Importance of safe water supply system

Water is a basic need for every human being.

Everywhere water is required for various purposes :
(a) for drinking and cooking
(b) for bathing and washing
(c) for watering of lawns and gardens
(d) for heating and air-conditioning systems
(e) for growing of crops
(f) for street washing
(g) for fire fighting
(h) for recreation in swimming pools, fountains and cascades
(i) for steam power and various industrial processes, etc.

Although water covers more than 70% of the Earth’s surface, less
than 1% of that resource is available as fresh water – and this is
not evenly distributed throughout the world.

More than one billion people (one thousand million) worldwide,

mostly in developing countries, lack safe drinking water and that is
why it becomes all the more important to ensure safe water supply
system

A water supply system delivers water from sources to customers,

and provides services vital to the function of an industrialized

1
society and important to emergency response and recovery after
disastrous events (e.g., earthquakes).

It is also important to ensure that the water supplied by water

supply systems is of good quality and free from unwanted
impurities or harmful chemical compounds or bacteria in it so that
it comes suitable for consumption.

Safe water supply systems help in promoting overall hygiene and

keep the diseases away thereby promoting better health and
sanitation.

Taken individually, or in aggregate with other lifeline systems

(e.g., electric power, natural gas and liquid fuels,
telecommunications, transportation, and waste disposal), water
supply systems are intricately linked with the industrialisation and
modernisation of society, economic well-being, security, and social
fabric of the communities.

Domestic water requirement for urban and rural

areas

Water requirement for any particular town, the demand of water

for various
purposes is divided under the following five categories:
• Domestic purposes

2
 •Civic or public purposes
•Industrial purposes
•Business or trade purposes
•Loss and waste

Domestic purposes
The quantity of water required for domestic purposes can be sub-
divided as follows:

1. Drinking
A human body contains about 70 % of water. The
consumption of water by a man is required for various
physiological processes such as blood formation, food
assimilation, etc. The quantity of water which a man would
require for drinking depends on various factors. But on the
average and under normal conditions, it is about 2 litres per
day. This amount, as will be seen, is very
small as compared to various other uses of water. But it is
most essential to supply water for drinking purposes with a
high degree of purity. If water for drinking contains
undesirable elements, it may lead to epidemic. In fact, the
drinking water should be protected, potable and palatable.

2. Cooking
Some quantity of water will also be required for cooking. The
quantity of water required for this purpose will depend upon
the stage of advancement of the family in particular and

3
society in general. However, for the purpose of estimation,
amount of water required for cooking may be assumed as
about 5 litres per capita per day.

3. Bathing
The quantity of water required for bathing purpose will
mainly depend on the habits of people and type of climate.
For an Indian bath, this quantity may be assumed as about 30
to 40 litres per capita per day and for tub-bath, it may be
taken as about 50 to 80 litres per capita per day.

4. Washing hands, face etc.

The quantity of water required for this purpose will depend
on the habits of people and may roughly be taken as 5 to 10
litres capita per day.

5. Household sanitary purposes

Under this division, the water is required for washing
clothes, floors, utensils, etc. and it may be assumed to be
about 50 to 60 litres per capita per day

6. Private gardening and irrigation

In case of developed cities, there will be practically no
demand of water for this purpose. In case of undeveloped
cities, private wells are generally used to provide water for
private gardening and irrigation. It is therefore not essential

4
 to include the quantity of water required for this purpose in
case of public water supply project.

7. Domestic animals and private vehicles

The amount of water required for the use of domestic
animals and private vehicles is not of much concern to a
water supply engineer. With the growth and development of
town, the cattle disappear and commercial stables come into
existence. The water required for animal drinking and
cleaning of stables is around 13.5 litres per capita per day.
The requirement of water for domestic purposes is a
minimum of 135 litres per capita per day which amounts to 50
% of the total water requirements per capita per day

Civic or public purposes

The quantity of water required for civic or public purposes can be
sub divided as follows:

1. Road washing
The roads with heavy amount of dust are to be sprinkled with
water to avoid inconvenience to the users. On the average,
the quantity of water required for this purpose may be taken
as about 5 litres per capita per day.

2. Sanitation purposes
In this division, water is required for cleaning public sanitary
blocks, large markets, etc. and for carrying liquid wastes

5
 from houses. The quantity of water required for this purpose
will depend on the growth of civilization and may be assumed
to be about 2 to 3 litres per capita per day.

3. Ornamental purposes
In order to adorn the town with decorative features,
fountains or lakes or ponds are sometimes provided. These
objects require huge quantity of water for their
performance. As far as Indian towns are concerned, the
quantity of water required for this purpose may be treated
as quite negligible since in most of the towns, the quantity of
water available is not enough even with the
most urgent needs of the society.

4. Fire demand
Usually, a fire occurs in factories and stores. The quantity of
water required for fire fighting purposes should be easily
available and always kept stored in the storage reservoir.
Fire fighting is the act of extinguishing fires. One common
way to extinguish a fire is to spray it with water

Industrial purposes
The quantity of water required for industrial or commercial
purposes can be subdivided as follows:

6
1. Factories
The quantity of water required for the processes involved in
factories will naturally depend on the nature of products,
size of factory, etc. and it has no relation with the density of
population. It is quite likely that the demand of water for
factories may equal or even exceed the demand of water for
domestic purposes. The possibility of recycling of water in
the plant will also have
appreciable effect on the demand of water for a particular
product.

