SKDAV GOVT.

POLYTECHNIC
ROURKELA

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTES

Year & Semester: 1ST, Year, I- Semester

Subject Code/Name: TH-4, ENGINEERING MECHANICS
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

ENGINEERING MECHANICS
Mechanics is that branch of physical science which deals with the action of forces
on material bodies. Engineering Mechanics, which is very often referred to as
Applied Mechanics, deals with the practical applications of mechanics in the field
of engineering. Applications of Engineering Mechanics are found in analysis of
forces in the components of roof truss, bridge truss, machine parts, parts of heat
engines, rocket engineering, aircraft design etc.
DIVISIONS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS
The subject of Engineering Mechanics may be divided into the following two main
groups:
1. Statics and 2.Dynamics.

STATICS
It is the branch of Engineering Mechanics, which deals with the forces and their
effects, while acting upon the bodies at rest.
DYNAMICS
It is the branch of Engineering Mechanics, which deals with the forces and their
effects, while acting upon the bodies in motion. Dynamics may be further sub-
divided into the following two branches:
1. Kinematics
2. Kinetics

Kinetic deals with the forces acting on moving bodies, whereas kinematics deals
with the motion of the bodies without any reference to forces responsible for the
motion.
FUNDAMENTAL UNITS
Every quantity is measured in terms of some internationally accepted units, called
fundamental units.
All the physical quantities in Engineering Mechanics are expressed in terms of
three fundamental quantities, i.e.
1. Length 2. Mass and 3. Time
SCTE&VT Learning Materials, Engineering Mechanics 5
DERIVED UNITS
Sometimes, the units are also expressed in other units (which are derived from
fundamentalunits) known as derived units e.g. units of area, velocity, acceleration,
pressure etc.
SYSTEMS OF UNITS
There are only four systems of units, which are commonly used and universally
recognized.
These are known as:
1. C.G.S. units2. F.P.S. units3. M.K.S. units and 4. S.I. units.

In this study material we shall use only the S.I. system of units.
FUNDAMENTAL S.I UNITS FUNDAMENTAL UNIT SYMBOL
QUANTITIES
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Electric current Ampere A
Luminous intensity Candela Cd
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
SOME S.I DERIVED UNITS DERIVED UNIT SYMBOL
QUANTITIES
Force Newton N
Moment Newton-meter Nm
Work done Joule J
Power Watt W
Velocity Meter per second m/s
Pressure Pascal or Newton per square Pa or
meter N/m2

RIGID BODY AND ELASTIC BODY

A body is said to be rigid if it does not undergo deformation whatever force may be
applied to the body. In actual practice, there is no body which can be said to be
rigid in true sense of terms.
A body is said to be elastic if it undergoes deformation under the action of force.
All bodies are more or less elastic.
SCALAR AND VECTOR
All physical quantities can be divided into scalar quantity and vector quantity.
Scalar quantity is that physical quantity which has only magnitude and no
direction. For example, length, mass, energy etc.Vector quantity is that physical
quantity which has both magnitude and direction. For example, force, velocity etc.
1.2 FORCE
FORCE SYSTEM
Force is that which changes or tends to change the state of rest of uniform motion
of a body along a straight line. It may also deform a body changing its
dimensions.The force may be broadly defined as an agent which produces or
tends to produce, destroys or tends to destroy motion.Ithas a magnitude and
direction.
Mathematically:
Force=Mass× Acceleration.
Where F=force, M=mass and A=acceleration.
UNITS OF FORCE
In C.GS. System: In this system, there are two units of force: (1) Dyne and (ii)
Gram force (gmf). Dyne is the absolute unit of force in the C.G.S. system. One
dyne is that force which acting on a mass of one gram produces in it
anacceleration ofone centimeter per second2.
In M.K.S. System: In this system, unit of force is kilogram force (kgf). One
kilogram force is that force which acting on a mass of one kilogram produces in it
an acceleration of 9.81 m/ sec2.
In S.I. Unit: In this system, unit of force is Newton (N). One Newton is that force
which acting on a mass of one kilogram produces in it an acceleration of one m
/sec2.
1 Newton = 105 Dyne.
EFFECT OF FORCE
A force may produce the following effects in a body, on which it acts:
1. It may change the motion of a body. i.e. if a body is at rest, the force may set it
in motion.And if the body is already in motion, the force may accelerate or
decelerate it.
2. It may retard the forces, already acting on a body, thus bringing it to rest or in
equilibrium.
3. It may give rise to the internal stresses in the body, on which it acts.
4. A force can change the direction of a moving object.
5. A force can change the shape and size of an object
CHARACTERISTICS OF A FORCE
In order to determine the effects of a force, acting on a body, we must know the
followingcharacteristics of a force:
1. Magnitude of the force (i.e., 50 N, 30 N, 20N etc.)
2. The direction of the line, along which the force acts (i.e., along West, at 30°
North of East etc.). It is also known as line of action of the force.
3. Nature of the force (push or pull).
4. The point at which (or through which) the force acts on the body

PRINCIPLE OF PHYSICAL INDEPENDENCE OF FORCES

It states, “If a number of forces are simultaneously acting on a particle, then the
resultant of these forces will have the same effect as produced by all the forces‟‟.
SYSTEM OF FORCES
When two or more forces act on a body, they are called to form a system of
forces.Force system is basically classified into following types.
i. Coplanar forces
ii. Collinear forces
iii. Concurrent forces
iv. Coplanar concurrent forces
v. Coplanar non- concurrent forces
vi. Non-coplanar concurrent forces
vii. Non- coplanar non- concurrent force
COPLANAR FORCES: Theforces, whose lines of action lie on the same plane,
are known as coplanar forces.
COLLINEAR FORCES:The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same line, are
known ascollinear forces. They act along the same line. Collinear forces may act
in the opposite directions or in the same direction.
CONCURRENT FORCES: The forces, whose lines of action pass through a
common point, are known as concurrent forces.The concurrent forces may or may
not be collinear

COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES: The forces, whose lines of action lie in

the same plane and at the same time pass through a common point are known as
coplanar concurrent forces

COPLANAR NON-CONCURRENT FORCES: The forces, which do not meet at

one point, but their lines of action lie on the same plane, are known as coplanar
non-concurrent forces.

NON-COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES: The forces, which meet at one

point, but their lines of action do not lie on the same plane, are known as non-
coplanar concurrent forces.
NON-COPLANAR NON-CONCURRENT FORCES: The forces, which do not
meet at one point and their lines of action do not lie on the same plane, are called
non-coplanar non-concurrent forces.
PULL AND PUSH: Pull is the force applied to a body at its front end to move the
body in the direction of the force applied.
Push is the force applied to a body at its back end in order to move the body in the
direction of the force applied.

ACTION AND REACTION: Action means active force. Reaction means reactive
force. When a body having a weight W (=mg) is placed on a horizontal plane as
shown in Fig 1.8, the body exerts a vertically downward force equal to „W‟ or „mg‟
on the plane. Then „W‟ is called action of the body on the plane. According to
Newton‟s 3rd law of motion, every action has an equal and opposite reaction. But
action and reaction never act on the same body. So, the horizontal plane will exert
equal amount of force „R‟ on the body in the vertically upward direction. This
vertically upward force acting on the body is called reaction of the plane on the
body.

FREE BODY DIAGRAM:

The representation of reaction force on the body by removing all the support or
forces act from the body is called free body diagram.
Object with support Free Body Diagram

EXTERNAL FORCE AND INTERNAL FORCE: When a force is applied externally

to a body; that force is called external force.
Internal force is that force which is set up in a body to resist deformation of the
body caused by the external force.
TENSION:Tension is the pull to which a rope or wire or rod is subjected. In figure
(b) P is the tension applied to a rope.

Let a body having weight W be suspended by means of a vertical rope fixed at its
upper end at O. The point O is pulled downward by a force W. Hence the point O
will exert equal amount of force W to the body, in the upward direction. This
upward force on the rope is the tension of the rope. In Fig 1.10(a), T is the tension
of the rope.
REPRESENTATION OF A FORCE
Since force is a vector quantity, it can be represented by a straight line. The length
of the line represents magnitude of the force, the line itself represents the direction
and an arrow put on the head of the straight line indicates the sense in which the
force acts

DENOTING A FORCE BY BOW’S NOTATION

Fig 1.11
In Bow‟s notation for denoting a force, two English capital letters are placed, one
on each side of the line of action of the force. In figure 1.11 AB denotes the force
F.
PRINCIPLE OF TRANSMISSIBILITY OF FORCES
It states, “If a force acts at any point on a rigid body, it may also be considered to
act at anyother point on its line of action, provided this point is rigidly connected
with the body.”That means the point of application of a force can be moved
anywhere along its line of action without changing the external reaction forces on
 a rigid bod

Here force at point A = force at B (the magnitude of force in the body at any point
along the line of action are same)
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF FORCES: This principle states that the
combined effect of force system acting on a particle or a rigid body is the sum of
effects of individual forces.
Consider two forces P and Q acting at A on a boat as shown in Fig 1.13. Let R be
the resultant of these two forces P and Q. According to Newton‟s second law of
motion, the boat will move in the direction of resultant force R with acceleration
proportional to R. The same motion can be obtained when P and Q are applied
simultaneously.

Fig 1.13

RESOLUTION OF A FORCE
The process of splitting up the given force into a number of components, without changing its
effect on the body is called resolution of a force. A force is, generally, resolved along two
mutually perpendicular directions.

(From Pythagoras theorem we know that

Sinθ=P/h => p= hsinθ similarly Cosθ=b/h => b= hcosθ)
By resolution of force F, we found
X=FCosθ and Y=F Sinθ
RESOLUTION OF A GIVEN FORCE INTO TWO COMPONENTS IN TWO ASSIGNED
DIRECTION
DETERMINATION OF RESOLVED PARTS OF A FORCE

Resolved parts of a force mean components of the force along two mutually perpendicular
directions.
Let a force F represented in magnitude and direction by OC make an angle θ with OX. Line OY
is drawn through O at right angles to OX as shown in figure 1.16.
Through C, lines CA and CB are drawn parallel to OY and OX respectively. Then the resolved
parts of the force F along OX and OY are represented in magnitude and direction by OA and OB
respectively.
Now in the right angled Δ AOC,
cosθ = OA / OC = OA / F i.e OA = F cos θ
Since OA is parallel to BC, <OCB = <AOC = θ
In the right angled Δ OBC, sinθ = OB / OC = OB / F i.e, OB = F sin θ
Thus, the resolved parts of F along OX and OY are respectively. F cos θ and F sin θ
.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESOLVED PARTS OF A FORCE

Let 50 KN force is required to be applied to a body along a horizontal direction CD in order to

move the body along the plane AB. Then it can be said that to move the body along the same
plane AB, a force of 50kN is to be applied at an angle of 60° with the horizontal as CD = 50
cos60° = 25kN.
Similarly, if a force of 43.3kN is required to be applied to the body to lift it vertically upward, then
the body will be lifted vertically upward if a force of 50kN is applied to the body at an angle of
60° with the horizontal, as the resolved part of 50kN along the vertical CE = 50 sin60° = 43.3kN.
Thus, the resolved part of a force in any direction represents the whole effect of the force in that
direction.

METHODS FOR FINDING THE RESULTANT FORCE

Though there are many methods for finding out the resultant force of a number of
given forces, yet the following are important from the subject point of view :
1. Analytical method. 2. Method of resolution.
.1 ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR RESULTANT FORCE
The resultant force, of a given system of forces, may be found out analytically by
the following methods
1. Parallelogram law of forces. 2. Method of resolution.
PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES
This theorem states that if two forces acting at a point be represented in
magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from
a point, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the
diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point.
Explanation: Let forces P and Q acting at a point O be represented in magnitude
and direction by OA and OB respectively as shown in Fig 1.19. Then, according to
the theorem of parallelogram of forces, the diagonal OC drawn through O
represents the resultant of P and Q in magnitude and direction
.

