Drying Operation

Meika Syahbana Rusli

Outline
Basic

drying theory
Psychrometry
Equilibrium moisture content
Air drying
Conduction Drying

Basic Drying Theory

Three

States of Water
Heat Requirements for Vaporization
Heat Transfer in Drying
Mass Transfer in Drying
Dryer Efficiencies

FIG. 1. Phase diagram for water

FIG. 2. Vapour pressure/temperature curve for water

Heat Requirements for Vaporization

The energy, which must be supplied to vaporize
the water at any temperature, depends upon this
temperature. The quantity of energy required per
kg of water is called the latent heat of
vaporization, if it is from a liquid, or latent heat of
sublimation if it is from a solid. The heat energy
required to vaporize water under any given set of
conditions can be calculated from the latent heats
given in the steam table

EXAMPLE 1. Heat energy in air drying

A food containing 80% water is to be dried at 100C down
to moisture content of 10%. If the initial temperature of the
food is 21C, calculate the quantity of heat energy required
per unit weight of the original material, for drying under
atmospheric pressure. The latent heat of vaporization of
water at 100C and at standard atmospheric pressure is
2257 kJ kg-1. The specific heat capacity of the food is 3.8
kJ kg-1 C-1 and of water is 4.186 kJ kg-1 C-1. Find also
the energy requirement/kg water removed.

Example 1. Continued
Calculating

for 1 kg food
Initial moisture = 80%
800 g moisture are associated with 200 g dry matter.
Final moisture = 10 %,
100 g moisture are associated with 900 g dry matter,
Therefore (100 x 200)/900 g = 22.2 g moisture are associated with 200 g dry matter.
1kg of original matter must lose (800 - 22) g moisture = 778 g = 0.778 kg moisture.
Heat

energy required for 1kg original material

= heat energy to raise temperature to 100C + latent
heat to remove water
= (100 - 21) x 3.8 + 0.778 x 2257
= 300.2 + 1755.9
= 2056 kJ.

Energy/kg

water removed, as 2056 kJ are required to remove 0.778 kg of water,

= 2056/0.778
= 2643 kJ.

TABLE 1. LATENT HEAT AND SATURATION

TEMPERATURE OF WATER
Absolute pressure

Latent heat of vaporization

Saturation temperature

(kPa)

(kJ kg-1)

(C)

2485

2460

18

2424

33

10

2393

46

20

2358

60

50

2305

81

100

2258

99.6

101.35 (1 atm)

2257

100

110

2251

102

120

2244

105

200

2202

120

500

2109

152

Heat Transfer in Drying

In air drying the rate of heat transfer is given by:

q = hsA(Ta - Ts)

(7.1)

where q is the heat transfer rate in J s-1, hs is the surface heat-transfer

coefficient J m-2 s-1 C-1, A is the area through which heat flow is taking place,
m2, Ta is the air temperature and Ts is the temperature of the surface which is
drying, C.

To take another example, in a roller dryer where moist material is spread over
the surface of a heated drum, heat transfer occurs by conduction from the drum
to the foodstuff, so that the equation is
q = UA(Ti Ts )
where U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient, Ti is the drum temperature
(usually very close to that of the steam), Ts is the surface temperature of the
food (boiling point of water or slightly above) and A is the area of drying surface
on the drum.

Mass Transfer in Drying

Mass is transferred under the driving force provided by a partial

pressure or concentration difference.

The rate of mass transfer is proportional to the potential

(pressure or concentration) difference and to the properties of the
transfer system characterized by a mass-transfer coefficient.

Writing these symbolically, we have

dw/dt = k'g A DY

(7.2)

where w is the mass being transferred kg s-1, A is the area

through which the transfer is taking place, k'g is the masstransfer coefficient in this case in units kg m-2 s-1 , and Y is the
humidity difference in kg kg-1.

Dryer Efficiencies

Basically it is a simple ratio of the minimum energy needed to the

energy actually consumed.