2. Power stations
A huge quantity of water will be required for working of
power stations. But generally, the power stations are
situated away from the cities and they do not represent a
serious problem to public water supply.

3. Railways
In most of the cases, the railways make their own
arrangements regarding their water requirements and hence,
the quantity of water to be consumed by railways is not
ordinarily included in any public water supply system. It is
thus not possible to connect the requirement of water for
industrial purposes to the population of the city. It is
therefore advisable to study each case independently in this
regard and decide the quantity of water required for
industrial purposes accordingly. For a city with moderate

7
 factories, it is estimated that about 20 to 25 per cent of per
capita consumption will be required for industrial purposes.

Business or trade purposes

Some trades such as dairies, hotels, laundries, motor garages,
restaurants, stables, etc. require a large quantity of water. Such
trades are to be maintained in hygienic conditions and sanitation
of such places should be strictly insisted. The number of such
business centres will depend upon the population and for a
moderate city, an average value of about 15 to 25 litres per capita
per day may be taken as water requirements for this purpose.

Loss and waste

The quantity of water required under this category is sometimes
termed as unaccounted requirement. It includes careless use of
water, leakage in mains, valves, other fittings, etc. unauthorized
water connections and waste due to other miscellaneous reasons.
The quantity of water lost due to all these reasons is uncertain
and cannot be effectively predicted. However, for the purpose of
calculating the average rate of demand it may be estimated to be
about 30 to 40 per cent of per capita consumption

Sources of water supply

Following are the sources of water supply:
1. Surface water sources
a. Lakes

8
 b. Ponds
c. Rivers
d. Reservoirs
2. Ground water sources
a. Infiltration galleries
b. Infiltration wells
c. Springs
d. Wells

Surface water sources

They are those water sources in which water flow over the the
surface and earth, and is thus directly available for water
supplies.
a. Lake: A lake is a large body of water (larger and deeper than
a pond) within a body of land.
b. Ponds: A pond is a man-made body of standing water smaller
than a lake.
c. Rivers: A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually
freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another
river.
d. Reservoirs: A reservoir is an artificial lake where water is
stored. Most reservoirs are formed by constructing dams
across rivers.

Underground water sources

They refer to water located beneath the surface of the earth.

9
 a. Infiltration galleries: they are the horizontal tunnels
constructed at shallow depth along the banks of rivers
through the water bearing strata.
They are also known as horizontal wells
b. Infiltration wells: they are the shallow wells constructed in
series along the banks of river, in order to collect water
seeping through their bottoms
c. Springs: the natural outflow of groundwater at the earth’s
surface is known as spring.
Following are the different forms of spring:
● Artesian spring
● Gravity spring
● Surface spring
d. Wells: A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in
the ground for the purpose of bringing ground water to the
surface.
Wells are of mainly two types:
● Open well
● Tube well
○ Strainer type
○ Cavity type
○ Gravel pack type

Intakes and transportation of water

In any water supply project the first step is to select the source
of water from which water is drawn. The device installed for the

10
purpose of drawing water from the source of water are called

Intakes

The basic function of intake structure is to help in safely

withdrawing water from the source and then to discharge this
water in to the withdrawal channel, through which it reaches
the water treatment plant.

Design of intake

An intake should be designed keeping in mind the following

considerations:

● Intake should be sufficiently heavy so that it can withstand

upthrust of water.
● All the forces which are expected to work on intake should
be carefully analysed and intake should be designed to
withstand all these forces.
● Strainers in the form of wire mesh should be provided on all
the intake inlets to avoid entry of large floating objects.
● Intake should be of such size and so located that sufficient
quantity of water can be obtained from the intake in all
circumstances.

There are many types of intakes such as:

1. Submerged intake

11
 2. River intake
3. Reservoir intake
4. Lake intake
5. Canal intake

Transportation of water
● Transportation refer to taking of water from source to
purification plants and from treatment plant to consumers.
● Depending on the topography of the land, conveyance may be
in free flow and/or pressure conduits.
● If the source is at higher level than the treatment plant, the
water can flow under gravity, automatically.
● Similarly after necessary purification of water, it has to be
conveyed to the consumers.
● Therefore, for conveyance of water some sort of devices or
structures is required. The arrangement may be in the form
of open channels, aqueducts, tunnels or pipes.

Open channels
In any water supply systems, raw water from source to
treatment plants may be carried in open channels but open
channels are not recommended for conveyance of treated
water.

Aqueducts
The term aqueduct is usually restricted to closed conduits
made up of masonry.

12
 These can be used for conveyance of water from source to
treatment plant or for distribution.

Tunnels
Tunnels are also like aqueducts.
Tunnels which are not under pressure are usually constructed
in horse-shoe shape, but if they convey water under
pressure, circular cross-section is the best.
Tunnels are used to convey water into the cities from outside
sources.

