Urban water supply and Treatment Section-1

URBAN WATER SUPPLY AND TREATEMENT
SECTION-1
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1. Water Demand
1.1 Introduction
Evaluation of the amount of water available and amount of water demanded by the public are
primary tasks in designing any water supply system. Demand of water is the amount of water
required to meet all the needs of the people, which the system serves. It is expressed as per capita
per day (l/c/d). In planning the water supply system it is necessary to find out not only the total
yearly water requirement but also to access the required average rates of flow and the variations
in these rates.
1.2 Types of Demand

Demand may be categorized as:
1. Domestic water demand
2. Industrial water demand
3. Commercial water demand
4. Public demand
5. Fire demand
6. Loss due to wastes and theft
1. Domestic water demand: - includes the water required for drinking, bathing, lawn sprinkling,
gardening, sanitary purposes, etc. This may vary between 80 l/c/d to 140 l/c/d for major Ethiopian
cities. A standard value of 30 to 40 l/c/d is used in designing the water supply schemes of rural
towns. Western industrialized countries extend this amount to as high as 350 l/c/d. The total
domestic water consumption shall be equal to the per capita demand multiplied by the total
population at the end of the design period. Usually this amounts to 50-60% of the total water
consumption.
Table 1 Typical domestic water demand

Use Consumption(l/c/d)
Cooking 5
Bathing 55
Cloth washing 20
Cleaning utensils 10
House cleaning 10
Flushing 30
Drinking 5
Total 135
2. Industrial water demand: - this represents the water demand of industries, both existing and
likely to be established in the future with in the design period. This quantity will thus vary with
the number and types of industries present in the city. Wet production processes (such as
beverages, pulp, etc…) enquire large amount of water while dry processes consume less. In most
cases industrial water demand is either supplemented from other sources or totally excluded from
the main system.
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Table 2 Water Demand for typical production processes

Industry Approximate water requirement
1000 lit/tone
Fertilizer 80-200
Leather 40
Paper 200-400
Sugar 1-2
Textile 80-140
3. Commercial water demand: - this is the water requirement for institutions such as hospitals,
hotels, schools and colleges, railway stations, offices, stadiums, etc. It varies with the nature of
the city and with the number and types of commercial establishments. On average, a per capita
demand of 20 l/c/d is usually considered sufficient though it may vary up to 50 l/c/d for highly
commercialized cities.
Table 3 Water requirements of various commercial establishments
Establishment Avg. water cons. In l/c/d
Offices 45-90
Factories 30-90
Schools 45-225
Hostels 135-225
Hotels 135-180
Restaurants 180 (per seat)
Hospitals 70 (per bed)
Railway stations 25-75
Airports 70
Cinema halls 15
4. Public demand: - includes the quantity of water required for public utility purposes, such as
watering of public parks, gardening, washing and sprinkling on roads, use in public fountains, etc.
A nominal amount of about 5% of the total consumption is considered sufficient.
5. Fire demand: - this is for fighting fire broke outs in the town. The high rate of water
consumption during fire considerably affects the design of distribution system, and hence while
designing public water supply schemes, the rate of fire demand is sometimes treated as a function
of population, and is worked out on the basis of certain empirical formulas. The building
materials used in the city affect the rate with which the fire progresses.
Empirical formulas for estimating fire demand:
1. Kuchling formula
Q = 3182 P where Q is rate of flow in lit/min

P=population in thousands
2. National board of fire underwriters
a) For central congested high valued city:
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[ ]
Q = 4637 P × 1 − 0.01 P for P <= 200,000

For P greater than 200,000 a provision of 54,600 lit/min may be made with an extra additional
provision of 9,100 to 36,400 lit/min for a second fire.
b) For residential city
i. Small or low buildings
=2,200 lit/min
ii. Larger buildings
=4500 lit/min
iii. High valued residences, apartments, tenement
=7650 to 13500 lit/min
iv. Three storied buildings in densely built up sections
Up to 27,000 lit/min
This quantity of water is made available by providing appurtenances called fire hydrants at about
100 to 200 meters apart along the distribution main.
6. Loss due to wastes and theft: - this includes water lost in leakage due to bad plumbing or
damaged meters, stolen water due to unauthorized water connections, slippage in meters etc.
These losses can be reduced by careful maintenance and universal metering. An amount equal to
15% of the total water demand is estimated to be lost due to waste and theft.
More on loss …
Corrosion: Many distribution system components are made of metal, and, on contact with an electrolyte, metal
tends to corrode. Metal pipes and tanks are the most obvious example of this type of problem. Corrosion also can
attack reinforcing wire in concrete structures, and corrosion on valve stems and bolt threads can render these
items inoperable. Corrosion is often the root cause of other problems as well: It leads to loss of metal, weakening
of the component, and ultimately to failure. The by-products of the corrosion process accumulate on pipe walls
and cause reduced carrying capacity and lower pressure. Corrosion also can contribute to poor water quality.
Unforeseen Loads: Some distribution facilities fail because the load placed on them exceeds the load for which
they were designed. Pipes broken by excessive surge pressure or external loads may have been designed correctly
at the time they were installed; however, any component (e.g. ,pipes, pumps) can simply become too small when
water demands increase over time.
Poor manufacture and installation: Even if an item is designed properly, it may be manufactured or installed
incorrectly. A common cause of pipe breaks is poor bedding and backfill. Tank corrosion is accelerated by poor
coating. A misaligned pump will fail quickly. Utilities that work with reputable suppliers and contractors have
well prepared contract documents, and quality inspections reduce the risk of poor installation.
UNACCOUNTED-FOR WATER(UFW)
Water produced and delivered to the distribution system is intended to be sold to customers and not lost or taken
from the distribution system without authorization. As water is a valuable good all water systems in Ethiopia
meter all water customers. Although all customers may be metered in a given utility, a fairly sizable portion of
the water produced by most utilities does not pass through customer meters. Some is taken for authorized
purposes, such as fire fighting and flushing and blowoffs for water-quality reasons. These quantities are usually
fairly small, and the primary cause of excessive unaccounted-for water is often leakage.
Indicators for Unaccounted –for water: Unaccounted-for water is the difference between water produced by
the utility (and usually measured at the treatment facility) and metered use (i.e., sales plus non-revenue producing
metered water). Unaccounted-for water can be expressed in flow units but is usually discussed as a percentage of
water production:
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(Pr oduction − metereduse × 100%)

Unaccounted − for − water (%) =
(Pr oduction)
Although various groups proposed a consistent definition for unaccounted-for water, there are almost as many
ways to calculate unaccounted-for water as there are individuals performing the calculation. For example, some
utilities may subtract an estimate of water used for blowoffs and flushing from water production, whereas others
may add blowoffs and flushing to metered use or include it as unaccounted-for. Some utilities include estimates
of known, unprepared leaks as accounted-for use. Because unaccounted-for water is used as an indicator of
system performance, an universally agreed-on definition is not so important as long as comparisons made
between utilities and, in a given utility over time, use the same definition.
Elimination of unaccounted-for water is a goal of all utilities, but it is impossible for utilities to reach this goal. A
commonly accepted rule-of-thumb for acceptable levels of unaccounted-for water is 15 percent, although this
value is highly site specific. The real rule for deciding whether unaccounted-for water exists at an acceptable
level is an economic one; the economic savings in water production at least offsets the cost of reducing
unaccounted-for water. For example, on a present-worth basis, the cost of a leak detection and repair program
should be less than the value of water no longer leaked plus any damages associated with leaking water. In an
area with costly treatment requirements and limited source capacity, it may be worthwhile to reduce
unaccounted-for water to less than 10 percent. In a utility with excess capacity, little growth, and inexpensive
treatment and pumping, unaccounted-for water exceeding 20 percent may be acceptable.
An unexpected increase in production at a well or water treatment plant can indicate that a new leak has occurred
but has not yet been detected. If daily water production can be monitored for smaller zones within the distribution
system, even better insights into the location of new leaks can be obtained.
Understanding the Causes of Unaccounted-for Water: To reduce unaccounted-for water, it is necessary to

understand where this water is going. It could be lost to leaks, theft, meter underregistration, authorized
unmetered use, and flat-rate users. There are some rules of thumb, however, to help identify the primary cause .
Once the primary cause of large amounts of unaccounted-for water has been isolated, an effective program to
reduce unaccounted-for water can be implemented.
Per capita water usage can be calculated using several formulas to shed some insight on the source of
unaccounted-for water. The simplest definition of per capita use is
(Water production )
Systemwide percapita use =
( Population served )
Usage on the order of 550 Lpcd (liters per capita per day) is considered the norm in cases where exterior
irrigation use and industrial demand are typical. This value is easy to obtain because all utilities should keep
track of production. If this number is calculated monthly, it can provide insights into seasonal patterns. For
example, in areas where summer irrigation demands are high, winter percapita usage should still be near 550
Lpcd. This parameter can be calculated even for systems where customer metering is not practiced.
Other indicators can go further in predicting the cause of high unaccounted-for usage. For example, no industrial
per capita use can be calculated as
(Pr oduction − Comercial and industrial use )
Non industrial use =
This quantity eliminates the effect of industrial usage on water demand and should reflect use by domestic
customers. If this value is greater the about 260 Lpcd (70 gpcd), under registration by domestic meters is a likely
contributor to unaccounted for water. By combining the above three indicator Equations, it is possible to get a
feel for the causes of unaccounted-for water, it can develop a program to reduce the levels. Corrective measures
to address each cause are detailed below.
( Domestic metered consumptio m)
Domestic use =
Although most water use follows a typical diurnal pattern, leakage usually occurs at a steady rate for all 24 h of a
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day. This knowledge can be used to develop another indicator of the magnitude and probable cause of
unaccounted-for water. It is the minimum night time ratio, defined as
( Use during min imum hour ) × (100 %)
Minimum night time ratio (%) =
(Average hourly use)
Determining the hourly use involves calculating the hourly source production and change in storage tank levels
on an hourly basis throughout the day. The minimum hour value is then divided by the average use. In a typical
system, the value should be less than 40 percent. A higher value indicates either leakage or a customer(s) with
high continues use (e.g.; a 24-hr manufacturer). If there is a single industry with a high use on a 24-hr basis, it
from each hourly use to find the minimum nighttime ratio without that customer’s influence.
The minimum nighttime ratio can be calculated on a system wide basis, but it is most valuable if it can be
calculated on some smaller portion of the system (e.g.; a single pressure zone). This approach not only will
indicate whether leakage is a problem but also will point out which portion of the system is likely to have the
greatest leakage.
Components of Unaccounted-for Water: The various components that contribute to unaccounted-for water can
differ a good deal; some are actual losses of water from the system, whereas others can be attributed to lack of
knowledge of water use.
Water main leakage: In most cases, the largest portion of unaccounted-for water is lost through main leaks.
Water utility personnel use the terms “leak” and “break” in different ways; there is no standardized definition.
For our purposes, a break in a main requires emergency repair, whereas a leak does not. In addition, evidence of a
break is obvious, whereas detection of a leak may require special equipment.
Failed joints often contribute to leaking. Their failure can be attributed to a number of factors, including poor
design, improper installation, and poor joint material. Joints near installation. Old lead or leadite joints often
become brittle with age and crack. Joints near bends can fail because of poor thrust restraint, and joints with
gaskets can fail because of poor installation. Old lead or leadite joints often become brittle with age and crack.
For large pipes, it is possible to seal poor joints from the inside. In addition to problems with t he joint sealer,
bells on older pipes can crack.
Leak detection usually involves the use of sonic leak-detection equipment, which listens for the sound of water
escaping a pipe. These devices can include pinpoint listening devices that make contact with valves and hydrants
and geophones that listen directly on the ground. In addition, correlator devices can listen at two points
simultaneously to pinpoint the exact location of a leak. In addition, experienced personnel can estimate the size
of a leak accurately.
Large leaks do not necessarily contribute to a greater volume of lost water, particularly if water reaches the
surface; they are usually found quickly, isolated, and repaired. Undetected leaks, even small ones, can lead to
large quantities of lost water since they might exist for long periods of time. Ironically, small leaks are easier to
detect because they are noisier and more easily heard using hydrophones. The most difficult leaks to detect and
repair are usually those under stream crossings.
Leak detection efforts should focus on the portion of the distribution system with the greatest expected leakage.
Indicators, such as high minimum nighttime flows, or high unaccounted-for water in specific portions of the
distribution system can point to areas with a high incidence of leakage. To access specific sections of the system,
the utility must be able to assure the flow of wear into that region. This effort usually involves closing valves to
isolate the section and measuring flow at a few key points. Installation of additional metering at key locations is
advisable in systems where pressure-zone boundaries, valves, or both can make subdivision of the system
feasible.
Service pipe leakage: Methods similar to those used for main leaks are applied to detect service line leaks.
Leaking services are usually replaced rather than repaired to detect service line leaks. Leaking services are
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usually replaced rather than repaired unless they are in a location where access is difficult. In many instances, the
water utility only owns the service line to the curb stop, not to the meter, which may be located in the customer’s
basement or crawl space. Although customers may own piping between the curb stop and the meter, they have
little motivation to repair the service line because they are not paying for the leaked water.
System pressure: Water pressure in the distribution system can affect unaccounted-for water in several ways.
First, high pressure can lead to higher break rates, and water hammer can lead to breaks and separation at bends.
Utilities attempt to keep pressures below 100 psi (689,500 pa) in typical distribution mains. Where higher
pressures occur (e.g., crossing a valley), utilities often ensure that a pipe with an adequate pressure rating is
installed.
Once the system has been laid out and pressure zones have been established, it is difficult to reduce pressure in an
area. It may also be appropriate to reduce pressure at night using valving to reduce leakage. This is not feasible in
zones served directly by tanks that float on the system, but it is possible in pressure zones served by pressure-
reducing valves (PRVs) and pump stations discharging into closed systems, in particular those with variable-
speed drives.
Fire fighting: Water used for fire fighting is unaccounted-for and, over short periods of time and during
catastrophic fires, can be a significant portion of production. Periods of time and during catastrophic fires, can be
a significant portion of production. However, over long periods of time fire fighting accounts for less than 1 or 2
percent of total production. It is unlikely to be a major cause for high unaccounted-for water. Similarly, water
used for occasional fire-hydrant flow testing is not a significant portion of unaccounted-for water.
Main flushing: Although main flushing through hydrants does not result in as high a flow rate as fire fighting
does, virtually all mains are operated during a flushing program; hence the total volume of water used during
flushing can be significant. Flushing crews should log flow rates and duration of flushing so that estimates can be
made of water used during the process. It is desirable to measure the flow rate with a pitot gauge to get a more
accurate estimate of the flushing rate. Maintaining a data-base of hydrant flow rates during flushing also can
point to loss of carrying capacity in mains. In particular, a sudden drop in flow from one year to the next may
indicate a closed valve in the system near the hydrant.
Blowoffs: The term “blowoffs” in this chapter refer, to valves in the distribution system (usually at the end of
dead-end lines) that are opened to draw fresh water into the dead-end line to improve water quality or to prevent
freezing by maintaining velocity in a main. Blowoffs should be run only as long as necessary and only at a rate
needed to maintain water quality or prevent freezing. Recording the flow rate and run duration for each blowoff
allows the utility to estimate its contribution to unaccounted-for water. Ideally, when blowoff usage becomes a
significant part of production, steps to reduce these flows are implemented. Options are usually long-term efforts,
such as eliminating dead-ends (especially in old unlined metal pipe) and replacing older pipes with new pipes or
with pipes buried at depths where freezing will not be a problem.
Authorized un metered uses: Some water utilities provide free service for some uses, such as municipally
owned buildings, park irrigation, street sweeping, and municipal pools and fountains. Provision of free water
service is the prerogative of the water utility; however, these uses often are metered to provide accountability.
Meter under registration: Most consumer water meters tend to run slowly as they become older and register
less water than is actually used. The cost of replacing meters prohibits utilities from doing so often enough to
maintain 100 percent registration. It is best to replace water meters when the cost of lost water caused by under
registration exceeds the cost of meter replacement.
The cost of replacing a meter depends on the size and type of meter being replaced, ease of access to the property,
and whether the replacement is done as part of a systematic meter replacement program or is done on a case-by
case basis. The cost of lost water depends on the estimated average flow rate, the accuracy of the meter, and the
value of water. Unlike the case of repairing leaks when the value of lost water is the variable O &M cost for
water production, the value of lost water in this instance is the actual cost of water to the customer. The accuracy
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of water meters can be determined by testing them. For small meters (e.g., residential meters), a representative
sample of meters is removed and taken to a meter testing shop to determine the accuracy of that category of
meter(e.g., grouping by size, type, age). For larger meters, the analysis is performed on a case-by-case basis using
in-place meter testing whenever possible. Methods exist to determine the best frequency of meter testing.
A Meter may be accurate over the range of flows for which it was designed but be significantly inaccurate at
lower flow rates. It is important to assess the overall accuracy of the meter at the rate of flow that the meter
usually encounters rather than at the customer’s peak rate off flow. For example, a meter may be 100 percent
accurate from 20 to 150 lpm, but the actual flow rate through the meter may be 10 lpm most of the time. Thus, it
is important to test the meter at that flow rate. If a utility does not have a good idea about the actual rate at which
a customer uses water, it is possible to attach data-logging device to most meters that is capable of determining
the actual rates of flow. If water use is substantially lower than the optimal range for the meter, then it should be
replaced by a smaller meter.
Theft of water: Water can be stolen easily from hydrants, in particular near construction sites when contractors
need to fill water trucks, in particular near construction sites when contractors need to fill water trucks. Utilities
can provide contractors with portable meters to attach to hydrants. Some utilities have even established stations
where contractors can purchase water. Providing authorized locations where water can be purchased ensures that
the rate of withdrawal does not adversely affect pressure and that adequate backflow protection will be used.
Theft also can take place at services. Some customers try to steal water either by never installing a meter when a
building is constructed or by removing meters after construction or tampering water before passing the meters
(e.g. the case of home grown chat farms in Bahir Dar irrigated by stolen water). Meters are usually sealed when
installed to prevent tampering. If a meter is located in a basement or crawl space, it should be installed where it is
virtually impossible to tap the service line upstream of the meter. In addition, meter readers are encouraged to
report any structures that they do not read on their route.
Table 4 Estimate for water demand based on experience is tabulated below.

