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CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Review important principles of
statics
Use the principles to determine
internal resultant loadings in a
body
Introduce concepts of normal
and shear stress
Discuss applications of analysis and design of
members subjected to an axial load or direct shear
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CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. Introduction
2. Equilibrium of a deformable body
3. Stress
4. Average normal stress in an axially loaded bar
5. Average shear stress
6. Allowable stress
7. Design of simple connections
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Mechanics of materials
A branch of mechanics
It studies the relationship of
External loads applied to a deformable body,
and
The intensity of internal forces acting within the
body
Are used to compute deformations of a body
Study bodys stability when external forces are
applied to it
1.1 INTRODUCTION
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Historical development
Beginning of 17th century (Galileo)
Early 18th century (Saint-Venant, Poisson, Lam
and Navier)
In recent times, with advanced mathematical and
computer techniques, more complex problems
can be solved
1.1 INTRODUCTION
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1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY
External loads
Surface forces
Area of contact
Concentrated force
Linear distributed force
Centroid C (or
geometric center)
Body force (e.g., weight)
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Support reactions
for 2D problems

1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY
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Equations of equilibrium
For equilibrium
balance of forces
balance of moments
Draw a free-body diagram to account for all
forces acting on the body
Apply the two equations to achieve equilibrium
state
F = 0
M
O
= 0
1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY
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Internal resultant loadings
Define resultant force (F
R
) and moment (M
Ro
) in 3D:
Normal force, N
Shear force, V
Torsional moment or torque, T
Bending moment, M
1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY
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Internal resultant loadings
For coplanar loadings:
Normal force, N
Shear force, V
Bending moment, M
1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY
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Internal resultant loadings
For coplanar loadings:
Apply F
x
= 0 to solve for N
Apply F
y
= 0 to solve for V
Apply M
O
= 0 to solve for M
1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY
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Procedure for Analysis
Method of sections
1. Choose segment to analyze
2. Determine Support Reactions
3. Draw free-body diagram for whole body
4. Apply equations of equilibrium
1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY
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Procedure for analysis
Free-body diagram
1. Keep all external loadings in exact locations
before sectioning
2. Indicate unknown resultants, N, V, M, and T
at the section, normally at centroid C of
sectioned area
3. Coplanar system of forces only include N, V,
and M
4. Establish x, y, z coordinate axes with origin at
centroid
1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY
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Procedure for analysis
Equations of equilibrium
1. Sum moments at section, about each
coordinate axes where resultants act
2. This will eliminate unknown forces N and V,
with direct solution for M (and T)
3. Resultant force with negative value implies
that assumed direction is opposite to that
shown on free-body diagram
1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY
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EXAMPLE 1.1
Determine resultant loadings acting on cross
section at C of beam.
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EXAMPLE 1.1 (SOLN)
Support Reactions
Consider segment CB
Free-Body Diagram:
Keep distributed loading exactly where it is on
segment CB after cutting the section.
Replace it with a single resultant force, F.
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EXAMPLE 1.1 (SOLN)
Intensity (w) of loading at C (by proportion)
w/6 m = (270 N/m)/9 m
w = 180 N/m

F = (180 N/m)(6 m) = 540 N

F acts 1/3(6 m) = 2 m from C.
Free-Body Diagram:
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EXAMPLE 1.1 (SOLN)
Equilibrium equations:
F
x
= 0;
F
y
= 0;
M
c
= 0;
N
c
= 0
N
c
= 0
V
c
540 N = 0
V
c
= 540 N
M
c
504 N (2 m) = 0
M
c
= 1080 N m
+
+
+
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EXAMPLE 1.1 (SOLN)
Equilibrium equations:
Negative sign of M
c
means it acts in the opposite
direction to that shown below
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EXAMPLE 1.5
Mass of pipe = 2 kg/m,
subjected to vertical
force of 50 N and couple
moment of 70 Nm at
end A. It is fixed to the
wall at C.
Determine resultant internal loadings acting on cross
section at B of pipe.
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EXAMPLE 1.5 (SOLN)
Support Reactions:
Consider segment AB,
which does not involve
support reactions at C.