The useful measure for air drying is to look at a heat balance over the
air, treating the dryer as adiabatic with no exchange of heat with the
surroundings. Then the useful heat transferred to the food for its drying
corresponds to the drop in temperature in the drying air, and the heat
which has to be supplied corresponds to the rise of temperature of the
air in the air heater. So this adiabatic air-drying efficiency, h, can be
defined by:
h = (T1 - T2)/(T1 - Ta)

(7.3)

where T1 is the inlet (high) air temperature into the dryer, T2 is the
outlet air temperature from the dryer, and Ta is the ambient air
temperature. The numerator, the gap between T1 and T2, is a major
factor in the efficiency.

Example 2.
A dryer reduces the moisture content of 100 kg of a potato product
from 80% to 10% moisture. 250 kg of steam at 70 kPa gauge is
used to heat 49,800 m3 of air to 80C, and the air is cooled to 71C
in passing through the dryer. Calculate the efficiency of the dryer.
The specific heat of potato is 3.43 kJ kg-1 C-1. Assume potato
enters at 24C, which is also the ambient air temperature, and
leaves at the same temperature as the exit air.
In 100 kg of raw material there is 80% moisture, that is 80 kg water
and 20 kg dry material,
total weight of dry product = 20 x (10/9)
= 22.2 kg
weight of water
= (22.2 - 20)
= 2.2 kg.
water removed
= (80 - 2.2)
= 77.8 kg.

Example 2. Continued

Heat supplied to potato product

= sensible heat to raise potato product temperature from 24C to 71C
+ latent heat of vaporization.

Now, the latent heat of vaporization corresponding to a saturation temperature of

71C is 2331 kJ kg-1
Heat (minimum) supplied/100 kg potato
= 100 x (71 - 24) x 3.43 + 77.8 x 2331
= 16 x 103 + 181 x 103
= 1.97 x 105 kJ.
Heat to evaporate water only = 77.8 x 2331
= 1.81 x 105 kJ

The specific heat of air is 1.0 J kg-1 C-1 and the density of air is 1.06 kg m-3
Heat given up by air/100 kg potato
= 1.0 x (80 - 71) x 49,800 x 1.06
= 4.75 x 105 kJ.

The latent heat of steam at 70 kPa gauge is 2283 kJ kg-1

Heat in steam = 250 x 2283
= 5.71 x 105 kJ.

Example 2. Continued

Therefore
(a) efficiency based on latent heat of vaporisation only:
= (1.81 x 105)/ (5.71 x 105)
= 32%
(b) efficiency assuming sensible heat remaining in food after drying
is unavailable
= (1.97 x 105)/ (5.71 x 105)
= 36%
(c) efficiency based heat input and output, in drying air
= (80 71)/ (80 24)
= 16%

PSYCHROMETRY
Humidity
Wet-bulb

Temperatures
Psychrometric Charts
Measurement of Humidity

Humidity

The capacity of air for moisture removal depends on its humidity and its
temperature. The study of relationships between air and its associated water
is called psychrometry.
Humidity (Y) is the measure of the water content of the air. The absolute
humidity, sometimes called the humidity ratio, is the mass of water vapour
per unit mass of dry air and the units are therefore kg kg-1, and this will be
subsequently termed just the humidity.
Air is said to be saturated with water vapour at a given temperature and
pressure if its humidity is a maximum under these conditions. If further water
is added to saturated air, it must appear as liquid water in the form of a mist
or droplets. Under conditions of saturation, the partial pressure of the water
vapour in the air is equal to the saturation vapour pressure of water at that
temperature.

The relative humidity (RH) is defined as the ratio of the partial

pressure of the water vapour in the air (p) to the partial pressure of
saturated water vapour at the same temperature (ps).
Therefore:
RH = p/ps
and is often expressed as a percentage = 100 p/ps

EXAMPLE 5. Partial pressure of water vapour

If the total pressure of moist air is 100 kPa (approximately
atmospheric) and the humidity is measured as 0.03 kg kg-1,
calculate the partial pressure of the water vapour.
The molecular weight of air is 29, and of water 18
So the mole fraction of water = (0.03/18)/(1.00/29 + 0.03/18)
= 0.0017/(0.034 + 0.0017)
= 0.048
Therefore the water vapour pressure
= 0.048 x 100 kPa
= 4.8 kPa.