Pipes
Pipe is a circular closed conduit used to convey water from
one point to another, under gravity or under pressure
• Pipes are mostly made up of materials like cast iron,
wrought iron, cement, plastic, etc.

Drinking water quality

Water quality is very important and many nations strive to protect
safety of their water and to increase the access of potable water.

When the quality or composition of water changes directly or

indirectly as a result of human activities then it becomes unfit for
any purpose. There are national and international standards for
the quality of water to be supplied for human consumption.

13
Drinking water should have the following characteristics:

Characteristics of drinking water

Characteristics of potable water divided into three types

Physical
1. It should be clear, colourless and odourless.
2. It should be cool and pleasant to taste.
3. It should be free from suspended impurities.

Chemical
4. It should be free from dissolved gases like CO2, H2S,
NH3, etc., and poisonous minerals like lead, arsenic,
manganese, etc.,
5. Hardness should be less than 500 ppm.
6. Chloride ion content should be less than 250 ppm.
7. Fluoride ion content should be less than 1.5 ppm.
8. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) content should be less than
500 ppm.
9. pH of the potable water should be 6.5 – 8.5.
10. Sulphate ion content should be less than 250 ppm.

Biological
11. It should be free from harmful bacteria

14
Indian Standards for Drinking water
ISI (Indian Standard Institution) has the following standards:

15
Introduction to water treatment for safe drinking

Drinking water is supplied by municipalities using the sources of

natural water. The natural water obtained from rivers, canals,
wells, etc do not confirm the quality standards prescribed for
domestic water or municipal supply. Hence to make these waters
suitable for municipal supply the following treatment processes
are adopted, which depend upon the exact nature of impurities
present in raw water.

The various methods are as follows:

1. Screening
2. Sedimentation
3. Sedimentation with coagulants
4. Filtration
5. Disinfection / Sterlization
6. Aeration
7. Water softening

Screening:
It is the process of removing floating materials like leaves from
water. Raw water is passed through screens having holes, when the
floating matter is retained by them and water is allowed to pass..

16
Sedimentation:
The process of allowing water to stand undisturbed in big tanks
for some time in order to facilitate the settling down of coarse
suspended particles due to force of gravity is called
sedimentation.

Sedimentation with coagulation:

In this process, fine suspended and colloidal particles are removed
by addition of requisite amount of chemicals (as coagulants) to
water before sedimentation.
Some commonly used coagulants are alum, ferrous sulphate, etc.

Filtration:
This is the process of removal of coarse impurities and some of
micro-organisms by passing water through a porous material
(filter) consisting of bed of fine sand and other granular
materials.

Sterilization / Disinfection:
The filtered water still contains small amount of pathogenic
(disease producing) bacterias which must be destroyed if the
water has to be used for drinking purpose.
The process of destroying/killing of pathogenic bacteria and other
micro-organisms from water to make it safe for use is known as
disinfection and the chemicals used for this purpose are called
disinfectants.

17
Disinfection does not ensure total destruction of all living
organisms. On the other hand, sterilization means complete
destruction of all living organisms which is possible by boiling the
water over a period of time.

Aeration:
Water aeration is done to remove unwanted taste and odor.
Aeration is the process of bringing water and air into close
contact in order to remove dissolved gases.

Water softening:
The process of removing hardness causing salts from water is
called softening of water.

Importance of Sanitation
Sanitation is the process of keeping places free from dirt,
infection, disease, etc., by removing waste, trash and garbage, by
cleaning streets, washing yours self, safe drinking water, etc.

Sanitation is the collection, transport, treatment, disposal and/or

reuse of human excreta, domestic waste water,solid waste and
associated promotion of hygiene.

Importance of Sanitation
•Prevents pest infestation
•Kills bacteria already present

18
•Reduces potential for cross contamination
•Can help increase shelf life
•Minimizes chance for injury
•Helps create a more pleasant work environment
•Improved Health Conditions and Low Health expenses
•Reduction in mortality rates linked to Poor Sanitation
•Social and economic benefits

Domestic waste water

Wastewater
•Any liquid that contains impurities or pollutants in the form of
solids or gasses or their combinations in such a concentration that
is harmful if disposed into the environment
•Wastewater is the water which is disposed from homes, offices
and industry.
•It comes from toilets, sinks, showers, washing machines and
industrial processes and was historically called sewage.

Wastewater produced due to human activities in households is

called domestic waste water i.e. wastewater from the kitchen,
shower, wash basin, toilet and laundry

Domestic waste water (Quantity):

Quantity= Per capita sewage contributed per day x Population

19
Domestic waste water (Characteristics):
The Characteristics of sewage arc classified as follows:
1. Physical characteristics
2. Chemical characteristics and
3. Biological characteristics

Physical Characteristics

Color: Color is due to the suspended and other matters found

in wastewater. If sewage is fresh it has a grey-brown color
and decomposed sewage has dark grey colour.

Odour: Fresh sewage is of soapy or oily odour but stale

sewage has offensive odour.

