Wireless Transmission

Frequencies
Signals
Antenna
Signal propagation

Multiplexing
Spread spectrum
Modulation

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

Frequencies for communication

twisted
pair

coax cable

1 Mm
300 Hz

10 km
30 kHz

VLF

LF

optical transmission

100 m
3 MHz

MF

HF

VLF = Very Low Frequency

LF = Low Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency
HF = High Frequency
VHF = Very High Frequency

1m
300 MHz

VHF

UHF

10 mm
30 GHz

SHF

100 m
3 THz

EHF

infrared

1 m
300 THz

visible light UV

UHF = Ultra High Frequency

SHF = Super High Frequency
EHF = Extra High Frequency
UV = Ultraviolet Light

Frequency and wave length:

= c/f
wave length , speed of light c 3x108m/s, frequency f

Frequencies for mobile communication

VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio

simple, small antenna for cars

deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections

SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication

small antenna, focusing

large bandwidth available

Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF spectrum

some systems planned up to EHF

limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
(resonance frequencies)

weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall etc.

Signals I

physical representation of data

function of time and location
signal parameters: parameters representing the value of data
classification

continuous time/discrete time

continuous values/discrete values
analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
digital signal = discrete time and discrete values

signal parameters of periodic signals:

period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift

sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:

s(t) = At sin(2 ft t + t)

Fourier representation of periodic signals

1
g (t ) c an sin(2nft ) bn cos(2nft )
2
n 1
n 1

0
t

ideal periodic signal

real composition
(based on harmonics)

Signals II

Different representations of signals

amplitude (amplitude domain)

frequency spectrum (frequency domain)

phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase in polar coordinates)

Q = M sin

A [V]

A [V]
t[s]

I= M cos

f [Hz]

Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier

transformation
Digital signals need

infinite frequencies for perfect transmission

modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog signal!)

Antennas: isotropic radiator

Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling of

wires to space for radio transmission
Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three
dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna
Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or
horizontally)
Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna

z
y
x

ideal
isotropic
radiator

Antennas: simple dipoles

Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with lengths
/4 on car roofs or /2 as Hertzian dipole
shape of antenna proportional to wavelength
/4

/2

Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

y

x
side view (xy-plane)

z
side view (yz-plane)

simple
dipole

top view (xz-plane)

Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to

the power of an isotropic radiator (with the same average power)

Antennas: directed and sectorized

Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile phones
(e.g., radio coverage of a valley)

side view (xy-plane)

side view (yz-plane)

top view (xz-plane)

z

top view, 3 sector

directed
antenna

top view, 6 sector

sectorized
antenna

Antennas: diversity

Grouping of 2 or more antennas

multi-element antenna arrays

Antenna diversity

switched diversity, selection diversity

receiver chooses antenna with largest output

diversity combining

combine output power to produce gain

cophasing needed to avoid cancellation
/2
/4

/2

+
ground plane

/4

/2

/2

Signal propagation ranges

Transmission range

communication possible
low error rate

Detection range

detection of the signal

possible
no communication
possible

Interference range

sender

transmission

signal may not be

detected
signal adds to the
background noise

distance
detection
interference

Signal propagation
Propagation in free space always like light (straight line)
Receiving power proportional to 1/d
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
Receiving power additionally influenced by
fading (frequency dependent)
shadowing
reflection at large obstacles
refraction depending on the density of a medium
scattering at small obstacles
diffraction at edges

shadowing

reflection

refraction

scattering

diffraction

Real world example

Multipath propagation
Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to
reflection, scattering, diffraction
multipath
LOS pulses pulses

signal at sender
signal at receiver

Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

interference with neighbor symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts

Effects of mobility
Channel characteristics change over time and location

signal paths change

different delay variations of different signal parts
different phases of signal parts
quick changes in the power received (short term fading)

Additional changes in

distance to sender
obstacles further away

power

long term
fading

slow changes in the average power

received (long term fading)

short term fading

Multiplexing
Multiplexing in 4 dimensions

space (si)
time (t)
frequency (f)
code (c)

channels ki
k1

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6

c
t

c
t

Goal: multiple use

of a shared medium

s1

f
s2

Important: guard spaces needed!

s3

Frequency multiplex
Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands
A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time
Advantages:
no dynamic coordination
necessary
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
works also for analog signals

k6

Disadvantages:
waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
inflexible
guard spaces
t