Population Q, lpcd
<20,000 110
20,000 – 50, 000 110 – 150
50,000 – 200,000 150 – 180
200,000 – 500,000 180 – 210
500,000 – 1,000,000 210 – 240
>1,000,000 240 – 270
1.3 Total water requirement

The total daily amount of water required by the town can be worked out by multiplying the
number of people at the end of the design period and the average daily consumption of each
person called per capita demand. The per capita demand (q) is the annual average amount of
daily water required by one person, and includes the domestic use, industrial and commercial use,
wastes, thefts etc. It may be expressed as
(Total yearly water requirement in liters )

q=
(365 × Design population)
The future period for which a provision is made in the water supply scheme is known as the
design period. The design period should neither be so long which will incur excess financial
burden at present users nor be so short as to make the design insufficient for future needs.
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Few of the factors governing the design period includes: -

Useful life of component structures and the chances of their becoming old and obsolete
Ease and difficulty that is likely to be faced in expansions
Amount and availability of additional investment likely to be incurred for additional
provisions
The rate of interest on the borrowings and the additional money invested
Anticipated rate of population growth
Table 5 Design periods for different components

Item Design period in years
Dams 50
Infiltration galleries 30
Pumps
Pump house 30
Electric motors & pumps 15
Treatment units 15
Pipe connections & appurtenances 30
Raw water conveying units 30
Head works & clear water reservoirs 15
Distribution system 30
It is therefore necessary to estimate the population for the end of the design period as population
is a dynamic factor in the system. Thus, depending on the possibilities of future development of
the town, the possible future population can be estimated using different methods. Among the
methods are: -
a. Arithmetic increase method
b. Geometric increase method
c. Incremental increase method
d. Decreasing rate method
e. Logistic curve method
1.4 Estimating future population

Arithmetic increase method
In this method the population is assumed to increase at a constant rate. That is the rate of change
of population is constant (i.e. dP/dt = constant).
Thus the population at some year in the future can be expressed as:
Pn = [P0 + Nk ] Where Pn= population at Nth year

P0= present population
k= avg. pop. Growth
N=number of decades
Geometric increase method (uniform increase method)
In this method the percentage growth rate (r) per decade is assumed to be constant, and the
increase is compounded over the existing population every decade. Thus the population at some
year in the future can be expressed as:
Pn = P0 [1 + r / 100]
N
where Pn= population at Nth year
Po= present population
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R = assumed growth rate
N=number of decades
And the assumed growth rate (r) can be computed in as
ln Pn − ln Po
r=
∆T
P2
Or r= −1 where P1= initial population
P1
P2= final known population
∆T= number of decades between P1 & P2
Incremental increase method
In this method the per decade growth rate is assumed to progressively increasing or decreasing
depending upon whether the average of the incremental increases in the past data is positive or
negative. Thus the population at some year in the future can be expressed as:
n(n + 1)k '
Pn = P0 + Nk +
2
where Pn= population at Nth year
k=avg. increase of population of known decades
k’=avg. of incremental increases of the known decades
Decreasing rate of growth method
This method is applicable where the rate of growth shows a downward trend. This method uses
the average decrease in the percentage increase.
Logistic curve method
Under normal conditions the population of a city shall grow as per the logistic curve. In this curve
when all the varying influences do not produce extraordinary changes, the population would
probably follow the characteristic growth curve of living things within limited space and
resources. This curve is known as logistic curve.
Figure 1: Ideal population growth curve based on logistic equation
Thus the population at some year in the future can be expressed as:
Ps
Pn =
(
1 + e ( a + b ∆t ) )
Where n= time interval between successive census
∆t=Period beyond the base year corresponding to P0
(year difference from the base year, p0)
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In this method a population amount called saturation population (Ps) is given by the expression,
2
2 P0 P1 P2 − P1 ( P0 + P2 )
Ps = 2
P0 P2 − P1
⎛ ( P − P0 ) ⎞
a = ln⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟
⎝ P0 ⎠
1 ⎛ [P0 ( Ps − P1 )] ⎞
b= ln⎜ ⎟
n ⎜⎝ P1 ( Ps − Po ) ⎟⎠
Where P0, P1 and P2 are consecutive census data
1.5 Factors affecting per capita demand

The annual average demand for water varies considerably from place to place. Factors affecting
demand may be enumerated as: -
1. Size of the city 6. Pressure in the distribution
2. Climatic conditions system
3. Habits of peoples 7. Availability of sewerage
4. Industrial and commercial facilities
activities 8. System of supply
5. Quality of water supplies 9. Cost of water
10. Metering policy and water tariff
1.6 Variation in demand

As discussed above the per capita demand is the average of the annual consumption. But there
is a wide variation in the use of water in different seasons, in different months of the year, in
different days of the month, in different hours of the day, and even in different minutes of the
hour.
Figure 2: Typical hourly demand variation curve

This normal variation in demand or draft should generally be assessed and known in order to
design supply pipes, service reservoirs, distributor pipes, etc. The maximum demand is
generally expressed as ratio of the average demand. The following figures are generally used
in estimating the maximum demands.
1. Maximum daily demand: - is generally taken as 180% of the average daily

demand
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2. Maximum hourly demand: - is taken as 150% of the average daily demand. This
demand may co-occur on the maximum day hence the maximum hourly demand is
considered to be the maximum hourly consumption of the maximum day.
The expression given by Goodrich is used in finding out the ratios of peak demand rates.
P = 180t −0.10
Where p=percent of the annual avg.
t= time in days from 1/24 to 365
1.7 Effect of demand variation on design of water supply components
SERVICE RESERVOIR
TREATMENT PLANT
Distribution main
Clear water main
SOURCE
Raw water main

INTAKE
DISTRIBUTION
NETWORK
Figure 3: Components of a water supply scheme
Water sources: - should be designed for maximum daily consumption

Raw water main: - should be designed for maximum daily consumption
Water treatment components: - should be designed for maximum daily consumption
with additional provision for break downs, repairs and cleaning
Distribution lines:- should be designed for maximum hourly consumption of
maximum consumption day including the coincident draft. Coincident draft is
consumption occurred when fire fighting demand or other instant demand is required
on the time of maximum demand hour.
N:B To avoid over sized pipe systems, the pipe diameter can be adopted based on the
average hour instead of the maximum hourly demand on the maximum consumption day,
in addition to fire demand. This practice seems to offer a good balance between the
investment cost and the reliability concern.
Pump units: - should be designed for maximum daily consumption with additional
provision for break downs and repairs.
Service reservoirs: - is designed to meet hourly fluctuation in demand and for the
provision of water during fire break and emergency. One third of the maximum hourly
demand is assumed to be sufficient volume of storage.
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Example 1
Given a 5 decades census data estimation the population after one, two and three decades by appling
all possible methods. Estimate the capacity of water supply components taking a design period of 30
years.
Year 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970
Pop. (in 1000) 25 28 34 42 47
Example 2
A water supply company deliver an annual quantity of 10,000,000m3; assume an average leakage of
20%. On the maximum consumption day, the registered delivery was as follow:
Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
m3 989 945 902 727 844 1164 1571 1600 1775 1964 2066 2110
Hour 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
m3 1600 1309 1091 945 1062 1455 1745 2139 2110 2037 1746 1018
Maximum day hourly delivery

2500
2000
1500
Q in m3
1000
500
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22
HOUR
Determine:
a) Diurnal (hourly) peak factors for the area,
b) The maximum seasonal variation factor,
c) Diurnal (hourly) consumption factors.
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Exercise
1. The incremental increase method of estimating population combines the advantages of
other two methods, i.e. arithmetical increase and geometrical increase. Discuss this
statement.
2. The population of a locality as obtained from census reports is given below;
Year 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951
Population 350000 466000 994000 1560000 1623000
Estimate the population of the locality in the year 2001 by using incremental increase method.
3. The census data for 5 towns is given below. The population data for four towns
identical to town A is also provided in the table. Use graphical method of population
estimation to find the population of town A at the year 2000.
Year 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970
Population 37000 41500 46500 52000 61500
Town B Town C Town D Town E

Year Pop. * 1000 Year Pop.* 1000 Year Pop.* 1000 Year Pop.* 1000
1930 61.5 1925 61.5 1935 61.5 1920 61.5
1940 71 1935 70.5 1945 67 1930 66
1950 85 1945 80 1955 74.5 1940 72
1960 - 1955 - 1965 82.5 1950 78
*Use millimetre paper for accurate results
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2. Sources and Abstraction of Water

2.1 Introduction
It has been almost always said that water is life. But if water is not available in adequate
quality and quantity it may certainly mean death. There are different sources of water from
which man draws for his day-to-day activities. The quality and the quantity of the water
however exhibit spatial as well as temporal variation. The nature of the water source
commonly determines the planning, design and operation of the collection, purification,
transmission, and distribution works. It is therefore essential that careful consideration and
extensive engineering evaluations, including a water resource development investigation, be
conducted as part of source selection. Factors such as quantity, quality, reliability, safety of
source, water rights, and environmental impacts, along with capital and operation costs of the
project, enter into the decision-making. The different available water sources can be classified
in two groups. These are:
1. Surface water source, which includes
a. Ponds and lakes
b. Rivers
c. Artificial reservoirs
d. Oceans
2. Subsurface water source, which includes
a. Springs
b. Infiltration galleries
c. Wells
2.2 Surface sources

Rainwater
The Evaporated water from land and water surfaces, when condenses at high altitude in the
form of clouds, starts falling in the form of rain or snow water. During its fall from high
altitude to the ground, it absorbs oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases along with dust,
smoke, fumes and bacteria etc. Therefore, rainwater contains large amounts of impurities, the
quantity of which is maximum in the first rains and minimum in the last season rains. The
quality of rainwater falling on the open land (undisturbed environment) or fields is better than
that falling on cities or towns. The quality of rainwater of the last season is good and can be
used after little treatment. Rainwater saturated with oxygen is soft, but flat to the taste and
corrosive in nature.
Rain is rarely an immediate source of municipal water supplies. Instead the capture of
rainwater is confined to farms and rural settlements, usually in semiarid regions devoid of
satisfactory ground or surface water. Roofs are mostly obvious choices as catchments for
rainwater harvesting and tanks located near or close to homes increase the convenience of this
system. Advantages of rainwater collection system over the other water supply sources are:
a) The quality of rainwater is relatively high.
b) The collection system is independent.
c) Local materials and craftsmanship can be used in rain water system
construction.
d) No energy costs are needed to run the system.
e) Ease of maintenance by the owner /user.
f) Convenience and acceptability of water. Valuable time is saved in collecting
water
15
Some disadvantages of rainwater as a source of water supply include:

a) The high initial capital cost may prevent a family from buying the system.
b) The water available is limited by rainfall and roof area. For long dry seasons,
the required storage volume may be too large.
c) Mineral free water has a flat taste.
Lakes and reservoirs

A lake or reservoir is any standing body of inland water. It is advantageous in that it is usually
able to store water in wet periods for use in dry periods. The quality of water is generally
poor. Normally turbidity and bacteria are the major pollutants. No lake or reservoir water can
be considered safe until it has been disinfected. Generally it is also necessary to remove
turbidity. It should be used only when ground water sources and controlled catchments are not
available or are insufficient or inadequate. Deep lakes and reservoirs may be subjected to
thermal stratification which greatly affects the quality of water.
River Water
A stream or river is a body of running water on the surface of the earth, from higher to lower
ground. The capacity of rivers to serve as direct source of water supply is controlled by rate of
minimum flow per day. Streams generally exhibit marked seasonal variation in flow and they
are susceptible to contamination. The chemical nature is partially dependent on bedrock.
Physical and bacteriological qualities are highly variable. Development of rivers requires a
submerged intake structure and in the case of small streams requires the construction of small
diversion dams.
2.3 Water quality considerations

Water quality considerations of sources are required for the following purposes.
To evaluate and classify raw water quality: Based on levels of physical, chemical, and
bacteriological parameters, raw water can be classified as having poor, fair, and good
quality.
To identify sources of pollution: Knowledge of the potential sources of water pollution is
the base for devising appropriate mitigation measures. Potential sources of surface and
groundwater pollution include- Surface water: urban runoff, agricultural runoff, industrial
discharge, and leachate from landfills; Groundwater: infiltration from pit-latrines and
septic tanks, landfill leachate, and infiltration on areas that accumulate polluting
substances.
To assess the treatment required for beneficial uses: Treatment of the raw water is required
to make it safe and wholesome for drinking. The level of treatment and unit process
required are dependent on the raw water quality. Typical water treatment processes for
different sources are indicated in Fig. 2.2.
16
Figure 2-1 Water treatment processes for different sources of supply
Aeration Disinfection Fluoridation Distribution
Well
(a) Groundwater having excellent quality
Rapid sand Aeration Disinfection Fluoridation Distribution

Well
filtration
(b) Groundwater having moderate ion concentrations
reservoir
Upland
Micro-strainer Disinfection Fluoridation Distribution
(c) Good quality upland reservoir

