Wollo university

Kombolcha Institute of Technology

Department of WRIE
Water supply Engineering

Lecture note,2020
Prepared by Mulumebet D (MSC)
 Out lines

 Introduction
 Out lines of water supply scheme
 Need to protected water supply
 outlines of water supply scheme
Water supply Eng.
Source of water

Surface source Sub surface source

Infiltration
 River Ponds Spring Wells gallery
 Lake Impounded r/r
Artesi Infiltra
an Tube Dug tion

Shallow Deep
Intake work

Treatment work
Distribution system
Consumer
 INTRODUCTION

Water supply schemes

 Next to the air, the other important requirement for human life to
exists is water.

 Water is available in various forms such as rivers, lake, streams etc.

 The earliest civilizations organized on the banks of major river

systems & required water for drinking, bathing, cooking etc.

 The use of water by man, plants & animals is universal.

 It is the principal raw materials for food production & for many other
uses outside home & on the farm.
 Cont…..
 In addition to that, indirect consumption water effects our
daily life like
 Manufacturing of essential commodities

 Generation of electrical power.

 Transportation, Recreation

 Industrial activities

 Thus water can be considered as the most important raw

material of civilization b/c of the fact that with out water, the
man can not live & industry can not operate.
 Need to protected water supply

 Protected water supply means the supply of water that is

treated to remove the impurities and made safe to public
health.

 Water when exposed to the atmosphere contain many

impurities which are harmful to any living organisms. If
untreated H2o is consumed by living organisms, it is likely to
cause serious harm to their health (water born diseases).

 Hence, in order to make H2o potable & free from various

impurities, the purification methods should be adopted.
 Objective of community Water Supply
 To provide whole some water to the consumers for drinking
purpose.
 To supply adequate quantity to meet at least the minimum
needs of the individuals.
 To make adequate provisions for emergencies like fire
fighting, festivals, meeting etc.
 To make provision for future demands due to increase in
population, increase into prevent pollution of water at source,
storage and conveyance.
 To maintain the treatment units and distribution system in good
condition with adequate staff and materials.
 To design and maintain the system that is economical and
reliable standard of living, storage and conveyance.
 WHOLE SOME WATER
 Absolutely pure water is never found in nature and w/c contains only 2
parts of H & one part of O by volume. But the water found in nature
contains no of impurities in varying amounts.
 Wholesome water is defined as the water w/c containing the minerals in
small quantities at required levels & free from harmful impurities.
 potable water is The water that is fit for drinking safe and agreeable is
called.
 Requirements of wholesome water.
 It should be free from bacteria
 It should be colorless and sparkling(bright)
 It should be tasty, odour free and cool
 It should be free from objectionable matter
 It should not corrode pipes.
 It should have dissolved oxygen and free from carbonic acid so that it
may remain fresh.
 QUESTIONS

1. What are the uses of water?

2. Explain the need for protected water supply?
3. What is meant by whole some water? What are the requirements
of wholesome water?
 2.Demand for water
Various types of Water Consumption (Demands)
 While designing the water supply scheme for a town or city, it is
necessary to determine the total quantity of a water required for
various purposes by the city.
 As a matter of fact the first duty of the engineer is to determine
the water demand of the town and then to find suitable water
sources from where the demand can be met.

Following are the various types of water demands of a city or

town.
i. Domestic water demand
ii. Industrial demand
iii.Institution and commercial demand
iv.Demand for public use
v.Fire demand
vi.Loses and wastes
Domestic water demands
 It includes the quantity of water required in the houses for
drinking, bathing, cooking, washing etc.
 The quantity of water required for domestic use mainly depends
on the habits, social status, climatic condition and custom of the
people.
Estimation of per capita demand for piped water in l/c/d (1997) for
population of greater than 30,000(urban and rural)
Estimate of per capita demand for piped water in l/c/d (1997) for
population of less than 30,000(for urban between 2500 and 30000)
Estimate of per capita demand for rural schemes in l/c/d (1997)
Industrial water demand
 The water required in the industries mainly depends on the type of
industries, which are existing in the city.
 The water required by factories, paper mills, Cloth mills, Cotton
mills, Breweries, Sugar refineries etc.
 The quantity of water demand for industrial purpose is around 20 to
25% of the total demand of the city
Institutional and commercial demand
• Universities, Institution, commercial buildings and commercial
centers including office buildings, warehouses, stores, hotels,
shopping centers, health centers, schools, temple, cinema houses,
railway and bus stations etc comes under this category.
Commercial and institutional demand
As per IS: 1172-1963, water supply requirements for the public buildings
other than residences as follows. Source water supply engineering book
First Edition : 2005
 Demands for public use
 Quantity of water required for public utility purposes such as for
washing and sprinkling on roads, cleaning of sewers, watering of
public parks, gardens, public fountains etc comes under public
demand.
 To meet the water demand for public use, provision of 5% of the
total consumption is made designing the water works for a city.
The requirements of water for public utility shall be taken as given in
the next Table
Purpose Water Requirements