EXAMPLE 6. Relative humidity

If the air in Example 5 is at 60C, calculate the relative humidity.
From steam tables, the saturation pressure of water vapour at 60C
is 19.9 kPa.
Therefore the relative humidity = p/ps
= 4.8/19.9
= 0.24
or 24%.

Wet-bulb Temperatures

A useful concept in psychrometry is the wet-bulb temperature, as

compared with the ordinary temperature, which is called the dry-bulb
temperature. The wet-bulb temperature is the temperature reached by
a water surface, such as that registered by a thermometer bulb
surrounded by a wet wick, when exposed to air passing over it. The wick
and therefore the thermometer bulb decreases in temperature below the
dry-bulb temperature until the rate of heat transfer from the warmer air
to the wick is just equal to the rate of heat transfer needed to provide for
the evaporation of water from the wick into the air stream.

Equating these two rates of heat transfer gives

hcA(Ta - Ts) = lk'gA(Ys Ya)
hc(Ta - Ts) = lk'g(Ys Ya)
where a and s denote actual and saturation temperatures and
humidities; hc is the heat-transfer coefficient and k'g the mass transfer
coefficient from the air to the wick surface; l is the latent heat of
evaporation of water.

Psychrometric Charts

Psychrometric Charts (Cont.)

The two main axes are temperature (dry bulb) and humidity
(humidity ratio) . The saturation curve (Ts , Ys). is plotted on this
dividing the whole area into an unsaturated and a two-phase
region. Taking a point on the saturation curve (Ts, Ys) a line can
be drawn from this with a slope:
- (lk'g/hc) = (l/cs)
running down into the unsaturated region of the chart (that
below the saturation line). This is the wet bulb or adiabatic
cooling line and a net of such lines is shown. Any constant
temperature line running between the saturation curve and the
zero humidity axis can be divided evenly into fractional
humidities which will correspond to fractional relative humidities
[for example, a 0.50 ratio of humidities will correspond to a 50%
RH because of eqn. (7.4) if P pw].

Measurement of Humidity

Methods depend largely upon the concepts that have been presented in the
preceding sections, but because they are often needed it seems useful to set them
out specifically. Instruments for the measurement of humidity are called
hygrometers.
Wet- and dry-bulb thermometers. The dry-bulb temperature is the normal air
temperature and the only caution that is needed is that if the thermometer bulb, or
element, is exposed to a surface at a substantially higher or lower temperature the
possibility of radiation errors should be considered.
Dew-point meters. These measure the saturation or dew-point temperature by cooling
a sample of air until condensation occurs. The psychrometric chart or a scale on the
instrument is then used to give the humidity.
The hair hygrometer. Hairs expand and contract in length according to the relative
humidity. Instruments are made which give accurately the length of the hair and so
they can be calibrated in humidities.
Electrical resistance hygrometers. Some materials vary in their surface electrical
resistance according to the relative humidity of the surrounding air. Examples are
aluminium oxide, phenol formaldehyde polymers, and styrene polymers.
Lithium chloride hygrometers. In these a solution of lithium chloride is brought to a
temperature such that its partial pressure equals the partial pressure of water vapour
in the air.

EQUILIBRIUM
MOISTURE CONTENT

The equilibrium vapour pressure above a food is determined not only by

the temperature but also by the water content of the food, by the way in
which the water is bound in the food, and by the presence of any
constituents soluble in water. Under a given vapour pressure of water in
the surrounding air, a food attains a moisture content in equilibrium with
its surroundings when there is no exchange of water between the food
and its surroundings.
This is called its equilibrium moisture content.

It is possible, therefore, to plot the equilibrium vapour pressure against

moisture content or to plot the relative humidity of the air in equilibrium
with the food against moisture content of the food. Often, instead of the
relative humidity, the water activity of the food surface is used. This is
the ratio of the partial pressure of water in the food to the vapour
pressure of water at the same temperature.
The equilibrium curves obtained vary with different types of foodstuffs
and examples are shown in Fig. 4.

