Liminality in Post-Colonial Theory A Journey From Arnold Van

Anudhyan
An International Journal of Social Sciences (AIJSS)

Volume 1  No.1
Raja Narendralal Khan Women’s College

Gope Palace • Midnapur • Paschim Medinipur • West Bengal • I ndia
Website:www.rnlkwc.org
1
Anudhyan: An International Journal of Social Sciences (AIJSS)
CHIEF ADVISOR
Prof. Tirthankar Purakyastha, Department of English, Vidyasagar University
CHIEF EDITOR
Dr. Rina Pal, Associate Professor, Department of History, RNLK Women’s College
Dr. Sujoy Kumar Maity, Associate Professor, Department of Bengali, RNLK Women’s College
ASSOCIATE EDITOR
Dr. Parul Chatterjee, Associate Professor, Department of History, RNLK Women’s College
SCIENTIFIC EXECUTIVE
Nirmalya Kumar Sinha
EDITOREAL BOARD
Prof. Mesba Kamal, Professor of History, Dhaka University
Prof. Sanjoy Mukherjee, Professor of Film Studies, Jadavpur University
Prof. Sarbani Choudhury, Professor, Department of English, Kalyani University
Dr. Sarbani Ganguly, Professor, Department of Sanskrit, Jadavpur University.
Prof. Layek Ali Khan, Professor, Department of Bengali, Vidyasagar University
Prof. Tanveer Nasreen, Professor, Department of History, Burdwan University.
Prof. Rajkumar Kothary, Professor, Department of Political Science with Rural Administration, Vidyasagar University
Prof. Anil K. Jana, Retd. Professor, Department of Political Science with Rural Administration, Vidyasagar University
Prof. Prabhat Mishra, Retd. Professor, Department of Philosophy and the Life-world, Vidyasagar University
Dr. Sobhan Lal Datta Gupta, Rtd. Professor, Department of Political Science, Burdwan University.
Dr. Durga Shankar Rath, Professor, Department of Library Science, Vidyasagar University
Dr. Sankar Prasad Sinha, Retd. Professor, Department of English, Vidyasagar University.
Dr. Ambarish Mukhopadhay, Professor, Department of Political Science with Rural Administration, Vidyasagar
University.
Dr. Sumanta Kumar Mandal, Professor, Department of Physical Education, Biswabharati University.
Prof. Rabindranath Chattopadhay, Emeritus Professor, Architecture and Regional Planning, IIT-Kharagpur
Prof. Jayanta Jaydeb, Visiting Professor, Department of Philosophy, Utkal University, Former Director, School of
Women Studies, Utkal University.
Dr. Alak Pal, M.D., FRCOG, Consultant Obstetrician and Gynaecologist at Ealing Hospital NHS Trust, London.
Dr. Sebak Jana, Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Vidyasagar University.
Dr. Debashis Bandopadhyay, Associate Professor, Department of English, Vidyasagar University.
Dr. Papia Gupta, Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy, Vidyasagar University.
Dr. Tapan De, Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy, Vidyasagar University.
Dr. Ramkrishna Maity, Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Vidyasagar University.
Sri. Ladli Mukhopadhay, Film Director and Film Critic.
Dr. Pradip Kumar Ghosh, Musicologist
2
Anudhyan: An International Journal of Social Sciences (AIJSS) is an open access, peer-reviewed Journal
of Raja Narendralal Khan Women's College, Midnapore. The main objective of AIJSS is to provide an
intellectual platform for the faculty members, researchers and scholars.
The Journal publishes research papers in the fields of Social Sciences such as Economics,
Education, Ethics, Geography, History, International Relations, Information Science, Law, Linguistics,
Library Science, Media Studies, Human Rights, Philosophy, Political Science, Population Studies,
Psychology, Public Administration, Sociology, Social Welfare, Literature, Performing Arts (Music, Theatre,
Dance), Anthropology, Cross-cultural Studies, Demography, Development Studies, Visual Arts, Women’s
Studies and so on.
The Journal will be published annually in both Print and Online versions. IJSS publishes original
papers, review papers, conceptual frame work, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical
research, technical notes and book reviews. Special issues devoted to important topics in humanities and
social science will occasionally be published.
Editorial Policies
Subject to the editorial screening at the preliminary stage, all papers are sent to the experts of
university/IIT level for review.
The author of the manuscripts is provided with the opportunity to revise the manuscript, if
necessary, to improve the standard by incorporating the suggestion of the Reviewer within a given time.
Manuscript submitted for publication is under the Jurisdiction of Copyright Act. The Editorial
Board reserves the full copyright of the published paper. Editor reserves the right to make cosmetic/
stylistic changes which do not affect the motive of the paper without consulting the author.
The Journal receives manuscripts anytime during the year and considers for publication in the
forthcoming issue.
The views expressed in the paper are of the authors’ own and the Editorial Board bears no
responsibility for it.
Page Charges – There are no page charges for this Journal.
3
Manuscript Preparation : Instruction to the Author