Temperature: Generally sewage has slightly higher

temperature than the water which increases the biological
activities.

Turbidity: It is very turbid than water.

Total solids: Though sewerage typically contains lower than

zero to 0.5 % solids, the remainder being water. The
sewerage solids could also be classified into dissolved solids,
suspended solids and volatile suspended solids

20
Chemical Characteristics

Sewage contains complex compounds derived from urine, faces,

inorganic chemicals etc.
• pH
• DO (Dissolved Oxygen)
• BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)
• COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)

Biological characteristics
•Sewage contains bacteria and other living micro-organisms
such as algae, fungi, protozoa, etc.
•Domestic sewage consists of various types of plant or animal
microorganism.

Domestic waste water (Disposal in rural and urban areas):

The methods of sewage disposal can classified as follows:
● Disposal by dilution
● Disposal by land treatment

Disposal by dilution
•In this process, the raw sewage or the partially treated
sewage is thrown into natural waters having large volume.
• The sewage in due course of time is purified by what is
known as the self-purification capacity of natural waters.

21
Disposal by land treatment
• The raw domestic waste water (sewage) is applied on the
land.
• A part of sewage evaporates and the remaining portion
percolates through the ground and is caught by the
underground drains for disposal into natural waters.
• The sewage adds to the fertilizing value of land and crops
can be profitably raised on such land.

Sewer (types):
According to their make, there are 7 types of sewers:
1. Asbestos cement sewer
2. Brick sewer
3. Cement concrete sewer
4. Cast iron sewer
5. Steel sewer
6. Stoneware sever
7. Plastic sewer

Sewer (Design Discharge):

Important points to be considered before selecting sewer
material
● Strength and durability
● Resistance to abrasion
● Resistance to corrosion
● Weight
● Imperviousness

22
 ● Cost
● Hydraulically efficient

Introduction to domestic waste water treatment

Household sewage treatment plant breaks down domestic wastes
via three major stages.

1. Primary Stage:
a. This is the first stage of sewage/wastewater treatment
that removes about 40-60% of the suspended solids.
b. It involves screening to remove large objects such as
sticks, stones etc which can cause damage to tank inlets.
c. Primary clarifier or settling/sedimentation tank in this
stage removes sinking and floating contaminants.
d. The partially treated wastewater from the primary tanks
then flows to the secondary treatment system.

2. Secondary Stage:
a. This is the stage where the biological (aerobic/anaerobic)
treatment of waste water from the primary stage begins and
it removes up to 90% of organic matter.
b. The water is then taken to settling tanks where the sludge
again settles, leaving the water 90 to 95 % free of
pollutants.

23
3. Tertiary Stage:
a. When the effluent from secondary treatment is
unacceptable, a third level of treatment called tertiary or
advanced treatment, can be employed.
b. Its purpose is to provide final treatment stage to raise
the effluent quality to the desired level.
c. This stage is also called as disinfection stage and UV is an
ideal disinfectant for wastewater since it does not alter the
water quality.

Solid Waste
Waste:
Depending on their physical state they are classified as:
•Liquid wastes
•Gaseous wastes
•Solid wastes.

Solid waste:
Solid waste is the unwanted or useless solid materials
generated from combined residential, industrial and commercial
activities in a given area.

Solid Waste Management:

Solid waste management is the process of collection,
transportation and disposal of solid waste in a systematic,
economic and hygienic manner.

24
Types of solid waste
Broadly there are 3 types of waste which are as follows:
1. Household waste is generally classified as Municipal waste
a. Construction and demolition debris
b. Sanitation residue
c. Waste from streets
2. Industrial waste as Hazardous waste
3. Biomedical waste or Hospital waste as Infectious waste
a. Disposables,
b. Discarded medicines
c. Chemical wastes

Composition of solid waste

Materials in solid wastes can be broadly categorized into three
groups-
•Compostable- Food waste, vegetable market wastes and
yard waste.
•Recyclables- paper, plastic, metal and glass.
•Inerts- The fraction of solid wastes which can neither be
composted nor recycled into secondary raw materials is
called Inerts

Solid waste (quantity)

Estimation of Waste

25
The best method for estimating waste quantity is to install
permanent scales at disposal facilities and weigh every truck on
the way in and again in the way out.

The total waste taonnage can be estimate can be estimated with

the following equation

W = T (w/t)

Where,
W is the total weight of the waste delivered to the facility
T is the total number of trucks that delivered waste in the
facility
w is the total weight of the truck that were weighed
t is the number of trucks that were weighed

Similarly the total weight of waste delivered for the whole year is
summed up and total tones of waste generated in a year can be
calculated.