DETERMINATION OF THE RESULTANT OF TWO CONCURRENT FORCES

WITH THE HELP OF LAW OF PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES

Consider, two forces „P‟ and „Q‟ acting at and away from point „A‟ as shown in
figure .
Let, the forces P and Q are represented by the two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram AD and AB respectively as shown in fig. Let, θ be the angle
between the force P and Q and α be the angle between R and P. Extend line AB
and drop perpendicular from point C on the extended line AB to meet at point E.
Consider Right angle triangle ACE,
AC2 = AE2 + CE2
= (AB + BE)2 + CE2
= AB2 + BE2 + 2.AB.BE + CE2
= AB2 + BE2 + CE2 + 2.AB.BE……………………..(1)
Consider right angle triangle BCE,
BC2 = BE2 + CE2 and BE = BC.Cos θ
Putting BC2 = BE2 + CE2in equation (1), we get
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 + 2.AB.BE………………………..(2)
Putting BE = BC. Cos θ in equation (2)
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 + 2.AB. BC. Cos θ
But, AB = P, BC = Q and AC = R

R=

In triangle ACE
Tanα=CE/AE=CE/(AB+BE)
But, CE = BC. Sin θ

Tanα=
Now let us consider two forcesF1 and F2 are represented by the two adjacent
sides of a parallelogram
i.e. F1 and F2 = Forces whose resultant is required to be found out,
θ = Angle between the forces F1 and F2, and
α = Angle which the resultant force makes with one of the forces (say F1).
Then resultant force

And

If (α) is the angle which the resultant force makes with the other force F2, then
CASES:
1. If θ = 0 i.e., when the forces act along the same line, then
Rmax= F1 + F2
2.If θ = 90 i.e., when the forces act at right angle, then

3. If θ = 180 i.e., when the forces act along the same straight line but in opposite
directions,then
Rmin= F1 – F2
In this case, the resultant force will act in the direction of the greater force.
4. If the two forces are equal i.e., when F1 = F2 = F then

Example 1.1Two forces of 100 N and 150 N are acting simultaneously at a

point. What isthe resultant of these two forces, if the angle between them is
45°?
Solution.Given: First force (F1) = 100 N; Second force (F2) = 150 N and angle
betweenF1 and F2 (θ) = 45
Example 1.2Find the magnitude of the two forces, such that if they act at
right angles, theirresultant is√ N. But if they Act at 60°, their resultant is √ N.
Solution: Given: Two forces = F1 and F2.
First of all, consider the two forces acting at right angles. We know that when the
angle betweenthe two given forces is 90°, then the resultant force (R

Similarly, when the angle between the two forces is 60°, then the resultant force
(R)

ANALYTICAL METHOD OF DETERMINING THE RESULTANT OF ANY

NUMBER OF CO-PLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES
Let P, Q, T....... be a number of forces acting at a point O and let R be the required
resultant of the given forces.
Fig 1.21
Through O, lines OX and OY are drawn at right angles to each other.
Let forces P, Q, T,...... make angles α,β,γ,...... with OX measured in the
anticlockwise direction as shown in Fig. Also, let θ = angle made by the line of
action of R with OX.
Now, the resolved parts P, Q, T....... along OX are respectively Pcosα, Qcosβ,
Tcosγ and along OY are respectively Psinα, Qsinβ, Tsinγ
Let ƩH =ƩX = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the above forces along OX
(horizontally)
ƩV = ƩY= algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the same forces along OY
(vertically)
Then, ƩX =Pcosα+Qcosβ+Tcosγ………
ƩY =Psinα+Qsinβ+Tsinγ......
Now, the resolved parts of R along OX and OY are respectively Rcosθ and Rsinθ.
ƩX = Rcosθ, and ƩY = Rsinθ
(ƩX)2 + (ƩY)2 = R2cos2θ + R2sin2θ
= R2(cos2θ+ sin2θ)
= R2

From the above formula, θ can be found out.

Note. When ƩX is +ve, R will lie either in between θ = 0° to 90° or between 270° to
360°.
When ƩX is -ve, R will lie in between 90° to 270°.
When ƩY is +ve, R will lie in between 0 = 0° to 180°.
When ƩY is -ve, R will lie in between 180° to 360°.
Example1.3A particle is acted on by three forces 2, 2√2 and 1 kN. The first
force is horizontal and towards the right, the second acts at 45° to the
horizontal and inclined right upward, and the third is vertical. Determine the
resultant of the given forces.
Solution. See Figure. Let R = required resultant of the given forces.
Then, R= √ , where
ƩX = algebraic sum of the resolved part of the given forces along horizontal
direction OX, and
ƩY = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the given forces along vertical
direction OY.
Now, ƩX = 2 cos 0 + 2√2 cos 45° + 1 cos 90°
= 2+2√2 x √ + 0 = 4kN

ƩY = 2 sin 0° + 2√2 sin 45° + 1 sin 90°

= 0 + 2√2 x √ +1 = 3kN
R = 5 kN
tan θ =0.75 => θ = tan-1 0.75 = 36.9o
Example1.4. To resolve the given force into two perpendicular co-
ordinates.

Solution:
According to resolution of forces: y‟
We know that x=50×cos30, x=50 x=43.30N fig 1.23
y=50×sin30, y=50× y=25N
Example 1.5 A triangle ABC has its side AB = 40 mm along positive x-axis
and sideBC = 30 mm along positive y-axis. Three forces of 40 N, 50 N and 30
N act along the sides AB, BCand CA respectively. Determine magnitude of
the resultant of such a system of forces.
Solution. The system of given forces is shown in Fig
From the geometry of the figure, we find that the triangle ABC is a right-angled
triangle, in which side AC = 50 mm.
Therefore
Sinθ= =0.6
cosθ= =0.8
Resolving all the forces horizontally (i.e., along AB),
ΣH = 40 – 30 cos θ
= 40 – (30 × 0.8) = 16 N
and now resolving all the forces vertically (i.e., along BC)
ΣV= 50 – 30 sin θ
= 50 – (30 × 0.6) = 32 N
We know that magnitude of the resultant force,

.
Example 1.6A system of forces are acting at the corners of a rectangular
block as shown in Fig. Determine the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force.

Solution.Given:
Let θ = Angle which the resultant force makes with the horizontal
System of forces
Magnitude of the resultant force
Resolving forces horizontally,
ΣH = 25 – 20 = 5 kN
and now resolving the forces vertically
ΣV = (–50) + (–35) = – 85 kN
∴ Magnitude of the resultant force

Since the side AB is along x-axis, and the side BC is along y-axis, therefore it is a
right-angled triangle.
Now in triangle ABC,

Direction of the resultant force

We know that

Since ΣH is positive and ΣV is negative, therefore resultant lies between 270 and
360 .
Thusactual angle of the resultant force
= 360° – 86.6° = 273.4° Ans.
Example 1.7.The following forces act at a point :
(i) 20 N inclined at 30° towards North of East,
(ii) 25 N towards North,
(iii) 30 N towards North West, and
(iv) 35 N inclined at 40° towards South of West.
Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
Solution.The system of given forces is shown in fig

Magnitude of the resultant force

Resolving all the forces horizontally i.e., along East-West line,
ΣH = 20 cos 30° + 25 cos 90° + 30 cos 135° + 35 cos 220° N
= (20 × 0.866) + (25 × 0) + 30 (– 0.707) + 35 (– 0.766) N
= – 30.7 N ...(i)
and now resolving all the forces vertically i.e., along North-South line,
ΣV = 20 sin 30° + 25 sin 90° + 30 sin 135° + 35 sin 220° N
= (20 × 0.5) + (25 × 1.0) + (30 × 0.707) + 35 (– 0.6428) N
= 33.7 N ...(ii)
We know that magnitude of the resultant force,

.
Direction of the resultant force
Let = Angle, which the resultant force makes with the East.
We know that,
tan = ΣV/ΣH = 33.7/-30.7 = -1.098 or = 47.7
Since ΣH is negative and ΣV is positive, therefore resultant lies between 90° and
180°. Thus
actual angle of the resultant = 180° – 47.7° = 132.3° Ans.
Example 1.8Forces 3, 12√ and 3√ kN act at a point towards the East, North-
East, and South-West respectively. Determine the resultant of the given
forces.

GRAPHICAL METHOD
TRIANGLE LAW OF FORCES
It states, “If two forces acting simultaneously on a particle be represented in
magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle, taken in order; their resultant
may be represented in magnitude and direction by the third side of the triangle , taken
in opposite order.”
Explanation. Let two forces P and Q acting at O be such that they can be
represented in magnitude and direction by the sides AB and BC of the triangle
ABC. Then, according to the theorem of triangle of forces, their resultant R will
be represented in magnitude and direction by AC which is the third side of the
triangle ABC taken in the reverse order of CA.
Proof.
 Fig. 1.28
In Fig.1.28 The parallelogram ABCD is completed with sides AB and BC of the
triangle ABC. Side AD is equal and parallel to BC. So, force Q is also
represented in magnitude and direction by AD. Now, the resultant of P
(represented by AB) and Q (represented by AD) is represented in magnitude
and direction by the diagonal AC of the parallelogram ABCD. Thus, the
resultant of P and Q is represented in magnitude and direction by the third
side AC of the triangle ABC taken in the reverse order.
POLYGON LAW OF FORCES
It is an extension of Triangle Law of Forces for more than two forces, which
states, “If a number of forces acting simultaneously on a particle, be
represented in magnitude and direction, by the sides of a polygon taken in
order then the resultant of all these forces may be represented, in magnitude
and direction, by the closing side of the polygon, taken in opposite order.”

Fig. 1.29
Proof.
Let forces P1, P2, P3 and P4, acting at a point O be such that they can be
represented in magnitude and direction by the sides AB, BC, CD and DE of a
polygon ABCDE as shown in fig. 1.29.
We are to prove that the resultant of these forces is represented in magnitude
and direction by the side AE in the direction from A towards E.
According to the triangle law of forces, AC represents the resultant R1 of P1
and P2, AD represents the resultant R2 of R1 and P3. Thus, AD represents the
resultant of P1, P2 and P3.
According to the same law, AE represents the resultant R3 of R2 and P4. Thus,
AE represents the resultant of P1, P2, P3 and P4.
GRAPHICAL CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A SYSTEM OF CO-
PLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES
The end point of the vector diagram must coincide with the starting point of the
diagram. Hence the vector diagram must be a closed figure.
So, graphical condition of equilibrium of a system of co-planar concurrent
forces may be stated as follows:
If a system of co-planar concurrent forces be in equilibrium, the vector
diagram drawn with the given forces taken in order must be a closed figure.
SPACE DIAGRAM, VECTOR DIAGRAM AND BOW’S NOTATION
Graphical Representation of a Force:
A force can be represented graphically by drawing a straight line to a suitable
scale and parallel to the line of action of the given force and an arrowhead
indicates the direction.

Fig. 1.30
A force in the figure is represented by a vector of length 5 cm (scale 1 cm = 5
N) by drawing a line parallel to the given force and arrowhead indicates the
direction of the force.
Space diagram
Space diagram is that diagram which shows the forces in space. In a space
diagram the actual directions of forces are marked by straight lines with arrow
put on their head to indicate the sense in which the forces act. Following Fig.
shows the space diagram of forces P1, P2, P3

Fig. 1.31
Vector diagram is a diagram which is drawn according to some suitable scale
to represent the given forces in magnitude, direction and sense. The resultant
of the given forces is represented by the closing line of the diagram and its
sense is from the starting point atowards the end point d as shown in Fig 1.32.
 Fig 1.32
Bow’s notationis a method of designating forces in space diagram.
According to this system of notation, each force in space diagram is denoted
by two capital letters, each being placed on two sides of the line of action of
the force. In Fig.1.32, forces P1 P2 and P3 are denoted by AB, BC and CD
respectively. In the vector diagram, the corresponding forces are represented
by ab, bc and cd respectively. Bow‟s notation is particularly suitable in
graphical solution of systems of forces which are in equilibrium.
Example1.9A particle is acted upon by three forces equal to 50 N, 100 N and
130 N, along the three sides of an equilateral triangle, taken in order. Find
graphically the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
Solution. The system of given forces is shown in Fig. First of all, name the
forces according to Bow‟s notations as shown in Fig.1.33 a. The 50 Nforces is
named as AD, 100 N force as BD and 130 N force as CD

Fig 1.33
Now draw the vector diagram for the given system of forces as shown in Fig
1.33.(b) and as discussed below :
1. Select some suitable point aand draw ab equal to 50 N to some suitable
scale and parallel to the 50 N force of the space diagram. 2. Through b, draw
bcequal to 100 N to the scale and parallel to the 100 N force of the space
diagram. 3. Similarly through c, draw cdequal to 130 N to the scale and
parallel to the 130 N force of the space diagram. 4. Join ad, which gives the
magnitude as well as direction of the resultant force. 5. By measurement, we
find the magnitude of the resultant force is equal to 70 N and acting at an
angle of 200° with ab. Ans.

CLASSIFICATION OF PARALLEL FORCES

The parallel forces may be, broadly, classified into the following two categories,
depending upon their directions:
1. Like parallel forces.
2. unlike parallel forces.
LIKE PARALLEL FORCES
The forces, whose lines of action are parallel to each other and all of them act in the
same direction as shown in Fig. 1.34 (a) are known as like parallel forces
UNLIKE PARALLEL FORCES
The forces, whose lines of action are parallel to each other and all of them do not act in
the same direction as shown in Fig.1.34 (b) are known as unlike parallel forces.

Fig 1.34
The magnitude and position of the resultant force, of a given system of parallel forces
(like or unlike) may be found out analytically or graphically
ANALYTICAL METHOD OF DETERMINATION OF THE RESULTANT OF A SYSTEM
OF LIKE AND UNLIKE PARALLEL FORCES
In this method, the sum of clockwise moments is equated with the sum of anticlockwise
momentsabout a point.
ANALYTICAL METHOD OF DETERMINING THE POINT OF APPLICATION OF THE
RESULTANT OF A SYSTEM OF LIKE AND UNLIKE NON CONCURRENT PARALLEL
FORCES
We know that the algebraic sum of the moments of any number of co-planar forces
(concurrent or non-concurrent) about any point in their plane is equal to the moment of
their resultant about the same point. This principle is applied in determining the point of
application of the resultant of any number of parallel forces.

Fig 1.35
Let parallel forces P, T and S be acting at the points A, B and C respectively as shown in
Fig 1.35.
The resultant of the parallel forces is given by R= P+T-S.
Let x = required distance of the point of application of R from A
i.e. x = AD.
Taking moments about A, we get
R ˣ x – Sx l2 +Tx l1 = 0
R × x=Sxl2 – Tx l1

EXAMPLE 1.10A beam 3 m long weighing 400 N is suspended in a horizontal

position by two vertical strings, each of which can withstand a maximum tension
of 350 N only. How far a body of 200 N weight be placed on the beam, so that one
of the strings may just break ?