Manuscripts must be submitted electonically as an attachement in MS Word and PDF Version through e-mail to the
chief editor at [email protected]
Language
The language of the manuscript must be in English (either American or British standard, but not the mixture of both
except for Bengali literature).
Type and Length of paper
Original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies,
empirical research, technical notes, and book reviews will be considered for publication. An article would normally
consist of 8-10 pages with about 4000 words (excluding figures, tables and references), “although high-quality
articles which exceed the word limit will be considered. Manuscripts must be typed in MS word.
Title Page
Title page is a separated page before the text. It should include the following information:
Title
Title should be concise and informative. Try to avoid abbreviations.
Author’s names and affiliations
Please indicate the given name and family name clearly. Present the authors’ affiliation addresses (where the actual
work was done) below the names. Indicate all affiliations with a lower-case superscript letter immediately after
the author’s name and in front of the appropriate address. Provide the full postal address of each affiliation,
including the country name, and, if available, the e-mail address, and telephone number of each author.
Corresponding author
Clearly indicate who is willing to handle correspondence at all stages of refereeing, publication and also post-
publication. Ensure that telephone numbers (with country and area code) are provided in addition to the e-mail
address and the complete postal address.
Abstract
A concise abstract is required with a maximum length of 150 words. The abstract should state briefly the
purpose of the research, the principal results obtained and major conclusions. An abstract is often presented
separately from the article, so it must be able to stand alone. References should therefore be avoided, but if essential,
they must be cited in full, without reference to the reference list.
Keywords
Immediately after the abstract, provide a maximum of 8 keywords, avoiding general and plural terms and multiple
concepts (avoid, for example, ‘and’, ‘of’).
Subdivision of the article
Divide your article into clearly defined and numbered sections. Sections should be numbered 1, 2. etc. The abstract
is not included in section numbering.
Main Body or text can be subdivided into headings and subheadings (subsections). Subsections should be numbered
as 1.1, 1.1.1, 1.1.2 etc.)
Table and Figures
Present tables and figures at appropriate positions in the text. Caption should be placed at the bottom of the table/
figure. Number the captions as 1., 2., 3. etc. Please note that the article will be published in black and white.
Acknowledgement
If the research is sponsored or supported by an organization, please indicate it here.
4
References
Citations in the text
Please ensure that every reference cited in the text is also present in the reference list (and vice versa). Avoid
citation in the abstract. Unpublished results and personal communications should not be in the reference list, but
may be mentioned in the text. Citation of a reference as ‘in press’ implies that the item
has been accepted for publication.
Reference List
References should be arranged first alphabetically and then further sorted chronologically if necessary. More than
one reference from the same author(s) in the same year must be identified by the letters “a”, “b”, “c”, etc., placed
after the year of publication.
Examples:
Reference to a journal publication:
Van der Geer, J., Hanraads, J. A. J., & Lupton R. A. (2000). The art of writing a scientific article. Journal of
Scientific Communications, 163, 51-59.
Reference to a book:
Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (1979). The elements of style. (3rd ed.), (Chapter 4). Macmillan, New York.
Reference to a chapter in an edited book:
Mettam, G. R., & Adams, L. B. (1994). How to prepare an electronic version of your article. In B. S. Jones, & R.
Z. Smith (Eds.), Introduction to the electronic age (pp. 281-304). New York: E-Publishing Inc.
Reference to a web source:
Smith, Joe, (1999), One of Volvo’s core values. [Online] Available: http://www.volvo.com/environment/index.htm
(July 7, 1999).
Submission Preparation Checklist
Before submitting the manuscript, author(s) should check the following list.
1. The submission has not been previously published, nor is it before another journal for consideration.
2. The submission file is in Microsoft Word file/ PDF format.
3. Manuscript has been made in the light of Journal’s author guidelines.
4. Author(s) did not mention his or her name and affiliation in the main text but only on the title page.
5. Author(s) has read all the terms and conditions of the journal.
6. Authors may prepare a list of three reviewers with Institute name and designation , full address, contact number
and email and submit separately with the manuscript.
Sample Of The Title Page
Title (First Letter in Caps)
Studies on Some Historical Sites in Midnapore
Author’s names and affiliations
Maity, Jayantaa ; Ghosh, Subhrab and Pal, Dilipb*
a
Vidyasagar University, Address, Phone Number/Mobile, email
b
University of Calcutta, Address, Phone Number/Mobile, email
*Corresponding author
Copyright
Copyrights for articles published in IJSS are retained by the authors, with first publication rights granted to the
journal. The journal/publisher is not responsible for subsequent uses of the work. It is the author’s responsibility to
bring an infringement action if so desired by the author.
5
From The Desk of The Chief Editors
It gives us immense pleasure and satisfaction on the occasion of the publication of the first issue of
Anudhyan: An International Journal of Social Science. Anudhyan- literally meaning continuous thinking
or concentration is the outcome of imagination, hard work and good wishes of many. Internal Quality
Assurance Cell of our College took the initiative to publish one journal for science and one for humanities
in line with NAAC recommendations. It was under the able guidance of our respected Principal, Dr.
Jayasree Laha that the process of publication of the journal got direction and took shape. Without the
tireless efforts of Dr. Rupa Dasgupta, Coordinator, IQAC, publication of this journal could not have been
a reality. Dr. Madumangal Pal, External Member of IQAC deserves special mention for his valuable
guidance and support in all stages of publication of the first issue. Thanks are due to all members of the
Editorial Board and Reviewers for their meticulous scrutinizing of each and every article submitted to this
journal. We also gratefully thank all the authors who submitted their article to this journal for publication.
The huge response that we got from the authors has encouraged us immensely.
Critical thinking, creativity, controlled imagination and organizational abilities have been reflected
in most of the papers published. We sincerely hope that this journal will be a useful platform to nurture
creativity of researchers and teachers in time to come.
Dr. Rina Pal
6
Contents
Black Death: A Disaster in European Civilization Dr. Tapati Dasgupta 9
(Trans) porting Play-texts into Films: Dynamics of