Lowland
Storage Screening Coagulation & Sedimentation

river
flocculation
Filtration Disinfection Fluoridation Distribution
(d) Moderate to poor quality low land river
2.4 Source Selection

Source selection for water supply purposes requires considerations of factors such as
hydrology, water quality, reliability, cost, and environmental and social impacts. Particularly,
the following considerations should be included in the study of water supply sources.
Table 2-1 Consideration to be made in comparing water sources

Surface water sources Groundwater
Safe water yield during the drought years to meet the projected Aquifer characteristics
demands Safe aquifer yield
Urbanization and land development in the watershed Permissible drawdown
Proposed impoundments on tributaries Water quality
Water quality Sources of contamination
Assessment of reliability in terms of possible disruptions due to Saltwater intrusion
natural and manmade hazards Type and extent of recharge
Requirements for construction of water supply system area
components Rate of recharge
Economics of the project Water rights
Environmental impacts of the project
Water rights
17
2.5 Reservoirs
Catchment areas and reservoir sites

Dams are constructed across rivers and streams to create reservoir behind them. The area of
land draining to the dam site is called a catchment or watershed. Conscientious planning,
design and operation of dams and reservoirs are necessary to minimize the overall cost of the
project. The following investigations are required for reservoir planning:
Topographic surveying- to produce a topo-map which will be used as a base for
o preparing water surface area vs. elevation curve
o plotting storage volume vs. elevation
o indicating man-made and natural features that may be affected
Geologic investigations- required to give detailed information about the following items
o Water tightness of the reservoir basin
o Suitability of foundations for the dam
o Geological and structural features, such as faults, fissures, etc
o Type and depth of overburden
o Location of permeable and soluble rocks if any
o Ground water conditions in the region
o Location and quantity of materials for the dam construction
Hydrological investigations- involve determination of rainfall, runoff, seepage, and
evaporation in the reservoir catchment from long years of data. These information are
essential for estimating the reservoir capacity and design of spill way.
Criteria for selection of reservoir sites

Catchment geology- minimum percolation losses and high runoff potential
Dam site- strong foundation with minimum seepage loss under the dam
Narrow valley- sites that resulting lesser dam length
Topography- should be such that large area and valuable properties are not submerged
Site that creates deep reservoirs- this has the advantages of minimizing the evaporation
loss and submerged area when compared to shallow reservoirs
Sites that ensure good water quality- avoid sites that are downstream of waste
discharges and tributaries with high silt loads
2.5.1 Volume of reservoirs
Reservoirs should have a storage capacity such that the safe yield exceeds the maximum day
demand. Yield is the amount of water that can be supplied from a reservoir in a specified
interval of time (e.g. day, month or year). Safe yield or firm yield represents the maximum
quantity of water that can be guarantied during a critical dry period. The storage capacity of
reservoirs can be determined using two methods- mass curve method and analytical method.
Mass curve method
In this method reservoir capacity is determined from accumulated mass inflow and
accumulated demand curves. The inflow represents net flows into the reservoir and can be
obtained by subtracting outflows (e.g. evaporation, seepage loss, and downstream flow
requirements) from total inflows (e.g rainfall, and stream flow). The procedure is as follows
(see Fig. 2.):
• Prepare accumulated mass inflow curve from the stream hydrograph
• Prepare the accumulated demand curve on the same scale
18
• Draw tangent lines that are parallel to the accumulated demand curve at the high points
of the accumulated mass curve (P1, P2, P3, etc)
• Measure the vertical distances between the tangent lines and the mass inflow curve
(V1, V2, V3, etc.)
• Determine the required reservoir storage capacity as the largest of the vertical
distances (V1, V2, V3, etc.)
Accumulated inflow
Volume
(m3)
V2
Spill
Accumulated demand
V1
Time, Year (month)
Figure 2-2 the mass curve method of reservoir volume estimation

The mass curve method can also be used to determine the safe or firm yield of a reservoir of
specified capacity, V (Fig. 2.3). The procedure is as follows.
• Prepare the accumulated mass inflow curve
• On the same plot draw the cumulative demand curve
• At the high points of the mass inflow curve draw tangents in such a way that the
vertical distance between the tangents and the inflow curve equals the specified
reservoir capacity
• Measure the slope of each of these tangent lines (S1, S2, S3, etc)
• Determine the safe yield of the reservoir as the flattest slope
19
Accumulated inflow
Volume
(m3)
Slope S2
V
Slope S1
Accumulated demand
V
Time, Year (month)

Figure 2-3 Safe yield determination using the mass curve method
Analytic method
The analytic method involves tabular computations and the procedure is as follows (Table
2.1).
• Calculate the net inflow from the given hydrological data
• Calculate the deficiency (demand – net inflow)
• Compute the cumulative deficiency. If the cumulative deficiency is negative, take the
cumulative deficiency as zero
• Determine the required reservoir capacity as the maximum cumulative deficiency
Table 2-2 Tabular solution for analytical method
(1) (2) (3)= (2)-(1) (4) if CF is –ve, take 0
3 3
Net inflow (m ) Demand (m ) Deficiency (m3) Cumulative deficiency (m3)
I1 D1 F1 CF1 = F1
I2 D2 F2 CF2 = CF1 + F2
I3 D3 F3 CF3 = CF2 + F3
2.5.2 Impoundments
Some of the commonly used impoundments include embankment dams and concrete dams.
Embankment dam- a dam constructed from natural materials excavated or obtained
nearby. The natural fill materials are placed and compacted without the addition of any
binding agent. Two types- Earthfill dam (if compacted soil constitutes over 50% of the
dam volume) and Rockfill dam (over 50% of the material is coarse-grained material or
crushed rock with impervious membrane). Some advantages of embankment dams
include:
o Suitability to sites in wide valleys and relatively steep-sided gorges alike
o Adaptability to a broad range of foundation conditions
o Use of locally available natural materials
The major disadvantages of embankment dam are

20
o Its susceptibility to damage or destruction by overflow, with a consequent need

to ensure adequate flood relief
o Vulnerability to leakage and internal erosion
Concrete dams- type include gravity dam, arch dam, buttress dam, etc.
o Gravity dam
- Dependent upon its own mass for stability. All external pressures (e.g. water
pressure, wave pressure, silt pressure, uplift pressure, etc.) are counterbalanced
by the weight of the dam
- Particularly, suitable across gorges with very steep side slopes
- Masonry can also be an alternative construction material
- Shape: straight or curved
- Dam height: can be very high if sound foundation is obtained
o Arch dam
- Functions structurally as a horizontal arch, transmitting the major portion of the
water load to the abutments or valley sides rather than to the floor of the valley.
- It is structurally more efficient and requires less concrete volume
o Buttress dam- consists of a continuous upstream face supported at regular

intervals by downstream buttresses.
2.5.3 Catchment protection
Activities that take place within the reservoir catchment have impacts on the quality and
quantity of water stored behind the dam. Catchment protection primarily focuses on
maintaining the water quality and capacity of the reservoir. It involves activities that include:
• Minimization of diffuse pollution from urban runoff (e.g. improving waste

management, street cleaning, decreasing directly connected impervious surfaces, etc.)
• Minimization of agricultural diffuse pollution (use of best agricultural management
practices- rate, time and method of application of agro-chemicals, i.e. fertilizers and
pesticides, should be environmentally friendly
• Controlling discharges from point sources such as wastewater treatment plant,
industries, etc
• Limitation of soil erosion through soil conservation measures, such as afforestation,
etc.
• Providing corridors along tributary streams, rivers, and the reservoir
Catchment protection requires identification of critical problem areas so that the limited
available fund is effectively used. GIS is an invaluable tool in the formulation of catchment
plans and strategies.
2.6 Groundwater
Groundwater is an important source of water supply through out the world. Its use in
irrigation, industries, municipalities, and rural schemes continues to increase. Ground water
occurs in many types of geologic formations known as aquifers. An aquifer is a formation
that contains sufficient quantities of saturated permeable material to yield significant
quantities of water. Groundwater system includes wells, springs, and infiltration galleries.
The advantages of ground water are:

21
It is likely to be free of pathogenic bacteria;

Generally, it may be used without further treatment;
In many instances it can be found in the close vicinity of rural communities;
It is often most practical and economical to obtain and distribute;
The water-bearing stratum from which it is drawn usually provides a natural
storage at the point of intake.
The disadvantages are:

Ground water is often high in mineral content;
It usually requires pumping;
The drilling work requires skilled labour and expensive equipment.
The quality of groundwater is uniform and is free from turbidity and colour. Generally,
groundwater contains cations such as calcium, magnesium, iron and manganese as well as
anions like bicarbonate, carbonate, and chloride.
Spring Water
Spring water is a groundwater that outcrops from ground due to impervious base that prevents
percolation. Spring water is usually fed from sand or gravel water bearings ground formation
(aquifer) or fissured rocks. Best places to look for springs are the slopes of hilly sides and
river valley sand areas with green vegetation in dry season. If properly protected and well
managed, spring water proves to be good for small community water supplies.
Generally, springs are of the gravity or artesian types.
Gravity springs
o Groundwater flows over an impervious stratum onto the ground surface
o The yield varies with the position of the water table
o May dry up during or immediately after a dry season
Artesian springs
o High quality water due to confinement
o High discharge due to high pressure in the confinement
o Yield is likely uniform and nearly constant over the seasons of the year
Infiltration gallery
Infiltration galleries are horizontal wells that collect water over practically their entire lengths.
When the stream beds or lake shores are sandy and gravely, the possibilities of finding gravel
pockets along a bank are excellent. The infiltration gallery is a simple means of obtaining
naturally filtered water, and, for this purpose, it should be located 15 m or more from the bank
of the river or lake. It is constructed by digging a trench into water-bearing sand, then
collecting the water in a perforated pipe or gallery which leads to a central casing from which
the water is pumped out.
2.6.1 Recharge of Aquifers

Replenishment of aquifers is known as recharge. Unconfined aquifers are recharged by
precipitation percolating down from the land’s surface. Confined aquifers are generally
recharged where the aquifer materials are exposed at the land’s surface —called an outcrop.
Surface waters also provide ground water recharge under certain conditions. When surface
water loses water to the adjacent aquifer, the stream is called a losing stream. When the
opposite occurs and water flows from the ground water to the stream, it is called a gaining
stream. Properly identifying the recharge area of an aquifer is critical because the introduction
of contaminants within the recharge area can cause aquifer contamination.
22
Knowing if the aquifer is influenced by a gaining or losing stream helps identify periods when
biological contaminants from the surface water might reach the well water. Periods of gaining
and losing stream flow may change seasonally, depending on the level of the ground water
table. Monitoring the surface water level or stream stage and comparing it to the static water
level in the well can give an indication of the direction of water flow.
Groundwater is an important source of water supply for municipalities, agriculture and

industry. At a global scale the percentage of groundwater is estimated to be 0.62 % of the total
amount of water stored in the hydrosphere (of 0. 31% has a depth less than 800 m).
Groundwater is characterized according to its vertical distribution shown in Fig. 2.4. It is the
water that is found in the saturation zone that can be tapped for different purposes.
Ground surface
Soil water zone
Vadose zone
Capillary zone
Zone of saturation
Figure 2-4 Vertical zones of groundwater distribution
Groundwater occurs in geologic formations called aquifers. Aquifer is a water-bearing

formation that is saturated and that transmits large quantities of water. The water yield
capacity of aquifers depends on different parameters that include particle size, porosity,
specific yield, storage coefficient, hydraulic gradient, hydraulic conductivity, and
transmissivity. Definitions of these terms are presented below.
Porosity: ratio of volume of voids to total volume

Specific yield: the amount of aquifer water expressed as a percentage that is free to drain
under the influence of gravity. By definition it is less than the porosity since some water is not
free to drain due to attractive and bonding forces such as surface tension.
Storage coefficient (S): volume of water that an aquifer releases from or takes into storage
per unit surface area per unit change in piezometric head. For confined aquifers S = 0.00005-
0.001 and for unconfined aquifers S = 0.01-0.35.
Hydraulic gradient (dh/dx): the slope of the piezometric surface or water table line in m/m.
the magnitude of the head determines the pressure on the groundwater to move and its
velocity.
Hydraulic conductivity: ratio of velocity to hydraulic gradient, indicating permeability of
porous media.
Transmissivity: measure of how easily water in a confined aquifer can flow through the
porous media.
23
Geologic formations that are considered to be good aquifers include sand, gravel, and
sandstones. Limestone and shale that have caverns, fissures or faults can also be considered as
good aquifers. Although clay is highly porous, its ability to transmit water is very poor due to
the very small particle sizes (< 0.0004 mm).
Aquifers are classified as unconfined and confined aquifers (see Fig. 2.5). An unconfined
aquifer does not have confining unit and is defined by water-table. Confined aquifer is
overlain by a confining unit that has a lower hydraulic conductivity.
Figure 2-5 Occurrence of groundwater

2.6.2 Groundwater flow
Groundwater flows in the direction of decreasing head. Graphically the flow direction can be
represented by drawing lines that are orthogonal to equipotential lines (Fig. 2.6). Equipotential
lines are lines of equal piezometric head for confined aquifers or equal water-table for
unconfined aquifers.
145 m
150 m
155 m
140 m
135 m
130 m
Aquifer boundary
Equipotential line
Flow direction
Figure 2-6 Groundwater flow direction
The velocity of groundwater flow can be estimated from Dracy’s Law. Darcy law states that
the flow rate through porous media is proportional to the head loss and inversely proportional
to the length of the flow path. Its applicability is limited to laminar flow which is the case for
most groundwater flows in aquifers.
24
∆h
1 2
Q Porous medium
Q
Area = A
Q ∆h
V= = −K
A L
or
V = −K dL
dh
; for very small element
K = hydraulic conductivity
dh = is head loss which can be determined by using Bernoulli’s
equation.
The negative sign indicates that flow is in the direction of falling head.
Table 2-3 Hydraulic conductivity of various formations
Material K (cm/s)
-2
Gravel 3 – 3 x 10
Coarse sand 6 x 10-1 – 9 x 10-5
Medium sand 5 x 10-2 – 9 x 10-5
Fine sand 2 x 10-2 – 2 x 10-5
Silt 2 x 10-3 – 1 x 10-7
Clay 5 x 10-7 – 1 x 10-9
Limestone and dolomite 6 x 10-4 – 1 x 10-7
Sandstone 6 x 10-4 – 3 x 10-8
Shale 2 x 10-7 – 1 x 10-11
Permeable basalt 2 – 4 x 10-5
Basalt 4 x 10-5 – 2 x 10-9
Fractured igneous and metamorphic rocks 3 x 10-2 – 8 x 10-7
Un fractured igneous and metamorphic rocks 2 x 10-8 – 3 x 10-12
Weathered granite 3 x 10-4 – 5 x 10-3
For anisotropic aquifers that comprise different layers, the combined hydraulic conductivity in
the horizontal direction can be determined as follows.
K=
∑K Z
i i
∑Z i
Where, Ki = K in layer i; Zi = thickness of layer i
2.6.3 Hydraulics of water wells

Water flow to a well situated in a confined or unconfined aquifer under steady or transient
conditions can be estimated by applying Darcy’s law. When water is pumped out the water-
table or piezometric surface declines and forms a cone of depression or drawdown curve.
25
1. Steady state condition

Assumptions:
Cone of depression remains in equilibrium
The water table is only slightly inclined
Flow direction is horizontal
Slopes of the water table and the hydraulic gradient are equal
Aquifer: isotropic, homogeneous and infinite extent
Well fully penetrating the aquifer
The equations for steady radial flow to a well in confined and unconfined aquifers are given
below.
Steady Radial Flow to a Well-Confined case
In a confined aquifer, the drawdown curve or cone of depression varies with distance from a
pumping well (Fig. 2.8).
Figure 2-7 The confined aquifer case
Figure 2-8 Radial flow to a well penetrating an extensive confined aquifer
For horizontal flow, Q at any radius r equals, from Darcy’s law,

dh dh
Q = −2πrbK = −2πrT
dr dr
Integrating after separation of variables, with h = hw at r = rw at the well, yields Thiem