Fig 1.36
Let x = Distance between the body of weight 200 N and support A. We know that one of
the string (say A) will just break, when the tension will be 350 N. (i.e., RA = 350 N).
Now taking clockwise and anticlockwise moments about B and equating the same, 350 ×
3 = 200 (3 – x) + 400 × 1.5
1 050 = 600 – 200 x + 600 = 1200 – 200 x
200 x = 1 200 – 1 050 = 150
X=
Example 1.11. Two unlike parallel forces of magnitude 400 N and 100 N are acting
in such away that their lines of action are 150 mm apart. Determine the magnitude
of the resultant force andthe point at which it acts.
Solution. Given : The system of given force is shown in Fig

Magnitude of the resultant force

Since the given forces are unlike and parallel, therefore magnitude of the resultant force,

R = 400 – 100 = 300 N Ans.

Point where the resultant force acts
Let x = Distance between the lines of action of the resultant force and Ain mm.
Now taking clockwise and anticlockwise moments about A and equating the same,
300 × x = 100 × 150 = 15 000
x = 15000/300 = 50mm ans.
GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR THE RESULTANT OF PARALLEL FORCES
Consider a number of parallel forces (say three like parallel forces) P1, P2 and
P3whoseresultant is required to be found out as shown in Fig 1.38.a
 Fig 1.38
First of all, draw the space diagram of the given system of forces and name them
according to Bow‟s notations as shown in Fig.1.38 (a). Now draw the vector diagram for
the given forces as shown in Fig.1.38 (b) and as discussed below :
1. Select some suitable point a, and draw ab equal to the force AB (P1) and parallel to it
to some suitable scale.
2. Similarly draw bc and cd equal to and parallel to the forces BC (P2) and CD (P3)
respectively.
3. Now take some convenient point o and joint oa, ob, oc and od.
4. Select some point p, on the line of action of the force AB of the space diagram and
through it draw a line Lpparallel to ao. Now through p draw pq parallel to bo meeting the
line of action of the force BC at q.
5. Similarly draw qrand rM parallel to co and do respectively.
6. Now extend Lp and Mr to meet at k. Through k, draw a line parallel to ad, which gives
the required position of the resultant force.
7. The magnitude of the resultant force is given by ad to the scale.

Note. This method for the position of the resultant force may also be used for any system of
forces i.e. parallel, like, unlike or even inclined.

MOMENT OF A FORCE
It is the turning effect produced by a force, on the body, on which it acts. The moment of a force
is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of the point, about which the
moment is required and the line of action of the force.
Mathematically, moment,
M=P×l
where P = Force acting on the body,
andl = Perpendicular distance between the point, about which the moment is required and the
line of action of the force.
Moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of the
point from the line of action of the force

.
Fig 1.39
Let a force P act on a body which is hinged at O.
Then, moment of P about the point O in the body is = F x ON,
where :ON = perpendicular distance of O from the line of action of the force F.
MOMENT OF A FORCE ABOUT AN AXIS
Let us consider a door leaf hinged to a vertical wall by several hinges. Let us consider a vertical
axis XY passing through hinges as shown in Fig 1.40.
Let a force F be applied to the door leaf at right angles to its plane and at a perpendicular
distance of l from the XY-axis. Then, moment of the force F about XY-axis = F x l. SCTE&VT
Learning Materials, Engineering Mechanics 34
Fig 1.40
UNIT OF MOMENT
Unit of moment depends upon unit of force and unit of length.
If, however, force is measured in Newton and distance is measured in meter, the unit of
moment will be Newton meter (Nm). If force is measured in kilo Newton and distance is
measured in meter, unit of moment will be kilo Newton meter (kNm) and so on. Unit of moment
is the same as that of work. But work is completely different from moment.
TYPES OF MOMENTS
Broadly speaking, the moments are of the following two types: 1. Clockwise moments. 2.
Anticlockwise moments

.
Fig 1.41
Clockwise moment is the moment of a force, whose effect is to turn or rotate the body, about
the point in the same direction in which hands of a clock move as shown in Fig. 1.41(a) . SCTE&VT
Learning Materials, Engineering Mechanics 35
Anticlockwise moment is the moment of a force, whose effect is to turn or rotate the body,
about the point in the opposite direction in which the hands of a clock move as shown in Fig1.41
(b).
POSITIVE MOMENT AND NEGATIVE MOMENT
It is found that some moments acting on a body have a tendency to turn the body in the
clockwise direction and some other moments acting „on the same body have a tendency to turn
the body in the anti-clockwise or counter clockwise direction

.
Fig 1.42
In order to distinguish turning tendency in the clockwise direction from that in the anti-clockwise
direction, it has become necessary to treat moment in one direction as positive and moment in
the reverse direction as negative. Usually, anti-clockwise moment is taken as positive moment
and clockwise moment is taken as negative moment. But there is no hard and fast rule
regarding sign convention of moments.
ALGEBRAIC SUM OF THE MOMENTS
With reference to Fig1.42, a bar AB is held in position on a pivot O under the action of four
loads W 1, W 2, W 3 and W 4, whose lines of action are at perpendicular distances of l1, l2, l3,
l4respectively from O. Then, moment of about O = W 1 x l1. This moment has a tendency to turn
the bar about O in a vertical plane in the clockwise direction. The moment due to W 2 about O =
W2 x l2. This moment also has a tendency to turn the bar AB in the clockwise direction in a
vertical plane about O.
The moment due to W 3 about O = W 3xl3. This moment has a tendency to turn the bar AB in the
anti-clockwise direction in a vertical plane about O. The moment due to W, about O = W 4 x I4.
This moment also has a tendency to turn the bar AB in the anti-clockwise direction in the
vertical plane about O. SCTE&VT Learning Materials, Engineering Mechanics 36
Algebraic sum means summation considering proper signs of the physical quantities. Hence,
algebraic sum of the moments of W 1, W 2, W 3, W 4 about O = W 3 x l3 + W 4 x l4 – W 1 x l1 – W 2 x l2
GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE MOMENT OF THE FORCE ABOUT A POINT

Fig 1.43
Let a force F represented in magnitude and direction by AB be acting on a body and let O be
any point in the plane of the force F as shown In Fig 1.43.
From O, perpendicular OM is drawn on the line of action of F. Then, moment of F about
O=FxOM=2x x OM = 2 x AB x OM = 2x Area of ΔAOB.
Thus, the moment of a force about a point is represented by twice the area of the triangle
formed by joining the point to the extremities of the straight line which represents the force.
VARIGNON’S THEOREM
Varignon‟s theorem states that the algebraic sum of the moment, two forces about any point in
their plane is equal to the moment of the, resultant about the same point.
Proof.
Case (i) When the forces are concurrent
 Fig .1.44

Let P and Q be any two forces acting at a point O along lines OX and OY respectively and let D
be any point in their plane as shown in Fig 1.44.
Line DC is drawn parallel to OX to meet OY at B. Let in some suitable scale, line OB represent
the force Q in magnitude and direction and let in the same scale, OA represent the force P in
magnitude and direction.
With OA and OB as the adjacent sides, parallelogram OACB is completed and OC is joined. Let
R be the resultant of forces P and Q. Then, according to the “Theorem of parallelogram of
forces”, R is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal OC of the parallelogram
OACB.
The point D is joined with points O and A. The moments of P, Q and R about D are given by 2 x
area of ΔAOD, 2 x area of ΔOBD and 2 x area of ΔOCD respectively.
With reference to Fig1.44(a), the point D is outside the <AOB and the moments of P, Q and R
about D are all anti-clockwise and hence these moments are treated as +ve.
Now, the algebraic sum of the moments of P and Q about
D = 2ΔAOD + 2ΔOBD
= 2 (ΔAOD + ΔOBD)
= 2 (ΔAOC + ΔOBD) {See note below]
= 2 (ΔOBC + ΔOBD)
= 2ΔOCD = Moment of R about D.
[Note. As AOC and AOD are on the same base and have the same altitude. ΔAOD = ΔOBC. .
Again, As AOC and OBC have equal bases and equal altitudes. ΔAOC = ΔOBC].
With reference to Fig 1.44 (b), the point D is within the <AOB and the moments of P, Q and R
about D are respectively anti-clockwise, clockwise and anti-clockwise.
Now, the algebraic sum of the forces P and Q about
D = 2ΔAOD-2 ΔOBD = 2 (ΔAOD-ΔOBD)= 2 (ΔAOC- ΔOBD)=2(ΔOBC - ΔOBD)
= 2ΔOCD = Moment of R about D

Case (ii) : When the forces are parallel

Fig 1.45
Let P and Q be any two like parallel forces (i.e. the parallel forces whose lines of action are
parallel and which act in the same sense) and O be any point in their plane.
Let R be the resultant of P and Q.
Then, R=P+Q
From O, line OACB is drawn perpendicular to the lines of action of forces P, Q and R
intersecting them at A, B and C respectively as shown in Fig 1.45.
Now, algebraic sum of the moments of P and Q about O
= Px OA + Q x OB
= P x (OC - AC) + Q x (OC + BC)
=PxOC – PxAC+QxOC+Qx BC.
But P x AC = Q x BC
Algebraic sum of the moments of P and Q about O
=PxOC+QxOC
=(P+Q)xOC=RxOC = Moment of R about O.
In case of unlike parallel forces also it can be proved that the algebraic sum of the moments of
two unlike parallel forces (i.e. the forces whose lines of action are parallel but which act in
reverse senses) about any point in their plane is equal to the moment of their resultant about
the same point.

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
1. If a system of co-planar forces (concurrent or non-concurrent) is in equilibrium, the
algebraic sum of the moments of those forces about any point in their plane is zero,
i.e., the sum of the clockwise moments about any point in their plane is equal to the
sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point.
2. The algebraic sum of the moments of any number of co-planar forces (concurrent
or non-concurrent) about a point lying on the line of action of their resultant is zero.
3. From 1 and 2 above, it can be concluded that if the algebraic sum of the moments
of any number of co-planar forces about any point in their plane is zero, either the
forces are in equilibrium or their resultant passes through that point.
Example 1.12A force of 15 N is applied perpendicular to the edge of a door 0.8 m
wide as shown in Fig (a). Find the moment of the force about the hinge. If this
force is applied at an angle of 60° to the edge of the same door, as shown in
Fig.1.47 (b), find the moment of this force

Fig 1.46
Solution.Given : Force applied (P) = 15 N and width of the door (l) = 0.8 m
Moment when the force acts perpendicular to the door
We know that the moment of the force about the hinge,
= P × l = 15 × 0.8 = 12.0 N-m Ans.
Moment when the force acts at an angle of 60° to the door
This part of the example may be solved either by finding out the perpendicular
distance betweenthe hinge and the line of action of the force as shown in Fig 1.47(a)
or by finding out the verticalcomponent of the force as shown in Fig1.47(b

.
Fig 1.47
From the geometry of Fig.1.47(a), we find that the perpendicular distance between the
line ofaction of the force and hinge,
OC = OB sin 60° = 0.8 × 0.866 = 0.693 m
∴ Moment = 15 × 0.693 = 10.4 N-m Ans.
In the second case, we know that the vertical component of the force
= 15 sin 60° = 15 × 0.866 = 13.0 N
∴ Moment = 13 × 0.8 = 10.4 N-m Ans.
Note. Since distance between the horizontal component of force (15 cos 60°) and the
hingeis zero, therefore moment of horizontal component of the force about the hinge
is also zero SCTE&VT Learning Materials, Engineering Mechanics 40
Example 1.13A uniform plank ABC of weight 30 N and 2 m long is supported at
one end Aand at a point B 1.4 m from A as shown in Fig. Find the maximum
weight W, that can be placed at C, so that the plank does not
topple.

Fig 1.48
Solution. Weight of the plank ABC = 30 N; Length of the plank ABC = 2 m and
distance between end A and a point B on the plank (AB) = 1.4 m.
We know that weight of the plank (30 N) will act at its midpoint, as it is of uniform
section.
This point is at a distance of 1 m from A or 0.4 m from B as shown in the figure.
We also know that if the plank is not to topple, then the reaction at A should be zero
for the maximum weight at C.
Now taking moments about B and equating the same,
30 × 0.4 = W × 0.6
W = 12/0.6 = 20N ANS.
EXAMPLE 1.14 A uniform wheel of 600 mm diameter, weighing 5 kN rests
against a rigid rectangular block of 150 mm height.