Free-Body Diagram:
Need to find weight of
each segment.
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EXAMPLE 1.5 (SOLN)
W
BD
= (2 kg/m)(0.5 m)(9.81 N/kg)
= 9.81 N

W
AD
= (2 kg/m)(1.25 m)(9.81 N/kg)
= 24.525 N
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EXAMPLE 1.5 (SOLN)
Equilibrium equations:
F
x
= 0;
F
y
= 0;
(F
B
)
x
= 0
(F
B
)
y
= 0
F
z
= 0;
(F
B
)
z
9.81 N 24.525 N 50 N = 0
(F
B
)
z
= 84.3 N
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EXAMPLE 1.5 (SOLN)
Equilibrium Equations:
(M
B
)
x
= 0;
(M
c
)
x
+ 70 N m 50 N (0.5 m) 24.525 N (0.5 m)
9.81 N (0.25m) = 0
(M
B
)
x
= 30.3 N m
(M
B
)
y
= 0;
(M
c
)
y
+ 24.525 N (0.625 m) + 50 N (1.25 m) = 0
(M
B
)
y
= 77.8 N m
(M
B
)
z
= 0; (M
c
)
z
= 0
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EXAMPLE 1.5 (SOLN)
N
B
= (F
B
)
y
= 0
V
B
= (0)
2
+ (84.3)
2
= 84.3 N
T
B
= (M
B
)
y
= 77.8 N m
M
B
= (30.3)
2
+ (0)
2
= 30.3 N m
The direction of each moment is determined
using the right-hand rule: positive moments
(thumb) directed along positive coordinate axis
Equilibrium Equations:
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1.3 STRESS
Concept of stress
To obtain distribution of force acting over a
sectioned area
Assumptions of material:
1. It is continuous (uniform distribution of matter)
2. It is cohesive (all portions are connected
together)
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1.3 STRESS
Concept of stress
Consider A in figure below
Small finite force, F acts on A
As A 0, F 0
But stress (F / A) finite limit ()
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Normal stress
Intensity of force, or force per unit area, acting
normal to A
Symbol used for normal stress, is (sigma)
Tensile stress: normal force pulls or stretches
the area element A
Compressive stress: normal force pushes or
compresses area element A
1.3 STRESS

z
=
lim
A 0
F
z
A
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Shear stress
Intensity of force, or force per unit area, acting
tangent to A
Symbol used for normal stress is (tau)
1.3 STRESS

zx
=
lim
A 0
F
x
A

zy
=
lim
A 0
F
y
A
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General state of stress
Figure shows the state of stress
acting around a chosen point in a
body

Units (SI system)
Newtons per square meter (N/m
2
)
or a pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m
2
)
kPa = 10
3
N/m
2
(kilo-pascal)
MPa = 10
6
N/m
2
(mega-pascal)
GPa = 10
9
N/m
2
(giga-pascal)
1.3 STRESS
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1.4 AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS IN AXIALLY LOADED BAR
Examples of axially loaded bar
Usually long and slender structural members
Truss members, hangers, bolts
Prismatic means all the cross sections are the same

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Assumptions
1. Uniform deformation: Bar remains straight before
and after load is applied, and cross section
remains flat or plane during deformation
2. In order for uniform deformation, force P be
applied along centroidal axis of cross section
1.4 AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS IN AXIALLY LOADED BAR
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Average normal stress distribution
= average normal stress at any
point on cross sectional area
P = internal resultant normal force
A = x-sectional area of the bar
1.4 AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS IN AXIALLY LOADED BAR
F
Rz
= F
xz
dF =
A
dA

P = A
+
P
A
=
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Equilibrium
Consider vertical equilibrium of the element
F
z
= 0 (A) (A) = 0
=
Above analysis
applies to members
subjected to tension
or compression.
1.4 AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS IN AXIALLY LOADED BAR
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Maximum average normal stress
For problems where internal force P and x-
sectional A were constant along the longitudinal
axis of the bar, normal stress = P/A is also
constant
If the bar is subjected to several external loads
along its axis, change in x-sectional area may
occur
Thus, it is important to find the maximum
average normal stress
To determine that, we need to find the location
where ratio P/A is a maximum
1.4 AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS IN AXIALLY LOADED BAR
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Maximum average normal stress
Draw an axial or normal force diagram (plot of
P vs. its position x along bars length)
Sign convention:
P is positive (+) if it causes tension in the
member
P is negative () if it causes compression
Identify the maximum average normal stress
from the plot
1.4 AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS IN AXIALLY LOADED BAR
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Procedure for Analysis
Average normal stress
Use equation of = P/A for x-sectional area of a
member when section subjected to internal
resultant force P
1.4 AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS IN AXIALLY LOADED BAR
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Procedure for Analysis
Axially loaded members
Internal Loading:
Section member perpendicular to its longitudinal
axis at pt where normal stress is to be
determined
Draw free-body diagram
Use equation of force equilibrium to obtain
internal axial force P at the section
1.4 AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS IN AXIALLY LOADED BAR
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Procedure for Analysis
Axially loaded members
Average Normal Stress:
Determine members x-sectional area at the
section
Compute average normal stress = P/A
1.4 AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS IN AXIALLY LOADED BAR
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EXAMPLE 1.6
Bar width = 35 mm, thickness = 10 mm
Determine max. average normal stress in bar when
subjected to loading shown.
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EXAMPLE 1.6 (SOLN)
Internal loading
Normal force diagram
By inspection, largest
loading area is BC,
where P
BC
= 30 kN
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EXAMPLE 1.6 (SOLN)
Average normal stress