Equation.
26
h − hw
Q = −2πT
r
ln
rw
Near the well, transmissivity, T, may be estimated by observing heads h1 and h2 at two
adjacent observation wells located at r1 and r2, respectively, from the pumping well.
r
ln 2
r1
T =Q
2π (h2 − h1 )
Steady Radial Flow to a Well-Unconfined case
Figure 2-9 Radial flow to a well penetrating an unconfined aquifer
Using Dupuit’s assumptions and applying Darcy’s law for radial flow in an unconfined,
homogeneous, isotropic, and horizontal aquifer yields:
dh
Q = −2πrhK
dr
Integrating,
2 2
(h − h1 )
Q = πK 2
r
ln 2
r1
Solving for K,
Q r
K= ln 2
π (h2 − h1 ) r1
22
Where heads h1 and h2 are observed at adjacent wells located distances r1 and r2 from the
pumping well respectively.
2. Transient or unsteady state condition
27
The transient condition conforms to the reality where the drawdown curve changes with
time. Assumptions applied here are:
The aquifer is homogenous, isotropic, uniformly thick, and of infinite aerial extent
Prior to pumping the piezometric surface is horizontal
The fully penetrating well is pumped at constant rate
Flow is horizontal within the aquifer
Storage within the well can be neglected
Water removed from storage responds instantaneously with a declining head
The governing equation in plane polar coordinates is:
∂ 2h 1 ∂h S ∂h
+ =
∂r 2
r ∂r T ∂t
Where, h = head
r = radial distance
S = storage coefficient
T = transmissivity
Solution methods for the governing equation
Two methods are given- Theis and Cooper-Jacob methods.
Theis Method
Theis obtained a solution to the governing equation by assuming that the well (pumping Q) is
a sink of constant strength and by using boundary conditions:
h = h0 and h h0 as r ∞ for t ≥ 0
The integral in the Theis equation is written as W(u) and is known as the exponential integral,
or well function, which can be expanded as infinite series:
W(u) = – 0.5772 – ln(u) + u – u2/2·2! + u3/3·3! – u4/4·4! + …
Therefore,
Q
s' = W (u )
4πT
Where, s’ = drawdown
Q = discharge at the well,
r 2S
u=
4Tt
W(u) = well function
S = storage coefficient
T = transmissivity
t = time
The Theis equation can be used to obtain aquifer constants S and T by means of pumping tests
at fully penetrating wells. The solution procedure uses graphical method as presented in Fig.
2.10.
• Plot the type curve, i.e., W(u) vs u and on a log-log paper
• Plot the observed data, i.e., s’ vs r2/t on a transparent log-log paper
• Superimpose the observed plot on the type curve
• Adjust the observed plot in such a way that most of the points lie on the type curve.
This is done because the relationship between W(u) and u is the same as that between
s’ and r2/t because all other terms are constants.
• Select one matching point and take the corresponding readings for W(u), u, s and r2/t.
28
• Compute T from the Theis equation

Q
T = W (u )
4πs '
• Determine S from the equation for u
1
S = 4Tu
r2
t
Type curve
W(u) vs u
S’ vs r2/t
Figure 2-10 Theis method for solution of the non equilibrium equation
For a known S and T, one can use Theis to compute s’ directly at a given r from the well as a
function of time:
• First compute u = r2S / (4T t)
• Then, read W(u) from a table
• Finally Q
s' = W (u )
4πT
Cooper-Jacob Method of Solution
Cooper and Jacob noted that for small values of r and large values of t, the parameter u =
r2S/4Tt becomes very small so that the infinite series can be approximated by:
W(u) = – 0.5772 – ln(u) (neglecting higher terms)
Q
s' = (− 0.5772 − ln u )
4πT
Further rearrangement and conversion to decimal logs yields:
2.3Q ⎛ 2.25Tt ⎞
s' = log⎜ 2 ⎟
4πT ⎝ r S ⎠
A plot of s vs. log (t) forms a straight line as seen in Fig 2.11.
A projection of the line back to s’ = 0, where t = t0 yields the following relation:
29
2.3Q ⎛ 2.25Tt0 ⎞
0= log⎜ 2 ⎟
4πT ⎝ r S ⎠
So, since log(1) = 0, rearrangement yields
2.25Tt 0
S=
r2
Replacing s by ∆s, where ∆s is the drawdown difference per unit log cycle of t:
2.3Q
T =
4π∆s '
The Cooper-Jacob method first solves for T and then for S and is only applicable for small
values of u (u < 0.01).
Figure 2-11 Cooper-Jacob method of analysis

2.6.4 Interference of wells
Operation of multiple wells may result in interference of drawdown curves. The combined
drawdown at a point is equal to the sum of the draw downs caused by individual wells (Fig.
2.12). Well interference reduces the water available to each of the wells.
Figure 2-12 Individual and composite drawdown curves for two wells in line
For water supply purposes it is recommended that interference be avoided by spacing wells far
apart. On some occasions it may be more economical to allow some interference to offset
other costs, such as those of land and connecting pipelines and electric equipment.
30
2.6.5 Well construction and maintenance

A variety of methods exist for constructing wells, depending on the flow rate, depth to
groundwater, geologic condition, casing material, and economic factors. Prior to drilling a
well in a new area, a test hole is normally drilled and a record, or log, is kept of various
geologic formations and the depth at which they are encountered. Sample cuttings are often
collected at selected depths and later studied and analyzed for grain size distribution.
Shallow well construction

Shallow wells are less than 30 m deep and are constructed by digging, boring, driving, or
jetting methods. They all are used in unconsolidated formations.
Dug wells are generally excavated by hand and are vertical wells in the ground that intersect
the water table. Generally they have diameter > 0.5 m and depth < 15 m. lining and casing
materials are usually concrete or brick.
Driven wells consist of a series of pipe lengths driven vertically downward by repeated
impacts into the ground. Water enters the wells through a drive point at the lower end, which
consists of a screened, cylindrical section, protected by a steel cone. Driven wells usually
have diameters 25 – 75 mm and length generally below 15 m.
Bored wells are constructed with hand-operated or power-driven augers. Diameters of 25 to
900 mm and depths up to 30 m, under favourable conditions, can be attained.
Jetted wells are constructed with a high-velocity stream of water directed vertically
downward, while the casing that is lowered into the hole conducts the water and cuttings to
the surface. Small-diameter holes, up to 10 cm, with depths up to 15 m, can be installed in
unconsolidated formations. Because of the speed of installation, jetted wells are useful for
observation wells and well-point systems for dewatering purposes.
Deep well construction

Deep and extensive aquifers with adequate yield can be tapped by constructing deep wells by
percussion (cable tool) drilling or rotary drilling methods. Percussion drilling is accomplished
by regular lifting and dropping of a string of tools, with a sharp bit on the lower end to break
rock by impact. The method is most useful for consolidated rock materials to depths of 600 m.
A rapid method for drilling in unconsolidated formations is the rotary method, which consists
of drilling with a hollow, rotating bit, with drilling mud or water used to increase efficiency.
No casing is required with drilling mud because the mud forms a clay lining on the wall of the
well. Drilling mud consists of a suspension of water, bentonite clay, and various organic
additives. Air rotary methods use compressed air in place of drilling mud and are convenient
for consolidated formations. Drilling depths can exceed 150 m under favourable conditions.
The reverse-circulation rotary method can attain of a hole up to125 m deep in unconsolidated
formations. Water is pumped up through the drill pipe, using a large capacity pump, and after
cuttings settle out in a large pit, water is recycled into the hole. Velocities must be kept low,
and borehole diameters must be greater than 40 cm.
Well completion and development

Once a well has been drilled, it must be completed in such a way that it remains an efficient
producer of water. This may involve installation of casing, cementing, placement of well
screens, and gravel packing.
31
Well casings serve as a lining to maintain an open hole up to the ground surface. They provide
structural support against caving materials and seal out surface water. Casing materials
include wrought iron, steel, and PVC pipe. Application of cement grout in the annular space
around the casing is required to prevent entrance of water of unsatisfactory quality.
Well screens, typically used for unconsolidated formations, are perforated sections of pipe of
variable length that allow groundwater to flow into the well. Their main purpose is to prevent
aquifer material, such as sand or gravel, from entering the well and to minimize hydraulic
resistance to flow. Screens materials should be corrosion-resistant and can be of metals and
metal alloys, PVC, or wood. The size of the screen hole should be such that 20 – 30 % of the
surrounding materials are larger in size. The total net area of the screen openings should result
in a water flow velocity (50 – 100 mm/s) that doesn’t allow transport of sand particles into the
well. The drawdown at the well should not be below the top of the screen to prevent
corrosion.
A gravel pack that envelops a well screen is designed to stabilize the aquifer and provide an
annular zone of high permeability material. The thickness of the gravel pack should be 25-
225 mm. fine gravel with low uniformity coefficient is desirable.
Well development follows completion and is designed to increase the hydraulic efficiency by
removing the finer material from the formation surrounding the screen. The importance of
well development is often overlooked but is required to produce full-potential yields.
Development procedures include pumping, surging, use of compressed air, hydraulic jetting,
chemical addition, and use of explosives.
2.6.6 Well protection and maintenance

Whenever groundwater is pumped and is to be used for human consumption, proper sanitary
precautions must be taken to protect water quality. Surface pollution can enter wells through
the annular space or through the top of the well itself. Cement grout outside the casing and a
watertight cover of concrete should be installed for protection. Samples of well water should
be evaluated for quality after development and after periods of excessive flooding if
contamination is suspected. Wells should have adequate distance from polluting activities and
facilities such as septic tank systems. To maintain the yield of wells for a longer duration
regular and timely maintenance services should be provided. Common well troubles and the
corresponding remedial measures are presented in Table 2.4.
Table 2-4 Major water well troubles and remedial measures
Trouble Measure
Water extraction greater than recharge • Lower the pump into the well- temporary
solution
• Reduce the pumping - desirable solution
Corrosion or collapse of casing/screen • Replace the casing/screen for consolidated

materials
• Abandon the well if it is in unconsolidated
formations
Incrustation of screens (due to • Acid treatment by HCl inhibited by addition
precipitation of CaCO3, formation of of gelatine
insoluble Fe and Mn compounds, and • Pressurizing the well with dry ice
other causes) • Chlorination
• Use of polyphosphates
32
Examples
Daily flow values of a stream are given below. What volume of storage is needed to uniformly
supply a flow rate of;
a) 14 m3/s
b) 70 m3/s for a near by town community?
c) What will be the firm yield of the stream?
Flow Number of Days equalled or exceeded Percent of time
rate(m3/s) days
18 1 365 100
20 2 364 99.7
22 10 362 99.2
24 8 352 96.4
26 6 344 94.2
28 9 338 92.6
30 10 329 90.1
32 6 319 87.4
34 7 313 85.7
36 3 306 83.8
38 9 303 83.0
40 13 294 80.5
45 6 281 77.0
50 14 275 75.3
55 21 261 71.5
60 14 240 63.7
65 10 226 61.9
70 10 216 59.2
75 5 206 56.4
80 5 201 55.0
85 18 196 53.7
90 11 178 48.7
95 17 167 45.7
100 13 150 41.1
105 13 137 37.5
110 10 124 34.0
115 2 114 31.2
120 8 112 30.7
130 13 104 28.5
140 13 91 25.0
150 14 78 21.4
160 4 64 17.5
170 5 60 16.5
180 0 55 15.1
190 6 55 15.1
200 10 49 13.4
210 10 39 10.7
220 8 29 7.9
230 7 21 5.7
240 5 14 3.8
33
250 9 9 2.4
Example 2
The following dry season flow is observed at a proposed dam site.
Month Flow in ha-m Pan evaporation Precipitation in Demand in ha-m
in cm cm
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
January 1.2 1.8 1.3 15.8
February 0.0 1.8 1.7 14.3
March 0.0 2.6 0.6 9.6
April 0.0 10.2 0.0 4.8
May 0.0 15.4 0.0 3.5
June 0.0 1.6 1.1 3.4
July 240.0 10.8 16.1 5.0
August 480.0 11.7 16.4 5.0
September 1.0 10.8 2.2 10.0
October 0.6 9.6 0.8 15.6
November 0.5 7.8 0.0 16.8
December 0.2 2.0 0.0 16.8
Σ 723.5 101.1 40.2 120.6
The corresponding monthly evaporation and precipitation data are also obtained from a nearby station.
Prior water rights make it obligatory to release the full natural flow or 15 ha-m permonth, which ever
is minimum. If the estimated monthly demands are as given in the table below and the net increased
pool area is 400 hectares, find the required storage capacity for the reservoir. (Pan Coefficient = 0.7
and also assume that only 28% of the rainfall on the land area to be flooded by reservoir has reached
the stream in the past)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Demand 15.8 14.3 9.6 4.8 3.5 3.4 5.0 5.0 10.0 15.6 16.8 16.8
Ha-m
Example 3
The river discharge during a given period is found to be as follows
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Inflow 140 27 35 26 16 48 212 180 116 92 67 37

Ha-m
34
What is the maximum uniform demand that can be met? What reservoir size is required to meet this
demand? What should be the initial minimum initial storage? Determine when the reservoir will
become empty?
3. COLLECTION, STORAGE, TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION
3.1 Collection of water

Collection and distribution of water deals with the transport of water from the source through
the treatment plant to the consumers. It requires intake structures, transmission lines,
distribution pipe networks and other essential accessories.
3.1.1 Surface water Intakes

Intake is a structure used for safe withdrawal of water from the source over a predetermined
range of reservoir levels. Intakes should be located carefully. Factors governing location of
intakes are: -
I. Should be located at the site where maximum abstraction of water is possible even at
the driest period of the year
II. Should be near the treatment plant so that cost of conveyance is minimized
III. Must be located in a relatively pure zone of the source. Location of high turbulence
should be avoided.
IV. Should be located at the upstream of any waste disposal site
V. Should not be located near navigation channels.
VI. Should be accessible even during high flood seasons
VII. Should not be located at curves in meandering rivers
To locate the positions of intakes, the following factors should also be considered
Magnitude and direction of stream or current velocities should be such that they do not
affect the function and stability of the intake structure. The limiting velocity should be 0.6
m/s and avoid locating a river intake at the curved part of the river.
Reliable access roads and power sources should be available to facilitate operation and
maintenance of the intake structure
Locations that result in major environmental impacts should be avoided
Design considerations for intake structures and the parameters of design include:
Design capacity = Qmax-day
Intake velocity should be ≤ 8 cm/s so that suspended matters and fishes do not enter into
the conveyance system. Too low velocities that require large intake ports should also be
avoided.
The vertical positions of top and bottom intake ports should be such that good quality
water is withdrawn. Locate the top intake port at a distance not less than 2 m from the
normal water level and the bottom port at least 1 m above the bottom.
Major parameters of design:
o Size and layout of the intake port(s)
o Layout and bar arrangement of coarse screens
o Location and size of fine screen
o Head losses in the intake port, coarse and fine screens
35
o A check on the stability of the intake structure