Fig 1.49
Find the least pull, through the centre of the wheel, required just to turn the
wheel over thecorner A of the block. Also find the reaction on the block. Take all
the surfaces to be smooth.
Solution.Given : Diameter of wheel = 600 mm; Weight of wheel = 5 kN and height of
the block = 150 mm.
Least pull required just to turn the wheel over the corner
Let P = Least pull required just to turn the wheel in kN.
A little consideration will show that for the least pull, it must be applied normal to AO
 Fig 1.50
From the geometry of the figure, we find that

The position of a resultant force may be found out by moments as discussed below:
1. First of all, find out the magnitude and direction of the resultant force by the method
of resolution as discussed earlier in chapter „Composition and Resolution of Forces‟.
2. Now equate the moment of the resultant force with the algebraic sum of moments
of the given system of forces about any point. This may also be found out by equating
the sum of clockwise moments and that of the anticlockwise moments about the point,
through which the resultant force will pass.
EXAMPLE 1.15.Three forces of 2P, 3P and 4P act along the three sides of an
equilateral triangle of side 100 mm taken in order. Find the magnitude and
position of the resultant force. SCTE&VT Learning Materials, Engineering Mechanics 42
Solution
 Fig 1.51
Magnitude of the resultant force
Resolving all the forces horizontally,
ΣH = 2P + 3P cos 120° + 4P cos 240°
= 2P + 3P (– 0.5) + 4P (– 0.5)
= – 1.5 P ……..(i)
and now resolving all the forces vertically.
ΣV = 3P sin 60° – 4P sin 60°
= (3P × 0.866) – (4P × 0.866)
= – 0.866 P .........(ii)

COUPLE
A pair of two equal and unlike parallel forces (i.e. forces equal in magnitude, with lines
of action parallel to each other and acting in opposite directions) is known as a couple.
As a matter of fact, a couple is unable to produceanytranslatory motion (i.e., motion in
a straight line).But it produces a motion of rotation in the body, onwhich it acts. The
simplest example of a couple is theforces applied to the key of a lock, while locking
orunlocking it.
ARM OF A COUPLE: The perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the
two equal and opposite parallel forces, is known as arm of the couple.
Fig 1.52 SCTE&VT Learning Materials, Engineering Mechanics 43
MOMENT OF A COUPLE
The moment of a couple is the product of the force (i.e., one of the forces of the two
equal and opposite parallel forces) and the arm of the couple. Mathematically:
Moment of a couple = P × a
where P = Magnitude of the force, and a = Arm of the couple.
CLASSIFICATION OF COUPLES The couples may be, broadly, classified into the
following two categories, depending upon their direction, in which the couple tends to
rotate the body, on which it acts: 1. Clockwise couple, and 2. Anticlockwise couple.
CLOCKWISECOUPLE: A couple, whose tendency is to rotate the body, on which it
acts, in a clockwise direction, is known as a clockwise couple as shown in Fig. 1.53
(a). Such a couple is also called positive couple.

Fig 1.53
ANTICLOCKWISE COUPLE: A couple, whose tendency is to rotate the body, on
which it acts, in an anticlockwise direction, is known as an anticlockwise couple as
shown in Fig 1.53(b). Such a couple is also called a negative couple.
UNITS OF COUPLE:
The SI unit of couple will be Newton-meter (briefly written as N-m). Similarly, the units
of couple may also be kN-m (i.e. kN × m), N-mm (i.e. N × mm) etc.
CHARACTERISTICSOF A COUPLE: A couple (whether clockwise or anticlockwise)
has the followingcharacteristics:
1. The algebraic sum of the forces, constituting the couple, is zero.
2. The algebraic sum of the moments of the forces, constituting the couple, about any
point is the same, and equal to the moment of the couple itself.
3. A couple cannot be balanced by a single force. But it can be balanced only by a
couple of opposite sense.
4. Any no. of coplanar couples can be reduced to a single couple, whose magnitude will be
equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of all the couples.

Equilibrium

DEFINITION
A little consideration will show, that if the resultant of a number of forces, acting on
a particle is zero, the particle will be in equilibrium. Such a set of forces, whose
resultant is zero, are called equilibrium forces..
A body can be said to be in equilibriumwhen all the force acting on a body
balance each other or in other word there is no net force acting on the body.
Equilibrium of a body is a state in which all the forces acting on the body are
balanced (cancelled out), and the net force acting on the body is zero.
i.e ΣF =0
PRINCIPLES OF EQUILIBRIUM
1. Two force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon
by two forces, then they must be equal, opposite and collinear.
2. Three force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon
by three forces, then the resultant of any two forces must be equal, opposite and
collinear with the third force.
3. Four force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon
by four forces, then the resultant of any two forces must be equal, opposite and
collinear with the resultant of the other two forces.
ANALYTICAL CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A CO-PLANAR SYSTEM
OF CONCURRENT FORCES
We know that the resultant of a system of co-planar concurrent forces is given by
, where ƩX (=ƩH) = algebraic sum
of the resolved parts of the forces along a horizontal direction, and ƩY (=ƩV) =
algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces along a vertical direction
Or

If the forces are in equilibrium, R = 0 =>O = (ƩX) 2 + (ƩY) 2

Sum of the squares of two quantities is zero when each quantity is separately
equal to zero.
i.e. ƩX = 0 , ƩY = 0
Hence necessary and sufficient conditions of a system of, co-planar concurrent
forces are:
1. The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces in some assigned
direction is equal to zero, and
2. The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces in a direction at right
angles to the assigned direction is equal to zero.
ANALYTICAL CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A SYSTEM OF COPLANAR
NON-CONCURRENT FORCES
If R = resultant of a system of co-planar non-concurrent forces,
ƩX = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of those forces along any direction, and
ƩY = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of those forces along a direction at right
angles to the previous direction.
Then,

If the force system is in equilibrium, R = 0

.
ƩX = 0, ƩY = 0
(If sum of the squares of two digits is zero, then each digit is zero)
Thus, the necessary and sufficient conditions of equilibrium for a system of co-
planar and non-concurrent forces are:
(i) The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces along any direction is
equal to zero (i.e.,ƩX= 0),
(ii) The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces along a directional right
angles to the previous direction is equal to zero (i.e. ƩY = 0),and
 (iii) The algebraic sum of the moments of the forces about any point intheir plane
is equal to zero (i.e. ƩM = 0).

Example 2.1: An electric light fixture weighting 15 N hangs from a point C, by

two strings AC and BC. The string AC is inclined at 60° to the horizontal and
BC at 45° to the horizontal as shown in Fig. Using Lami’s theorem, or
otherwise, determine the forces in the strings AC and BC.

Fig 2.6
Solution.
Given:
Weight at C = 15 N
Let TAC = Force in the string AC, and
TBC = Force in the string BC.
The system of forces is shown in Fig. From the geometry of the figure, we find that
angle between TAC and 15 N is 150° and angle between TBC and 15 N is 135°.
∠ ACB = 180° – (45° + 60°) = 75°. Applying Lami’s equation at C,

Example 2.2: A string ABCD, attached to fixed points A and D has two equal
weights of 1000 N attached to it at B and C. The weights rest with the portions
AB and CD inclined at angles as shown in Fig2.8 . Find the tensions in the
portions AB, BC and CD of the string, if the inclination of the portion BC with
the vertical is 120°.
 Fig 2.8
Solution: Given : Load at B = Load at C = 1000 N For the sake of convenience, let
us split up the string ABCD into two parts. The system of forces at joints B and is
shown in Fig.2.9 (a) and (b).

Fig 2.9
Let
TAB = Tension in the portion AB of the string,
TBC = Tension in the portion BC of the string, and
TCD = Tension in the portion CD of the string.
Applying Lami‟s equation at joint B

Again applying Lami‟s equation at joint C,

Example 2.3. A light string ABCDE whose extremity A is fixed, has weights W1
and W2 attached to it at B and C. It passes round a small smooth peg at D
carrying a weight of 300 N at the free end E as shown in Fig 2.10 below. If in
the equilibrium position, BC is horizontal and AB and CD make 150° and 120°
with BC, find (i) Tensions in the portion AB, BC and CD of the string and (ii)
Magnitudes of W1and W2.

Fig 2.10
Solution: Given: Weight at E = 300 N For the sake of convenience, let us split up the
string ABCD into two parts. The system of forces at joints B and C is shown in Fig (a)
and (b)
.

Fig 2.11
(i) Tensions is the portion AB, BC and CD of the string
Let TAB = Tension in the portion AB, and
TBC = Tension in the portion BC,
We know that tension in the portion CD of the string.
TCD = TDE = 300 N Ans.
Applying Lami‟s equation at C,
Example 2.5Three cylinders weighting 100 N each and of 80 mm diameter are
placed in a channel of 180 mm width as shown in Fig. Determine the pressure
exerted by (i) the cylinder A on B at the point of contact (ii) the cylinder B on
the base and (iii) the cylinder B on the wall.

Fig 2.14
Solution. Given: Weight of each cylinder = 100 N; Dia. of each cylinder = 80 mm
and width of channel = 180 mm
(i) Pressure exerted by the cylinder A on the cylinder B
Let R1 = Pressure exerted by the cylinder Aon B. It is also equal to pressure exerted
by the cylinder Aon B.
First of all, consider the equilibrium of the cylinder A. It is in equilibrium under the
action of the following forces, which must pass through the centre of the cylinder as
shown in Fig 2.15 (a).
1. Weight of the cylinder 100 N acting downwards.
2. Reaction R1 of the cylinder B on the cylinder A.
3. Reaction R2 of the cylinder C on the cylinder A.
Now join the centres O, P and Q of the three cylinders. Bisect PQ at S and join OS
as shown in Fig 2.15 (b).

Fig 2.15
From the geometry of the triangle OPS, we find that
OP = 40 + 40 = 80 mm
and PS = 90 – 40 = 50 mm

Since the triangle OSQ is similar to the triangle OPS, therefore ∠SOQ is also equal
to 38.7°. Thus the angle between R1 and R2 is 2 × 38.7° = 77.4°. And angle
between R1 and OS (also between R2 and OS). = 180° – 38.7° = 141.3°
The system of forces at O is shown in Fig (b).
Applying Lami‟s equation at O

,
Let R3 = Pressure exerted by the cylinder B on the wall, and
R4 = Pressure exerted by the cylinder B on the base.
Now consider the equilibrium of the cylinder B. It is in equilibrium under the action
of the following forces, which must pass through the centre of the cylinder as
shown in Fig 2.16 (a
 Fig 2.16
1. Weight of the cylinder 100 N acting downwards.
2. Reaction R2 equal to 64.0 N of the cylinder A on the cylinder B.
3. Reaction R3 of the cylinder B on the vertical side of the channel.
4. Reaction R4 of the cylinder B on the base of the channel.
A little consideration will show that weight of the cylinder B is acting downwards
and the reaction R4 is acting upwards. Moreover, their lines of action also coincide
with each other. Therefore net downward force will be equal to (R4 – 100) N. The
system of forces is shown in Fig 2.16 (b). Applying Lami‟s equation at P,
R4 = 50 + 100 = 150 N Ans.
(iii) Pressure exerted by the cylinder B on the wall. From the above Lami‟s
equation, we also find that
R3 = 64 sin 38.7° = 64 × 0.6252 = 40 N Ans.
Note. Since the cylinders B and C are symmetrically placed, therefore pressures
exerted by the cylinder C on the wall as well as channel will be the same as those
exerted by the cylinder B.
GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR THE EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCES
The equilibrium of coplanar forces may also be studied, graphically, by drawing the
vector diagram. This may also be done by studying the,
1. Converse of the Law of Triangle of Forces.
2. Converse of the Law of Polygon of Forces.
CONVERSE OF THE LAW OF TRIANGLE OF FORCES
If three forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the
three sides a
triangle, taken in order, the forces shall be in equilibrium.
CONVERSE OF THE LAW OF POLYGON OF FORCES
If any number of forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction
by the sides of a closed polygon, taken in order, the forces shall be in equilibrium.
Example 2.6 Five strings are tied at a point and are pulled in all directions, equally
spaced from one another. If the magnitude of the pulls on three consecutive strings
is 50 N, 70 N and 60 N respectively, find graphically the magnitude of the pulls on
two other strings.
Solution. Given : Pulls = 50 N ; 70 N and 60 N and angle between the forces =
360/5=72
Let P1 and P2 = Pulls in the two strings. First of all, let us draw the space diagram
for the given system of forces and name them according to Bow‟s notations as
shown in Fig(a)
 Fig 2.17
Now draw the vector diagram for the given forces as shown in Fig 2.17 (b) and as
discussed below : 1. Select some suitable point a and draw a horizontal line ab equal to
50 N to some suitable scale representing the force AB. 2. Through b draw a line bc equal
to 70 N to the scale and parallel to BC. 3. Similarly through c, draw cd equal to 60 N to the
scale and parallel to CD. 4. Through d draw a line parallel to the force P1 of the space
diagram. 5. Similarly through a draw a line parallel to the force P2 meeting the first line at
e, thus closing the polygon abcde, which means that the point is in equilibrium. 6. By
measurement, we find that the forces P1 = 57.5 N and P2 = 72.5 N respectively. Ans

FRICTION

FRICTIONAL FORCE: It is the resisting force which oppose the movement the
body, it always acts opposite the movement of the body.

Where P= applied force

F=frictional force
W= weight of the body
R= normal reaction.
Classification of the friction:
The frictional forces are classified into two types: (i) Static friction
(ii) Dynamic Friction
STATIC FRICTION:
It is the friction experienced by a body when it is at rest, Or in other words, it is the
friction when the body is tends to move.
DYNAMIC FRICTION:
It is the friction experience by a body when it is in motion. It is also called kinetic
friction. The Dynamic friction is further divided into two types
(i) Sliding friction: It is the friction experienced by a body when it slides over
another body.
(ii) rolling friction: It is the friction experience by a body when it rolls over another
body.
LIMITING FRICTION:
The maximum friction that can be generated between two static surfaces in
contact with each other. Once a force applied to the two surfaces exceeds the
limiting friction, motion will occur. For two dry surfaces, the limiting friction is a
product of the normal reaction force and the coefficient of limiting friction.
NORMAL REACTION:
Whenever a body, lying on a horizontal or an inclined surface, is in equilibrium, its
weight acts vertically downwards through its centre of gravity. The surface, in turn,
exerts an upward reaction on the body. This reaction, which is taken to act
perpendicular to the plane, is called normal reaction and is, generally, denoted by
R or (Rn)
If weight is the only vertical force acting on an object lying or moving on a
horizontal surface, the normal reaction force is equal in magnitude, but opposite in
direction to the weight. It is always acting perpendicular to the plane

ANGLE OF FRICTION:
It is the angle between the normal reaction and resultant force of normal reaction
and frictional forces or limiting friction. This angle is generally specified by θ.
Fig 3.3 SCTE&VT Learning Materials, Engineering Mechanics 62
ANGLE OF REPOSE:
It is an angle of the inclined plane at which the body is tends to slide downwards.
This angle is generally specified by α
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION:
It is the ratio of limiting friction or frictional force and normal reaction. It is generally
denoted by μ (mu).
In mathematically:
μ= =tan φ or F=μR
Where φ= Angle of friction
F= Frictional force
R= Normal reaction
μ= Coefficient of friction.
LAWS OF FRICTION:
There are two types of laws of friction.
(i) Laws of Static friction, and
(ii) Laws of dynamic or kinetic friction.
LAWS OF STATIC FRICTION:
1. The force of friction always acts opposite of the applied force or body tends to
move.
2. The magnitude the frictional force is exactly equal to the applied force.
3. The magnitude of limiting friction bears constant ratio to the normal reaction
between the two surfaces. Mathematically,

F/R=constant where F = Limiting friction

R= Normal reaction.
4. The force of friction is independent of the area contact between the two
surfaces.
5. The force of friction depends upon the roughness of the surfaces.