De/Re-contextualization in Select Appropriations
of Shakespeare's Macbeth Soumyadeep Chakraborty 19
Lhotshampas Refugees: Implications on

Nepal-Bhutan Relations Eyasin Khan 25
Little Magazine: The Prime Space for Study of Sociology,

Anthropology and Folklore of Rural Bengal Biswajit Adhikary 40
Domestic Violence Against Women In India Dr. Rina Pal 51
Comparative Study between the Kaivalya of Yoga

and the Nirvâna of Bauddha Dr. Sukanta Das 66
Tagore’s Song – the Source of Infusion of a new Life Dr. Susanta Kumar Samanta 72
The Concept of Religion Gargi Medda 78
The Land Where Women Prevail: Khasi Matrilineality

and Emergent Social Issues in Meghalaya Dr. Animesh Roy 84
Religious Fundamentalism and Fundamental

Unity of Religions Neelanjana Chakraborty 92
S añkar’s Concept About The “Nature of Self”” Sandhya Nandy 97
Politics of Inclusion and Empowerment of Women.

The Post-Seventy Third Amendment Scenario in India Dr. Anil Kumar Jana 105
Violence Against Women In India :

An Analytical Overview Rajesh Banerjee 122
Urban Local Government In India:

Challenges and Prospects Dr. Annapurna Nanda 131
Liminality in Post-Colonial Theory: A Journey from

Arnold van Gennep to Homi K. Bhabha Arup Ratan Chakraborty 145
7
Sri Aurobindo and Integral Yoga: A Review Dr. Rajarshi Kayal 154
Caste in Mind: Craving for Endogamy

Reflection from the Bengali Matrimonial
Columns of the Higher Castes Dr. Aparnita Bhattacharjee 158
The Spirit of Renaissance: Reflections on

Derozio’s Mind and Work Bibhas Chand 173
Status of Tribal Women in India :Some Observations Dr. Papia Gupta 181
The Thaat-Ragas of North Indian Classical Music:

The Basic Atempt to Perform Dr. Sujata Roy Manna 189
^Çåü âXïí¼[ *@üá¥ý : âTüïí[ íPAá Ký. âUSå] @åüXá[ X~ü] 193
âRx…UïíBÞ[ #UyƒÿáR < Nýá[á^¥ýïí[[ `RáâBRã@üRóá[ @üáâbRã' Ký. aåGZ@åüXá[ XábÙÿâNý 198
KÙýíSâ¤üNý GãUïíR[ @üOá : âUWæýâNýWæý_ïíM[ âRUÞáâýEýNý Bïíq†[ #áïí]áïí@ü Ký. #âRNýá aábá 208
8
Black Death: A Disaster in European Civilization
Dr.Tapati Dasgupta
ABSTRACT
The Black Death which occurred in Medieval Europe not only shattered the backbone of civilization in manifold
ways, but it had far-reaching consequences on population scale, literature, art, architecture, music and films. The
most evil effect of the peril was that it broke the morals of the people which shaped the course of civilization in a
very crude way. There are many scientific theories regarding the origin and spread of plague; still researches are
being carried out in this dimension in the 21st century regarding this hazardous event. On the whole, Black Death,
which was a happening of yester years, remains to be a very controversial topic even today. The Black Death of the
Middle Ages created a saga of terror, turmoil and tears and left a penetrating scar of anguish and atrocity on
mankind. But it paved the path for the creative blossoms, i.e the Renaissance and the Reformation that ushered in
Europe out of the ashes of the Black Death/
Keywords: Black Death, Plague, Epidemic, Bubonic Plague, Pneumonic Plague, Septisemic Plague, Disease,
Disaster, Civilization.
Introduction: event was call ed the ‘Great Mortality’ by