3.1.2 Types of intakes
Table 3.1 represents the different types of intake structures, their description and applicability.
Intake structures for surface water sources
Type Description Conditions for
applicability
Floating intakes Barge-type structure that floats on the Suitable in water sources
water surface and anchored to a fixed with unsuitable geological
pier so that horizontal movements are conditions and little
prevented
inexpensive can be fabricated offsite variation in water surface
and assembled onsite elevation
withdraw water from a fixed depth
below the water surface
Submerged Cribs with its top covered by a cast iron Streams or lakes that have
intakes grating relatively little change in
simple, easy, and relatively inexpensive water surface elevation
to construct
draw water from a fixed elevation near throughout the year
the bottom where poor quality water is
usually located
Tower intakes Tower structures located offshore into Large projects on rivers or
rivers, lakes or reservoirs reservoirs with large water
Wet intake Withdraw optimum water quality level fluctuations
through multiple gates
more expensive to construct and less
Dry intake accessible than shore intakes
Shore intakes Concrete structures open on the water Lakes and reservoirs
side with deep shorelines
May use multiple gates to withdraw
optimum quality water
more expensive than floating or
submerged structures
Pier intakes Pile supported steel or concrete Lakes or rivers where
platform on which different equipment the water depth at the
such as pump, valves, etc. rest shoreline is too shallow
Withdraw water from fixed level for a shore intake
3.2 Storage of Water-Distribution reservoirs

Distribution reservoirs, also called service reservoirs, are the storage reservoirs, which store
the treated water for supply water during emergencies (such as during fires, break-downs,
repairs, etc.) and also to help in absorbing the hourly fluctuations in the normal water demand.
The main functions served by the distribution reservoirs are enumerated below.
Functions of Distribution Reservoirs includes,
They absorb the hourly variations in demand, and allow the water treatment units and
pumps to operate at a constant rate. This will reduce the OMR costs and improve
efficiency.
36
They help in maintaining constant pressure in the distribution mains. In their absence,
the pressure will fall down as the demand of water increases, and if the pumps don’t
immediately respond to it.
The pumping of water in shifts is made possible by them without affecting the supply.
Thus, 8 to 16 hours of pumping can be carried out, so as to pump the whole day’s
demand.
The water stored in these reservoirs can be supplied during emergencies, such as
break-down of pumps, heavy fire demand, etc.
They lead to an overall economy by reducing the sizes of pumps, pipelines, and
treatment units.
3.2.1 Types of Distribution Reservoirs
The distribution reservoirs may be made of steel, R.C.C., or masonry. Depending upon their
elevation with respect to the ground, they may be classified into surface reservoirs and
Elevated reservoirs. Surface reservoirs are circular or rectangular tanks, constructed at ground
level or below the ground level. They are generally constructed at high points in the city. If a
city has more than one high point more than one reservoir may be provided. In that case, the
city will be divided into several zones, and separate reservoir is provided in each zone for
distribution of water.
In a gravitational type of distribution system, water is stored in the ground service reservoir,
and then directly sent from there into the distribution system. However, in a combined gravity
and pumping system of distribution, the treated water is first of all stored in a ground
reservoir, and then pumped in to an elevated service reservoir, from where it can be supplied
into the distribution mains. Elevated reservoirs are rectangular, circular, or elliptical overhead
tanks erected at a certain suitable elevation above the ground level and supported on towers.
They are constructed where the pressure requirements necessitate considerable elevation
above the ground surface, and where the use of standpipes becomes impracticable. They are
constructed in areas where the combined gravity and pumping system for water distribution is
adopted. Water is pumped into these elevated tanks from the filter units or from the surface
reservoirs, and then supplied to the consumers.
3.2.2 Location and Height of the Distribution Reservoirs
The following points must be thoroughly considered before deciding the locations of the
distribution reservoirs:
They should be located in the heart of the city, so as to command the maximum area
all around.
They should be located at high elevations, so that adequate pressure is maintained in
the distribution system.
With respect to the position of the pumping stations and the distribution area
3.3 Transmission of water

The entire water supply system involves collecting water from the sources, carrying it to the
treatment plant and then distributing to the consumers. In case of surface sources, the water is
collected by means of an intake and then led to the treatment works. This may be done by
using gravity conduits or pressure conduits.
In gravity conduits flow is facilitated by means of gravity. Gravity conduits should follow a
small gradual slope and can’t follow the natural gradient. Gravity conduits may be in the form
of canals, flumes or aqueducts.
37
Pressure conduits are closed pipes in which flow is under pressure. Pressure pipes can
therefore follow the natural available ground surface and can freely go up and down hills.
3.4 Distribution of water

Depending upon the level of the source of water and the city, topography of the area, and
other local considerations, the method of distribution may be gravitational system, pumping
without storage, and pumping with storage.
Gravitational system: In this system, water from a high-level source is distributed to the
consumers at the lower level, by the mere action of gravity without any pumping. This method
is the most economical and reliable since no pumping is involved at any stage. However, it
needs a lake or a reservoir as a source of supply. Such a system can be adopted for cities
situated at foothills, and a source of supply is available somewhere in the hill at sufficient
elevation. High pressure for fire fighting may require use of motor pumping trucks, and
pressure zones may need to be set to prevent excessive pressures in the low-lying areas. The
gravitational system is designed so as to leave only the minimum permissible pressure to the
consumers.
Pumping without storage: In this system the treated water is directly pumped into the
distribution mains without storing it anywhere (Fig. 3.5).
HGL
min. demand
Pump head
HGL
max. demand
City
Pump
Fig. 3.5 Pumping Without Storage Distribution System
Reservoir
High lift pumps are required and have to operate at variable speeds so as to meet the variable
water demand. A continuous attendance or sophisticated control systems are needed to ensure
the desired flow in the distribution system. This method is, therefore, generally not
recommended as a distribution system since it provides no reserve flow in the event of power
failure and pressures fluctuate substantially with variations in flow. Systems of this kind have
the advantage of permitting increased pressure for fire fighting, although individual users must
then be protected by pressure reducing valves.
Pumping with storage: In this system the treated water is pumped at a constant rate and stored
into an elevated distribution reservoir from where it is distributed to the consumers by the
action of gravity(Fig. 3.6). Sometimes the entire daily water demand is first pumped into the
distribution reservoir and then distributed to the consumers. Many times it is pumped into the
distribution mains and reservoirs simultaneously. The excess water during low demand period
gets stored in the reservoir and supplied during high demand periods. The pumps work at a
constant rate, which is adjusted in such a way that the excess quantity of water stored in the
reservoir during low consumption nearly equals the extra demand during high consumption.
38
This type of system is invariably and almost universally adopted because of its following
advantages.
The pumps work at uniform rate and can be operated at their rated capacities with high
efficiency.
The method is quite reliable because even during power outage, certain amount of water
can be supplied from the storage facility.
The method enables pumps to run for a short period of time in small towns.
3.4.1 Layout of distribution systems

A water supply distribution system comprises networks of pipelines, storage facilities and
other appurtenances. Its purpose is to transport treated water from the treatment facility to the
consumer. It should have adequate capacity to meet the water requirements of a community
under all demand conditions.
The pipe networks that make up the distribution system comprise the following:
Primary or arterial mains
o Constitute the basic structure of the system
o Convey water from the pumping stations to and from storage facilities and to
the various districts of the city.
o Should be valved at intervals of not more than 1.5 km and all smaller lines
connected to them should have valves.
o Should be provided with blowoff valves at low points and air release and
vacuum valves at high points.
Secondary lines or Sub-mains: run from one primary main to another and should be
located at spacing of 2-4 blocks.
Small distribution mains or branches
o Are connected to primary, secondary or other small mains and are valved
o Supply water to every consumer and to the fire hydrants
The layout of distribution pipes generally follows the road pattern. Accordingly, there are four
types of pipe network layouts - dead end system or branch system, gridiron system, ring
system, and radial system.
Dead end system: In the dead end

BRANCHE
system, also called branch system or MAIN PIPE (M) S B SUB-MAIN (S)
tree system, there is one main supply
pipe from which a number of sub-main B
B
pipes originate. Each sub-main then S
BRANCH (B)
subdivides in to several branch pipes B
S
called laterals. From laterals, service B
B B
connections are given to the
consumers. It may be adopted for older B
towns and in areas where the B
B
S S
settlement pattern is rather scattered. B
B
Fig. 3.7
M
39
Advantages:
The distribution network can be solved easily, and it is possible to easily and accurately
calculate the discharges and pressures at different points in the system.
Lesser number of shut-off valves is required.
Shorter pipe lengths are needed, and the laying of pipes is easier.
It is cheap and simple and can be expanded easily
Disadvantages:
If damage occurs to a main or a sub-main pipe, a considerable area may be without water.
There are numerous dead ends in this system, which prevent the free circulation of water.
It can give only limited supplies for fire fighting and may sometimes prove to be a serious
handicap.
Gridiron systems: In this system the Ad

mains, sub-mains and branches are van
interconnected with each other. In a well- tag
planed city or a town, the roads are es:
generally developed in a gridiron pattern, T
and the pipelines in such places can h
follow them easily. Thus it is suitable for e
well-planned towns.
d
i
s
charge to be carried by each pipe, the friction
loss and the pipe sizes are reduced.
In case of main damages and repairs only small area may be without supply.
There are no dead ends and then there is continuous water circulation.
During fire, more water can be diverted towards the affected point from various directions
by closing and manipulating the various shut-off valves.
Disadvantages:
It requires more pipelines, and a number of shut-off valves
It has high cost of construction
The design is difficult and expensive Main Pipe
Ring systems: In this system, a closed ring,

either circular or rectangular, is formed by
laying feeder mains around the distribution
area instead of through the area. The Sub mains
distribution area is divided into rectangular

or circular blocks. This system is very
suitable for well-planned towns and cities
40
Fig. : Ring System

having well planned roads. The advantages as well as the disadvantages of this system are the
same as gridiron systems. Sometimes, this system is used as a “looped feeder placed centrally
around a high demand area” along with the gridiron system, and will improve the pressure at
various points.
MAIN PIPE
Radial systems: If a city or a town
is having a system of radial roads BRANCHES
emerging from different centers,
the pipelines can be best laid in a DISTRIBUTION
radial pattern by placing the RESERVOIRS
SUB-MAIN
distribution reservoirs at these
centers. In this system, water is
therefore taken from the water
mains, and pumped into the
distribution reservoirs placed at
Fig. : Radial System
different centers and then to the
service areas. This method ensures high pressure and efficient water distribution.
3.5 Distribution reservoirs

Water storage in the distribution system is provided for the following purposes.
Equalizing supply and demand: The demand for water normally changes throughout the day
and night. Water stored in the reservoirs during low consumption will be released to equalize
the demand during high consumption.
Increasing operating convenience: In some situations it may be more practical and

economical to build a larger plant and operate it only for 8 hours a day. In this situation, water
treated during this period would be stored for use when the plant is not operating.
Levelling out pumping requirements: In situations where storage is not provided the change
in demand will be matched by frequently turning pumps on and off. This cycling of the pump
causes increased wear on pump controls and motors, as well as increased electrical costs.
Storage reservoir is required to overcome this situation.
Providing water during source or pump failure: There are times when all pumps may not be
available when needed, because of power failure, mechanical breakdown, or preventive
maintenance. Sudden increase in demand can be caused by main breaks, broken hydrants, or
similar problems. To meet these situations about 25% of the storage capacity must be
reserved.
Maintaining pressure levels within acceptable ranges: elevated storage facilities maintain
pressure at required levels during peak demand periods.
41
Providing water to meet fire demands: One of the major purposes for distribution system
storage is meeting fire demands. Although fire demands may not occur very often or last very
long, they can be much greater than consumer peak demands.
Increase detention times: The added detention time provided by having water storage has two
major advantages:
• Disinfection continues even at low chlorine levels
• Sand particles, flocs, or precipitated solids settle out before reaching the mains and
customers.
Blending water sources: Some water systems use water from different sources that can vary
in quality. Blending these different sources together in a reservoir will often improve the
quality of marginally acceptable water. It also provides a more uniform quality of water to the
customers, rather than water that changes in taste and composition from day to day.
Types of storage facilities

Distribution storage facilities can be of three types- ground storage, underground reservoir and
elevated storage (elevated tanks or standpipes). The choice between these storage types
depends on topography, size of community, reliability of water supply, and economy. Ground
storage facilities on hills high enough to provide adequate pressure are preferred; the economy
and desirability of ground storage with booster pumping, as compared with elevated storage,
must be determined in each individual area. In general, elevated tanks are most economical
and are recommended for small water systems. Reservoirs and booster pumping facilities are
often less expensive in large systems where adequate supervision can be provided.
Important storage facility design considerations and details

Minimum capacity: Equalizing storage + Emergency reserve (about 25%) + Fire storage.
The equalizing storage can be estimated by a mass curve method.
Location: normally, it is more advantageous to provide several smaller storage units in
different location than an equivalent capacity at a central site. Ground storage must be
located near major transmission mains. If pumping is required, the ground storage facility
should be located adjacent to the pumping station and its bottom should be higher than the
pump centerline. The top of the reservoir should be set at an elevation close to that of the
hydraulic gradient of the influent transmission mains. The location of elevated storages
should be such that zones of high consumption lie between the pumping station and the
tanks.
Aesthetics: the style and color of the storage facilities should reduce visual impacts. The
issue aesthetics is sensitive that engineers should leave to architects or community leaders.
Ventilation: storage facilities must be vented to allow air to flow into and out of the
reservoir as the water level rises and falls. The vent should have an insect proof screen and
rain cover incorporated to protect water quality.
Overflow: storage facilities may inadvertently become filled beyond their capacity. To
protect the structural integrity of the facility, an overflow system that incorporate screens
or flap valves to protect the water quality from insects and animal intrusion should
provided. The overflow should not cause damage from ponding or flooding in adjacent
areas.
Security and safety: storage facilities should be located on a secured site and protected by
relevant measures.
Corrosion control: storage tanks constructed of steel must be protected from corrosion by
epoxy painting systems designed for potable water service or cathodic protection system.
42
3.6 Design of distribution systems

Design considerations
Design flow: Peak hour demand or maximum day demand + Fire demand, whichever is
greater
Minimum main sizes: generally, 150mm; high value districts, 200mm; major streets,
305mm; domestic flows only, 100mm; small communities, 50-75 mm
Velocity: typical values :– minimum = 0.6-1 m/s; maximum = 2 m/s
Pressure: should be within acceptable ranges; while exactly what constitutes a satisfactory
pressure depends upon system-specific considerations, a typical minimum value is 140
kPa. Absolute maximum allowable pressures are dictated by the pressure ratings of the
pipes and appurtenances used and regulatory requirements. Unnecessarily high pressures
are wasteful in terms of the extra costs of the equipment and energy required to produce
them, and the increased volume of water lost to leakage. For most small water systems
there is no compelling need for the maximum pressure to exceed 410 kPa.
Zoning
In areas where the topography results in pressure level changes outside the acceptable ranges,
it is advantageous to divide the supply network into pressure zones (see Fig. 3.12). Zoning is
that feature of a city planning which regulates the height and bulk of buildings and the uses to
which it may be put. Pipe mains are arranged in such a way that excessive pressures in the
low-lying areas are avoided. Pressure relief valves and booster pumps are employed to obtain
the desired pressure. Normally, the difference between pressure zones is between 24m and
37m. Pressure zoning and fire zoning are the two most widely considered factors in planning
the water supply system.
Residential area
Industrial area
High rise apartment
buildings
Hydraulic analysis
Hydraulic analysis of a water supply distribution network is concerned with the determination
of discharges and head losses in each pipeline, and pressure heads at critical points. Network
analysis is not only important for designing new systems, but also for monitoring and
upgrading existing systems. The following are the applications of network analysis.
43
Headloss Caused by Friction