LAWS OF KINETIC OR DYNAMIC FRICTION:

1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body
is moving
2. The magnitude of kinetic friction bears constant ratio to the normal reaction
between thetwo surfaces. But this ratio is slightly less than that in case of limiting
friction.
3. For moderate speeds, the force of friction remains constant. But it decreases
slightly with the increase of speed.
ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION:
Friction is responsible for many types of motion
It helps us walk on the ground
Brakes in a car make use of friction to stop the car
Asteroids are burnt in the atmosphere before reaching Earth due to friction.
 It helps in the generation of heat when we rub our hands.

DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION:
Friction produces unnecessary heat leading to the wastage of energy.
The force of friction acts in the opposite direction of motion, so friction slows
down the motion of moving objects.
Forest fires are caused due to the friction between tree branches.
A lot of money goes into preventing friction and the usual wear and tear caused
by it by using techniques like greasing and oiling.

3.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF BODIES ON LEVEL PLANE

EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH HORIZONTAL PLANE:
We know that a body, lying on a rough horizontal plane will remain in equilibrium.
But whenever a force is applied on it, the body will tend to move in the direction of
the force. In cases equilibrium of the body is studied first by resolving the forces
horizontally and then vertically.
Now the value of the force of friction is obtained from the relation:
F=μR
Where μ= Coefficient of friction, and
R=Normal reaction.
Example:3.1. A body of weight 500N is lying on a rough horizontal plane
having a coefficient of friction as 0. Find the magnitude of the force, which
can move the body, while acting at an angle of 35° with horizontal.

Solution: Data given: Weight of the body(w)=500N35°

Coefficient of friction (μ)=0.3F
Inclined angle (α)=35° w
EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH INCLINED PLANE:
Here the forces are applied in three ways that are
1. Force acting along the inclined plane.
2. Force acting horizontally.
3. Force acting at some angle with the inclined plane.
1. EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH INCLINED PLANE SUBJECTED TO
A FORCE ACTING ALONG THE INCLINED PLANE:

Consider a body lying on arough inclined plane subjected force acting along theinclined
plane

Fig 3.6
Let w= Weight of the body
α= Angle, which the inclined plane makes with the horizontal
R= Normal reaction
μ= Coefficient of friction between the body and the inclined plane,
φ= Angle of friction, such that μ=tan φ.
A little consideration will show that if the force is not there, the body will slide down the
plane. Now we shall discuss the above two cases:
Case 1.Minimum force (P1) which will keep the body in equilibrium, when it is at the point
of sliding downwards.
Resolving all the forces along the inclined plane:
P1 + F=Wsinα
P1= Wsinα-F [ F=μR ]
P1=Wsinα-μR -----------(i)
Now resolving all the forces perpendicular to the plane:
R= Wcosα ------------------------(ii)
Substituting the value of R in equation (i)
P1= Wsinα-μWcosα
And now substituting the value of μ= tan φ in the above equation.
P1= W (sinα-tan φ cosα)
Multiplying both sides of this equation by cosφ
P1cosφ=W (sinα cos φ- sin φ cos α)

Case 2: Maximum force (P2) which will keep the body in equilibrium, when it is at the
point of sliding upwards.
Resolving all the forces along the inclined plane:
P2= Wsinα +μR ------(i)
Now resolving all the forces perpendicular to the inclined plane:
R= W cosα --------(ii)
Substituting the value of r in equation (i),
P2= W sinα + μW cosα
=W (sinα + μ cosα) SCTE&VT Learning Materials, Engineering Mechanics 66
And now Substituting the value of μ=tan φ in the above equation,
P2= W (sinα + Tan φ cosα)
Multiplying both sides of this equation by cos φ,
P2cos φ= W (sinα cos φ+ sin φ cosα)
P2cos φ =W sin (α + φ) (maximum force which keep the body in equilibrium)
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH INCLINED PLANE SUBJECTED TO
A FORCE ACTING HORIZONTALLY.
Considering a body lying on a rough inclined plane subjected to a force acting
horizontally, which keeps it in equilibrium as shown in fig 3.7 (a) and (b)

Fig 3.7
Let W- Weight of the body
α =Angle of inclination with horizontal
R= Normal reaction
μ= Coefficient of friction between the body and the inclined plane
⏀=Angle of friction.
Case 1: Minimum force (P1) which will keep the body in equilibrium, when it is at the point
of sliding downwards.
Resolving the all the forces inclined plane:
P1cosα =W sin α-μR
And now resolving all the forces perpendicular to the plane,
R= W cos α + P1 sin α
Substituting this value of R in equation (i)
P1cos α= W sin α-μ(W cos α+P1 sin α)
= W sin α-μW cos α-μP1 sin α

3. EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON AROUGH INCLIED PLANE SUBJECTED TO

A FORCE ACTING AT SOME ANGLE WITH THE INCLINED PLANE:
Considering a body lying on a rough inclined plane subjected to a force acting some
angle with the inclined plane, which keeps it in equilibrium as shown in fig 3.8(a) and
(b)
 Fig 3.8
Case 1. Minimum force (P1) which keep the body in equilibrium when it is at the point
of sliding downwards.
Resolving all the forces along the inclined plane,
P1 cos θ=W sinα -F
P1 cos θ=W sinα -μR----------------(i)
Resolving all the forces along perpendicular to the inclined plane,
R = W cos α -P1 sin θ ------------------(ii)
Substituting the value of R in equation (i)
P1 cos θ=W sinα -μ(W cos α -P1 sin θ)
P1 cos θ-μP1 sin θ = W sinα -μW cos α
P1(cos θ-μ sin θ) = W (sinα -μ cos α)
Example 3.2.A body of weight 500 N lying on a rough plane inclined at an angle
of 25° with horizontal. It is supported by an effort (P) parallel to the plane as
shown in fig.

Fig 3.9
Determine the minimum and maximum, value of P,for which the equilibrium can
exist, If the angle of friction is 20°.
Solution: Data given, Weight of the body (W)=500 N
Angle at which plane is inclined (α)=25 and
Angle of friction (⏀)=20°
Minimum value (P1) :
We know that for the minimum valueP1 , the body is at the point of sliding upwards. We
also know that when the body is at the point of sliding down wards, then the force.
Example:3.3An effort of 200N is required just to move a certain body up an
inclined plane of angle 15° the force acting parallel to the plane. If the angle
of inclination of the plane is made 20° the effort required, again applied
parallel to the plane is found to be 230 N. Find the weight of the body and the
coefficient of friction.

Fig 3.10
Solution: Data given, First case: When effort (P1) =200N
Angle of inclination (α)=15 and
Second case: When effort (P2) =230N
Angle of inclination =20°
Let μ=Coefficient of friction
W=Weight of the body
R=Normal reaction, and
F=Force of friction
First of all, consider the body lying on a plane inclined at angle of 15° with the
horizontal and subjected to an effort of 200 N as in fig (a)
Resolving the forces at right to the plane,
R1=W cos15° ----------------------------(i)
And now resolving the forces along the plane,
200=F1+Wsin15°[ F=μR]
=μR1 +Wsin15
Substituting the value ofR1in equation (ii)
=μWcos15°+ Wsin15°
= W(μcos15°+ sin15°)-------------------------(ii)
Now considering the body lying on a plane inclined at an angle of 20° with the
horizontal and subjected to an effort of 230 N as shown in fig (b)
Resolving the forces at right to the plane,
R2=W cos20°----------------------------(i)
And now resolving the forces along the plane,
230=F 2+Wsin20° [ F=μR]
=μR2 + Wsin20------------------(ii)
Substituting the value of R2in equation (ii)
=μWcos20°+ Wsin20°
= W (μcos20°+ sin20°
Coefficient of friction
Dividing equation (iv) by (ii)

230 μ cos 15 + 230 sin 15 = 200 μ cos 20° + 200 sin 20°
230 μ cos 15 – 200 μ cos 20 = 200 sin 20 – 230 sin 15°
μ (230 cos 15 – 200 cos 20°) = 200 sin 20° – 230 sin 15°

.
Weight of the body.
Substituting the value of μ in equation (ii)
200=W (0.259 cos 15° + sin 15°)
=W (0.259 × 0.9659 + 0.2588)
= 0.509 W

.
WEDGE FRICTION:
A wedge is, usually, of a triangular or trapezoidal in cross-section. It is, generally,
used forslightadjustments in the position of a body i.e. for tightening fits or keys for
shafts. Sometimes, awedge is also used for lifting heavy weights as shown in
fig.3.16

Fig 3.16
It will be interesting to know that the problems on wedges are basically the problems
ofequilibrium on inclined planes. Thus, these problems may be solved either by the
equilibrium method or by applying Lami‟s theorem. Now consider a wedge ABC,
which is used to lift the body DEFG.
Let W = Weight fo the body DEFG,
P = Force required to lift the body, and
μ = Coefficient of friction onthe planes AB, AC and DE such that
tan φ = μ.
It will be interesting to know that the problems on wedges are basically the problems
of
equilibrium on inclined planes. Thus, these problems may be solved either by the
equilibrium method or by applying Lami‟s theorem. Now consider a wedge ABC,
which is used to lift the body DEFG.
Let W = Weight of the body DEFG,
P = Force required to lift the body, and
μ = Coefficient of friction onthe planes AB, AC and DE such that
tan φ = μ.
A little consideration will show that when the force is sufficient to lift the body, the
slidingwill take place along three planes AB, AC and DE will also occur as shown in
Fig. 3.17 (a) and (b)

Fig- 3.17
The three reactions and the horizontal force (P) may now be found out either by
graphical methord
EXAMPLE 3.8 A block weighing 1500 N, overlying a 10° wedge on a horizontal
floor andleaning against a vertical wall, is to be raised by applying a horizontal
force to the wedge. Assuming the coefficient of friction between all the surface
in contact to be 0.3, Determine the minimum horizontal force required to raise
the block

Fig 3.19
Solution.
Given: Weight of the block (W) = 1500 N; Angle of the wedge (α) = 10 and
coefficient of friction between all the four surfaces of contact (μ) = 0.3 = tan φ or φ
= 16.7 .
First of all, consider the equilibrium of the block. We know that it is in equilibrium
under
the action of the following forces as shown in Fig. (a).
1. Its own weight 1500 N acting downwards.
2. Reaction R1 on the face DE.
3. Reaction R2 on the face DG of the block.
Resolving the forces horizontally,
R1cos (16.7°) = R2 sin (10 + 16.7°) = R2 sin 26.7°
R1 × 0.9578 = R2 × 0.4493
or R2= 2.132 R1
and now resolving the forces vertically,
R1 × sin (16.7°) + 1500 = R2cos (10° + 16.7°) = R2cos 26.7°
R1 × 0.2874 + 1500 = R2 × 0.8934 = (2.132 R1)0.8934
= 1.905 R1 ...(R2 = 2.132 R1)
R1(1.905 – 0.2874) = 1500
R1 = =927.3 N

Again R2 = 2.132 R1 = 2.132 × 927.3 = 1977 N

Now consider the equilibrium of the wedge. We know that it is in equilibrium under
the
action of the following forces as shown in Fig
..
1. Reaction R2 of the block on the wedge.

2. Force (P) acting horizontally, and

3. Reaction R3 on the face AC of the wedge.

Resolving the forces vertically,
R3cos 16.7° = R2cos (10° + 16.7°) = R2cos 26.7°
R3× 0.9578 = R2 × 0.8934 = 1977 × 0.8934 = 1766.2
∴R3= =1844 N.
and now resolving the forces horizontally,
P = R2 sin (10° + 16.7°) + R3 sin 16.7° = 1977 sin 26.7° + 1844 sin 16.7° N
= (1977 × 0.4493) + (1844 × 0.2874) = 1418.3 N
 Centroid & Moment of Inertia

CENTROID
INTRODUCTION:
A body may be considered to be made up of a number of minute particles having
weights having weights w1, w2, w3,…,wnwhich are attracted towards the centre of
body. As the particles are considered negligible in comparison to body, all the
forces are considered to be parallel to each other. The resultant of all these forces
acting at a point known as Centre of Gravity (C.G).