Public parks 1.4 litres/m2/day

Street washing 1.0-1.5 litres/m2/day
 Fire demand
 Fire may take place due to faulty electric wires by short
circuiting, fire catching materials, explosions, bad intension of
criminal people or any other unforeseen miss happenings.
 If fires are not properly controlled and extinguished in minimum
possible time, they lead to serious damage and may burn cities.
 In cities fire hydrants should be provided on the mains at a
distance of 100 to 150m apart.
The quantity of water required for fire fighting is generally
calculated by using different empirical formulae. These are:-
National board of fire underwriter formulas.
Q = 64 √ P (1 – 0.01√P)
Where Q = rate of flow of water in l/sec
P = Population in thousand
Freeman formula.
Q = 1135.5 ((P⁄ 10) + 10)
Where
Q is Quantity of water in lit/min
P is population in thousands
He also states that
F = 2.8* 𝑝,Where
F = period of occurrence of fire in years.
P = population in thousands

Knuckling’s formula
Q = 3182* 𝑝
Where
Q = Quantity of water required in 1/min.
P = population in thousands
Cont…..
Although the actual amount of water in a year for firefighting is smaller than
the rate of use, the Insurance Service Office (USA) uses the formula
Q = 18*C*𝑨𝟎.𝟓
Where Q = the required fire flow in gpm (lit/min/3.78)
C = a coefficient related to the type of construction which ranges from a max
of 1.5 for wood frame to a minimum of 0.60 for fire resistive construction.
A = total floor area 𝑓𝑡 2 (𝑚2 x10.76) excluding the basement of the building
Example In order to determine the max water demand during a fire, the fire
flow must be added to the maximum daily consumption. It is assumed that a
community with a population of 22,000 has an average consumption of 600
lit/capita/day and flow directed by a building of ordinary construction(C = 1)
with a floor area of 1000𝑚2 and a height of 6 stories, the calculation is as
follows:
Solution
Average domestic demand = 22,000*600 = 18.2*106 lit/day
Maximum daily demand = 1.8*13.2*106 = 23.76*106 lit/day
F = 18(1) (1000*10.76*6) 0.5 = 17,288 lit/min = 24.89*106 lit/day
Maximum rate = 23.76*106 + 24.89*106
= 48.65*106 lit/day
 Unaccounted for Water
These include the quantity of water due to wastage, losses,
thefts, etc, i.e.
Losses due to defective pipe joints, cracked and broken pipes,
faulty valves and fittings.
Losses due to, consumers keep open their taps of public taps
even when they are not using the water and allow the
continuous wastage of water.
 Losses due to unauthorized and illegal connections
While estimating the total quantity of water of a town;
allowance of 15-20 % of total quantity of water is made to
compensate for losses, thefts and wastage of water.
 PER CAPITA DEMAND

 In community, water is used for various purposes as described

above. For the purpose of estimation of total requirement of water,
the demand is calculated on the
average basis, which is expressed in per capital demand (lit / clay)
𝑄
 Per capita demand= ,Where
𝑃∗365
 Q: – is the total quantity of water required by various purposes
by a town per year in liter.
P: - The population of the town
factors affecting per capita demand of the town
Climatic conditions :-In hooter & dry place quantity of H2O
more ,In cold places, water required less.
Size of community:- Water demand is more with increase of size
of town because more water is required in street washing, running
of sewers, maintenance of parks and gardens.
Living standard of the people :-The per capita demand of the
town increases with the standard of living of the people because of
the use of air conditioners, room coolers, maintenance of lawns,
use of flush, latrines and automatic home appliances
etc.
Industrial & commercial activities :-The presence of industries &
commercial activity a town will increase the
per capital demand of the town.
 Quality of water: If the Quality of water is good, & more water
will be consumed.
 Cost of water:-The cost of water directly affects its demand. If
the cost of water is more, less quantity of water will be used by the
people as compared when the cost is low.
 System of sanitation: The presence of water carriage system in a
town will increase the per capital demand of the town.
 Pressure in the distribution system :-
If the pressure - more water loss due to leakage, wastage
 System of supply
 VARIATIONS IN DEMAND
 The per capita demand of town is the average consumption of water for a
year. In practice it has been seen that this demand does not remain uniform
throughout the year but it various from season to season, even hour to hour.
SEASONAL VARIATIONS
 The water demand varies from season to season. In summer the water
demand is maximum, because the people will use more water in bathing,
cooling, lawn watering and street sprinkling.
 This demand will becomes minimum in winter because less water will be
used in bathing and there will be no lawn watering.
DAILY VARIATIONS
 This variation depends on the general habits of people, climatic conditions
and character of city as industrial, commercial or residential.
 More water demand will be on Sundays and holidays due to more
comfortable bathing, washing etc as compared to other working days.
HOURLY VARIATIONS
 Design period

 Design Period: - is the no of years for which the designs of the

water works have been done. It should neither be too short or too
long, mostly water works are designed for design period of 22 – 30
years.
 Factor, which should be kept in view while fixing the design
period:
 Fund
 The life of the material used in project (pipes, structural
materials )
 Anticipated expansion of the town
 The rate of interest on the loan taken
 Population Forecasting
 The design of the water supply project is done on the basis of
projected population at the end of the design period. Otherwise a
present scheme will be inadequate in near future.
 The following are the common methods by which the forecasting of
population is done.
1. Arithmetic increases method
2. Geometric increase method
3. Incremental increase method
4. Decrease rate method
5. Simple graphical method
6. Master plan curve method
7. Logistic curve method
8. Ration & correlation
 Arithmetic increase method

 This method is based on the assumption that the population is

increasing at a constant rate i.e.the rate of change of population
with time is constant.
 i.e. dp/dt=k
dp=k dt when we integrate the limit Po-Pn & o-n
Pn – po = k (n-o) = kn
 pn = po + kn
Where po = initial population (present popn)
Pn = future population at n decade or year
k = arithmetic increase
n = Decade or year
 This method is generally applicable to a large and old city.
 Example 1
• The following data have been noted from the census department.