A basic relation used in hydraulic design of a pipeline system is the one describing the
dependence of discharge Q (say in m3/s) on headloss hf (m) caused by friction between the
flow of fluid and the pipe wall. The hydraulic head lost by water flowing in a pipe due to
friction with the pipe walls can be computed using one of three different formulas:
• Hazen-Williams
• Darcy-Weisbach and
• Chezy-Manning formula
The Hazen-Williams formula is the most commonly used headloss formula. It can not be used
for liquids other than water and was originally developed for turbulent flow only. The Darcy-
Weisbach formula is the most theoretically correct. It applies over all flow regimes and to all
liquids. The Chezy-Manning formula is more commonly used for open channel flow. Each
formula uses the following equation to compute headloss between the start and end node of
the pipe:
hL = Aq B
Where hL = headloss (length), q=flow rate (volume/time), A=resistance coefficient, and
B=flow exponent. The expressions for the resistance coefficient and values for the flow
exponent for each of the formulas are given in the table below. Each formula uses a different
pipe roughness coefficient that must be determined empirically. Table 3.2 lists general ranges
of these coefficients for different types of new pipe materials. Be aware that a pipe’s
roughness coefficient can change considerably with age.
With the Darcy-Weisbach formula EPANET uses different methods to compute the friction
factor f depending on the flow regime:
• The Hagen–Poiseuille formula is used for laminar flow (Re < 2,000).
64
f =
Re
Where Re is Reynolds number describes the flow regime: it can be calculated as
vd
Re =
ν
2
Where v is velocity of flow (m/s), ν (m /s) stands for kinematic viscosity and T expressed in
0
C. This parameter depends on the water temperature and can be determined from the
following equation:
497 × 10 −6
ν=
(T + 42.5)1.5
• The Swamee and Jain approximation to the Colebrook-White equation is used for fully
turbulent flow (Re > 4,000).
0.25
f = 2
⎡⎛ ε 5.74 ⎞⎤
ln ⎢⎜⎜ + 0.9 ⎟⎟⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 3.7 d Re ⎠⎥⎦
• A cubic interpolation from the Moody Diagram is used for transitional flow (2,000 < Re <
4,000)
1 ⎛ ε 2.51 ⎞
= 2 ln⎜ + ⎟
⎜ 3.7 d R f ⎟
f ⎝ e ⎠
44
To avoid iterative calculation, Barr(1975) Suggests the following acceptable approximation,

which deviates from the above equation for ±1%:
1 ⎛ ε 5.1286 ⎞⎟
= 2 ln⎜⎜ + 0.89 ⎟
f ⎝ 3.7 d Re ⎠
Pipe Headloss Formulas for Full Flow (for headloss in meter and flow rate in cum/s)
Formula Resistance Coefficient Flow Exponent
(A) (B)
Hazen-Williams 10.74C −1.85 −4.86
d L 1.85
Darcy-Weisbach 0.0826 fd −5 L 2
Chezy-Manning 10.29n 2 d −5..33 L 2

Notes: C = Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient
ε = Absolute roughness of the pipe wall (mm)
f = Darcy-Weisbach roughness coefficient
(dependent on ε, d, and Re)
n = Manning roughness coefficient
d = pipe diameter (m)
L = pipe length (m)
q = flow rate (cumecs)
Roughness Coefficients for New Pipe

Material Hazen-Williams C Darcy-Weisbach Manning’s n
(unit less) ε (mm) (unit less)
Cast Iron 130 – 140 0.25 0.012 - 0.015
Concrete or Concrete Lined 120 – 140 0.3-3 0.012 - 0.017
Galvanized Iron 120-130 0.15 0.015 - 0.017
Plastic 140 – 150 0.001 0.008 - 0.011
Steel 140 – 150 0.02-0.15 0.015 – 0.017
Vitrified Clay 110 ----- 0.013 – 0.015
Asbestos Cement 140 0.015-0.03 0.011
The choice of proper roughness value is more relevant than the choice of the friction loss
equation itself. Which of the value fits the best to the particular case can be confirmed only by
field measurements. In general, the friction loss will rise when there is:
• an increase in pipe discharge
• an increase in pipe roughness
• an increase in pipe length
• a reduction of pipe diameter
• a decrease in water tempreture
The friction loss equations clearly point to the pipe diameter as the most sensitive parameter
than length and roughness coefficient. The Darcy- weisbach equation shows that each halving
45
of pipe diameter (i.e from 200 to 100mm) increase the head-loss 25=32 times , while due to
doubling of pipe length cause linear growth of friction loss.
Minor Losses
Minor head losses (also called local losses) are caused by the added turbulence that occurs at
bends and fittings. The importance of including such losses depends on the layout of the
network and the degree of accuracy required. They can be accounted for by assigning the pipe
a minor loss coefficient. The minor headloss becomes the product of this coefficient and the
velocity head of the pipe, i.e.,
V2
hL = K
2g
where K = minor loss coefficient, v = flow velocity (Length/Time), and g = acceleration of
gravity (Length/time2).
Minor loss coefficients for selected fittings

Fitting Loss coefficient(K)
Globe valve, fully open 10.0
Angle valve, fully open 5.0
Swing check valve, fully open 2.5
Gate valve, fully open 0.2
Short-radius elbow 0.9
Medium-radius elbow 0.8
Long-radius elbow 0.6
45 degree elbow 0.4
Closed return bend 2.2
Standard tee - flow through run 0.6
Standard tee - flow through branch 1.8
Square entrance 0.5
Exit 1.0
Commonly used hydraulic analysis methods include Hardy cross method and Computer
programs. The Hazen-William equation is widely used to determine the head loss in a pipe.
0.54
⎛ hf ⎞
Q = 0.278CD 2.63 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ L ⎠
Where, Q = flow rate in m3/s, C = coefficient of roughness D = pipe diameter, m
hf = friction head loss, m L = equivalent length of pipe, m
Design procedure
Simple Distribution System (Branch Networks)
Requirements: The sizes of the pipes should ensure availability of water at the end points
(terminals) of the pipes, with the minimum allowable pressure at the time of maximum
demand.
46
Assign the required demand at each node or dead end

Estimate the discharge flowing through the pipes
Assume possible pipe diameters
Calculate the head loss through that pipe
Find the residual pressure at the end of the pipe.
Compare this terminal pressure with the desired minimum and maximum pressures.
If the required condition is not satisfied, then repeat steps (ii) through (vi) until the
required conditions are met. Finally the diameters which satisfy the required condition is
taken as design pipe size.
Complex pipe Networks (Loop Networks)
A system of equation is used to design loop network of distribution system. This system of
equation is based on the analogy with two electricity laws known in physics as Kirchoff’s
laws. Translated to water distribution networks, these laws state that:
• The sum of all ingoing and outgoing flows in each nod equals zero(∑Qi =0)
• The sum off all head losses along pipes that compose a complete loop equals
zero(∑∆Hi =0)
Two similar iterative procedures can be derived from kirchoff’s Laws, which are the method
of balancing heads and the methods of balancing flows. These methods, known in literature
under the name of Hardy Cross, calculate the pipe flows and nodal piezometric heads in
looped system.
The Hardy Cross Method is used to make hydraulic analysis of complex interconnected
(looped) network lines following the steps below.
This method consists of assuming a distribution of flow in the network and balancing the
resulting head losses. Pipe-flow formulas are used to determine the head losses and successive
corrections are made in the flows until the heads are essentially balanced.
The Manning, Chezy, and Hazen-Williams formulas are used. These formulae can be
expressed in general term as
h=kQx
where h = head loss in the pipe
Q=flow quantity
k=constant depending on size, internal condition and units used
The Hazen-Williams formula written in this form will be:
h=kQ1.85 (eq.1)
For any pipe in the circuit
Q=Q1 + ∆ (eq.2)
In which Q is the actual flow, Q1 is the assumed amount and ∆ is the required flow correction.
Substituting eq.2 in eq.1 and writing in the binomially expanded form,
kQ1.85 = k(Q1+∆)1.85 = k[Q11.85 + xQ10.85∆ + …]
For a pipe circuit the sum of head losses must be zero. Therefore:
∑h=∑kQ1.85 =∑ k(Q1+∆)1.85 = ∑k[Q11.85 + xQ10.85∆ + …] =0
And hence
47
∑h
∆=− (eq.3)
h
1.85 × ∑
Q
The procedure for the above method (method of balancing head) can be expressed as: -
1. Assume any consistent distribution of flow. The sum of the flows entering any
junction must equal the sum of the flows leaving from it ( continuity equation should
be satisfied at each junction)
2. Compute the head loss in each pipe by means of an equation or diagram.
Conventionally, clockwise flows are positive and produce positive head loss.
3. With due attention to sign, compute the total head loss Σh around each circuit.
4. Compute without regard to sign, for the same circuit Σh/Q.
5. Apply the corrections obtained from eq.3 to the flow in each line. Line common to two
loops receive both corrections with due attention to sign.
Computer programs
The use of hydraulic analysis models has become common due to their important advantages
over that of manual methods. The advantages include
Models relieve engineers from tedious and iterative calculations and enable them focus on
important aspects of the design
Models better incorporate the complex real world system
Models allow investigation of alternative designs over a wider range of conditions
There are a number of computer programs that can readily be used to perform complex pipe
network analysis (e.g EPANET, Water CAD). Models should be calibrated and verified
before application. Important features of a typical hydraulic analysis model are briefly
presented below.
Representation: The various elements of a water distribution system are represented as
network of links or nodes in the model.
Element Representation
Pipe Link
Reservoir, storage tanks, pumps, valves, controls, and
Junctions (intersection points, dead ends, water withdrawal and Node
injection points)
Skeletonization: This refers to selecting and including those pipe network parts that have
significant impacts in the behaviour of the system. Criteria such as pipe diameter, nodal
discharge, points with known condition (e.g. pressure head), type of element, etc. may be used
to skeletonize the system.
Demand allocation: Water withdrawal rate at each node can be estimated manually or
automated systems using GIS. One useful method follows:
Using land use or zoning maps estimate the water demand for each type of land use
Overlay the water distribution system map over the land use map and determine the
applicable demand at each node
Major water users should be considered separately and applied to the closest nodes
48
Area served by
node A C F
A
B D
Area served by
Area served by node G
node B
E G
System inputs: Input requirements vary from system element to element as indicated in the
table below.
Element Input
Reservoir Hydraulic grade line and water quality
Storage tanks Water levels (min, max, overflow, initial)
Junctions Elevation
Pipes Nominal diameter, length, coefficient
Pumps Characteristic curve
Model outputs: Outputs of a typical model run may include flow rate, head loss, velocity in
each pipe, pressure at each node, residual chlorine, etc.
Water is distributed to the consumers in several different ways, as local conditions may
dictate. The methods are:
1. Gravity distribution: - when the source is at some elevation above the city sufficient
pressure can be maintained in the mains. This is the most reliable method if the
conduit is safeguarded against accidental breaks.
2. Pumping with storage: - In this method the excess water pumped during periods of
low consumption is stored in elevated tanks or reservoirs. During periods of high
consumption the stored water is drawn to augment the pumped supply. Uniform rates
of pumping can be attained in this method which again helps to operate the pumps
economically and work at their best efficiency. The storage also provides water for
emergency cases.
3. Pumping with out storage: - Water is pumped directly to the mains with no other
outlet than the water actually consumed. This method is the least desirable for a
power failure would mean complete interruption in the water supply. Several pumps
may also be required to meet the fluctuating demand and this increases the OMR as
well as the management cost. The advantage of this method is that a large fire reserve
pump may be used which can run up the pressure to any desired amount permitted by
the construction of the mains.
The piping system serving the consumers consists of:
Primary feeders called arteries which form the skeleton of the distribution system.
These carry large quantity of water from the pumping plant, to and from the storage
tanks and to the various parts of the area to be served.
Secondary feeders carry large quantity of water from primary feeders to the various
areas for normal supply and fire fighting. They form smaller loops so that continuous
49
service can be provided when break occurs and part of the system is excluded for
maintenance.
Small distribution mains form a grid over the area to be served and supply water to
the fire hydrants and service pipes of the residences and other buildings.
3.6.1 Types of pressure pipes and appurtenances
Pipelines
Pipes could be of different types that include cast iron pipe, ductile cast iron pipe, steel pipe,
plastic pipe and concrete pipe. The selection of pipe materials is based on such criteria as
carrying capacity, strength, ease of transportation and handling, availability, quality of water,
and cost (initial and maintenance).
Cast iron pipes: are mostly used in water supply schemes. These are highly resistant to
corrosion, strong but brittle, usually offer a long life, and reasonably maintenance free. Cast
iron pipes are manufactured in lengths of 2.5 m to 5.5 m. Cast iron pipes are joined together
by means of Bell and Spigot threaded or flanged joints. These pipes have the advantages of
easy jointing, withstanding high internal pressure, long life and less corrosion. But they are
very heavy and difficult to transport, because due to brittleness they break or crack easily.
Steel pipe: It is occasionally used for main lines and at such places where pressures are high
and pipe diameter is large. Steel pipes are strong, have very light weight and can withstand
higher pressure than cast iron pipes. They are cheap, easy to construct and can be easily
transported than cast iron pipes. The disadvantage of these pipes is that they cannot withstand
external loads. If partial vacuum is created by emptying a pipe rapidly, the pipe may collapse
or distorted. These pipes are much affected by corrosion and are costly to maintain. The joints
in steel pipes can be made by welding or riveting.
Cement-lined cast iron pipes: When the water contains corrosive elements, the cast iron pipes
are lined with cement to protect them against corrosion. They have very small coefficient of
friction than unlined cast iron pipes.
Plastic pipes: Nowadays plastic pipes are becoming more and more because of their corrosion
resistance property, light weight and economy. Rigid (unplasticized) uPVC pipes are widely
used for water services, internal/external water supply systems and water mains. It is stronger
and can withstand much higher pressure for a given wall thickness. Generally uPVC is
resistant to most inorganic acids, alkaline and salts, as well as many organic chemicals.
Concrete pipes: These pipes may be plain, reinforced or pre-stressed pipes. Plain concrete
pipe may be used at such places when water does not flow under pressure. These pipes are
joined by Bell and Spigot joints. They are corrosion resistant and more suitable to resist
external loads.
Asbestos cement pipe: These are manufactured from a mixture of cement and asbestos fibre.
Asbestos cement pipes are very light and therefore can be easily handled and transported.
They can be easily cut, fitted, drilled, tapped and joined. These pipes are very smooth and are
not affected by corrosive materials, and hence have good carrying capacity. Nowadays they
are not used due to health issues related to asbestos fibre which is suspected to cause cancer.
Pipe Joints: for the facilities in handling, transporting and placing in position, pipes are
manufactured in small lengths of 2 to 6 meters. These small pieces of pipes are then joined
together after placing in position, to make one continuous length of pipeline. Available pipe
50
joints include bell-and-spigot, push-on, mechanical, flanged, vectualic coupling, and dresser
coupling. Figure 3.1 represents alternative joints for cast iron pipes.
Fig. 3.1 Cast-iron pipe joints (a) Bell-and-spigot (b) push-on (c) mechanical (d) flanged (e)
ball (f) threaded (g) victualic coupling (h) dresser coupling
Appurtenances
Commonly used appurtenances include valves, backflow preventers, surge controls, metering
devises, manholes and hydrants.
Valves
Valves are installed throughout water systems, treatment plants, pumping stations, pipe
networks, and storage reservoirs. Their purpose is to isolate segments of a pipeline, to regulate
rate of flow, to control pressure, and to allow release or entry of air from pipe system. Factors
to be considered in the selection of valves include purpose and operation, capacity required,
head loss and rate of flow, cost, availability, etc. The locations of all valves should be clearly
marked on as-built plans, and described in relation to readily identifiable landmarks or
prominent physical features, so that they can be easily found in the field. All valves should be
protected by suitable valve boxes (usually cast iron, concrete, or high-density plastic) and
located so that they will not be affected by normal street or highway maintenance operations.
Valves are classified by function as follows.
1. Shutoff valves. These are the most abundant valves in a water system and are used to
stop the flow of water through a pipeline. Pipe networks are sectionalized by installation
of shutoff valves so that any area affected by a main break or pipe repair can be isolated
with a minimum reduction in service and fire protection. Depending on the district within
the city and size of the water mains, valve spacing in the distribution area range from 150
to 370m. Ideally, a minimum of three of the four pipes connected at a junction are
provided with valves. The pipe connecting a fire hydrant to a distribution main contains a
valve to facilitate hydrant repair. In treatment plants and pumping stations, shutoff valves
are installed in inlet, outlet, and by-pass lines so that the valves and pumps can be
removed for maintenance and repair.
51
Gate valves and butterfly valves are the commonly used shutoff valves. A gate valve has a
solid sliding gate that moves at right angles to the direction of flow by a screw-operated
stem. Gate valves are widely available, relatively low in cost, create very little head loss in
the fully open position, and effectively stop flow in the fully closed position. They are,
however, of only limited value for throttling or controlling flow and, therefore, not usually
used for such purposes.
A butterfly valve has a movable disk that rotates on a spindle or axle set in the shell. The
fact that the valve disk is always being in the flow stream, restricting the use of pipe-
cleaning tools is the main disadvantage of a butterfly valve. On the other hand the
advantages of this valve are tight shutoff, low head loss, small space requirement, and
throttling capabilities.
2. Check valves. A check valve is a semiautomatic device that permits water flow in only
one direction. It opens under the influence of pressure and closes automatically when flow
ceases. Usual installations are in the discharge pipes of centrifugal pumps to prevent
backflow when the pump is not operating, and in conjunction with altitude valves in
connections between storage reservoir and the distribution networks.
3. Altitude valves. Altitude valves are used to automatically control the flow into and out
of an elevated storage tank or standpipe to maintain desired water level elevations. These
valves are usually placed in a valve pit adjacent to the tank riser. Altitude valves can be of
different types that include double-acting sequence valve, single-acting type, or
differential altitude valve.
4. Air-release and vacuum valves. Air can enter a pipe network from a pump drawing air
into the suction pipe, through leaking joints, and by entrained or dissolved gases being
released from the water. Air pockets increase the resistance to the flow of water by
accumulating in the high points of distribution piping, in valve domes, and fittings, and in
discharge lines from pump. Air-release valves are installed at these locations to discharge
the trapped air. Valves are also needed to protect pipelines from collapse as they are
emptied, by allowing air to enter the pipes. Vacuum valves are used for this purpose.
Combinations of air release-vacuum valves are available. Air release and vacuum valves
are normally not needed within interconnected grid portions of distribution systems.
5. Scour or blow-off valves. These are valves provided either at dead ends or lowest
points in the mains to remove sand or silt that might have deposited in the pipeline.
6. Pressure reducing valves (PRV). Occasionally, topography will be such that excessive
pressures result in low-lying regions of the distribution system. In such cases, pressure
reducing valves can be quite useful (Fig. 3.2). They operate automatically to throttle flow
to maintain the desired downstream pressure as long as the upstream pressure is sufficient.
For small systems, it is generally best to avoid using pressure-reducing valves on
distribution lines if at all possible. Pressure reducing valves are frequently used on
individual water service lines to protect house plumbing and appliances such as water
heaters.
52
Fig. 3.2
7. Pressure sustaining valves (PSV). This type of valve can be used to prevent a drop in
the upstream hydraulic grade line or pressure due to unregulated flow as shown in the
fig. 3.3.
Fig. 3.3
8. Surge-control devices. Velocity changes caused by closure of a valve or variations in