Fig . 4.1.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY (C.G):
Centre of Gravity of a body is a fixed point with respect to the body, through which
resultant of weights of all particles of the body passes, at any plane .
CENTROID DEFINITION:
Centroid is the centre point or geometric centre of a plane figure like triangle,
circle, quadrilateral, etc. The method of finding centroid is same as finding C.G of
a body.
METHODS FOR CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The centre of gravity (or centroid) may be found out by any one of the following
two methods:
1. By geometrical considerations
2. By moments
3. By graphical method SCTE&VT Learning Materials, Engineering Mechanics 84
CENTRE OF GRAVITY BY MOMENTS
 Consider a body of mass M whose centre of gravity is required to be found out.
Divide the body into small masses, whose centers of gravity are known as shown
in Fig. 6.9. Let m1, m2, m3....; etc. be the masses of the particles and (x1, y1), (x2,
y2), (x3, y3), ...... be the co-ordinates of the centers of gravity from a fixed point O
as shown in Fig. 4.2

AXIS OF REFERENCE
The centre of gravity of a body is always calculated with reference to some
assumed axis known as axis of reference. The axis of reference, of plane figures,
is generally taken as the lowest line of the figure for calculating y and the left line
of the figure for calculating x ̅.

Case2: Consider a semi-circle of radius R. Determine its distance from diametral axis.
 Fig 4.4

Due to symmetry, centroid „yc‟ must lie on Y-axis.

Consider an element at a distance „r‟ from centre „o‟ of the semicircle with radial width
dr.
Area of element = (r.dθ)×dr
Moment of area about = ∫y. dA
 CENTROIDS OF SOLID BODIES

CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SYMMETRICAL SECTIONS

Section, whose centre of gravity is required to be found out, and is
symmetrical about X-X axis or Y-Y axis the procedure for calculating the
centre of gravity of the body is to calculate either ̅or ̅. This is due to the
reason that the centre of gravity of the body will lie on the axis of symmetry.
Example 4.1. Find the centre of gravity of a channel section 100 mm ×
50 mm × 15 mm.
Solution: As the section is symmetrical about X-X axis, therefore its centre of gravity
will lie on this axis. Now split up the whole section into three rectangles ABFJ,
EGKJ and CDHK as shown in Fig 4.5.
Let the face AC be the axis of reference

We know that distance between the centre of gravity of the section and left
face of the section AC,

Example 4.2 An I-section has the following dimensions in mm units:

Bottom flange = 300 × 100
Top flange = 150 × 50
Web = 300 × 50
Determine mathematically the position of centre of gravity of the
section.
Solution. As the section is symmetrical about Y-Y axis, bisecting the web,
therefore its centre of gravity will lie on this axis. Now split up the section into
three rectangles as shown in Fig.
Let bottom of the bottom flange be the axis of reference
.

We know that distance between centre of gravity of the section and bottom of
the flange
Example 4.3 Find the centroid of the T-section as shown in figure 4.7 from the bottom

Fig 4.7
Soln:

Due to symmetry, the centroid lies on Y-axis and it is at distance of 80 mm from the bottom.
.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF UNSYMMETRICAL SECTIONS
Sometimes, the given section, whose centre of gravity is required to be found out, is
not symmetrical either about X-X axis or Y-Y axis. In such cases, we have to find out
both the values of ̅ and ̅
Example 4.5. Find the centroid of an unequal angle section 100 mm × 80 mm ×
20 mm.
Solution :
As the section is not symmetrical about any axis, therefore we have to find out the
values of x and y for the angle section. Split up the section into two rectangles as
shown in Fig.
Let left face of the vertical section and bottom face of the horizontal section be axes of
reference.

Example 4.6. A semicircle of 90 mm radius is cut out from a trapezium

as shown in Fig 4.11 .Find the position of the centre of gravity of the
figure.
Fig
4.2 MOMENT OF INERTIA:
INTRODUCTION:
Moment of a force (P) about a point, is the product of the force and
perpendicular distance (x) between the point and the line of action of the force
(i.e. P.x).
If this moment is again multiplied by the perpendicular distance (x) between
the point and the line of action of the force i.e. P.x(x) = Px2, then this quantity
is called moment of inertia.
.
CALCULATION OF MOMENT OF INERTIABY INTEGRATION METHOD:
The moment of inertia of an area may be found out by the method of
integration:
Consider a plane figure, whose moment of inertia is required to be found out
about X-X axis and Y-Y axis as shown in Fig 4.12. Let us divide the whole
area into a no. of strips. Consider one of these strips.
Let dA= Area of the strip
x = Distance of the centre of gravity of the strip on X-X axis and
y = Distance of the centre of gravity of the strip on Y-Y axis.
We know that the moment of inertia of the strip about Y-Y axis = dA.x2
Now the moment of inertia of the whole area may be found out by integrating
above equation. i.e.,
IYY = ΣdA.x2
Similarly IXX = ΣdA . y2

Fig 4.12
Unit: It depends on units of area and length
If area=m2, length =m then, M.I=m4
If area=mm2, length=mm then, M.I=mm4

THEOREM OF PARALLEL AXIS

It states, If the moment of inertia of a plane area about an axis through its centre
of gravity is denoted by IG, then moment of inertia of the area about any other axis
AB, parallel to the first, and at a distance h from the centre of gravity is given by:
IAB= IG+ ah2
Where IAB= Moment of inertia of the area about an axis AB,
IG= Moment of Inertia of the area about its centre of gravity
a = Area of the section, and
h = Distance between centre of gravity of the section and axis AB.
 Fig 4.14
Proof
Consider a strip of a circle, whose moment of inertia is required to be found out
about a line
AB as shown in Fig.4.14
Let δa= Area of the strip
y = Distance of the strip from the centre of gravity the section and
h = Distance between centre of gravity of the section and the axis AB.
Moment of inertia of the whole section aboutan axis passing through the centre of
gravity of the section =δa. y2
and moment of inertia of the whole section about an axis passing through its
centre of gravity,
IG=Σδa.y2
Moment of inertia of the section about the axis AB,
IAB= Σδa(h + y)2 = Σδa(h2 + y2 + 2 h y)
= (Σh2. δa) + (Σy2.δa) + (Σ2 h y .δa)
= a h2 + IG+ 0
=a h2 + IG

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A RECTANGULAR SECTION

Consider a rectangular section ABCD as shown in Figure 4.15 whose moment of
inertia is requiredto be found out.
Let b= Width of the section and
d= Depth of the section.
Now consider a strip PQ of thickness dyparallel to X-X axis and at a distance
yfrom it as shown in the figure
∴.Area of the strip= b.dy
We know that moment of inertia of the strip about X-X axis, = Area × y2 = (b. dy) y2
= b. y2. dy
Now moment of inertia of the whole section may be found out by integrating the above
equation for the whole length of the lamina i.e. from – d/2 to d/2,
Example 4.7 .Find the moment of inertia of a hollow rectangular
section about its centre of gravity if the external dimensions are
breadth 60 mm, depth 80 mm and internal dimensions are breadth 30
mm and depth 40 mm respectively.
Solution Given: External breadth (b) = 60 mm; External depth (d) = 80 mm
; Internal breadth (b1) = 30 mm and internal depth (d1) = 40 mm. We know
that moment of inertia of hollow rectangular section about an axis passing
through its centre of gravity and parallel to X-X axis,

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A CIRCULAR SECTION

Consider a circle ABCD of radius (r) with centre O and XX' and Y-Y' be two
axes of reference through O as shown in Fig.4.17

Fig 4.17

Example 4.8. Find the moment of inertia of a circular section of 50 mm

diameter about an axis passing through its centre.
Solution :Given: Diameter (d) = 50 mm We know that moment of inertia of
the circular section about an axis passing through its centre

,
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A HOLLOW CIRCULAR SECTION
 .

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A COMPOSITE SECTION

The moment of inertia of a composite section may be found out by the
following steps :
1. First of all, split up the given section into plane areas (i.e., rectangular,
triangular, circularetc., and find the centre of gravity of the section).
2. Find the moments of inertia of these areas about their respective centers of
gravity.
3. Now transfer these moment of inertia about the required axis (AB) by the
Theorem ofParallel Axis, i.e., IAB= IG + ah2
whereIG= Moment of inertia of a section about its centre of gravity and parallel
to the axis.
a = Area of the section,
h = Distance between the required axis and centre of gravity of the section
4. The moments of inertia of the given section may now be obtained by the
algebraic sum of the moment of inertia about the required axis.
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A TRIANGULAR SECTION
Consider a triangular section ABC whose moment of inertia is required to be
found out.
Let b = Base of the triangular section and
h = Height of the triangular section.
 Fig 4.19
Consider a small strip PQ of thickness dx at a distance of x from the vertex A as
shown in Fig.

Example 4.10. A hollow triangular section shown in Fig is symmetrical

about its vertical axis. Find the moment of inertia of the section.
 Fig 4.20
Solution.:
Given : Base width of main triangle (B) = 180 mm; Base width of cut out
triangle (b) = 120 mm; Height of main triangle (H) = 100 mm and height of cut
out triangle (h) =60 mm.
Moment of Inertia about triangular section,

Example 4.12 A hollow semicircular section has its outer and inner
diameter of 200 mm and 120 mm respectively as shown in Fig.What is its
moment of inertia about the base AB ?

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF SOME GEOMETRIC SHAPES

 Example 4.13. An I-section is made up of three rectangles as shown in Fig 4.22.
Find the moment of inertia of the section about the horizontal axis passing through
the centre of gravity of the section.
Solution. First of all, let us find out centre of gravity of the section. As the section is
symmetrical about Y-Y axis, therefore its centre of gravity will lie on this axis. Split up the whole
section into
and distance between centre of gravity of rectangle (3) and X-X axis
 Simple Machines

INTRODUCTION:
Man invented various types of machines for his easy work. Sometimes, one person
cannot do heavy work, but with the help of machine, the same work can be easily done.
To change the tyre of a car, number of person will be required. But with the help of a
“Jack”, the same work can be done by a single man. Therefore, jack acts as a machine
by which the load of a car can be lifted by applying very small force as compared to the
load of car.
SIMPLE MACHINE:
A simple machine is a device by which heavy load can be lifted by applying less effort as
compared to the load. A simple machine makes a difficult task easy by multiplying or
redirecting the force in a single movement.
e.g. Heavy load of car can be lifted with the help of simple screw jack by applying small
force.
COMPOUND MACHINE:
Compound machine is a device which may consists of number of simple machines. A
compound machine may also be defined as a machine which has multiple mechanisms
for the same purpose.
e.g. In a crane, one mechanism (gears) are used to drive the rope drum and other
mechanism (pulleys) are used to lift the load. Thus, a crane consists of two simple
machines or mechanisms i.e. gears and pulleys. Hence, it is a compound machine.
SIMPLE GEAR DRIVE:
Gears are used to transmit power from one shaft to another shaft. Gear use no
intermediate link or connector and transmit the motion by direct contact. In the following
figure 5.1 two gear are engaged and rotational motion can be transferred from one gear
to other gear.
 Fig.5.1
Vp= tangential velocity at point of point of contact of two gear

SIMPLE GEAR TRAIN:

In simple gear train each shaft supports one gear. A simple gear drive is that gear drive
in which all the gears lie in the same plane. Fig. 5.2 show a simple gear drive in which
gear A, I1 and B lie in the same plane. The gear A is driver gear and gear B is follower
gear. Gear I1 is idle gear. The function of ideal gear is to fill the gap between first gear
and last gear and some time it is used to change the direction of rotation of first and last
gear

Fig-5.2
VELOCITY RATIO OF A SIMPLE GEAR TRAIN :
Now consider a simple train of wheels with one intermediate wheel as shown in
Fig.5.2
Let N1 = Speed of the driver
T1 = No. of teeth on the driver
d1 = Diameter of the pitch circle of the driver
N2, T2, d2 = Corresponding values for the intermediate wheel, and
VELOCITY RATIO :
It is the ratio between the velocities of the driver and the follower
Velocity ratio=
COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN:
When series of gears are connected in such a way that two or more gears are
mounted on same shaft or rotate about an axis with same angular velocity it is
known as compound gear train.

Fig.5.3
N1 = Speed of the driver 1
T1 = No. of teeth on the driver 1,
Similarly
N2, N3, N4,,N 5 &N6 = Speed of the respective wheels
TERMINOLOGY IN SIMPLE LIFTING MACHINE:
(M.A, V.R. & Efficiency and relation between them)
Effort:It may be defined as, the force which is applied so as to overcome the
resistance or to lift the load. It is denoted by „P‟.
Load: The weight to be lifted or the resistive force to be overcome with the help of
a machine is called as load (W).
Velocity Ratio (V.R.): It is defined as the ratio of distance travelled by the effort (Y) to the

Input: The amount of work done by the effort is called as input and is equal to the
product of effort and distance travelled by it.
Input = P x Y
Where , P= Effort and Y= distance travelled by the effort
Output: The amount of work done by the load is called as output and is equal to
the product of load and distance travelled by it.
Output = W xX
Where , W= Load and X= distance travelled by the load
 Efficiency: The ratio of output to input is called as efficiency of machine and it is
denoted by

LAW OF MACHINE:
The equation which gives the relation between load lifted and effort applied in the
form of a slope and intercept of a straight line is called as Law of a machine.
P=mW+C
Where, P = effort applied, W = load lifted, m = slope of the line and C = y –
intercept of the straight line

It has been observed that, the graph of load v/s effort is a straight line cuts the Y-
axis giving the intercept „C‟ which indicates the effort lost on friction.
It must be noted that, if the machine is an ideal machine, the straight line of the
graph will pass through the origin
MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY:
The ratio of M.A max to the V.R. is called as maximum efficiency.