The quantity of solid waste is often expressed in kg per capita per

day so that the waste streams in different areas can be
compared. The quantity is typically calculated with the following
equation:
Q = 1000 T / 365 * P

Where, Q – Quantity of waste in kg per capita per day

26
T – Tonnes of waste generated in a year
P – Population of the area in which the waste is being generated

Solid waste (Characteristics of solid waste)

Three types of characteristics:
1. Physical
2. Chemical and
3. Biological

The major physical characteristics measured in waste are:

• density
• moisture content and
• size distribution of components
• calorific Value

The major chemical characteristics measured in waste are:

• Lipids
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Natural fibres
• Synthetic organic material (Plastics)
• Non-combustibles
• Heating value
• Ultimate analysis
• Proximate analysis

The major biological characteristics measured in waste are:

27
 •Biodegradability of OWC
•Odours
•Breeding of flies

Solid waste (Disposal for rural and urban areas)

•SWM is the processes of collection, transport, recycling and

disposal of wastes.
•The objective of solid wastes management (SWM) are to control,
collect, process, utilize and dispose of solid wastes in an
economical way consistent with the public health protection.

Disposal of waste is to be technically considered depending on

type of waste, quantity, source and scale of operation.

The different solid waste disposal methods are as follows:

1. Open dumping
2. Land filling
3. Sanitary land filling
4. Composting
5. Incineration

Open dumping:
● It refers to uncovered areas that are used to dump solid
waste of all kinds
● The waste is untreated, uncovered and not segregated

28
 ● These sites spread foul smell and become breeding grounds
for diseases

Land filling:
● They are generally located in areas where large amount of
waste is generated and has to be dumped
● Unlike an open dump, it is a pit that is dug in the ground.
● The garbage is dumped and pit is covered thus preventing
breeding of flies and rats.
● Contamination of groundwater happens through landfills and
this is known as leaching and liquid that has seeped through a
landfill is known as leachate.

Sanitary land filling:

● It is an alternative to landfills and solves the problem of
leaching to some extent
● It is more hygienic since it is built in a methodical manner
but has its own problems like:
○ It is costly
○ Some biodegradable materials do not decompose
○ Development of methane gas

Composting:
● It is the most common recycling method of solid waste
disposal.
● It is one of the oldest forms of disposal

29
 ● The waste which contains 35-40% organic matter is recycled
by this method
● It is a biological process in which microorganisms, mainly
fungi and bacteria, convert degradable organic waste into
humus like substance.
● It recycles nutrients and returns the nutrients back to soil
● It is clean, cheap and safe

Incineration:
● Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the
combustion or the high-temperature burning (rapid oxidation)
of a waste.
● Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment
systems are described as "thermal treatment".
● It is also known as controlled–flame combustion or calcination

Introduction to Air pollution

● Air is essential for life and without it we can barely survive.
● Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence
of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to the
health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to
the climate or to materials.
● There are many different types of air pollutants, such as
gases, particulates and biological molecules.
● Air pollution can cause diseases, allergies, and even death to
humans; it can also cause harm to other living organisms such

30
 as animals and food crops, and may damage the natural
environment (for example, climate change, ozone depletion or
habitat degradation).

Sources of air pollution

The sources of air pollution may be classified
into two groups:
1. Natural sources
2. Man made sources

1.Natural sources -
•Atmospheric reactions
•Volcanic eruptions
•Forest fires
•Dust storms, electric storms, Salt spray form oceans,
Microorganisms
•Radioactive substances

2. Man made sources (Anthropogenic Sources) -

• Combustion of fuel
• Automobile exhaust
• Industries
• Thermal and nuclear power plants
• Agricultural activities
• Construction materials
• System of sanitation
• Mining

31
 • Nuclear explosions , Air crafts , Wastewater treatment
plants

Types of pollutants
•An air pollutant is a substance in the air that can have adverse
effects on humans and the ecosystem.
•The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases.
•A pollutant can be of natural origin or manmade.
•Air pollutants may be either emitted into the atmosphere or
formed within atmosphere itself .

Based on origin we have:

1. Primary Pollutants
2. Secondary Pollutants

32
 1. Primary pollutants:- Primary pollutants are those which
are directly emitted from identifiable source. These
pollutants are emitted directly to the atmosphere.

2. Secondary air pollutants:- Secondary air pollutants are

those which are produced in the air by the reaction of two or
more primary pollutants

Based on states of matter we have:

1. Gaseous air pollutants
2. Particulate air pollutants

1. Gaseous air pollutants - Gaseous air pollutants are those

air pollutants which are found in the gaseous state at normal
temperature and pressure in the atmosphere.

2. Particulate air pollutants - These are liquid or solid

particles suspended in air. It includes dust, smoke, fog, mist,
etc.

Based on presence in environment we have:

1. Indoor air pollutants
2. Outdoor air pollutants

33
1. Indoor air pollutants -The air pollutants which are generated
from households are called indoor air pollutants.
•Cleaning agents
•Gases from stoves etc.