pumping rates may result in transient pressure waves that travel through the piping
system. Propagation of these waves could be prevented by the uses of quick-opening
and slow-closing valves (e.g. globe valves), surge towers or hydro-pneumatic tanks.
Backflow preventers
The water in a distribution system must be protected against contamination from backflow
through customer service lines and other system outlets. A cross-connection refers to an actual
or potential connection between a potable water supply and an industrial or residential source
of contamination. By inspection of back flow preventers in service connections, a municipal
utility can ensure against distribution contamination under foreseeable circumstances.
Back siphonage is a backflow resulting from negative or reduced pressure in the supply
piping. It can also result from a break in a pipe, repair of a water main at an elevation lower
than the service point, and reduced pressure from the suction side of booster pumps. In
contrast, back pressure causes reversal of flow when the pressure in a customer’s service
connection exceeds the pressure in the distribution main supplying the water.
53
Air-gap separation is the simplest method used to prevent backflow into the supply pipe.
Household water supplies are usually isolated from the public-water supply system by air gap
separation using a storage tank in the attic or on the roof of the dwelling (see Fig. 3.4).
Available mechanical backflow preventers include atmospheric-vacuum breaker, pressure-
vacuum breaker, double check valve, and reduced-pressure-principle device. The one selected
depends on the type of installation and the hazard involved if backflow occurs. For direct
water connections subject to back pressure, only the reduced-pressure-principle backflow
preventer is considered adequate as an alternate to an air gap separation. For applications not
subject to back pressure. Vacuum breakers can be installed. The atmospheric-vacuum breaker
is used in flush valve toilets.
2D
Fig. 3.4 : Air-gap separation to prevent backflow into the supply pipe. (a) Minimum recommended air gap is
twice the diameter of the supply pipe. (b) Storage tank with air-gap separation and overflow pipe to prevent
overfilling the tank if supply valve fails to close tightly.
Hydrants
Hydrants provide access to underground water mains for the purposes of extinguishing fire,
washing down streets, and flushing out water mains. They are installed along streets behind a
curb line a sufficient distance, usually 0.6m, to avoid damage from overhanging vehicles. The
pipe connecting a hydrant to a distribution main is normally not less than 150mm in diameter
and includes a gate valve allowing isolation of the hydrant for maintenance purposes. A firm
gravel or broken rock footing is necessary to prevent settling and to permit drainage of water
from the barrel after hydrant use.
Meters: are used to measure the monthly and/or annual consumption. Consumers enter an
agreement to pay for the amount based on the meter reading. Meters are generally furnished
and maintained by the water service department. When the water passes through the meter its
velocity actuates a rotating mechanism which is connected to a gear system. The gear system
is carefully calibrated to measure the minimum possible flow.
Manholes: are provided at suitable intervals along the pipe line, so as to serve for inspection
and maintenance. Most of the fixtures in the water supply system are also place inside a
manhole to protect them from damage. Manholes are made of concrete, brick or stone
masonry. A thin sheet metal or cast-in situ concrete may be used as cover.
54
Anchorages: are used to hold pipes in position. At points where pressure is considerably high
and the topography is steep anchor blocks are provided at suitable spacing. Anchors are
usually made of concrete or masonry blocks.
3.7 Pipe lying

Pipe lines are usually installed under the ground surface in a properly excavated trench.
Trenches should be wide enough to allow good workmanship. Trench width varies from
460mm for 50mm pipe to 1760mm for 1220mm pipe. An extra width of trench of 250mm on
each side will also be required for ease in making the joints. Appropriate bedding material has
to be provided between the rock and the pipe. If the finished surface is rock a cushion of sand
or earth, 150mm deep, is usually used. Backfill material should be free from cinders, refuse, or
large stones. Backfill from the trench bottom to the centre line of the pipe should be by hand
with sand, shell, or other satisfactory material laid in 75mm layers and tamped
Eample 1
The distribution area is supplied through a transportation pipe of L=750m, d=400mm and
CH=130, with an average flow rate of 1260m3/h. For this flow, the water pressure at the end of
the pipe has to be maintained at a minimum 30mwc. What will be the required piezometric
level and also the pressure on the upstream side in the situation? The average pipe elevation
varies from Z=51 msl at the downstream side to Z=75msl at the upstream side.
Example 2 (Branch Networks)
For the following branched system, calculate the pipe flows and nodal pressures for surface
level in the reservoir of H=50msl. Assume all pipes CH=130.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Z(msl) ------ 12 22 17 25 20
Q(l/s) -75.6 10.4 22.1 10.2 18.5 14.4
Example 3
55
Determine the pipe diameter of the branched pipe network shown in the figure below, if the
maximum-allowed hydraulic gradient Smax = 0.005. Determine surface level of the reservoir
at the supply point, which can maintain a minimum pressure of 20mwc. Assume for all pipes
that CH = 140.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Z(msl) 17.6 18.2 16 21.4 ------ 18 16.5 19 20.4 22.7
Q(l/s) 5 7.6 9.9 3.5 -58.1 3.8 4.4 10.5 9.2 4.2
Example 4 (loop network)
To improve the conveyance of the system from example 2, nodes one and four as well as
nodes three and six have been connected with pipes D=100mm and L=1200 and 1040m,
respectively (CH =130 in both cases). Calculate the pipe flows and nodal pressures for such a
system by applying the balancing head method.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Z(msl) ------ 12 22 17 25 20
Q(l/s) -75.6 10.4 22.1 10.2 18.5 14.4
56
4. PUMPS USED IN WATER SUPPLY

4.1 General Introduction
Pumps are machines that add energy to the fluid to move it from one place to another. In other words,
it is machine that converts the mechanical energy (taken from an external source like electricity, diesel,
solar …etc) into hydraulic energy or pressure energy.
In a water supply scheme, pumps are required at one or more of the following stages:
To lift the water at the source, when the water cannot flow by gravity into the mains (such as
in the case of low levelled surface sources and ground water sources).
To lift the water at the treatment plant, if sufficient natural slope is not available, as to cause
gravitational flow between different units of the treatment plant.
To lift the water after the treatment, so as to force the water into the distributing mains, either
directly or through a service reservoir. When the pressure in the distributing mains has to be
increased or boosted at some intermediate points within the distribution system, so as to enable
the water reach up to the required height of the storey.
4.2 Types of Pumps

There are various types of pumps, but the two types generally encounter, are:
1. Rota-dynamic pumps; and
2. Displacement pumps.
Pumps are manufactured in a wide range of type and size. The head may range from 5 to 10 m to 600
to 800 m and the discharge may range from 1 to 5 l/s to 3 to 40m3/s.
The following diagram shows the summary of the general classification for the pumps. The diagram
shows also the general division for all pumps used in practical engineering.
57
Figure 4-1 Classification of pumps
A Rota-dynamic pump has a wheel or a rotating element which rotates the water in a casing, and
thus, imparting energy to the water. Such a pump may be of the following two types:
A) Centrifugal pump; and
B) Axial-flow pump.
58
Rota-dynamic Pumps: do have a wheel type-rotating element called impeller. The shape of the
impeller may be such, as to force the water outward in a direction at right angles to its axis, (radial
flow), or to give water, an axial as well as a radial velocity (mixed flow), or to force the water in the
axial direction alone (axial flow).
Radial flow and mixed flow machines are commonly called centrifugal pumps, whereas the axial flow
machines are called axial flow pumps. Centrifugal pumps are the most common and widely used in
water supply system.
Centrifugal pumps may be radial or mixed flow impeller that constitutes a centrifugal pump may either
be open or closed. The open impeller consists of a hub to which the vanes are attached, while closed
impeller is having plates on each side of the vanes.
The efficiency of the open impeller centrifugal pump is generally much less than that of a closed
impeller centrifugal pump. But, however, since the open impeller is less likely to be clogged by debris,
etc., it is usually adopted for pumping raw waters or sewage containing solids and other impurities.
When a single impeller is used in a pump, it is known as a single stage pump; but when two or more
impellers are arranged and placed in such a way that the discharge from one impeller enters the eye of
the next impeller, it is called a double stage or a multistage pump. Such pumps are useful for high lifts.
In the case of a borehole pump, such as a deep well turbine pump, used for pumping ground water,
several impellers are installed on a vertical shaft, which is suspended and rotated from the prime mover
motor placed at the ground surface.
Another type of a deep well pump, called a submersible pump, differs from the usual deep well turbine
pump in the sense that the driving motor here is placed below the pump bowels within the well water
level.
Advantages
Their initial as well as the maintenance cost is comparatively low.

Their size is compact and can be installed in limited space.
Their mechanism is simple, and thus, less skilled labour is required for their operations and
repairs.
They can be operated with high-speed electric motors, or gas engines and steam turbines.
The discharge obtained is steady and is non-pulsating.
They can be used for pumping water containing silt, and, etc.
They are quite durable and safe against high pressures.
Disadvantages
Such pumps require priming

Such a pump neither should be started with discharge valve open, so as to avoid overloading,
nor should the discharge valve be kept closed for longer time after starting the pump, so as to
avoid too high pressures.
The discharge pipe has to be provided with check valve, so as to avoid back flow when the
pump suddenly stops due to power failure, etc. with the discharge valve open.
The discharge from such a pump varies with the head of water. Hence, when uniform
discharge is required at varying heads the pump has to be rotated at variable speeds which is
neither practical nor economical.
For high heads, the efficiency is low (say about 50 to 80 per cent).
Their ordinary suction lift is limited (say up to about 6 m of so) and the pump has to be placed
under water where higher suction lifts are involved, such as in turbine pumps or in
59
submergible pumps; thereby, necessitating special types of centrifugal pumps with their
increased costs.
Displacement pumps: are also called positive displacement pumps, work on the principle of
mechanically inducing vacuum in a chamber, and thus, sucking in a certain volume of water, which is
then mechanically displaced and forced out of the chamber. The two types of displacement pumps are:
1. Reciprocating pumps; and

2. Rotary pumps.
Reciprocating pumps: In such a pump a piston or a plunger reciprocates in a closed vertical cylinder.
This is moved up and down by hand. On the upstroke, a vacuum gets created in the cylinder, below the
piston, thereby opening the check valve at the base of the pump, thus withdrawing water in to the space
below the piston. Simultaneously, the water above the piston is forced out of the spout. On the down
strike, the check valve gets closed and the piston valve gets opened, thus permitting water to enter the
cylinder above the piston. On the next upstroke, the piston valve closes, and the water above the piston
comes out of the spout, and at the same time, the check valve opens, permitting water to enter the
space above the piston. The cycle is thus continued, and continuous supplies of water can be obtained.
These pumps can be used in any depth. For wells, where the water table is within 6 m or so, the
cylinder is placed above the ground. The pump, however, requires a foot valve at the lower end of the
suction pipe, so as to avoid priming. Where the water table is more than 6 m below the ground surface,
the cylinder is attached to a drop pipe and placed in the well. Double acting pumps, which deliver
water with each stroke, are also sometimes used, and can, provide more uniform flow.
Advantages
Since a definite volume of water is discharged with each stroke, the discharge rate of such a
pump depends only on the speed with which the piston is moved and is independent of the
head. It, therefore, gives a constant discharge under variable heads. Such pumps are very
useful for very high but variable heads.
They are durable and flexible.
High efficiency is possible, provided the valves and the packing are in good condition.
Disadvantages
The initial cost of installing such a pump is as high as four times that of a centrifugal pump.
Reciprocating pumps occupy large space (6 to 8 times the space required by the horizontal
centrifugal pumps) and needs skilled supervision during operations.
They are unsuitable for pumping waters containing sediments, as in such a case, there may be
a sudden stoppage of the pump leading to serious damage to the pump.
The single acting reciprocating pumps produce pulsating flow (i.e. the flow with jerks).
Maintenance chargers are high, because parts like valves require constant attention.
Rotary pumps: in rotary type of displacement pumps, the rotary motion is used in place of a
reciprocating motion as is used in reciprocating type of displacement pumps.
Advantages
Their biggest advantage is the fact that they do not require any priming and are self-primed.
They are, therefore, often used to prime large centrifugal or reciprocating pumps.
The flow from such a pump is nearly free from pulsations.
60
Since they have no valves, they are simple to construct and easy to repair as compared to the
reciprocating pumps.
They are often used for fire protection systems for buildings and for small domestic water
systems.
Their efficiency is high at low to moderate heads and for smaller discharges of the order of
2000 litres per minute, although they have been used for pressures up to 70 kg/cm2 (700 m
head of water) and discharges over 1,35,000 litres per minute.
Disadvantages
The initial cost is high.
They are not durable, as they require frequent replacement of their cams or gears.
Water containing sediments are very injurious to such pumps, as the wear and abrasion will
destroy the seal between the cams and the casing.
Table 4-1 Comparison between centrifugal and displacement type of pumps