Year 1940 1950 1960 1970

Population 8,000 12,000 17,000 22,500
• Calculate the probable population in the year 1980, 1990 and 2000
Solution
Year : 1940 1950 1960 1970
Population: 8000 12,000 17,000 22,500
Increase in
Population: 4,000 5,000 5, 500
Average 4000+ 5, 000+ 5, 500 = 14, 500 = 4, 833
Increase: 3 3
Probable popn in various decades shall be as flows
Year Population
1980 22,500 + 1* 4833= 27, 333
1990 22,500 + 2*4833 = 32,166
2000 22,500 + 3*4833 = 36,999
 Geometrical increase method.
 This method is based on the assumption the percentage increase in
population from decade to decade remains constant.
 If the present population is p and average percentage growth is k,
the population at the end of n decade will be:
P1 = Po + Kpo = po (1 + k)
P2 = p1 + kp1 = p1 (1 + k) = po (1 + k) (1 + k) = Po(1 + 𝑘)2
P3 = p2+ kp2 = p2 (1 + k) = po (1 + k) (1 + k) (1 + k)
=Po(1 + 𝑘)3
 Pn = Po(𝟏 + 𝒌)𝒏
where po = initial population ,Pn = popn at n
decades or year ,n = Decadeor year & k = Percentage
(geometric) increase
 This method is mostly applicable for growing towns and cities
having vast scope of expansion.
• Example 2: Forecast the population of example 1 by means of
geometrical increase method.
Solution
Year Population Increase in popn Percentage increase in popn
1940 8,000 -------- ------------
1950 12,000 4,000 (4000/8000)*100=50%
1960 17,000 5,000 (500/12000)*100=41.7%
1970 22,500 5,500 (5,500/17,000)*100=32.4%
Total: 14,500 124.1%
Average per Decade : 4,833 = 14,500/3 41.37%=124.1%/3
The popn at the end of various decades shall be as follows:
Year Expected popn
1980 22,500 + (41.37/100) 22,500 = 22,500 (1+41.37/100)
=31,808
1990 22,500 (1 + 41.37/100)2 = 44,967
2000 22,500 (1 + 41.37/100)3 = 63,570
 Incremental Increase method

 This method is improvement over the above two methods. The

average increase in the population is determined by the
arithmetical method and to this is added the average of the net
incremental increase once for each future decade.
 Example 3: Forecast the population of example 1 by mean of
incremental increase method.
Solution

Year Population Increase in Incremental

population increase
1940 8,000 --------- ----------
1950 12,000 4000 ----------
1960 17,000 5000 + 1000
1970 22,500 5500 +500
Total 14500 1500
Average 14500/3=4833 1500/2=750
The Population at the end of various decades shall be as follow:
Year Expected Population
1980 22,500 + 1* (4,833 + 750) = 28,083
1990 22,500 + 2* (4,833 + 750) = 33,666
2000 22,500 + 3* (4,833 + 750) = 39,249
 Decreasing rate method
 In this method, the average decrease in the percentage increase is
worked out and is then subtracted from the latest percentage increase for
each successive decades.
 This method is applicable to average size cities growing under normal
condition. Example 4: Solve example 1, by using decrease rate of
growth method.
 Solution
Year Populatio Increase in % age increase Decrease in %
n population in population age increase
1940 8000 ---------- ---------- ----------
1950 12000 4000 4000/8000*100= ---------
50
1960 17000 5000 5000/12000*100 +8.3
=41.7
1970 22500 5500 5500/17000*100 +9.3
=32.4
Total 14,500 17.6
Avg 14,500/3=4833 17.6/2=8.8
 Cont…
 Now the popn at the end of various decades shall be as follows:
Net Percentage increase
Year In population Population
1980 32.4 - 8.8 = 23.6 22,500 + 23.6/100*22,500 = 27,810
1990 23.6 – 8.8 = 14.8 27,810 + 14.8/100*27,810 = 31,926
2000 14.8 – 8.8 = 6.0 31,926 + 6/100*31,926 = 33,842
 Simple graphical method
 In this method the population of last few years is correctly plotted
to a suitable scale on the graph with respect to years.
 Then, the curve is smoothly extended to forecast the future
population.
Master plan method
 In the method, the master plan of the city or town is used to
determine the future expected population.
 The population densities for various zones (residential,
commercial, industrial and other zones) of the town are fixed and
hence the future population of the city when fully developed can
easily be worked out.
 Logistic curve method
 When the population of a town is with plotted with respect to time,
the curve so obtained under normal condition shall be S shaped
logistic curve.
According to P.F. Verhulst, the logistic curve can be represented by
the equation
𝑃𝑠
P= −1 𝑛.𝑡
1+𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
 Where Ps = Saturation population
Po = Population at starting point
P = Population at any time t from the starting point
2 𝑃1∗𝑃2∗𝑃3−𝑃22(𝑃1+𝑃2)
 Ps=
𝑃1𝑃3− 𝑃22
𝑃𝑠−𝑃𝑜
 m = Constant =
𝑃𝑜
2.3 log 10 𝑃𝑜(𝑃𝑠−𝑃1)
n = Constant = (
𝑡 𝑝1(𝑃𝑠−𝑃𝑜)
P0 = Popn of the town at t0
P1 = >> >> >> >> >> t1
P2 = >> >> >> >> >> t2
 Ration and correlation method
In this method, the rate of population growth of a town is related to
the rate of population growth of state or nation.
 Hence it is possible to estimate the population of a town under
consideration by considering the rate of population growth of state
or nation.
 Questions
1. Explain the various factors affecting the per capita demand ?
2. Name the different types of seasonal variation?
3. Explain the various types of water demands?
4. Population of a town as obtained from the census report is as
follows.
Year 1941 1951 1961 1971
Population in thousands 242 485 770 1090