2. Outdoor air pollutants - The air pollutants which are

generated
outside the buildings are called outdoor air pollutants.
• Automobile pollutants
• Industrial pollutants
• Mining pollutants

Air pollutants (properties and their effects on human beings)

1. Lead:

Properties:
● A solid metal that can be found in the air in a dust-like
form of particulate matter

Effects:
● Brain and other nervous system damage
● Digestive problems
● Kidney damage
● Reproductive system damage
● Contaminated soil can damage crops and livestock

34
2. ozone:

Properties:
● Colorless gas
● Found in Stratosphere
● Reacts with other pollutants to form smog

Effects:
● Cause chest pains, coughing, & nausea
● Causes shortness of breath
● Repeated exposure can cause permanent lung damage

3. Nitrogen Dioxide:

Properties:
● Brownish in color
● Highly reactive gas
● Major component of acid rain

Effects:
● Reduces blood carrying capacity
● Causes pneumonia, oxygen deficiency

4. Carbon Monoxide:

Properties:
● Colourless

35
 ● Odourless
● Poisonous
● Produced when something is burned incompletely or in a
closed-in area

Effects:
● Low conc.- causes dizziness, headache,
● High conc.- causes unconsciousness and even death

5. Sulphur dioxide:

Properties:
● Gaseous compound made of sulphur and oxygen
● Colorless and reactive gas

Effects:
● It causes irritation of eyes and respiratory tracts.
● Affects the growth of plants

6. Hydrocarbons:

Properties:
● Organic compounds containing only C and H are
classified as hydrocarbons

Effects:
● Causes cancer

36
 ● Creates narcotic effects on human beings

Effects of air pollution

On living organisms
● Causes diseases
● Increase in mortality

On plants
● Affect the growth of plants
● Damages leaves

On materials
● Corrosion
● Abrasion
● Deposition
● Discoloration

On climate
● Increase in CO2
● Global warming
● Depletion of ozone layer

Controlling air pollution

1. Preventative measures
2. Control measures using equipment's.

37
 1. Preventative measures (source control)
•Selection of suitable fuel.
• Modification in industrial process.
•Selection of suitable site for industrial unit.
• Using natural gas in place of coal for power generation.

2. Control measures
• Planting more trees
• Collecting pollutants by using equipment's.
• Destroying the pollutants by thermal or catalytic
combustion.
• Changing the pollutants to less toxic form.

Acid Rain
Normal rain water is always slightly acidic because C02 present in
atmosphere, get dissolved in it form carbonic acid and hence it has
a pH of about 5.6.
Rain water with pH values lower than 5.7 is called acid rain. Acid
rain is formed when air pollutants such as SO2 and NO2 dissolved
in rain water.

Causes Of Acid Rain

Natural Causes:-
•Volcanic emissions.
•Biological processes.
•Lightning.

38
Anthropogenic Causes:-
•Factories (industrialization)
•Motor vehicles,
•Coal based power plants.
•Domestic fires

Effects of acid rain

Plants
•Effects plants and trees.
•Causes yellowing of leaf tissue.
•Impacts plant growth
•Causes toxification of soil.
•It takes away soil nutrients causing stunted growth.

Surface water and aquatic animals

•causes damages to fish and aquatic animals.
•Biodiversity of water body is reduced.
•Lakes, rivers are fragile ecosystems where each species
depend on other to survive ,if one disappears other too
disappears.

Human health
•affects human nervous system, respiratory system,
digestive system

Effects on buildings

39
 • In Greece and Italy invaluable stone statues have been
partially dissolved by acid rain.
•Taj Mahal in Agra is also suffering due to acid fumes from
Mathura refinery

Control measures of acid rain

Control measures of Acid Rain
• Reducing pollution from motor vehicles and industries.
• Neutralizing the acids in soil and water using lime.
• Burning less fossil fuels.
•Use Clean combustion technologies .
•Using pollution control equipment's.
•Replacement of coal by natural gas or renewable energy
resources.
•Formulate the policy framework for reduction of sulphur
dioxide and other acid rain causing gas emissions.

Ozone Layer
Ozone is a form of oxygen (O3). The ozone layer is a region in the
earth’s stratosphere that contains high concentrations of ozone
and protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet radiations of
the sun and is a lifesaver.

40
Ozone Layer Depletion
Ozone layer depletion is the gradual thinning of the earth’s ozone
layer in the upper atmosphere caused due to the release of
various chemical compounds from industries or other human
activities.

Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)

Ozone depleting substances are the substances such as
chlorofluorocarbons, etc. that are responsible for the depletion of
ozone layer.

Causes of ozone layer depletion

● Chlorofluorocarbons-
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs are the main cause
of ozone layer depletion. These are released by
refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.

● Unregulated Rocket Launches

Researches say that the unregulated launching of rockets
result in much more depletion of ozone layer than the CFCs
do.

● Global Warming
Global warming also leads to ozone layer depletion.

● Nitrogenous Compounds

41
 The nitrogenous compounds such as NO2, NO, N2O are
highly responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.

● Natural Causes
Ozone layer also gets depleted due to natural causes like
volcanic eruptions

Effects Of Ozone Layer Depletion

Effects on Human Health

•The humans will be directly exposed to the harmful
ultraviolet radiations of the sun
•This might result in serious health issues among
humans, such as skin diseases,cancer, sunburns,
cataract, quick ageing and a weakened immune system.

Effects on Animals
•Direct exposure to ultraviolet radiations leads to skin
and eye cancer in animals.

Damage to Materials
•Wood, plastic, rubber and many construction materials
are degraded by UVradiation.