REVERSIBLE MACHINE:
When a machine is capable of doing some work in the reverse direction even on
removal of effort, it is called as reversible machine.
e.g. simple pulley used to lift load W with effort P
CONDITION FOR REVERSIBLE MACHINE:
Consider a reversible machine, whose condition for the reversibility is required to
be found out.
Let W = Load lifted by the machine,
P = Effort required to lift the load, SCTE&VT Learning Materials, Engineering Mechanics 115
y = Distance moved by the effort, and
x = Distance moved by the load.
We know that input of the machine
= P × y ...(i)
and output of the machine = W × x ...(ii)
We also know that machine friction
= Input – Output = (P × y) – (W × x) ...(iii)
A little consideration will show that in a reversible machine, the *output of the
machine should
be more than the machine friction, when the effort (P) is zero. i.e.
W × x >P × y – W × x
or 2W × x >P × y
orW × x/ P × y > ½
or (W/P) / (Y/X) > ½
or M.A/V.R > ½
... (M.A = and V.R = )
η> =0.5= 50%
Hence the condition for a machine, to be reversible is that its efficiency should be
more than 50%.
IRREVERSIBLE MACHINE / NON-REVERSIBLE MACHINE / SELF
LOCKING MACHINE:
When a machine is not capable of doing some work in the reverse direction even
on removal of effort, it is called as irreversible machine or non-reversible machine
or self-locking machine.
e.g. screw jack
Condition for Irreversible Machine: The efficiency of the machine should be less
than 50%.
Friction in Machines in terms of Effort and Load: In any machine, there are
number of parts which are in contact with each other in their relative motion.
Hence, there is always a frictional resistance and due to which the machine is
unable to produce 100 % efficiency.
Let, P = Actual Effort
Pi = Ideal Effort
Pf = Effort Lost in friction

-
(As Pi = for machine η=100% )
Let, W = Actual load lifted
Wi = Ideal load lifted
Wf= Load Lost in friction
Wf= Ideal Load (W i) – Actual load lifted (W)
=(P x V.R) - W

SIMPLE WHEEL AND AXLE:

In simple wheel and axle, effort wheel and axle are rigidly connected to each other and mounted
on a shaft. A string is wound round the axle so as to lift the load (W) another string is wound
round the effort wheel in opposite direction so as to apply the effort (P) as shown in the figure
5.5.

Fig.5.5
Let, W = Load lifted
P = Effort Applied
D = Diameter of the effort wheel
d = diameter of the load axle
When the effort wheel completes one revolution, the effort moves through a distance equal to
the circumference of the effort wheel ( D) and simultaneously the load moves up through a
distance equal to the circumference of the load axle ( d).
SINGLE PURCHASE CRAB WINCH:

Fig.5.6
In single purchase crab winch, a rope is fixed to the drum and is wound a few turns round it.
The free end of the rope carries the load W. A toothed wheel A is rigidly mounted on the load
drum. Another toothed wheel B, called pinion, is geared with the toothed wheel A as shown in
Fig. 5.6The effort is applied at the end of the handle to rotate it.
Let T1 = No. of teeth on the main gear (or spur wheel) A,
T2 = No. of teeth on the pinion B,
l = Length of the handle,
r = Radius of the load drum.
W = Load lifted, and
P = Effort applied to lift the load.
We know that,

DOUBLE PURCHASE CRAB WINCH:

 Fig.5.7
A double purchase crab winch is an improved form of a single purchase crab winch, in whichthe
velocity ratio is intensified with the help of one more spur wheel and a pinion. In a double
purchase crab winch, there are two spur wheels of teeth T1 and T2 and T3 as well as two pinions
of teeth T2 and T4.The arrangement of spur wheels and pinions are such that the spur wheel
with T1 gears with the pinion of teeth T2. Similarly, the spur wheel with teeth T3 gears with the
pinion of the teeth T4, The effort is applied to a handle as shown in Fig.5.7
Let T1 and T3 = No. of teeth of spur wheels,
T2 and T4 = No. of teeth of the pinions
l = Length of the handle,
r = Radius of the load drum,
W = Load lifted, and
P = Effort applied to lift the load, at the end of the handle. Distance moved by the effort in one

WORM AND WORM WHEEL:

 Fig.5.8
It consists of a square threaded screw, S (known as worm) and a toothed wheel (known as
worm wheel) geared with each other, as shown in Fig.5.8 . A wheel A is attached to the worm,
over which passes a rope as shown in the figure. Sometimes, a handle is also fixed to the worm
(instead of the wheel). A load drum is securely mounted on the worm wheel.
Let D = Diameter of the effort wheel,
r = Radius of the load drum
W = Load lifted,
P = Effort applied to lift the load, and
T = No. of teeth on the worm wheel.
For one complete revolution of effort wheel,

SCREW JACK:
A screw jack is commonly used for lifting and supporting the heavy load. A very
small effort can be applied at the end of the lever or handle or tommy bar for lifting
the heavy loads. This effort is very small as compared to the load to be lifted. As
jack has a simple mechanism, it is most commonly used in repair work of vehicles.
When the effort is applied to the handle or lever arm to complete one revolution
then load is lifted through one pitch of the screw (p), therefore the distance moved
by the load is equal to the pitch of the screw and the distance moved by the effort
is equal to 2 l

Fig.5.9
Let,l = length of the handle or lever arm
p = pitch of the thread or screw
W = Load lifted
P= Effort applied to lift the load at the end of the lever

5.3 HOISTING MACHINE :

The hoisting is the lifting of the material against gravity
Common equipment for hoisting
Pulley and sheave block
Chain hoists
Cranes
Winches

PULLEY AND SHEAVE BLOCK

A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and
change of direction of a cable or belt along its circumference. Pulleys are used in a
variety of ways to lift loads, apply forces, and to transmit power. In nautical
contexts, the assembly of wheel, axle, and supporting shell is referred to as a
„block‟.
A pulley may also be called a sheave or drumand may have a groove between two
flanges around its circumference. The drive element of a pulley system can be a
rope, cable, belt, or chain that runs over the pulley inside the groove.
The pulley and sheave blocks suitable for lifting rough surface and heavy loads.
For this purpose, the chains and wire ropes are used
 Fig.5.10
CHAIN HOISTS
The chain hoists are the popular mechanism for lifting loads up to tones.
The system consists of two sets of chains, namely the hand and load chain.
The hand chains are particularly useful for the isolated location, where an
electric motor or other types of mechanical equipment are not available.
The pull applied through the hand chain is transmitted to the load chain with a
multiplication factor of over 20.
The load to be lifted is held by a load hook while another hook (called support
hook) at the top, support the mechanism.

Fig.5.11
CRANES
A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a Hoist rope or chain, and
sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower the materials and to move them
horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy Things and transporting them to
other places.
Types of cranes
Mobile crane
truck mounted crane
tower crane
overhead crane
derrick crane

MOBILE CRANE
A mobile crane is a cable-controlled crane Mounted on crawlers or ribbed-tired
carries or A hydraulic-powered crane with a telescopic Boom mounted on truck-
type carriers or as self-propelled Models

Fig.5.12
TRUCK MOUNTED CRANE
Truck-mounted crane is a self-propelled loading unloading Machine mounted on
a truck Body, with a working section consisting of a Rotating cantilevered boom.
these cranes are supported (outriggers) while Lifting cargo, in order to increase
their stability.

Fig.5.13
TOWER CRANE
These are the crane of swing job type and are mounted on high steel towers.
The height of tower maybe 25 to 30 m and these cranes are found to be suitable
in the construction of tall buildings in congested areas.
The ground area required for such cranes is very small.
Q.5.1 In a certain weight lifting machine, a weight of 1 kN is lifted by an effort
of 25 N. While the weight moves up by 100 mm, the point of application of
effort moves by 8 m. Find mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and
efficiency of the machine.
Solution:
Given: Weight (W) = 1 kN = 1000 N ; Effort (P) = 25 N ;
Distance through which the weight is moved (Y) = 100 mm = 0.1 m and
distance through which effort is moved (x) = 8 m.
Mechanical advantage of the machine.

Q.5.2A certain weight lifting machine of velocity ratio 30 can lift a load of
1500N with the help of 125 N effort. Determine if the machine is reversible.

Q.5.3. What load can be lifted by an effort of 120 N, if the velocity ratio is 18
and efficiency of the machine at this load is 60%?Determine the law of the
machine, if it is observed that an effort of 200 N is required to lift a load of
2600 N and find the effort required to run the machine at a load of 3.5 kN.
Solution:
Given: Effort (P) = 120 N ; Velocity ratio (V.R.) = 18 and efficiency (η) = 60% = 0.6.
Load lifted by the machine,
Now substituting the value of m = 0.06 and C = 44 in the law of the machine,
P = 0.06 W + 44
Effort required to run the machine at a load of 3.5 kN.
Substituting the value of W = 3.5 kN or 3500 N in the law of machine,
P = (0.06 × 3500) + 44 = 254 N
Q.5.4. A simple wheel and axle has wheel and axle of diameters of 300 mm
and 30 mm respectively. What is the efficiency of the machine, if it can lift a
load of 900 N by an effort of 100 N.

DYNAMICS
KINEMATICS AND KINETICS
KINEMATICS: It is that branch of Dynamics, which deals with motion of bodies without
considering the forces causing motion.
KINETICS: It is that branch of Dynamics, which deals with motion of bodies and the
forces causing the motion. It predicts the type of motion by a given force system.
PRINCIPLES OF DYNAMICS:
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
(a) First Law of motion: It states, “Everybody continues in its state of rest or of
uniform motion in a straight line, unless compelled by some external force to change
that state”.

This law can also termed as law of inertia.

(b) Second law of motion: It states,“The rate of change of momentum is directly
proportional to the impressed force and takes place in the same direction in which the
impressed force acts”.

It relates to the rate of change of momentum and the external force.

Let, m= mass of the body
u= initial velocity of the body
v= final velocity of the body
a= constant acceleration
t= time in seconds in which the velocity changes from u to v
F= force that changes the velocity from u to v in t seconds
For the body moving in straight line,
Initial momentum = mu
Final momentum = mv

⇒ F ma
⇒ F=k x ma
Where k= a constant of proportionality
If a unit force is chosen to act on a unit mass of 1kg to produce unit acceleration of
1m/s2
then, F=ma= Mass x Acceleration
The SI unit of force is Newton, briefly written as N
(c) Third law of motion: It states,” To every action, there is always an equal and
opposite reaction”.

If a body exerts a force P on another body, the second body will exert the same force P
on the first body in the opposite direction. The force exerted by first body is called
action where as the force exerted by the second body is called reaction.
MOTION OF PARTICLE ACTED UPON BY A CONSTANT FORCE
F=ma
The motion of a particle acted upon by a constant force is governed by Newton‟s
second law of motion.
If a constant force, F= ma is applied on a particle of mass „m‟, then the particle will
move with a uniform acceleration „a‟.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
Let, u= initial velocity of the body
v= final velocity of the body
s= distance travelled by the body in motion
a= acceleration of the body
t= time taken by the body
∴The equations of motion are:
v=u+at
s=ut+ at2
v2- u2=2as
D’ ALEMBERT’S PRINCIPLE
It states, “If a rigid body is acted upon by a system of forces, this system may be
reduced to a single resultant force whose magnitude, direction and the line of action
may be found out by the methods of graphic statics.”
Let, P= resultant of number of forces acting on a body of mass m
This resultant (P) will move the body with an acceleration(a) in its own direction.
We have, P=ma ……………….(1) SCTE&VT Learning Materials, Engineering Mechanics 132
The body will be at rest if a force equal to ma is applied in reverse direction. Hence, for
dynamic equilibrium of the body, the sum of the resultant force and the reversed force
will be equal to zero.
P – ma=0 ………………(2)
The force (-ma) is known as inertia force or reversed effective force. Equation 1 is an
equation of dynamics where as equation 2 is an equation of statics. Equation 2 is
known as the equation of dynamic equilibrium under the action of P. This principle is
known as D‟ Alembert‟s principle.
RECOIL OF GUN
According to Newton‟s third law of motion, when a bullet is fired from a gun, the
opposite reaction of the bullet is known as the recoil of gun.
Let, M = mass of the gun
V = Velocity of the gun with which it recoils
m = mass of the bullet
v = velocity of the bullet after firing
Now, momentum of the bullet after firing = mv .. ..…….(1)
Momentum of the gun = MV .………..(2)
Equating equations (1) & (2) we get,
mv = MV
This relation is known as law of Conservation of Momentum.
6.2 WORK
When force acts on a body and the body undergoes some displacement, then work is
said to be done. The amount of work done is equal to the product of force and
 displacement in the direction of force.
Let, P = force acting on the body
and s = distance through which the body moves
Then work done, W = P × s
Sometimes the force and displacement are not collinear.
In such a case, work done is expressed as the product of the component of the force in
the direction of motion and the displacement.
Hence, work done W = P cos × s
If = 90 , cos = 0 and there will be no work done i.e. if force and displacement are
at right angles to each other, work done will be zero.
Similarly, work done against the force is taken as negative.
When the point of application of the force moves in the direction of motion of the body,
work is said to be done by the force.
Work done by the force is taken as +ve.
As work is the product of force and displacement, the units of work depend upon the
units of force and displacement. Work is expressed in N-m or KN-m.
One Newton-meter is the work done by a force of 1N in moving the body through 1m. It is
called Joule. 1J = 1 N-m . Similarly, 1 Kilo Newton-meter is the work done by a force of 1 KN in
moving a body through 1m.It is also called kilojoules. 1KJ = 1 KN-m