BC
=
P
BC
A
30(10
3
) N
(0.035 m)(0.010 m)
= = 85.7 MPa
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EXAMPLE 1.8
Specific weight
st
= 80 kN/m
3

Determine average compressive stress acting at
points A and B.
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EXAMPLE 1.8 (SOLN)
Internal loading
Based on free-body diagram,
weight of segment AB determined from
W
st
=
st
V
st

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EXAMPLE 1.8 (SOLN)
Average normal stress
+ F
z
= 0;
P W
st
= 0
P (80 kN/m
3
)(0.8 m)(0.2 m)
2
= 0
P = 8.042 kN
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EXAMPLE 1.8 (SOLN)
Average compressive stress
Cross-sectional area at section is:
A = (0.2)m
2
8.042 kN
(0.2 m)
2
P
A
= =
= 64.0 kN/m
2
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1.5 AVERAGE SHEAR STRESS
Shear stress is the stress component that act
in the plane of the sectioned area.
Consider a force F acting to the bar
For rigid supports, and F is large enough, bar
will deform and fail along the planes identified
by AB and CD
Free-body diagram indicates that shear force,
V = F/2 be applied at both sections to ensure
equilibrium
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1.5 AVERAGE SHEAR STRESS
Average shear stress over each
section is:

avg
= average shear stress at
section, assumed to be same
at each pt on the section
V = internal resultant shear force at
section determined from
equations of equilibrium
A = area of section
P
A

avg
=
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1.5 AVERAGE SHEAR STRESS
Case discussed above is example of simple or
direct shear
Caused by the direct action of applied load F
Occurs in various types of simple connections,
e.g., bolts, pins, welded material
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Single shear
Steel and wood joints shown below are
examples of single-shear connections, also
known as lap joints.
Since we assume members are thin, there are
no moments caused by F
1.5 AVERAGE SHEAR STRESS
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Single shear
For equilibrium, x-sectional area of bolt and
bonding surface between the two members are
subjected to single shear force, V = F
The average shear stress equation can be
applied to determine average shear stress
acting on colored section in (d).
1.5 AVERAGE SHEAR STRESS
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1.5 AVERAGE SHEAR STRESS
Double shear
The joints shown below are examples of double-
shear connections, often called double lap joints.
For equilibrium, x-sectional area of bolt and
bonding surface between two members
subjected to double shear force, V = F/2
Apply average shear stress equation to
determine average shear stress acting on
colored section in (d).
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1.5 AVERAGE SHEAR STRESS
Procedure for analysis
Internal shear
1. Section member at the pt where the
avg
is to be
determined
2. Draw free-body diagram
3. Calculate the internal shear force V
Average shear stress
1. Determine sectioned area A
2. Compute average shear stress
avg
= V/A
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EXAMPLE 1.10
Depth and thickness = 40 mm
Determine average normal stress and average
shear stress acting along (a) section planes a-a,
and (b) section plane b-b.
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EXAMPLE 1.10 (SOLN)
Part (a)
Internal loading
Based on free-body diagram, Resultant loading
of axial force, P = 800 N
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EXAMPLE 1.10 (SOLN)
Part (a)
Average stress
Average normal stress,
=
P
A
800 N
(0.04 m)(0.04 m)
= 500 kPa
=
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EXAMPLE 1.10 (SOLN)
Part (a)
Internal loading
No shear stress on section, since shear force at
section is zero.

avg
= 0
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EXAMPLE 1.10 (SOLN)
Part (b)
Internal loading

+
F
x
= 0;
800 N + N sin 60 + V cos 60 = 0 +
F
y
= 0;
V sin 60 N cos 60 = 0
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EXAMPLE 1.10 (SOLN)
Part (b)
Internal loading
Or directly using x, y axes,
F
x
= 0;
F
y
= 0;
+
+
N 800 N cos 30 = 0
V 800 N sin 30 = 0
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EXAMPLE 1.10 (SOLN)
Part (b)
Average normal stress
=
N
A
692.8 N
(0.04 m)(0.04 m/sin 60)
= 375 kPa =
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EXAMPLE 1.10 (SOLN)
Part (b)
Average shear stress