Effects on the Environment

•Strong ultraviolet rays also impacts plant growth and
marine life

42
Prevention of Ozone depletion:
1.CFC's (Chloro Fluro Carbons) should be replaced by HCFC's
(Hydro ChloroFluro Carbons).
2. Production, use and emission of ozone - depleting chemicals
should be controlled.
3.Servicing of refrigerators and air-conditioners should be
regulated.
4.Adopt protection measures from sun's radiation

Greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases in
Earth's atmosphere trap the Sun's heat. This process makes
Earth much warmer than it would be without an atmosphere. The
greenhouse effect is one of the things that makes Earth a
comfortable place to live.

Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane,

nitrous oxide, ozone and some artificial chemicals such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

An increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases by human

activities leads to an increase in the magnitude of the greenhouse
effect. (Called enhanced greenhouse effect).

43
Global warming
Global warming is the long-term heating of Earth’s climate system
observed since the pre-industrial period (between 1850 and 1900)
due to human activities, primarily fossil fuel burning, which
increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth’s
atmosphere.
Global warming is happening due to the greenhouse effect
combined with increased greenhouse gas emissions by human
activities.

Causes of global warming

1. Natural causes
a. Volcanoes
b. Water vapor
c. Forest blazes
d. Melting permafrost

2. Man-made causes
a. Deforestation
b. Use of vehicles
c. Industrial development
d. Agriculture
e. Overpopulation

● Effects of global warming

1. Melting of glaciers

44
 2. Climate change
3. Threat to ecosystem
4. Spread of diseases
5. Higher mortality rates
6. Loss of natural habitat

Abatement of air pollution

Pollution abatement refers to any measure taken to reduce,

control or eliminate pollution from a given environment.

The air pollution and the resultant air quality can be attributed to
emissions from vehicular, industrial and domestic activities. The
air quality has been, therefore, an issue of social concern in the
backdrop of various developmental activities.

The CPCB has evolved a format for preparation of action plans,

which emphasize identification of sources of air pollution,
assessment of pollution load and adoption of abatement measures
for identified sources.

In order to control vehicular pollution, a road map has been

adopted, which includes use of cleaner fuels, automobile
technologies and enforcement measures

45
Introduction to various disaster
● Disaster is a sudden, calamitous and unfortunate event that
brings with it great damage, loss, destruction, and
devastation to human life as well as property and also
hampers the ongoing developmental projects in a particular
area being affected by the disaster
● Disaster is a serious, dangerous catastrophe, a mishap, a
calamity or grave danger event occuring in an area.
● It may be arising from natural or man- made causes, or by
accident or due to negligence.
● This sudden event results in the substantial loss of life and
creates much suffering to humans and other life.
● It also includes much damage to and destruction of
property, or damage to and degradation of the environment.
● Disasters are catastrophic events shocking the whole world
and make humanity feel very sad and depressed.
● All life and life-support systems are also affected by these
unexpected incidences.

Disaster can be broadly categorised as:

1. Natural disaster
2. Man-made disaster

46
47
Disaster management is fundamentally disaster risk
management.

Sum total of all activities, programmes and measures which

can be taken up before, during and after a disaster with the
purpose to avoid a disaster, reduce its impact or recover
from its losses is called Disaster Risk Management.

The damage caused by disasters is immeasurable and varies

with the geographical location, climate and the type of the
earth surface/ degree of vulnerability. At times there can be
disasters where there is no loss of human life and at times
these can also cause a huge loss of life and property. This
influences the mental, socio-economic, political and cultural
state of the affected area.

Disaster preparedness or management activities are aimed to

minimise loss of life and damage in the event of a disaster.
Disaster management forces can help by removing people and
property from a threatened location and by facilitating
timely and effective rescue, relief and rehabilitation at the
place of disaster.

General effects of disaster

• Loss of life,
• Injury,
• Damage to and destruction of property,

48
• Damage to and destruction of plantations and crops,
• Disruption of production,
• Disruption of lifestyle,
• Disruption of transport,
• Loss of livelihood and occupation to people,
• Disruption to essential services like electricity, water
supply and gas supply,
• Disruption of communication and other networks
• Disruption to government systems and schemes,
• Shortage of food resources
• Spreading of diseases
• National economic loss,
• Sociological effects and
• Psychological after effects

Disaster Management Cycle

There are various phases of disaster risk management which
are collectively a part of the Disaster Management Cycle.
1.Prevention,
2. Mitigation,
3.Preparedness,
4.Response,
5.Recovery and
6.Reconstruction.

49
Prevention, Mitigation and Preparedness include Pre-
disaster activities focussed on reducing the human and
property losses caused by a potential hazard.

Response, Recovery and Reconstruction include the Post-

disaster initiatives taken in response to a disaster with a
purpose to achieve early recovery and rehabilitation of
affected victims and communities.

Risk Reduction Phase

1. Prevention
It involves hazard identification and risk analysis to know the
types of disaster that can strike an area, the vulnerable
group that can be affected and the probable effects.

50
e.g., public awareness and education, environmental scanning.