POWER
Power is defined as the rate of doing work.
In SI units, the unit of power is watt (briefly written as W) which is equal to 1 N-m/s or 1
J/s.It is also expressed in Kilowatt (KW), which is equal to 103 W and Megawatt (MW)
which is equal to 106 W. In case of engines, the following two terms are commonly used for
power.
INDICATED POWER: It is the actual power generated in the engine cylinder
BRAKE POWER: It is the amount of power available at the engine shaft
Efficiency of engine is expressed as the ratio of brake power to the indicated power.
It is also called Mechanical efficiency of an engine.
Mathematically, efficiency,

ENERG
Energy may be defined as the capacity for doing work.
Since energy of a machine is measured by the work it can do, therefore unit of energy is
same as that of work.
In S.I system, energy is expressed in Joules or Kilojoules.
There are two types of mechanical energy.
1.POTENTIAL ENERGY: It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position.
A body at some height above the ground level possesses potential energy. If a body of
mass (m) is raised to a height (h) above the ground level, the work done in raising the body
is
= Weight of the body × distance through which it moved
= (mg) ×h = mgh
This work (equal to mgh) is stored in the body as potential energy.
The body, while coming down to its original level, can do work equal to mgh.
Potential energy is zero when the body is on the earth.
2.KINETIC ENERGY: It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion. We can
measure kinetic energy of a body by finding the work done by the body against external
force to stop it.
Let, m= Mass of the body
u= Velocity of the body at any instant
P= External force applied
a=Constant Retardation of the body
s= distance travelled by the body before coming to rest
As the body comes to rest its final velocity v = 0
and work done, W = Force × Distance = P × s ..….... (1)
Now substituting value of (P = m.a) in equation (1),
W = ma × s = mas ...…....(2)
But, v2-u2= -2as (for retardation)
0 – u2= -2as
u2= 2as
as = u2
Now substituting value of (a.s) in equation (2) and replacing work done with kinetic energy
Kinetic energy KE = 1/2mu2
If initial velocity is taken as v instead of u then KE = 1/2mv2
6.3 MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE
MOMENTUM: It is the product of mass and velocity of a body. It represents the energy of
motion stored in a moving body.
If, m = mass of a moving body in kg
v = velocity of the body in m/sec,
Momentum of the body = mv kg-m/sec
IMPULSE: It is defined as the product of force and time during which the force acts on the
body.
According to the second law of motion,
F = ma

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

It states that “the total momentum of two bodies remains constant after their collision or
any other mutual action.
And no external forces act on the bodies, the algebraic sum of their momentum along any
direction is constant.
Momentum along a straight line is called linear momentum
If a body of mass m1 moving with velocity u1 collides with another body of mass m2 moving
with velocity u2.
Let v1 and v2 be the velocities of the bodies after collision.
We have: total momentum before collision = m1u1 + m2u2
Total momentum after collision = m1v1 + m2v2 SCTE&VT Learning Materials, Engineering Mechanics 135
Now, according to the law of conservation of linear momentum,
Momentum before collision = momentum after collision
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

It states that “ The energy can neither be created nor destroyed, though it can be
transformed from one form into any of the forms, in which the energy can exist.”
Suppose a body of mass „m‟ is at a height „h‟dropped on the ground from A.
Consider the ground level as the datum or reference level and other positions
ofB andCof the same body at varios times of the fall

Total energy of the body at these points (A,B,C)

Energy at A
At A ,the body has no velocity, therefore kinetic energy at A=0
And potential energy at A =mgh
Total energy at A=mgh ………….....(1)
Energy at B
COLLISION OF ELASTIC BODIES
Collision means the interaction or the contact between two bodies for a short period
of time. The bodies produce impulsive forces on each other during collision.
The act of collision between two bodies that takes place in a short period of time and
during which the bodies exert very large forces on each other, is known as impact.
The bodies come to rest for a moment immediately after collision. During the
phenomenon of collision, the bodies tend to compress each other.
The bodies tend to regain their actual shape and size after impact, due to elasticity.
The process of getting back the original shape is called restitution.
The time of compression is the time taken by the two bodies in compression,
immediately after collision and the time of restitution is the time of regaining the
original shape after collision. The period of collision is the sum of the time of
compression and restitution.
NEWTON’S LAW OF COLLISION OF ELASTIC BODIES AND COEFFICIENT
OF RESTITUTION
Newton‟s law of collision of elastic bodies states that “when two moving bodies
collide with each other, their velocity of separation bears a constant ratio to their
velocity of approach”.
Let us consider two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 respectively move along
the same line and produce direct impact.
Let u1 = initial velocity of body A
u1 = initial velocity of body B
v1 = final velocity of body A after collision
v2 = final velocity of body B after collision
The impact will take place when u1> u2
Hence the velocity of approach = u1 – u2
After impact, the separation of the two bodies will take place if v2> v1
Hence the velocity of separation = v2 - v1
According to Newton‟s law of Collision of Elastic bodies,
DIRECT COLLISION OF TWO BODIES
Consider two bodies A and B having a direct impact
Let, m1 = Mass of the body A
u1 = Initial velocity of body A
v1 = Final velocity of body A
m2, u2, v2 = Corresponding values for the body

According to law of conservation of linear momentum, we have,

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
DIRECT IMPACT OF A BODY WITH A FIXED PLANE
If one body is at rest initially, then such a collision is called direct impact.
Consider direct impact of a body with a fixed plane.
Let, u = initial velocity of the body
v = final velocity of the body
e = coefficient of restitution
Here, the velocity of approach is „u‟ and velocity of separation is „v‟.
According to Newton‟s law of elastic bodies, we have,
velocity of separation velocity of approach

EXAMPLE 6.1: A body of mass 10 kgis moving with a velocity of 2 m/sec. If a

force of 20N is applied on the body, determine its velocity after 2 seconds.
Solution: Given, Mass of the body m = 10 kg
EXAMPLE 6.2: A vehicle of mass 500kg, is moving with a velocity of 25 m/sec. A
force of 200 N acts on it for 2 minutes. Find the velocity of the vehicle :
(a) When the force acts in the direction of the motion, and
(b) When the force acts in the opposite direction of the motion.
SCTE&VT Learning Materials, Engineering Mechanics 138
Solution: Given, Mass of the body m = 500kg
Initial velocity of the body, u = 25 m/sec
Force F = 200 N
Time (t) = 2 min = 120 seconds
(a) Acceleration of the vehicle, a =F/m = 0.4m/sec2
Velocity of the vehicle after 120 seconds:
v1 = u + at
= 25 + (0.4×120)
= 73 m/sec
(b) Here, acceleration of the vehicle, a = - 0.4 m/sec2
Velocity of the vehicle after 120 sec,
v2 = u + at
= 25 + (-0.4 × 120)
= - 23 m/sec (Minus sign indicates vehicle is moving in reverse direction)
EXAMPLE 6.3:A man of mass 100 kg dives vertically downwards into a
swimming pool from a tower of height 30 m. He was found to go down in water
by 3 m and then started rising. Find the average resistance of the water. Neglect
the resistance of air.
Solution. Given : Mass of the man (m) = 100 kg and height of the tower (s) = 30 m
Consider the motion of the man from the top of the tower to the water surface.
Here, initial velocity (u) = 0 (as the man dives) and distance covered (s) = 30 m
Let v = Final velocity of the man when he reaches the water surface.
Now v2 = u2 + 2gs = (0)2 + 2 × 9.81 × 30

EXAMPLE 6.6:A bullet of 10 gm mass is fired horizontally with a velocity of

1000 m/sec
from a gun of mass 50 kg. Find, (a) velocity with which the gun will recoil,
and
(b) force necessary to bring the gun to rest in 250 mm.
Solution: Given, m = 10 gm = 0.01 kg
v = 1000 m/s
M = 50 kg
(a) We have, mv = MV
0.01 × 1000 = 50 ×
V = 0.2 m/sec = Velocity of the recoil
(b) Initial velocity of the gun (u) = 0.2 m/s
Final velocity of the gun (v) = 0
Here, s = 250 mm = 0.25 m
We have, v2 – u2 = 2as
02 – (0.2)2 = -2 ×a×0.25(retardation)
a = 0.08 m/sec2
F= Ma = 50 × 0.08 = 4 N
EXAMPLE 6.7: A body of mass 100 kg is moving at a speed of 20 m/sec. If
the body is 50 m above the ground level, calculate the potential energy and
kinetic energy of the body.
Solution: Given, m = 10 kg
v = 20 m/sec
h = 50 m
Potential energy = mgh = 100 ×9.81 ×50 = 49050 J = 49.050 KJ
Kinetic energy = mv2 = ×100 ×202 = 20000 J = 20 KJ
EXAMPLE 6.8: A body of mass 50 kg was dropped vertically into water from
a height of 25 m. The body moved down into the water by 2 m and then
started rising. Estimate the average resistance of water.neglecting the
resistance of air.
Solution: Given, m = 50 kg
h = 25 m
Let, P = average resistance of water
Potential energy of the body before dropping into water = mgh = 50 ×9.81 ×25 =
12262.5 N-m
Work done by average resistance of water = Average resistance of water × Depth
of the water
= P × 2 = 2P N-m
Total potential energy of the body = Work done by average resistance of water
12262.5 = 2P
P = 6131.25 N
EXAMPLE 6.9: The kinetic energy of a body is 2500 KJ corresponding to a
velocity of 700 m/sec. Estimate the loss in kinetic energy when its velocity is
reduced to 450 m/sec.
Solution:Given : K.E1 = 2500KJ = 2500x103 J
v1 = 700 m/sec
v2 = 450 m/sec
Let, m= mass of the body
The K.E of the body corresponding to a velocity of 700 m/sec is given by:
KE1 = mv12 = m (700)2
But2500 ×103 = m (700)2
m = 10.2 kg
When the velocity is reduced to 450 m/s, its KE is given by,
KE2 = mv22 = × 10.2 ×(450)2 = 1032750 J = 1032.75 KJ
Now, loss in KE = KE1 – KE2
= 2500 – 1032.75 = 1467.25 KJ
EXAMPLE 6.10: A ball of mass 2 kg moving with a velocity of 2 m/s hits
directly on a ball of mass 4 kg at rest. The first ball, after impinging, comes
to rest. Find the velocity of the second ball after the impact and the
coefficient of restitution.
Solution:Given, Mass of first ball (m1) =2 kg
Initial velocity of first ball (u1)= 2 m/s
Mass of second ball (m2)= 4 kg,
Initial velocity of second ball (u2) =0(as it is at rest)
final velocity of first ball after impact (v1)=0 (as, it comes to rest)
(a)Velocity of the second ball after impact.
Let v2 = Velocity of the second ball after impact.
According to law of conservation of energy,
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
2 × 2 + 4 × 0 = 2 × 0 + 4 × v2
4 + 0 = 0 + 4v2
4 = 4v2
v2 = 1 m/sec
(b) Coefficient of restitution
Let e = Coefficient of restitution.
According to the law of collision of elastic bodies,
(v2 – v1) = e (u1 – u2)
(1 - 0) = e (2 - 0)
1=e×2
e= =0.5
EXAMPLE 6.11: A ball overtakes another ball of twice its own mass and
moving with of its own velocity. If the coefficient of restitution between the
two balls is 0.75, show that the first ball will come to rest after impact.
Solution: Let, Mass of the first ball(m1) = M kg
Mass of the second ball (m2)= 2M kg
Initial velocity of first ball (u1) = U
Initial velocity of second ball (u2) =
coefficient of restitution(e) = 0.75
Let v1 = Velocity of the first ball after impact, and
v2 = Velocity of the second ball after impact.
According to the law of conservation of momentum
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
MU+ 2M = Mv1 + 2Mv2 SCTE&VT Learning Materials, Engineering Mechanics 143
= Mv1 + 2Mv2
=v1 + 2v2…………..(1)
According to the law of collision of elastic bodies,
(v2 – v1) = e (u1 – u2) = 0.75 (U - ) =
v2 = +v1
Putting this value of v2in equation (1) we get,
=v1 + 2 +v1)
=3v1+
v1= 0
Thus the first ball will come to rest after impact.
EXAMPLE 6.12:A ball is dropped from a height h0 = 1 m on a smooth floor.
Knowing that the height of the first bounce is h1 = 81cm, determine
(a) coefficient of restitution, and
(b) expected height h2 after the second bounce.
Solution:Height from which the ball is dropped (h0) = 1m
and height to which the ball rose after first bounce (h1) = 81 cm. = 0.81 m.
(a) Coefficient of restitution
Let e = Coefficient of restitution.
The velocity with which the ball impinges on the floor,
u = √2gh0=√2g =√2gm/sec …………………….(1)
and velocity with which the ball rebounds,
v = √2gh1=√2g =0.9√2gm/sec …………………….(2)
The velocity with which the ball rebounds (v)
0.9√2g = e √2g
∴e=0.9
(b) Expected height after the second bounce
Let h2 = Expected height after the second bounce.
The velocity with which the ball impinges second time,
u = 0.9√2gm/sec
and velocity, with which the ball rebounds,
v = √2gh
The velocity with which the ball rebounds second time (v)
√2gh =eu =0.9x0.9√2g =0.81√2g
∴2gh2= x2g =0.656x2g
h2=0.656m

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