Estimate the population of the town in the year 1981, 1991 & 2001 by
 Arithmetic increase method
 Geometrical increase method
 Incremental increase method
 Decrease rate method
 3.Water supply sources
All the sources of water can be broadly divided into:
 Surfaces sources and
 Sub surface sources
Surfaces Sources
The following are the different surface sources of water:
 River or stream
 Ponds or lakes
 Storage reservoir
River or steam
 It is formed by the runoff in the mountain & hill areas.
 Some rivers are perennial (water available through out the year) and some
are non perennial (water available in raining season only).
 Perennial River should always be selected for the scheme. Incase of non
perennial rivers, the weir or low dam may be constructed to form a
storage reservoir.
 The streams are suitable for small water supply scheme.
Pond or lake
 It is natural or artificial depressions where surface runoff is
collected in rainy season.
Impounding Reservoirs
 In some rivers the flow becomes very small and cannot meet the
requirements of hot weather. In such cases, the water can be stored
by constructing weir or a dam across the river at such places where
minimum area of land is submerged in the water and maximum
quantity of water to be stored.
 This sources is always preferred for large water supply projects
Ground Water Sources
 Springs
 Well
 Infiltration galleries
Spring
 When the under ground water reappears at the ground surface by
under ground pressure, then it is known as spring.
Types of springs:
 Gravity Springs: When the surface of the earth drops sharply the
water bearing stratum is exposed to atmosphere.
 Surface Spring: This is formed when an impervious stratum
which is supporting the ground water reservoir becomes out crops
 Artesian Spring: When the ground water rises through a fissure in
the upper impervious stratum. When the water-bearing stratum has
too much hydraulic gradient and is closed between two imperious
stratum,
Well
 A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the
purpose of tapping water.
The three factors which form the basis of theory of wells are
1. Geological conditions of the earth’s surface
2. Porosity of various layers
3. Quantity of water, which is absorbed and stored in different layers
Shallow Wells
 Shallow wells are constructed in the uppermost layer of the earth’s
surface. The diameter of well varies from 2 to 6m and a maximum depth
of 7m.
 The quantity of water obtained from shallow wells is better than the river
water but requires purification.
 The shallow wells should be constructed away from septic tanks, soak pits
etc because of the contamination of effluent.
 The shallow wells are used as the source of water supply for small
villages, undeveloped municipal towns, isolated buildings etc because of
limited supply.
Deep well
 The theory of deep well is based on the travel of water from the
outcrop to the site of deep well.
 The outcrop is the place where aquifer is exposed to the
atmosphere. The rain water entered at outcrop and gets thoroughly
purified when it reaches to the site of deep well.
 The depth of deep well should be decided in such a way that the
location of outcrop is not very near to the site of well. The water
available at a pressure greater atmospheric pressure, therefore deep
wells are also referred to as a pressure wells.
Water Sources Selection Criteria
The choice of water supply to a town or city depends on the
following:
 Location: The sources of water should be as near as to the town as
possible.
 Quantity of water: the source of water should have sufficient
quantity of water to meet up all the water demand through out the
design period. Source of water should be able to meet the
maximum demand in dry season also.
 Quality of water: The quality of water should be good which can
be easily and cheaply treated.
 Cost: The cost of the units of the water supply schemes should be
minimum.
Questions
1. Explain the sources of water?
2. Explain the classification of wells?
3. What are points should be kept in mind while selecting source
of water supply?
4.COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
Intakes for Collecting Surface Water
 The main function of the intakes works is to collect water from the surface source and
then discharge water so collected, by means of pumps or directly to the treatment water.
 The following points should be kept in mind while selecting a site for intake works.
 Where the best quality of water available so that water is purified economically in
less time.
 At site there should not be heavy current of water, which may damage the intake
structure.
 The intake can draw sufficient quantity of water even in the worst condition, when
the discharge of the source is minimum.
 The site of the work should be easily approachable without any obstruction
 The site should not be located in navigation channels
 As per as possible the intake should be near the treatment plant so that conveyance
cost is reduced from source to the water work
 As per as possible the intake should not be located in the vicinity of the point of
sewage disposal for avoiding the pollution of water.
 At the site sufficient quantity should be available for the future expansion of the
waterworks.
Types of Intake structures sump well and connected to the
Depending upon the source of water pumping unit which delivers water
the intake works are classified as to the treatment plant.
following  Sometimes intake works may be
River intake constructed in the middle of the
