choose from.
 These are termed as null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis.
 Null Hypothesis (Ho)-It is the presumption that is accepted as
correct unless there is strong evidence against it.
 Null hypothesis represents the status quo
 Alternative Hypothesis (H1)—It is accepted when Ho is
rejected.
 Alternate hypothesis is the negation of the status-quo situation.
Cont’d

 Null hypothesis represents the status quo and alternate

hypothesis is the negation of the status-quo situation.
 Proper care should be taken while formulating null and
alternate hypotheses.
 One way to ensure that null hypothesis is formulated
correctly is to observe that when null hypothesis is
accepted, no corrective action is needed.
 Type I and Type II Errors
 While testing a hypothesis, if we reject it when it should be
accepted, it amounts to Type I error.
 On the other hand, accepting a hypothesis when it should be
rejected amounts to Type II error.
 Generally, any attempt to reduce one type of error results in
increasing the other type of error.
 The only way to reduce both types of errors is to increase
the sample size.
 Significance Level (p-value)

 There is always a probabilistic component involved in the accept–

reject decision in testing hypothesis.
 The criterion that is used for accepting or rejecting a null
hypothesis is called significance level or p-value.
 For example, if two samples are being compared in a t-test, a p-
value of 0.05 means there is only a 5% chance that you would be
wrong in concluding that the populations are different or 95%
confident of making a right decision.
 For social sciences research, a p-value of 0.05 is generally taken as
standard.
 Chapter 3

Writing Research Proposal

3.1. Meaning of Research Proposal

 Research Proposal is an overall plan,

scheme, structure and strategy designed to
obtain answers to the research problems or
questions.
 It outlines the various tasks you plan to
undertake.
3.2. Importance of Research Proposal

a) It serves as a basis for determining the

feasibility of the project.
b) It provides a systematic plan of procedures
for the researcher to follow.
c) It gives the research supervisor a basis for
guiding the researcher while conducting the
study.
d) It reduces the possibility of costly mistakes.
4.3. Basic Components of a
Research Proposal

a. Preliminary parts
b. Chapter One-Introduction/the problem
and its Background
c. Chapter Two-Literature Review
d. Chapter Three-Methodology
e. Annex
Components… cont’d

a. Prefatory parts
1. Title Page
 On separate lines and centered, the title
page has the title of the study, the author’s
name, the institutional affiliation, and date.
Ch1… cont’d

 The title should not be too lengthy or too

short. It should provide sufficient information
about the nature of the study.
 The title should not be burdened by pompous
words. The language in the title should be
professional in nature but pedantic.
Components…cont’d
2. Abstract
 At the top of the page, centered, you should have
the word “Abstract.”
 It is a concise summary of the entire paper, including
the problem, major hypotheses, sample and
population, a brief description of the measures, the
name of the design or a short description , the major
results, and the major conclusions.
 Fits to one page, sometimes 250 words.
 It should be placed before table of content.
Chapter 1.
Introduction/Background of the Problem/study
1.1. General Background
Generally introduce the problem to the readers.
Historical perspective of the problem you want to study.
Ch1 cont’d

1.2. Statement of the problem

 Having provided a broad introduction to the
area under study, now focus on issues
relating to the central theme, identify some of
the gaps in the existing body of knowledge.
 Identify some of the main an unanswered
questions.
 It elaborates about the problem.
Ch1 …cont’d

1.3. The objective of the Study

 In this section include a statement of both
your study’s general and specific objectives.
 The objective of the study should be clearly
stated and specific in nature.
1.3.1. General Objective of the study
 The main/general objective indicates the
central thrust of your study
Cont’d

1.3.2. Specific Objectives

 The specific objectives identify the specific issues
you propose to examine.
 Each specific objective should delineate only one
issue.
 Use action oriented verbs such as “to determine, to
find out, to ascertain” in formulating specific
objectives which should be numerically listed.
Ch1. cont’d

1.4. The hypotheses to be tested

 If you are going to test hypotheses, list them in this
section.
 In a study you may have as many hypotheses as
you want to test.
 However, it is not essential to have a hypothesis in
order to undertake a study. You can conduct a
perfectly satisfactory study without formulating a
hypothesis.
Ch1… cont’d