Time multiplex
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time
Advantages:
only one carrier in the
medium at any time
throughput high even
for many users

k1

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6

Disadvantages:
precise
synchronization
necessary
t

Time and frequency multiplex

Combination of both methods
A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time
Example: GSM
Advantages:

better protection against

tapping
protection against frequency
selective interference
higher data rates compared to
code multiplex

but: precise coordination

required

k1

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6

c
f

Code multiplex
Each channel has a unique code
k1

k2

All channels use the same spectrum

at the same time
Advantages:

k3

k4

k5

k6

bandwidth efficient
no coordination and synchronization
necessary
good protection against interference and
tapping

Disadvantages:

lower user data rates

more complex signal regeneration

Implemented using spread spectrum

technology

Modulation
Digital modulation

digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)

ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness

Analog modulation

shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier

Motivation
smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
Frequency Division Multiplexing
medium characteristics

Basic schemes

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)

Modulation and demodulation

digital
data
101101001

digital
modulation

analog
baseband
signal

analog
modulation

radio transmitter

radio
carrier

analog
demodulation

radio
carrier

analog
baseband
signal

synchronization
decision

digital
data
101101001

radio receiver

Digital modulation
Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying
1
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):

very simple
low bandwidth requirements
very susceptible to interference

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

needs larger bandwidth

t

Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

more complex
robust against interference
t

Advanced Frequency Shift Keying

bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance between

the carrier frequencies
special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts
MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)
bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is
doubled
depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower
frequency, original or inverted is chosen
the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the other
Equivalent to offset QPSK
even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-pass
filter GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM

Example of MSK
1

0
bit

data

even

0101

even bits

odd

0011

odd bits

signal
value

hnnh
- - ++

low
frequency

h: high frequency
n: low frequency
+: original signal
-: inverted signal

high
frequency

MSK
signal

t
No phase shifts!

Advanced Phase Shift Keying

Q

BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying):

bit value 0: sine wave

bit value 1: inverted sine wave
very simple PSK
low spectral efficiency
robust, used e.g. in satellite systems

10

11

QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying):

I

2 bits coded as one symbol

symbol determines shift of sine wave
needs less bandwidth compared to
BPSK
more complex

Often also transmission of relative, not

absolute phase shift: DQPSK Differential QPSK (IS-136, PHS)

00

01

t
11

10

00

01

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): combines amplitude and
phase modulation
it is possible to code n bits using one symbol
2n discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK
bit error rate increases with n, but less errors compared to
comparable PSK schemes
Q
0010
0011

0001
0000

I
1000

Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol)

Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the same phase ,
but different amplitude a. 0000 and 1000 have
different phase, but same amplitude.
used in standard 9600 bit/s modems

Hierarchical Modulation
DVB-T modulates two separate data streams onto a single DVB-T stream
High Priority (HP) embedded within a Low Priority (LP) stream
Multi carrier system, about 2000 or 8000 carriers
QPSK, 16 QAM, 64QAM
Example: 64QAM

good reception: resolve the entire

64QAM constellation
poor reception, mobile reception:
resolve only QPSK portion
6 bit per QAM symbol, 2 most
significant determine QPSK
HP service coded in QPSK (2 bit),
LP uses remaining 4 bit

10
I

00
000010

010101

Spread spectrum technology

Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can wipe out
narrow band signals for duration of the interference

Solution: spread narrow band signal into broad band signal using special code

power

interference

spread
signal

power

signal

detection at
receiver

protection againstf narrowband interference

Side effects:

coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination

tap-proof

Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

spread
interference

Effects of spreading and interference

dP/df

dP/df

i)

user signal
broadband interference
narrowband interference

ii)
f
sender
dP/df

dP/df

dP/df

iii)

iv)
f

receiver

v)
f

Spreading and frequency selective fading

channel
quality

narrowband channels

4
frequency
narrow band
signal

guard space

channel
quality

spread
spectrum

spread spectrum channels

frequency

DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) I

XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping sequence)

many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal

Advantages

reduces frequency selective

fading
in cellular networks

base stations can use the

same frequency range
several base stations can
detect and recover the signal
soft handover

tb
user data
0

1
tc

chipping
sequence
01101010110101

Disadvantages

XOR

=
resulting
signal

precise power control necessary

01101011001010

tb: bit period

tc: chip period

DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) II

spread
spectrum
signal

user data
X

transmit
signal
modulator

chipping
sequence

radio
carrier
transmitter

correlator
lowpass
filtered
signal

received
signal
demodulator
radio
carrier

products

data
X

chipping
sequence
receiver

sampled
sums

integrator

decision

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) I

Discrete changes of carrier frequency

sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random number

sequence

Two versions

Fast Hopping:
several frequencies per user bit
Slow Hopping:
several user bits per frequency