 A circular or rectangular sump well river. In the case, all precautions
is constructed with masonry work should be taken to protect the
in the bank of river in such a way structure from silting and heavy
that the water can enter the well in current of river
both conditions (H.F.L & L.W.L)
through pipes installed at different
level.
 Screens are provided at the end of
the pipe to eliminate suspended
matters.
 The main suction pipe having
strainer at the bottom is inserted
into the
Lake Intake treatment plant.
 A submersible rectangular
chamber is constructed at the bed
of the lake below the low water
level. So as to draw water in dry
season also.
 The top cover of the chamber
consists of several holes having
gratings on it to prevent the entry
of debris, aquatic life, weeds etc
to the chamber.
 A bell mouthed pipe is provided
in the chamber which contain
screen at the top. It is connected
to pumping unit through suction
pipe to draws water from the
chamber and delivers to the
Reservoir Intake
 If a non perennial becomes the only source of water for a town, then the
weir or dam may be constructed across the river to form reservoir.
However, an intake well is constructed on the body of the weir or dam in
such way that the water can be tapped throughout the year.
 The intake pipes which have screen at the ends are fitted at different level
to a vertical pipe which provided inside the well. This vertical pipe again
connected to the treatment plants.
Canal intake
 It is a very simple structure constructed on the bank of the canal. The well
may be circular or rectangular and it is constructed with masonry work. It
has an opening on its side provided with screen.
 An inlet pipe is inserted in to the well extending up to the L.W.L of the
canal for drawing water and it carries a hemispherical screen at the end.
 A manhole is provided on the well cap for inspection work. The intake
pipe is connected to the pumping unit for sending water to treatment unit.
DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
Requirement of Distribution System
 The should convey the treated water up to consumers with
the same degree of purity
 The system should be economical and easy to maintain and
operate
 The diameter of pipes should be designed to meet the fire
demand
 It should safe against any future pollution. As per as
possible should not be laid below sewer lines.
 Water should be supplied without interruption even when
repairs are undertaken
 The system should be so designed that the supply should
meet maximum hourly demand.
System of Distribution
 For efficient distribution it is required that the water should reach
to every consumer with required rate of flow. Therefore, some
pressure in pipeline is necessary, which should force the water to
reach at every place.
 Depending upon the methods of distribution, the distribution
system is classified as the follows:
 Gravity system
 Pumping system
 Dual system or combined gravity and pumping system
Gravity System
 In this system, the water flows under the force of gravity from the
distribution reservoir to the distribution area.
 This system is suitable when the source of water treatment plant and
the distribution reservoir are situated at a high level than the
distribution area.
Pumping System
 In this system, the water is directly pumped in the main. Since the
pumps have to work at different rates in a day, the maintenance cost
will increases.
Dual System
 In this system, the pumping and gravity both systems are utilized
simultaneously when required.
 Normally, the pumps are operated at a constant speed to meet the
average demand of water. So, during the period of low demand, the
excess water is stored in an elevated reservoir. During the period of
peak demand, the water is supplied by pumping and from the
elevated reservoir simultaneously.
 This system is fairly reliable b/c in the case of failure of pumping
the water supply can be continued for some period from the
reservoir.
Methods of Supply of Water
 The water may be supplied to the consumers by either of the two
systems
Continuous System
 This is the best system and water is supplied for all 24 hours. This
system is possible when there is adequate quantity of water for
supply.
 In this system less diameter of pipes are required and rusting of
pipes will be less. Losses will be more if there are leakages in the
system.
Intermittent System
If plenty of water is not available, the supply of water is divided into
zones and each zone is supplied with water for fixed hours in a day or
on alternate days.
 Cont…
The system has following disadvantages:
 Consumers have to store water for non-supply hours.
 Bigger sized pipes are to be laid, because full day’s supply is to
be provided within few hours of supply.
 Pipelines are likely to rust faster due to alternate wetting and
drying. This increases the maintenance cost.
 There is also pollution of water by ingress of polluted water
through leaks during non-flow periods.
 More wastage of water due to the tendency of the people to
store more water than required quantity and to waste the excess
to collect fresh water each time.
Layouts of Distribution System
Generally in practice there are four different systems of distribution which
are used. They are:
 Dead End or Tree system
 Grid Iron system
 Circular or Ring system
 Radial system
Dead end or Tree System
 In this system, a main line is taken from the reservoir along the main
road. The sub-mains are taken suitably from the main line. Cut-off
values are provided at the entry of sub-mains.