Displacement type Centrifugal Type (Roto-Dynamic)
¾ Large, heavy, bulky ¾ Small, compact, light
¾ Piston or plunger has reciprocating motion ¾ Impeller has rotary motion
¾ Runs at low speed, speed reducing devices ¾ Runs at high speed. Can be directly coupled
are needed while coupling to driving to high speed driving engines
engines
¾ Discharge reduces against the increase in
¾ The discharge does not change with the head at the delivery side
head of delivery side
¾ No slip occurs
¾ There will be losses due to slip
¾ They are well adapted for use against low
¾ They are better suited to high heads heads
¾ The flow is pulsating ¾ The flow is continuous
¾ Initial cost of installation is high ¾ Low initial cost
¾ Operation and maintenance is difficult. ¾ Operation and maintenance is simple
¾ Efficiency is as high as 85% for large size ¾ Here also efficiency varies between 85 to
pumps and up to 40% for small size pumps 40%. It is higher for the large size pumps
In addition to these two major types of pumps, other types, such as airlift pumps, jet pumps, hydraulic
rams, etc. are also used under special conditions. The different types of pumps are described below.
4.3 Factors affecting the selection of a particular Type of Pump

The various factors, which must be thoroughly considered while selecting a particular type of a pump
for a particular project, are:
9 Capacity of pumps
9 Initial cost of pumping arrangement and Maintenance cost
9 Space requirements for locating the pump
9 Number of units required
9 Total lift of water required
9 Quantity of water to be pumped
61
4.4 Head, Power and Efficiency of Pumps

The selection of the suitable pump for a certain duty needs the complete information concerning the
desired capacity and head against which the pump in going to work.
4.4.1 The Head

The head against which pump will be required to operate is the summation of kinetic and potential
energy to the liquid. The head created by a given pump at a certain speed and capacity is constant for
all fluids.
The head that a pump can generate at various flow rates and rotational speeds is determined by a pump
tests carried out by manufacturer. This test involves changing the discharge of the pump and measuring
the corresponding head.
4.4.2 System characteristics

Efficiency
The efficiency is the ratio between the output and input powers the input power given to the pump is
the power delivered by the driver units which is called the break horsepower, B.H.P. the output of the
pump is the work done which is the weight of the liquid pumped in a certain time multiplied by the
head developed by the pump. The power output is the water horsepower W.H.P given as
ρgQ H
W.H.P. = Where ρ is the specific weight of liquid in kg / m3
735
g is gravitational attraction=9.81m/s2
Q is the capacity in m3/sec. and H in meters
The efficiency of the pump is given by

ρgQ H / 735
η=
B.H.P.
The pump operating condition at a given speed is the point at a maximum efficiency.
Pump Performance Curves and Design. The centrifugal pump operating at a constant speed can
deliver any capacity starting from zero to a maximum value depending on the pump design and suction
conditions. The characteristic or performance curves are the relationship between capacity-head,
capacity-efficiency and capacity-power.
Capacity-Head Curve
The Q - H curve can take different shapes and can be classified into the following (1) Rising curve in
which the head rises continuously as the capacity decreases (2) Drooping curve: the head at the value
of zero capacity is less than that for other capacity, (3) The curve may also be steep or flat .
62
Fig 4.2 The Discharge-Head Curves for Different Relations
B.H.P. – Capacity Curve

The capacity power curves are also classified according to their shape. This difference in the Q – P
curve depends on the design of pump three types of curves can be found as (1) The power increases
continuously with the increase of discharge. This curve is termed overloading curve. (2) The power
increases with the increase of discharge up to a certain value of Q then decrease as the capacity Q
increases. This curve is a non-overloading curve. And (3) The Q – P curve may decrease with the
increase of discharge Q. The shape of the curve depends on the value of the specific speed the non-
overloading curve is preferred because the motor or the driver is not overloading under any loading
condition but this condition can be obtained in all-specific speeds.
Fig 4.3 The BHP- Discharge Curves at Different Loading

The Efficiency-Capacity Characteristic
The efficiency increases with of the capacity up to a certain value of Q where the efficiency reaches its
maximum value, then the value of η decreases as Q increases beyond the value corresponding to η
maximum. This value of capacity at maximum η is called the design capacity Q0. The design point at
Q=Q0 is the value taken for the design of the pump diameters and blades.
Fig 4.4 Efficiency-Capacity curves
Specific speed
Pump may be more explicitly define by the parameter called Specific speed which is the speed at
which a pump will discharge a unit flow under a unit head at a maximum efficiency. It is expressed by:
N Q
Ns = Where Q= discharge in l/s, H= head in meter, N= rotational speed in rpm
H 3/ 4
Variable Speed operation

The discharge of a single pump can be varied by the use of variable speed motors, so as to suit the
operating requirements of the system.
63
Using dimensional analysis and dynamic similarity criteria, it can be shown that if a pump delivers a
discharge Q1 at a total rise in head H1 running at a speed N1, the corresponding values of Q2, H2 and
P2, when the pump is running at speed N2, are given by the following equations:
⎛N ⎞ (Q1, H1)
Q2 = Q1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ N1 ⎠
2
⎛N ⎞ (Q-H) curve at speed N1
H 2 = H 1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
Head
⎝ N1 ⎠ (Q2, H2)
3 (m)
⎛N ⎞
P2 = P1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ N1 ⎠
(Q-H) curve at speed N2
Discharge Q
System Head–Capacity Curves

The relationship between the capacity and head loss can be expressed in the form hf = KQ2. To lift up
the volume of water to the required supply level, the pump must operate against the total dynamic head
(H) is essential. The plot of total dynamic head versus discharge is known as system head curve.
H = H static + ∑ K Q 2
Each points of the system head curve denote the head comprising static head (Hst), major head loss
(Hf) and minor head loss (Hv). When the discharge varies, the required system head will vary as a
function of major and minor head loss. The static may also vary as a result of fluctuating water level.
Obviously, the static head is more at low water level (LWL) and less at high water level (HWL) of the
sump well.
A system head-capacity curve is to be shown together with the characteristic curve of the pump. From
the two curves, the required capacity and head together with the power and efficiency can be obtained.
Fig 4.5 shows that for the pump having the shown performance curves and the given System Head-
Capacity curve (the dotted line). In this situation the optimal operating discharge of the pump is 125
lit./sec. and the corresponding head = 15 m. The efficiency of the pump in this case would be 81%.
64
Fig 4.5 the performance curve at different discharges values
A System involving more than one Pump

Pump in Parallel
The head capacity curve for the pumps operated in parallel can be obtained by the summation of the
capacity of each at a specific head. Fig 4.7 shows the H-Q curve for two pumps working in parallel.
65
Fig 4.7 The System Q-H Curve for Pumps in Parallel
Pumps in Series
For the flow to get through a number of pumps in sequence, the discharge must be the same in each
pump, but the head is the sum of the individual heads.
Fig 4.8 The System Q-H Curve for Pumps in Series
66
A=Strainer
B=Suction pipe
C=Pump
D=Check valve
E=Gate valve Hd
F=Delivery pipe
G=Reservoir
Hs=Suction head Hst
Hd=Delivery head
H S i h d
Hs
Fig 4.9 A typical setup of a surface centrifugal pump
The total head (H) against which a pump has to work consists of the suction head (Hs), delivery head
(Hd) and head loss due to friction, entrance, and exit in the rising main (HL)
Hence, H = Hs + Hd + HL
The work done by the pump in lifting Q cumecs of water to a head H is given by
W = γw QH Where γw= unit weight of water

Q = discharge in m3/s and
H= the head to which water is raised
The water horsepower is then given as:
1 HP = 735 W=0.735 KW
W.H.P = γw QH/735 W
If the efficiency of the pump is η then power to be delivered by the pump is given by:
Power of pump = γw QH/η

Different Types of Pump Head
• Total Static Head - Total head when the pump is not running
• Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) - Total head when the pump is running
67
• Static Suction Head - Head on the suction side, with pump off, if the head is higher than the pump
impeller
• Static Suction Lift - Head on the suction side, with pump off, if the head is lower than the pump
impeller
• Static Discharge Head - Head on discharge side of pump with the pump off
• Dynamic Suction Head/Lift - Head on suction side of pump with pump on
• Dynamic Discharge Head - Head on discharge side of pump with pump on
4.5 Cavitation and Maximum Suction lift

Cavitation is phenomena of vapour bubble formation and collapse of it. This phenomenon is
happen when the absolute pressure in a liquid reaches the vapour pressure of the liquid at
operating temperature. When these vapour bubbles move towards the zone of higher pressure,
they collapse. The collapsing pressure of bubbles may be as high as 100 atm. And this may
cause local mechanical failure of the solid surface. This effect is called cavitations.
The harmful effects of cavitations are: -
9 Pitting and erosion of the surface due to continuous hammering action of the
collapsing bubble
9 Sudden drop in head, efficiency and power delivered to the fluid
9 Noise and vibration produced by the collapse of vapour bubbles
Consider a centrifugal pump that draws water from a sump whose free surface lies at height hs
below the pump axis. Energy equation between the free liquid axis and pump inlet gives: -
Pa/γ=P1/γ+(Hs+hf)+Vs2/2g
Pa= absolute pressure on the suction side of the pump
hf=head loss in the suction pipe
Vs=Velocity in the suction pipe
For non-cavitating operation of the pump, pressure P1 shouldn’t fall below the vapor pressure
Pv. Therefore assuming that cavitation does commence when P1 equals Pv: -
Pa/γ = Pv/γ + (Hs + hf) + Vs2/2g
Hs = Ha - Hv - hf - Vs2/2g
Where Ha and Hv corresponds to absolute and vapor pressure head
Dividing the above equation by H (head developed by the pump)
Vs2/2gH = (Ha - Hv - Hs - hf)/H
Vs2/2gH = (( Ha - Hs - hf) - Hv)/H is called the Thoma’s Cavitations number.
Thus, σ= ((Ha - Hs - hf) - Hv)/H and the numerator is commonly referred to as the Net Positive
Pa − Pv
Suction head (NPSH= ). For cavitation free performance, the suction setting Hs of the
ρg
pump impeller installation has to be so fixed that the value of the cavitation constant doesn’t
68
become less than the critical value prescribed by Thoma’s in which σ=1.042*10-3 (Ns)4/3
where Ns is the specific speed of the pump.
4.6 Pumping Stations

The location of a pumping station is primarily governed by the location from which it is to
receive water, and also by the location to where it has to supply the water. The various points,
which are to be kept in mind while selecting a suitable site, are enumerated below.
1. The site should be away from all the sources of contamination or pollution
2. The sites should be above the highest flood level of the river
3. Ease of future expansion
4. Should be located where adequate water can be drawn out for the anticipated highest
demand
5. Possibilities of fire hazard should also be considered while selecting the site for the
pumping stations
6. Accessibility for power supply
Example 1
69
A pump is to deliver water from an under ground tank against static head of 40m. The suction
pipe is 50m long and is of 25cm diameter with Darcy-Weisbach friction factors f=0.02. The
delivery pipe is of 20cm diameter, 1600m long and has f=0.022. The pump characteristics can
be expressed as
Hp=100 - 6000Q2
Where Hp = Pump head in meters and Q= discharge in m3/s
Calculate the head and the discharge of the pump.
Example 2
The pump characteristics are shown in the given figure below. The performance of four
different impeller sizes of 340, 360, 380 and 405mm. the design flow is 1000m3/hour. The
end of rising main is 4m above the highest water level in sump. The hydraulic losses in the
rising main and in the pumping station are 8m at a flow of 1400m3/hour.
a) Determine the head loss for the flows of 1200, 1000 and 800m3/hour. Draw the
system curve in the sketch.
b) What impeller size do you select? How much is the pump discharge?
c) Calculate the required motor power of the selected pump? The efficiency of the pump
is given in figure. The efficiency of the motor is 95%
d) How much are the pump discharge and head, if two pumps are operating in series?
70

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URBAN WATER SUPPLY AND TREATEMENT

1.2 Types of Demand

Table 1 Typical domestic water demand

Table 2 Water Demand for typical production processes

Q = 3182 P where Q is rate of flow in lit/min

Q = 4637 P × 1 − 0.01 P for P <= 200,000

(Pr oduction − metereduse × 100%)

Understanding the Causes of Unaccounted-for Water: To reduce unaccounted-for water, it is necessary to

Table 4 Estimate for water demand based on experience is tabulated below.

1.3 Total water requirement

(Total yearly water requirement in liters )

Few of the factors governing the design period includes: -

Table 5 Design periods for different components

1.4 Estimating future population

Pn = [P0 + Nk ] Where Pn= population at Nth year

Figure 1: Ideal population growth curve based on logistic equation

1.5 Factors affecting per capita demand

1.6 Variation in demand

Figure 2: Typical hourly demand variation curve

1. Maximum daily demand: - is generally taken as 180% of the average daily

1.7 Effect of demand variation on design of water supply components

Raw water main

Figure 3: Components of a water supply scheme

 Water sources: - should be designed for maximum daily consumption

Maximum day hourly delivery

Town B Town C Town D Town E

2. Sources and Abstraction of Water

2.2 Surface sources

Some disadvantages of rainwater as a source of water supply include:

Lakes and reservoirs

2.3 Water quality considerations

Figure 2-1 Water treatment processes for different sources of supply

Aeration Disinfection Fluoridation Distribution

Rapid sand Aeration Disinfection Fluoridation Distribution

Micro-strainer Disinfection Fluoridation Distribution

(c) Good quality upland reservoir

Storage Screening Coagulation & Sedimentation

Filtration Disinfection Fluoridation Distribution

(d) Moderate to poor quality low land river

2.4 Source Selection

Table 2-1 Consideration to be made in comparing water sources

Catchment areas and reservoir sites

Criteria for selection of reservoir sites

Time, Year (month)

Figure 2-2 the mass curve method of reservoir volume estimation

Time, Year (month)

The major disadvantages of embankment dam are

o Its susceptibility to damage or destruction by overflow, with a consequent need

o Buttress dam- consists of a continuous upstream face supported at regular

• Minimization of diffuse pollution from urban runoff (e.g. improving waste

The advantages of ground water are:

 It is likely to be free of pathogenic bacteria;

The disadvantages are:

2.6.1 Recharge of Aquifers

Groundwater is an important source of water supply for municipalities, agriculture and

Figure 2-4 Vertical zones of groundwater distribution

Groundwater occurs in geologic formations called aquifers. Aquifer is a water-bearing

Porosity: ratio of volume of voids to total volume

Figure 2-5 Occurrence of groundwater

Where, Ki = K in layer i; Zi = thickness of layer i

Water sources: - should be designed for maximum daily consumption

It is likely to be free of pathogenic bacteria;

Assign the required demand at each node or dead end

Their initial as well as the maintenance cost is comparatively low.

Such pumps require priming