FIG. 4. Equilibrium moisture contents

AIR DRYING
Drying

Rate Curve
Calculation of Constant Drying Rates
Falling Rate Drying
Calculation of Drying Time

Drying Rate Curve

In many cases, a substantial part of the water is found to
be loosely bound. This water can, for drying purposes,
be considered as free water at the surface.
A comparison of the drying rates of sand, a material with
mostly free water, with meat containing more bound
water shows the effect of the binding of water on drying
rates. Drying rate curves for these are shown in Fig. 5.

FIG. 5. Drying rate curves

Constan Drying Rate

The behaviour in which the drying behaves as though

the water were at a free surface, is called constant-rate
drying. If w is the mass of the material being dried then
for constant rate drying:
dw/dt = constant.

However in food, unlike impervious materials such as

sand, after a period of drying at a constant rate it is
found that the water then comes off more slowly. A
complete drying curve for fish, adapted from
Jason (1958), is shown in Fig. 6. The drying temperature
was low and this accounts for the long drying time.

FIG. 6. Drying curve for fish

FIG. 7. Generalized drying curve

Falling Drying Rate

The change from constant drying rate to a slower rate occurs at

different moisture contents for different foods. However, for many
foods the change from constant drying rate occurs at a moisture
content in equilibrium with air of 58-65% relative humidity, that is at
aw = 0.58-0.65. The moisture content at which this change of rate
occurs is known as the critical moisture content, Xc .

The end of the constant rate period, when X = Xc at the break point
of drying-rate curves, signifies that the water has ceased to behave
as if it were at a free surface and that factors other than vapourpressure differences are influencing the rate of drying. Thereafter
the drying rate decreases and this is called the falling-rate period of
drying. The rate-controlling factors in the falling-rate period are
complex, depending upon diffusion through the food, and upon the
changing energy-binding pattern of the water molecules. Very little
theoretical information is available for drying of foods in this region
and experimental drying curves are the only adequate guide to
design.

Calculation of Constant Drying Rates

In the constant-rate period, the water is being evaporated from what

is effectively a free water surface. The rate of removal of water can
then be related to the rate of heat transfer, if there is no change in
the temperature of the material and therefore all heat energy
transferred to it must result in evaporation of water. The rate of
removal of the water is also the rate of mass transfer, from the solid
to the ambient air. These two - mass and heat transfer - must predict
the same rate of drying for a given set of circumstances.

Considering mass transfer, which is fundamental to drying, the

driving force is the difference of the partial water vapour pressure
between the food and the air. The extent of this difference can be
obtained, knowing the temperatures and the conditions, by reference
to tables or the psychrometric chart. Alternatively, the driving force
may be expressed in terms of humidity driving forces and the
numerical values of the mass-transfer coefficients in this case are
linked to the others through the partial pressure/humidity
relationships such as eqns. (7.4) and (7.5).

Example 8.
Rate of evaporation on drying
The mass-transfer coefficient from a free water surface to an adjacent moving air
stream has been found to be 0.015 kg m-2 s-1. Estimate the rate of evaporation from
a surface of 1 m2 at a temperature of 28C into an air stream with a dry-bulb
temperature of 40C and RH of 40% and the consequent necessary rate of supply of
heat energy to effect this evaporation.
From charts, the humidity of saturated air at 40C is 0.0495 kg kg-1.
Humidity of air at 40C and 40%RH = 0.0495 x 0.4
= 0.0198 kg kg-1
= Ya
From charts, the humidity of saturated air at 28C is 0.0244 kg kg-1 = Ys
Driving force
= (Ys - Ya )
= (0.0244 - 0.0198) kg kg-1
= 0.0046 kg kg-1
Rate of evaporation
= k'gA(Ys - Ya)
= 0.015 x 1 x 0.0046
= 6.9 x 10-5 kg s-1
Latent heat of evaporation of water at 28C = 2.44 x 103 kJ kg-1
Heat energy supply rate per square metre = 6.9 x 10-5 x 2.44 x 103 kJ s-1
= 0.168 kJ s-1
= 0.168 kW.