 From the sub mains, the branch lines are taken from which service
connections are give to consumer through the ferrule. The end of the
sub-mains and branch lines are stopped by scour values which are
known as dead – ends.
 In this system water flows in one direction only into sub-mains and
branches.
 Due to the dead – ends, there is no free circulation of water and
the water remains stagnant within the pipe line.
 This system is suitable for regular developing town or city.
Advantages
 Discharge and pressure at any point in the distribution system is
calculated easily.
 The valves required in this system of layout are comparatively less
in number.
 The diameter of pipes used are smaller and hence the system is
cheap and economical.
 The laying of water pipes is used are simple.
Disadvantages
 There is stagnant water at dead ends of pipes causing
contamination.
 During repairs of pipes or valves at any point the entire
downstream end are deprived of supply.
 The water available for firefighting will be limited in quantity.
Grid Iron System
 From the mains water enters the branches at all junctions in either
direction into sub-mains of equal diameters.
 In this system, the main line, the sub-main lines, and the branch
lines are interconnected. So, there is free circulation of water
through the pipe lines. Cutt-off values are provided at each
junction point so that the repair works may be conducted at a
particular area without disturbing the whole area.
 In this system the length of the pipe as too long, and hence it is
very costly. It is suitable for town or city having rectangular lay out
of roads.
Advantages
 As water is supplied from both the sides at any point, very small
distribution area will be affected during repair.
 Every point receives supply from two directions and with higher
pressure
 In case of fire, more quantity of water can be diverted towards the
affected area, by closing the valves of nearby localities.
 There is free circulation of water and hence it is not liable for
pollution due to stagnation.
Disadvantages:
 More length of pipes and number of valves are needed and hence
there is increased cost of construction
 Calculation of sizes of pipes and working out pressures at various
points in the distribution system is laborious, complicated and
difficult.
Circular or Ring System
 Supply to the inner pipes is from the mains around the boundary. It
has the same advantages as the grid-Iron system. Smaller diameter
pipes are needed.
 The advantages and disadvantages are same as that of grid-Iron
system.
Radial System
 In this system, the town or city is divided in to various circular or
square zones and distribution reservoirs are placed at the centre of
each zone. The distributor lines are laid radially from reservoir
towards the periphery of each zone.
 In this system the water from the main reservoir is allowed to flow
through the main pipe and sub main pipe and collected at
distribution reservoir of each zone. The water is supplied to
consumer through distributor pipe lines.
Service Reservoir
The Service Reservoir is also known as distribution reservoirs. It’s has
four main function.
 To balance or equalize (allow a uniform rate) the supply and
demand over a long period of high consumption.
 Provide a supply during a failure or shutdown of treatment plant,
pumps or trunk main.
 To give a suitable pressure for the distribution system and reduces
pressure fluctuations there in.
 To provide a reserve of water to meet fire and other emergency
demand.
Types of Service Reservoirs
Generally, there are two types of service reservoirs:
1. Surface reservoir (Ground Reservoir or Non-elevated)
2. Elevated reservoir ( Over head Tank)
Accessories of Service Reservoirs
The service reservoirs are to be provided with the following
accessories:
 Inlet Pipe : For the entry of water
 Ladder : To reach the top of the reservoir and then to the bottom of
the reservoir, for inspection and cleaning
 Lightening Conductor : In case of elevated reservoirs for the
passage of lightening
 Manholes : For providing entry to the inside of reservoir for
inspection and cleaning
 Outlet pipe: For the exit of water
 Outflow Pipe : For the exit of water above full supply level
 Vent pipes : For free circulation of air
 Washout pipe : For removing water after cleaning of the reservoir
 Water level indicator: To know the level of water inside the tank
from outside
Determination of Storage Capacity of Reservoir
The total capacity of the service reservoir is determined by adding the
quantity of water required for various purposes. These are for
balancing reserve, for Breakdown reserve and for fire reserves.
 For Balancing Reserve: - This is requires equalizing b/n the
fluctuations of demand rate with the constant rate of pumping.
Balancing Storage: - Max. Surplus + Max. Deficient
 For Break down Reserve:- This is the amount of storage
during the break down of pumps.
From 2 – 3 hrs pumping capacity is provided against this storage.
 For Fire reserve: - This is storage required for fighting a fire out
break.
A provision of 5 to10% of the total storage is sufficient to meet the
requirement.
 The total reservoir storage can finally be worked out by adding all
the three storages.
Example 1:
A small town with a design population of 1600 is to be supplied water
at 150liters per capita per day. The demand of water during different
periods is given in the following table:
Time (hr) 0-3 3-6 6-9 9 -12 12 - 15 15 18 18 -21 21 24
Demand 20 25 30 50 35 30 25 25
(1000liters)