avg
=
V
A
400 N
(0.04 m)(0.04 m/sin 60)
= 217 kPa =
Stress distribution shown below
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1.6 ALLOWABLE STRESS
When designing a structural member or
mechanical element, the stress in it must be
restricted to safe level
Choose an allowable load that is less than the
load the member can fully support
One method used is the factor of safety (F.S.)
F.S. =
F
fail
F
allow
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1.6 ALLOWABLE STRESS
If load applied is linearly related to stress
developed within member, then F.S. can also
be expressed as:
F.S. =

fail

allow
F.S. =

fail

allow
In all the equations, F.S. is chosen to be greater than 1,
to avoid potential for failure
Specific values will depend on types of material used
and its intended purpose
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1.7 DESIGN OF SIMPLE CONNECTIONS
To determine area of section subjected to a
normal force, use
A =
P

allow
A =
V

allow
To determine area of section subjected to a shear
force, use
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1.7 DESIGN OF SIMPLE CONNECTIONS
Cross-sectional area of a tension member
Condition:
The force has a line of action that passes
through the centroid of the cross section.
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1.7 DESIGN OF SIMPLE CONNECTIONS
Cross-sectional area of a connecter subjected to
shear
Assumption:
If bolt is loose or clamping force of bolt is unknown,
assume frictional force between plates to be
negligible.
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Assumptions:
1. (
b
)
allow
of concrete <
(
b
)
allow
of base plate
2. Bearing stress is
uniformly distributed
between plate and
concrete
1.7 DESIGN OF SIMPLE CONNECTIONS
Required area to resist bearing
Bearing stress is normal stress produced by the
compression of one surface against another.
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1.7 DESIGN OF SIMPLE CONNECTIONS
Although actual shear-stress distribution along rod
difficult to determine, we assume it is uniform.
Thus use A = V /
allow
to calculate l, provided d and

allow
is known.
Required area to resist shear caused by axial load
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1.7 DESIGN OF SIMPLE CONNECTIONS
Procedure for analysis
When using average normal stress and shear stress
equations, consider first the section over which the
critical stress is acting
Internal Loading
1. Section member through x-sectional area
2. Draw a free-body diagram of segment of
member
3. Use equations of equilibrium to determine
internal resultant force
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1.7 DESIGN OF SIMPLE CONNECTIONS
Procedure for Analysis
Required Area
Based on known allowable stress, calculate
required area needed to sustain load from
A = P/
allow
or A = V/
allow
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EXAMPLE 1.13
The two members pinned together at B. If the pins
have an allowable shear stress of
allow
= 90 MPa,
and allowable tensile stress of rod CB is
(
t
)
allow
= 115 MPa
Determine to nearest
mm the smallest
diameter of pins A
and B and the
diameter of rod CB
necessary to support
the load.
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EXAMPLE 1.13 (SOLN)
Draw free-body diagram:
=
P
A
800 N
(0.04 m)(0.04 m)
= 500 kPa =
No shear stress on section, since shear force at
section is zero

avg
= 0
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EXAMPLE 1.13 (SOLN)
Diameter of pins:
d
A
= 6.3 mm
A
A
=
V
A
T
allow
2.84 kN
90 10
3
kPa
= = 31.56 10
6
m
2
= (d
A
2
/4)

d
B
= 9.7 mm
A
B
=
V
B
T
allow
6.67 kN
90 10
3
kPa
=
= 74.11 10
6
m
2
= (d
B
2
/4)

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EXAMPLE 1.13 (SOLN)
Diameter of pins:
d
A
= 7 mm d
B
= 10 mm
Choose a size larger to nearest millimeter.
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EXAMPLE 1.13 (SOLN)
Diameter of rod:
d
BC
= 8.59 mm
A
BC
=
P

(
t
)
allow
6.67 kN
115 10
3
kPa
=
= 58 10
6
m
2
= (d
BC
2
/4)

d
BC
= 9 mm
Choose a size larger to nearest millimeter.
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CHAPTER REVIEW
Internal loadings consist of
1. Normal force, N
2. Shear force, V
3. Bending moments, M
4. Torsional moments, T
Get the resultants using
1. method of sections
2. Equations of equilibrium
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CHAPTER REVIEW
Assumptions for a uniform normal stress
distribution over x-section of member ( = P/A)
1. Member made from homogeneous isotropic
material
2. Subjected to a series of external axial loads
that,
3. The loads must pass through centroid of
cross-section
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CHAPTER REVIEW
Determine average shear stress by using
= V/A equation
V is the resultant shear force on cross-
sectional area A
Formula is used mostly to find average
shear stress in fasteners or in parts for
connections
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CHAPTER REVIEW
Design of any simple connection requires that
Average stress along any cross-section not
exceed a factor of safety (F.S.) or
Allowable value of allow or allow
These values are reported in codes or
standards and are deemed safe on basis of
experiments or through experience