Falling rate Drying

The highest rate of drying is normally the constant rate situation,

then as drying proceeds the moisture content falls and the access of
water from the interior of the food to the surface affects the rate and
decreases it. The situation then is complex with moisture gradients
controlling the observed drying rates. Actual rates can be measured,
showing in the idealized case a constant rate continuing up to the
critical moisture content and thereafter a declining rate as the food,
on continued drying, approaches the equilibrium moisture content
for the food.

This is clearly shown by the drying curve of Fig. 7.7 and at low
moisture contents the rates of drying become very low. The actual
detail of such curves depends, of course, on the specific material
and conditions of the drying process.

Calculation of Drying Times

Drying rates, once determined experimentally or predicted from

theory, can then be used to calculate drying times so that drying
equipment and operations can be designed. In the most general
cases, the drying rates vary throughout the dryer with time as drying
proceeds, and with the changing moisture content of the material.
So the situation is complicated. However, in many cases a simplified
approach can provide useful results. One simplification is to assume
that the temperature and RH of the drying air are constant.

In this case, for the constant-rate period, the time needed to remove
the quantity of water which will reduce the food material to the
critical moisture content Xc (that corresponding to the end of the
constant-rate period and below which the drying rate falls) can be
calculated by dividing this quantity of moisture by the rate.

Calculation of Drying Times (cont.)

So

t = w (Xo- Xc) / (dw /dt)const.

(7.6)

where (dw /dt )const. = k'gA(Ys -Ya)

and Xo is the initial moisture content and Xc the final moisture
content (the critical moisture content in this case) both on a dry
basis, w is the amount of dry material in the food and (dw/dt )const is
the constant-drying rate.

Where the drying rate is reduced by a factor f then this can be

incorporated to give:
Dt = w (DX)/ f(dw /dt)const.
(7.7)
and this has to be integrated piecemeal down to X = Xf where
subscript f denotes the final water content, and f expresses the ratio
of the actual drying rate to the maximum drying rate corresponding
to the free surface-moisture situation.

EXAMPLE 9.
Time for air drying at constant rate
100 kg of food material are dried from an initial water content of 80% on a wet
basis and with a surface area of 12 m2. Estimate the time needed to dry to 50%
moisture content on a wet basis, assuming constant-rate drying in air at a
temperature of 120C dry bulb and 50C wet bulb.
Under the conditions in the dryer, measurements indicate the heat-transfer
coefficient to the food surface from the air to be 18 J m-2 s-1 C-1.
From the data
Xo = 0.8/(1 - 0.8) = 4 kg kg-1,
Xf = 0.5/(1 - 0.5) = 1 kg kg-1,
and from the psychrometric chart, Ys = 0.087 and Ya = 0.054 kg kg-1
From the Lewis relationship (Eqn. 7.5) k'g = 18 g m-2 s-1 = 0.018 kg m-2
w = 100(1 - 0.8) = 20 kg
Now we have (dw /dt )const. = k'gA(Ys -Ya)
and so
t = w ( Xo - Xf) / [k'gA(Ys -Ya)]
(Using eqn. (7.3)
t = 20(4 - 1)/[0.018 x 12 x (0.087 - 0.054)]
= 60/7.128 x 10-3
= 8417 s
= 2.3 h (to remove 60 kg of water).

EXAMPLE 9.
Time for drying during falling rate
Continuing Example 7.17, for the particular food material, the critical
moisture content, Xc, is 100% and the equilibrium moisture content
under the conditions in the dryer is 15% and the drying curve is that
illustrated in Fig. 7.7. Estimate the total time to dry down to 17%, all
moisture contents being on a dry basis.
Equation (7.7)

Dt

w ( DX) / [f(dw /dt)const]

can be applied, over small intervals of moisture content and

multiplying the constant rate by the appropriate reduction factor (f)
read of from Fig. 7.7. This can be set out in a table. Note the
temperature and humidity of the air were assumed to be constant
throughout the drying.

Example 9. Cont.
Moisture content X

w(X1 - X2)

f
1/f(dw/dt)const.
= 1/ f(7.128 x 10-3)
t

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.17

0.6

0.86

0.57

0.29

0.11

0.005

1.63 x
102

2.46 x
102

4.84 x
102

1.28 x
103

2.81 x
104

652

984

1936

5120

16860

t = 25552 s = 7.09 h (to remove 16.6 kg of water) = time at falling rate

Therefore total drying time = (2.3 + 7.09) h = 9.39 h.