Determine the capacity of a balancing reserve if pumping is done 24

hours at a constant rate.
Solution:
Per capita water consumption = 150l/c/d
Total water demand = demand * population = 150*1600 =
240,000liters
Rate of pumping = 240,000/24 = 10,000lit/hr = 30,000lit/3hr
a) Analytical method

Time Pumping Demand Cum. Cum. Surplus

Supply Demand s Deficit

0-3 30,000 20,000 30,000 20,000 10,000

3-6 30,000 25,000 60,000 45,000 15,000
6-9 30,000 30,000 90,000 75,000 15,000
9 - 12 30,000 50,000 120,000 125,000 0 5,000
12 - 15 30,000 35,000 150,000 160,000 10,000
15 - 18 30,000 30,000 180,000 190,000 10,000
18 - 21 30,000 25,000 210,000 215,000 5,000
21 - 24 30,000 25,000 240,000 240,000 0

Maximum cumulative surplus = 15,000 liters

Maximum cumulative deficit = 10,000 liters
Balancing storage = 15000 + 10000 = 25,000lit = 25𝑚3

4
If the reservoir is circular with depth, h = 3.0 m, d = 25 ∗ 3𝜋 =4.3 m
Mass curve method
Example 2: Consider example 1, if the pumping is done for:
a) Eight hours from 8 hrs to 16 hrs
b) Eight hrs from 4 hrs to 8 hrs and again 16 hours to 20 hrs.
Calculate the capacity of the balancing reserve.
Solution:
Total water demand = 240,000lit/hr
Rate of pumping = 240,000/8 = 30,000l/h = 90,000lit/3hrs
a) Eight hours from 8 hrs to 16 hrs
A) Analytical Method
B) Graphical Method
b) Eight hrs from 4 hrs to 8 hrs and again 16 hours to 20 hrs.
A) Analytical Method

Maximum cumulative surplus = 55,000

Maximum cumulative deficit = 50,000
Balancing storage, S = 105,000lit = 105m3
B) Graphical Method
Depth Service Reservoirs
 Depths usually used are as follows

Size (m3) Depth of water (m)

Up to 3500 2.5 to 3.5
3500 to 15,000 3.5 to 5.0
Over 15,000 5.0 to 7.0
These figures don’t apply to water towers or pre-stressed concrete reservoirs.
Factors
influencing depth for a given storage are:
1. Depth at which suitable foundation conditions are encountered
2. Depth at which the out let main must be laid
3. Slope of ground, nature and type of back fill
4. The need to make the quantity of excavated material approximately equal to the
amount
required for backing, so as to reduce unnecessary carting of surplus material to tip.
5. The shape and size of land available
Shape of service reservoir
 Circular reservoir is geometrically the most economical shape,
giving the least amount of walling for a given volume and depth
 However, this shape is seldom adopted .It is unsuitable for division
in to two compartments, which would allow one half to be drained
for maintenance without taking the whole reservoir out of service.
 rectangular reservoir usually proves most economical when division
walls are incorporated .
Pipes used in the water distribution system
Pipe materials used in transmission and distribution systems must have
the following characteristics:
 Adequate tensile strength and bending strength to withstand
external loads.
 High bursting strength to withstand internal water pressure.
 Ability to resist impact loads to water flow suitable for handling
and joining facilities.
 Resistance to both internal and external corrosion.
A pipe material is selected based on various conditions:
 Cost
 Type of water to be conveyed
 Carrying capacity of the pipe
 Maintenance cost
 Durability, etc.
The types of pipes used for distributing water include:
 Cast iron pipe
 Steel pipe
 Concrete pipe
 Plastic pipe
 Asbestos cement pipe
 Copper pipe
 Lead pipe
Cast iron pipes
Advantages: Disadvantage:

 The cost is moderate  The breakage of this pipe is

 The pipes are easily joined large
 The pipes aren’t subjected to  Carrying capacity decreases
corrosion with increase in life
 The pipes are strong and
durable
 Service connections can be
made easily
 Galvanized Iron Pipes

Advantages: Disadvantage:
 The pipes are cheap  These pipes are liable to
 Light in weight and easy to incrustation
handle (due to deposition of some
and transport materials
 Easy to join inside part of pipe)
 Can be easily affected by
acidic or
alkaline water
 Short useful life
 Plastic Pipes
Advantages:
 The pipes are cheap Disadvantage:
 The pipes are flexible and  The coefficient of expansion
possess low hydraulic for plastics is high, the pipes
resistance (less friction) are less resistant to heat
 They are free from corrosion  Some types of plastics may
 The pipes are light in weight impart taste to the water
and it
is easy to bend, join and install
them
 The pipes up to certain sizes
are available in coils and
therefore it becomes easy to
transport
Determination of Pipe Sizes
 Permissible velocities for best results for different pipe sized pipes are
within the range of 0.3 to 2 m/s.
 For small size pipes flowing with high velocity of flow, loss of head due
to friction is more. Once the velocity of flow is established loss of head
due to friction, bends and other reasons can be computed.
The size of the pipe used in the water distribution system or the velocity of
flow through the pipe can be determined by one of the following formulas:
Darcy –Weisbach formula:
ℎ 𝑓𝑙𝑣2
𝑓= 2𝑔𝑑

Where, hf = head loss (m)

f = friction factor (which is related to the relative roughness of the pipe
material & the fluid flow characteristics)
L = length of pipe (m)
V = velocity of flow (m/s)
D = diameter of pipe (m)
g = Acceleration due to gravity
 The major energy loss (head loss) in pipes can be found by
Darcy –Weisbach formula.
Hazen-Williams formula
𝑕𝑓
𝑄= 0.278𝐶𝐷2.63 𝑆 0.54 S=
𝐿
Where,
C = Coefficient that depends on the material and age of the pipe
S = Hydraulic gradient (m/m)
Table - Values of C for the Hazen-Williams formula