Advantages

frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period

simple implementation
uses only small portion of spectrum at any time

Disadvantages

not as robust as DSSS

simpler to detect

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) II

tb
user data
0

td

f3

slow
hopping
(3 bits/hop)

f2
f1
f

td

f3

fast
hopping
(3 hops/bit)

f2
f1
t

tb: bit period

td: dwell time

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) III

user data
modulator

modulator

frequency
synthesizer

transmitter

hopping
sequence

narrowband
signal

received
signal

data
demodulator

hopping
sequence

spread
transmit
signal

narrowband
signal

frequency
synthesizer

demodulator

receiver

Physical layer

Holger Karl

Receiver: Demodulation
The receiver looks at the received wave form and matches it with the data
bit that caused the transmitter to generate this wave form

Necessary: one-to-one mapping between data and wave form

Because of channel imperfections, this is at best possible for digital
signals, but not for analog signals

Problems caused by

Carrier synchronization: frequency can vary between sender and receiver

(drift, temperature changes, aging, )
Bit synchronization (actually: symbol synchronization): When does symbol
representing a certain bit start/end?
Frame synchronization: When does a packet start/end?
Biggest problem: Received signal is not the transmitted signal!

Attenuation results in path loss

Effect of attenuation: received signal strength is a function of the distance
d between sender and transmitter
Captured by Friis free-space equation

Describes signal strength at distance d relative to some reference distance

d0 < d for which strength is known
d0 is far-field distance, depends on antenna technology

Generalizing the attenuation formula

To take into account stronger attenuation than only caused by distance
(e.g., walls, ), use a larger exponent > 2

is the path-loss exponent

Rewrite in logarithmic form (in dB):

Take obstacles into account by a random variation

Add a Gaussian random variable with 0 mean, variance 2 to dB
representation
Equivalent to multiplying with a lognormal distributed r.v. in metric units !
lognormal fading

Noise and interference

So far: only a single transmitter assumed

Only disturbance: self-interference of a signal with multi-path copies of

itself

In reality, two further disturbances

Noise due to effects in receiver electronics, depends on temperature

Typical model: an additive Gaussian variable, mean 0, no correlation in time

Interference from third parties

Co-channel interference: another sender uses the same spectrum

Adjacent-channel interference: another sender uses some other part of the
radio spectrum, but receiver filters are not good enough to fully suppress it

Effect: Received signal is distorted by channel, corrupted by noise and

interference

What is the result on the received bits?

Symbols and bit errors

Extracting symbols out of a distorted/corrupted wave form is fraught with
errors

Depends essentially on strength of the received signal compared to the

corruption
Captured by signal to noise and interference ratio (SINR)

SINR allows to compute bit error rate (BER) for a given modulation

Also depends on data rate (# bits/symbol) of modulation

E.g., for simple DPSK, data rate corresponding to bandwidth:

Examples for SINR BER mappings

1

Coherently Detected BPSK

Coherently Detected BFSK

0.1
0.01
0.001
BER

0.0001
1e-05
1e-06
1e-07

SINR

-10

-5

10

15

Channel models analog

How to stochastically capture the behavior of a wireless channel

Main options: model the SNR or directly the bit errors

Signal models

Simplest model: assume transmission power and attenuation are constant,

noise an uncorrelated Gaussian variable

Additive White Gaussian Noise model, results in constant SNR

Situation with no line-of-sight path, but many indirect paths: Amplitude of

resulting signal has a Rayleigh distribution (Rayleigh fading)

One dominant line-of-sight plus many indirect paths: Signal has a Rice
distribution (Rice fading)

Channel models digital

Directly model the resulting bit error behavior

Each bit is erroneous with constant probability, independent of the other

bits binary symmetric channel (BSC)

Capture fading models property that channel be in different states

Markov models states with different BERs

Example: Gilbert-Elliot model with bad and good channel states and high/low
bit error rates

good

bad

Fractal channel models describe number of (in-)correct bits in a row by a

heavy-tailed distribution

WSN-specific channel models

Typical WSN properties

Small transmission range

Implies small delay spread (nanoseconds, compared to micro/milliseconds
for symbol duration)
Frequency-non-selective fading, low to negligible inter-symbol interference

Coherence bandwidth
often > 50 MHz

Some example
measurements
path loss exponent
Shadowing variance 2
Reference path
loss at 1 m

Wireless channel quality summary

Wireless channels are substantially worse than wired channels

In throughput, bit error characteristics, energy consumption,

Wireless channels are extremely diverse

There is no such thing as THE typical wireless channel

Various schemes for quality improvement exist

Some of them geared towards high-performance wireless communication

not necessarily suitable for WSN, ok for MANET

Diversity, equalization,

Some of them general-purpose (ARQ, FEC)

Energy issues need to be taken into account!