1.5. The scope of the study

 Depth
 Detailness
Ch1…cont’d

1.6. Significance of the Study

 Justifies the need, importance and urgency
of the study; and as to how the results of
his/her study will be useful to the
beneficiaries.
Ch1… cont’d

1.7. Definition of terms and concepts

 The technical terms or words and phrases
having special meaning need to be defined
operationally.
Ch1…cont’d

1.8. Problems and limitations

 Problems refer to difficulties relating to
logistical details, whereas limitations
designate structural problems relating to
methodological aspects of the study.
Ch1…cont’d
 For example, problems may be related to
 the availability of data.
 securing permission from the agency/ organization to
carry out the study.
 obtaining the sample.
 In your opinion the study design you chose may not
be the best but you might have had to adopt it for a
number of reasons. This is classified as limitation of
the study. Such limitations should be communicated
to readers.
Chapter Two
2.. Literature Review
2.1. General Overview
2.2. Theoretical Framework
2.3. Conceptual Framework
 Chapter Three: Research
Design/Methodology
Cha3… cont’d

3.1. The study design

 Describe the study design you plan to use.
(For example, say whether it is “Descriptive”,
“Causal” or “Explanatory” design.)
 Identify the strength and weaknesses of your
study design.
Ch3…cont’d

3.2. The setting

 Briefly describe the organization, agency or
community in which you will conduct your
study.
Ch3 …cont’d
 If your research concerns an agency, office or
organization, include the following in your
description:
 The main services provided by the agency, office or
organization;
 Its administrative structure;
 The type of clients served; and
 Information about the issues that are central to your
research.
Ch3… cont’d
 If you are studying a community, briefly describe
some of the main characteristics, such as:
 The size of the community;
 A brief social profile of the community (i.e., the
composition of the various groups within it); and
 Issues of relevance to the central theme of your
study.
 Ch3… cont’d

3.3. Measurement procedures

 This section should contain a discussion of your
instrument and the details of how you plan to
operationalise your major variables
 Justify your choice of research tool, highlighting its
strength and pointing out its weaknesses, Then
outline the major segments of your research tool
and their relevance to the main objectives of the
study.
Ch3…cont’d

 If you are using a standard instrument, briefly

discuss the availability of evidence on its
reliability and validity. If you adapt or modify it
in any way, describe and explain the changes
you have made.
 Ideally you should attach a copy of the
research instrument to your proposal.
Ch3…Cont’d
3.4. Sampling
 Under this section of the proposal include the following
 The size of the sampling population (if known)
 Where (sample frame) and how this information will be
obtained;
 The size of the sample you are planning to select, and your
reasons for choosing this size; and
 An explanation of the sampling design you are planning to use
in the selection of the sample (simple random sampling,
stratified random sampling, quota sampling etc.).
Ch3…cont’d

3.5. Sources of Data

 Primary sources
 Secondary sources
Ch3…cont’d
3.6. Analysis of data
 In general terms, describe the strategy you intend to
use for data analysis .
 Specify whether the data will be analysed manually
or by computer.
 For computer analysis, identify the program and the
statistical procedures you plan to perform on the
data.
 The details of the statistical techniques and the
rationales for using such techniques should be
described.
Ch3…cont’d

3.7. The structure of the report

 As clearly as possible, state how you intend to
organize the final report.
 Plan to develop your chapters round t he main
themes or your study.
 The title of each chapter should around the main
themes of your study.
 The title of each chapter should clearly communicate
the main thrust of its contents.
Ch3…cont’d
3.8. Work schedule and Financial Budget
 You must set yourself dates as you need to complete
the research within a certain time- frame.
 List the various operational steps you need to
undertake and indicate against each the date by
which you aim to complete that task.
 Keep some time towards the end as a ‘cushion’ in
case the research process does not go as smoothly
as planned.
 Develop a chart.
Cont’d

References and Bibliography

 Attach list of references and bibilography
before appendix.
Appendix

 As an appendix, attach your research

instrument and other bulky information, if
any.