CONDUCTION DRYING

So far the drying considered has been by hot air.

Other methods of drying which are quite commonly encountered are
drying by contact with a hot surface; a continuous version of this is
the drum or roller dryer where the food is coated as a thin paste
over the surface of a slowly revolving heated horizontal cylinder. In
such a case, the food dries for as much of one revolution of the
cylinder as is mechanically feasible, after which it is scraped off and
replaced by fresh wet material.

The amount of drying is substantially controlled by the rate of heat

transfer and estimates of the heat transfer rate can be used for
calculations of the extent of drying.

EXAMPLE 10. Moisture content of

breakfast food after drum drying

A drum dryer is being used to dry a starch-based breakfast food.

The initial moisture content of the food is 75% on a wet basis, the
drum surface temperature is 138C and the food layer outer surface
100C. The estimated heat transfer coefficient from the drum
surface to the drying food is 800 J m-2 s-1 C-1.

Assume that the thickness of the food on the drum is 0.3 mm and
the thermal conductivity of the food is 0.55 J m-1 s-1 C-1. If the
drum, 1 m diameter and 1 m in length, is rotating at 2 rev/min and
the food occupies three-quarters of the circumference, estimate the
moisture content of the film being scraped off. Assume the critical
moisture content for the food material is 14% on a dry basis, and
that conduction heat transfer is through the whole film thickness to
give a conservative estimate.

Example 10. Cont.

Initial moisture content = 75 % wet basis
= 0.75/(1 -0.75)
= 3 kg kg-1 dry basis.
Total quantity of material on drum
= (p x D x 3/4) x 1 x 0.0003 m3
= p x 1 x 3/4 x 1 x 0.0003
= 7.1 x 10-4 m3.
Assuming a density of the food paste of 1000 kg m3
Weight on drum
= 7.1 x 10-4 x 103
= 0.71 kg.

Example 10. Cont.

Overall resistance to heat transfer, 1/U
= 1/800 + 0.0003/0.55
= 1.25 x 10-3 + 0.55 x 10-3
= 1.8 x 10-3
Therefore

U = 556 Jm-2 s-1 C-1

q = UA DT
= 556 x p x D x 1 x 0.75 x (138 - 100)
= 49.8 kJ s-1.

Latent heat of evaporation of water

= 2257 kJ kg-1
Rate of evaporation = q /
= 0.022 kg s-1.

Example 10. Cont.

Residence time of food on drum: at 2 rev min
1 revolution takes 30s, but the material is on for rev.
Residence time
= (3/4) x 30
= 22.5 sec.
Water removed
= 22.5 x 0.022
= 0.495 kg.
Initial quantity of water
= 0.71 x 0.75
= 0.53 kg
and dry solids
= 0.71 x 0.25
= 0.18kg.
Residual water
= (0.53 - 0.495)
= 0.035 kg.
Water content (wet basis) remaining
= 0.035/(0.18 + 0.035)
= 16%

SUMMARY
1. In drying:
(a) the latent heat of vaporization must be supplied and heat
transferred to do this.
(b) the moisture must be transported out from the food.
2. Rates of drying depend on:
(a) vapour pressure of water at the drying temperature,
(b) vapour pressure of water in the external environment,
(c) equilibrium vapour pressure of water in the food
(d) moisture content of the food.
3. For most foods, drying proceeds initially at a constant rate
given by:
dw/dt = k'gA(Ys - Ya) = hcA(Ta - Ts )/l
=q/l
for air drying. After a time the rate of drying decreases as the
moisture content of the food decreases.

SUMMARY (cont.)
4. Air is saturated with water vapour when the partial
pressure of water vapour in the air equals the saturation
pressure of water vapour at the same temperature.
5. Humidity of air is the ratio of the weight of water vapour
to the weight of the dry air in the same volume.
6. Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual partial
pressure to the saturation partial pressure of the water
vapour at the air temperature.
7. Water vapour/air humidity relationships are shown on the
psychrometric chart.