Some transceiver design considerations

Strive for good power efficiency at low transmission power

Some amplifiers are optimized for efficiency at high output power

To radiate 1 mW, typical designs need 30-100 mW to operate the
transmitter

WSN nodes: 20 mW (mica motes)

Receiver can use as much or more power as transmitter at these power

levels
! Sleep state is important

Startup energy/time penalty can be high

Examples take 0.5 ms and 60 mW to wake up

Exploit communication/computation tradeoffs

Might payoff to invest in rather complicated coding/compression schemes

Choice of modulation
One exemplary design point: which modulation to use?

Consider: required data rate, available symbol rate, implementation

complexity, required BER, channel characteristics,
Tradeoffs: the faster one sends, the longer one can sleep

Power consumption can depend on modulation scheme

Tradeoffs: symbol rate (high?) versus data rate (low)

Use m-ary transmission to get a transmission over with ASAP

But: startup costs can easily void any time saving effects
For details: see example in exercise!

Adapt modulation choice to operation conditions

Akin to dynamic voltage scaling, introduce Dynamic Modulation Scaling

Summary
Wireless radio communication introduces many uncertainties and
vagaries into a communication system
Handling the unavoidable errors will be a major challenge for the
communication protocols
Dealing with limited bandwidth in an energy-efficient manner is the main
challenge
MANET and WSN are pretty similar here

Main differences are in required data rates and resulting transceiver

complexities (higher bandwidth, spread spectrum techniques)

Wireless Communications

Principles and Practice

2nd Edition
T.S. Rappaport
Chapter 4: Mobile Radio Propagation: Large-Scale Path
Loss

Co-channel and Adjacent

Channel Interference,
Propagation

Small-scale and large-scale fading

Figure 4.1 Small-scale and large-scale fading.

Typical electromagnetic properties

Typical large-scale path loss

Measured large-scale path loss

Partition losses

Partition losses

Partition losses

Wireless Communications

Principles and Practice

2nd Edition
T.S. Rappaport
Chapter 5: Mobile Radio Propagation: Small-Scale Fading and
Multipath as it applies to Modulation Techniques

Channel Sounder: Pulse type

Channel Sounder: PN Type

Typical RMS delay spreads

Two independent fading issues

Flat-fading (non-freq. Selective)

Frequency selective fading

Two independent fading issues

Rayleigh fading

Small-scale envelope distributions

Ricean and Rayleigh fading distributions

Wireless Communications

Principles and Practice

2/e
T.S. Rapppaport
Chapter 6: Modulation Techniques for Mobile Radio

Amplitude Modulation

Double Sideband Spectrum

SSB Modulators

Tone-in Band SSB

Product Detection

VCO circuit

Wideband FM generation

Slope Detector for FM

Digital Demod for FM

PLL Demod for FM

Phase-shift quadrature FM demod

FM Demod circuit

Line Coding spectra

RZ and NRZ Line Codes

Nyquist Pulses for zero-ISI

Raised Cosine Spectrum

Spectrum of Raised Cosine pulse

Raised Cosine pulses

RF signal usig Raised Cosine

Gaussian pulse-shapes

BPSK constellation

Virtue of pulse shaping

BPSK Coherent demodulator

Differential PSK encoding

DPSK modulation

DPSK receiver

QPSK constellation diagrams

Virtues of Pulse Shaping

QPSK modulation

QPSK receiver

Offset QPSK waveforms

Pi/4 QPSK signaling

Pi/4 QPSK phase shifts

Pi/4 QPSK transmitter

Differential detection of pi/4 QPSK

IF Differential Detection

FM Discriminator detector

FSK Coherent Detection

Noncoherent FSK

Minimum Shift Keying spectra

MSK modulation

MSK reception

GMSK spectral shaping

GMSK spectra shaping

Simple GMSK generation

GMSK Demodulator

Digital GMSK demodulator

8-PSK Signal Constellation

Bandwidth vs. Power Efficiency

Pulse Shaped M-PSK

16-QAM Signal Constellation

QAM efficiencies

M-ary FSK efficiencies

PN Sequence Generator

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

Direct Sequence Spreading

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

CDMA Multiple Users

Effects of Fading

Irreducible Bit Error Rate due to multipath

Irreducible Bit Error Rate due to multipath

Simulation of Fading and Multipath

Irreducible BER due to fading

Irreducible BER due to fading

BER due to fading & multipath

Energy per bit as a function of modulation and packet size

(Raghunathan et al)