Nomographs shown in fig – solve the equation for C = 100. Given

any two of the parameters(Q, D, hf or V) the remaining can be
determined from the intersections along a straight line drawn across
the nomograph
Exercise
For Q = 30l/s, D = 200mm, C = 100, L = 1500, Find hf. By using
Hazen-Williams formula and nomograph ?
Manning’s Formula:
𝐴𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2 𝐷 𝑕𝑓
Q= R= S=
𝑛 4 𝐿

Where, n = Coefficient of roughness depending on pipe

material, usually
n = 0.013 →GI pipes
n = 0.009 → Plastic pipes
n = 0.015 → Clay concrete pipes
 The most common pipe flow formula used in design and
evaluation of a water distribution system is the Hazen-Williams’
formula.
Water supply pipes sizes commercially available are given in the
following table:
Example 1:
Given
Total population of a town = 80,000
Average daily consumption of water = 150liters/capita/day
If the flow velocity of an outlet pipe from intake = 1.5 m/s, determine
the diameter of the outlet pipe.
Solution
Total flow, Q = Demand* Population = 150*80,000 = 12 × 106 lit/day
12×106
= =0 1389 𝑚3 /s
24×60×60×103

But the pipe size available on the market is 300mm & 350mm, then
take D = 350mm
Example 2:
A town has a population of 100,000 persons. It is to be supplied with
water from a reservoir situated at a distance of 6.44km. It is stipulated
that one-half of the daily supply of 140lit/capita should be delivered in
6 hours. If the loss of head is estimated to be 15m, calculate the size of
pipe. Assume f = 0.04.
Solution
140∗100,000 3
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 = 3 =14,000𝑚
10
Since half of this quantity is required in 6 hours
14,000
Maximum flow = =0.324𝑚3 /s
2∗6∗60∗60
According to the Darcy-Weisbach formula:
𝑓𝑙𝑄2
ℎ𝑓 = 5 Where, hf = 15m, f = 0.04, L = 6440m
12.1𝑑

But available pipe sizes 675mm & 750mm, take 750mm diameter pipe
Procedure of Analyzing Pipe Size and Pressure
Hardy Cross Method
 Hardy cross method is commonly employed method for the
analysis of pressures and pipe diameters
 Analysis of a pipe network is essential to understand or evaluate
a pipe network system. In a branched pipe network, the pipe
discharges are unique and can be obtained simply by applying
discharge continuity equations at all the nodes .
 The method is based on the following basic equations of
continuity of flow and head loss that should be satisfied:
 The sum of inflow and outflow at a node should be equal:
𝜺Qi=qj for all nodes j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , …
where Qi is the discharge in pipe i meeting at node (junction) j,
and qj is nodal withdrawal at node j
The algebraic sum of the head loss in a loop must be equal to zero:
𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑘 𝐾𝑖 𝑄𝑖 𝑄𝑖 =0 for all loops k =1, 2, 3, . . . , kL,
Where,

Where i= pipe link number to be summed up in the loop k

Knowing DQk, the corrections are applied as

5.APPURTENANCES IN THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Appurtenances :-are various devices fixed along the water distribution
system.
The necessity of the various appurtenances in distribution system are as
follows:-
 To control the rate of flow of water
 To release or admit air into pipeline according to the situation
 To prevent or detect leakages
 To meet the demand during emergency and
 Ultimately to improve the efficiency of the distribution
The following are the some of the fixtures used in the distribution
system.
 Valves
 Fire hydrants and
Water meter
TYPES OF VALVES
The following are the various types of valves named to suit their
function.
SLUICE VALVES
 These are also known as gate-valves or stop valves. These valve
control the flow of water through pipes .
CHECK VALVE or REFLUX VALVE
 These valves are also known as non-return valves. A reflux valve is
an automatic device which allows water to go in one direction only
 When the flow of water in this direction ceases, the water tries to
flow in a backward direction. But this valve prevents passage of
water in the reverse direction.
AIR VALVES
AIR INLET VALVES
These valves open automatically and allow air to enter into the
pipeline so that the development of negative pressure can be avoided
in the pipelines.
AIR RELIEF VALVES
 Some times air is accumulated at the summit of pipelines and
blocks the flow of water due to air lock.
 In such cases the accumulated air has to be removed from the pipe
lines. This is done automatically by means of air relief valves.
DRAIN VALVES
 These are also called wash out valves they are provided at all dead
ends and depression of pipelines to drain out the waste water.
These are ordinary valves operated by hand.
SCOUR VALVES
 These are similar to blow off valves. They are ordinary valves
operated by hand.
 They are located at the depressions and dead ends to remove the
accumulated silt and sand. After the complete removal of silt; the
value is to be closed
WATER METER
 These are the devices which are installed on the pipes to measure
the quantity of water flowing at a particular point along the pipe.
 The readings obtained from the meters help in working out the
quantity of water supplied and thus the consumers can be charged
accordingly.
FIRE HYDRANTS
A hydrant is an outlet provided in water pipe for tapping water mainly
in case of fire. They are located at 100 to 150 m a part along the roads
and also at junction roads.
A good fire hydrant
 Should be cheap
 Easy to connect with hose
 Easily detachable and reliable
 Should draw large quantity of water