2.Mitigation
It is an action taken to reduce the harmful effects of the
disaster on human health, property and protection of
vulnerable population.
e.g., mock drills on disaster management

3. Preparedness
Preparedness is an ongoing process in which individuals,
communities, businesses and organizations can plan and train
for what they’ll do in the event of a disaster ensuring the
highest level of readiness.
e.g., emergency response plan, communication plan, preparing
disaster teams, preparing resources such food, clothing, and
shelter

Crisis Management Phase

4. Response
Response is what happens after the disaster occurs. -It
includes action taken to save lives and prevent further
damage. e.g., medical care, evacuation, transportation
eg: During the response stage, any ongoing hazards are
removed from the area; for example, in the aftermath of a
wildfire, any lingering fires will be put out.

51
5. Recovery
It is the action taken to return to normal or even safer
situation.
e.g., surveillance for diseases, medical aid, psychological
support, temporary housing.

6. Reconstruction/Rehabilitation
It involves reconstruction of damaged physical and
psychological infrastructure, as well as economic and social
rehabilitation of the people in the affected region.
e.g., rebuilding houses, roads, revival of educational
activities, regular counselling, restoring employment.

Definitions
● Biodegradable material : any organic material that can
be broken down by microorganisms into simpler, more
stable com-pounds. Most organic wastes (e.g., food,
paper) are biodegradable
● Leachate : liquid that has seeped through a landfill or a
compost pile and has accumulated bacteria and other
possibly harmful dissolved or suspended materials.
● Sampling of Water : The process of collecting a
representative portion of water, as from the natural
environment or from an industrial site, for the purpose
of analysing it for constituents.

52
● Chlorination : Chlorination is the process of adding
chlorine to drinking water to kill parasites, bacteria, and
viruses.
● Dechlorination : Dechlorination is the process of
removing residual chlorine from disinfected wastewater
prior to discharge into the environment.
● Break point chlorination : Breakpoint chlorination is
the point where the demand for chlorine has been fully
satisfied in terms of chlorine addition to the water.
● Ozonation : Ozonation (also referred to as ozonisation)
is a chemical water treatment technique based on the
infusion of ozone into water.
● Storm water : The term storm water is used to
indicate the rain water of the locality
● Subsoil water : This indicates the ground water which
finds its entry into sewers through
leaks.
● Per Capita Demand : It is the amount of water
required by one person per one day ( based on annual
average)
● Environmental engineering : Environmental engineering
is the branch of engineering that is concerned with
protecting people from the effects of adverse
environmental effects, such as pollution, as well as
improving environmental quality. Environmental
engineers work to improve recycling, waste disposal,
public health, and water and air pollution control

53
● Smog : this term is derived from two words, smoke and
fog. It is an intense type of air pollution that reduces
visibility
● pH of water : pH is a measure of how acidic/basic
water is. The range goes from 0 to 14, with 7 being
neutral. pHs of less than 7 indicate acidity, whereas a
pH of greater than 7 indicates a base. The pH of most
drinking-water lies within the range 6.5–8.5.
● Sewer : The underground conduits or drains used for
carrying sewage are known as sewers.
● Sewage : The term sewage is used to indicate the liquid
waste water from the community and it includes sullage,
discharge from latrines, urinals, stables, etc., industrial
water and storm water. The term night soil is sometimes
used to indicate the human and animal excreta.
● Sewerage : it is the system of collection of waste
water and conveying it to a point of final disposal with
or without treatment.
● Turbidity: it is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid
caused by large number of suspended particles which
are invisible to the naked eye.
Turbidity of water is the amount of cloudiness in water.
● Sullage : it is wastewater coming from bathroom,
kitchen and washbasins but it does not contain human
excreta and it does not create bad smell
● Flocculation : Flocculation is a process by which a
chemical coagulant added to the water acts to facilitate

54
 bonding between particles, creating larger aggregates
which are easier to separate.
● Soft water: It lathers with soap. Water which is
obtained from the rains is soft water. This water is
suitable for household purposes for example laundry and
cleaning.
● Hard water: It is known as hard water because of the
presence of salts of calcium and magnesium. Hard water
does not lather with soap but instead forms a
precipitate.

55
Components of environment
The four major components of environment include lithosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere, corresponding to rocks,
water, air and life respectively.

Lithosphere:
It is the outermost layer of earth called crust, which is made
of different minerals. The main component of lithosphere is
earth’s tectonic plates.

Hydrosphere:
It comprises of all forms of water bodies on earth including
oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, ponds, streams etc. It covers 70%
of earth’s surface. 97.5% of water found on Earth is in the
oceans in the form of salt water. Only 2.5 % of water on
Earth is freshwater.

Atmosphere:
It is gaseous layer enveloping the Earth. The atmosphere
with oxygen in abundance is unique to Earth and sustains life.
It mainly comprises nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide,
and traces of hydrogen, helium, and noble gases. The amount
of water vapour present is variable.

Biosphere:

56
It refers to all the regions on Earth where life exists. The
ecosystems that support life could be in soil, air, water or
land. Biosphere refers to the sum total of all living matter.

57