13

Slides from Rahul Mangaram

13

Shannons Capacity Theorem

States the theoretical maximum rate at which an error-free bit can

be transmitted over a noisy channel

C: the channel capacity in bits per second

B: the bandwidth in hertz
SNR: the ratio of signal power to noise power

Channel capacity depends on channel bandwidth and system SNR

13

Shannons Theorem: Example

For SNR of 0, 10, 20, 30 dB, one can achieve C/B of 1, 3.46, 6.66,
9.97 bps/Hz, respectively

Example:
Consider the operation of a modem on an ordinary telephone line.

The SNR is usually about 1000. The bandwidth is 3.4 KHz. Therefore:
C = 3400 X log2(1 + 1000)
= (3400)(9.97)
34 kbps

140

14

Bit Error Rate

BER = Errors / Total number of bits

Error means the reception of a 1 when a 0 was transmitted or vice

versa.

Noise is the main factor of BER performance signal path loss,

circuit noise,

141

14

Thermal Noise

Thermal Noise
white noise since it contains the same level of power at all

frequencies
kTB, where
k is the Boltzmanns constant = 1.381e-21 W / K / Hz,
T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin, and
B is the bandwidth.

At room temperature, T = 290K, the thermal noise power spectral

density,
kT = 4.005e-21 W/Hz or

174 dBm/Hz

142

14

Receiver Sensitivity

The minimum input signal power needed at receiver input to

provide adequate SNR at receiver output to do data demodulation

SNR depends on
Received signal power
Background thermal noise at antenna (Na)
Noise added by the receiver (Nr)

Pmin = SNRmin (Na +Nr)

143

14

Noise Figure

Noise Figure (F) quantifies the increase in noise caused by

the noise source in the receiver relative to input noise

F = SNRinput/SNRoutput = (Na + Nr)/Na

Pmin = SNRmin(Na + Nr) = SNRminF Na

Example: if SNRmin = 10 dB, F = 4 dB, BW = 1 MHz Pmin= 10 + 4

-174 + 10log(106) = -100 dBm

144

14

802.15.4 - Modulation Scheme

2.4 GHz PHY

250 kb/s (4 bits/symbol, 62.5 kBaud)
Data modulation is 16-ary orthogonal O-QPSK
16 symbols are ~orthogonal set of 32-chip PN codes

868 MHz/915 MHz PHY

Symbol rate
868 MHz band: 20 kbps (1bit/symbol, 20 Kbaud)
915 MHz band: 40 kbps (1bit/symbol, 40 Kbaud)
Spreading code is 15-chip
Data modulation is BPSK
868 MHz: 300 Kchips/s
915 MHz: 600 Kchips/s

145

14

802.15.4 - PHY Communication Parameters

Transmit power
Capable of at least 0.5 mW

Transmit center frequency tolerance

40 ppm

Receiver sensitivity (packet error rate < 1%)

85 dBm @ 2.4 GHz band
92 dBm @ 868/915 MHz band

Receiver Selectivity
2.4 GHz: 5 MHz channel spacing, 0 dB adjacent channel requirement

Channel Selectivity and Blocking

915 MHz and 2.4 GHz band: 0 dB rejection of interference from adjacent channel
30 dB rejection of interference from alternate channel

Rx Signal Strength Indication Measurements

Packet strength indication
Clear channel assessment
Dynamic channel selection
14

802.15.4: Receiver Noise Figure Calculation

Channel Noise bandwidth is 1.5 MHz

Transmit Power is 1mW or 0 dBm
Thermal noise floor is 174 dBm/Hz X 1.5 MHz = 112 dBm
Total SNR budget is 0 dBm (112 dBm) = 112 dBm
To cover ~100 ft. at 2.4 GHz results in a path loss of 40 dB
i.e. Receiver sensitivity is 85 dBm

Required SNR for QPSK is 12.5 dB

802.15.4 packet length is 1Kb
Worst packet loss < 1%, (1 BER)1024= 1 1%, BER = 105

Receiver noise figure requirement

NF = Transmit Power Path Loss Required SNR Noise floor

= 0 + 112 40 12.5 = 59.5 dB

The design spec is very relaxed

Low transmit power enables CMOS single chip solution at low cost and power!
147

14