Black Death was one of the biggest disasters that contemporary writers and the later outbreaks
created a havoc in European civilization in the 14th became known as the ‘Black Death’ because of a
century. It is described as man-made disaster – an striking symptom of the disease, called Actral
epidemic which proved t o be damaging for necrosis, in which sufferers’ skin would blacken
European civilization and culture. This event ruined due to subdermal hemorrhages. Historical records
one third of the population of Europe i.e. almost 34 attribute the Black Death to an outbreak of bubonic
millions of people during 1347-50. The Black Death plague, an epidemic of the bacterium Yersinia pestis,
also created a tormer in many Asiatic and Middle- spread by fleas with the help of animals, like the
Eastern countries. It is said that this epidemic black rat (Rattus rattus), one kind of squirrels from
recurred in Europe with intense density and ruinous America, bushy dogs etc. Today’s experts are still
effect in Italy (1629-1631), in London (1665-66) and in debate regarding the microbiological culprit and
in Vienna (1679). The initial 14th century European mode of transmission.
Consultant to Projects, Department of Architecture and Regional Planning, Kharahpur IIT
9
The result of the plague was not just a massive England in 1348 and to the Low Countries in 1349.
decline in population. It irrevocably changed The countries which could escape the disease were
Europe’s social structure in the sense that it gave a Milan, Germany and Central Europe. Bohemia,
tremendous blow to Europe’s predominant religious Poland and Central Germany could also remain safe
institution, like the Roman Catholic Church. It till 1370.
caused widespread persecutions of minorities like There is still another version that the origin of
Jews and Lepers and caused a general mood of this epidemic was North India in Asia Minor. The
morbidity that influenced the people to live for the merchants and the Mongol barbarians used the Silk
moment, unsure of their daily survival. Route very often and this was a good accessory to
the disease to be spreaded widely.
Origins of the Black Death:
Historians from different corners of the world have Pattern of the Pandemic:
not yet reached to any decisive point that what Historians like David Herilthy and others believe
was the actual origin of this disastrous plague. The that there were specific reasons for the spread of
medieval European authors believed that the origin the plague epidemic in different parts of Europe.
of this plague disease was China, which was one of Firstly, there was a terrible Civil War in China
the ancient places of black magic. These authors which was followed by a fall in economic standard
believed that the plague disease evolved out of from 1205 to 1353 which led to severe damage in
some inhuman or occult forces, which have been agricultural products and trade products. This event
identified with earthquake and rainfall with insects later turned into a wide-spread famine. The ‘Little
and rats. These facts have been collected from the Ice Age’ started from the end of 13th century, which
ancient folklore of China and Middle East. Some brought about a drastic change in the climatic
other historians believe that some sharp-teethed sphere. Terrible Cold Wave devastated the animal
rats carrying the germs of plague travelled from as well as the plant kingdom to a great extent. These
Middle East to Southern Russia accompanied by twin reasons, according to the above-mentioned
some merchants. This area was very vital; it was historians were responsible for the spread of this
the area between Black Sea and Caspian Sea. In havoc-making disease in Europe.
this way, plague spread to different parts of Europe Secondly, from 1315 to 1322, the entire Northern
through different routes – a) The route from Tartar Europe was engulfed by a fatal famine. Food crisis
of Southern Russia to nearby colonies of Black Sea accompanied by rise in price of goods gave shape
in Italy (1346). b) Another route reached Alexandria to new dimensions of socio-economic crisis. There
in Egypt in 1347. c) The route reached Damascus was great decrease in quantity of wheat, maize, hay
and Libya in 1348 and d) It reached Upper Egypt in and cattle. The common people became the victims
1349. It has been known that the Venetian and of stupendous hunger and mal-nutrition. It so
Jenoese sailors carried this disease to Europe e) happened that men gradually lost their immunity
The plague next travelled from Southern France to power to check the epidemic.
10
Dr.Tapati Dasgupta
Thirdly, the Great Famine affected some of the Pneumonic plague carries a kind of saliva infection
countries to a large extent, like, Flanders and which is blown through air and this infection affects
Burgandy. It is said that Typhoid epidemic gave a a person’s lungs and throat areas. As a result of
signal for ensuing danger before the occurrence of this, these areas become swollen, one develops
the actual Plague epidemic. Many thousands died breathing problem and finally succumbs to death.
in populated urban centres, most significantly in Signs and Symptoms: i) In Bubonic plague, there
Ypres. In 1318, a pestilence of unknown origin, is terrific pain in the body muscles and there are
sometimes identified as anthrax, hit the animals of also swells in specific parts of body. ii ) In
Europe. The disease targeted sheep and cattle, Pneumonic plague, blood is found with sputum,
further reducing the food supply and income of the later the sputum is totally turned into blood with
peasantry, putting another strain on the economy. increasing degree of fever. iii) In Septisemic plague,
The increasingly international nature of the European the entire body becomes purple, because of entry
economies meant that the depression was felt across of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
Europe. Due to pestilence, the failure of England’s poison in the body.
wool exports led to the destruction of the Flemish People were mostly affected by the first two
weaving industry. Unemployment bred crime, which types, the third variety was lesser in scale. The
finally reaped the roots of poverty all over Europe. most prevalent type was the Bubonic type – where,
Fourthly, according to historians like Robert people died within seven days of the detection of
Gattfried, the carrier of the plague disease was a the disease. Black scars were found all over the
kind of bacteria, the name of which was Yersinia body in this Bubonic form, Thousands and millions
pestis seen at 2000 x magnification. This theory of people fell victims of this disease and the disease
implies that this bacteria might cause the mortality spread like havoc from ports to cities.
of millions of people. Historians like Gattfried Alternative Explanations:A completelynew theory
believed that Europe, in the 14th century fell victim has been invented by Mark Derr, John Kelly and
to such a vicious environment from which there some other scientists in the 21st century that the
was no escape. plague epidemic was originated from black rats
Forms of Plague:The experts give the opinion that (Rattus rattus). This theory tells us that these black
there are usually three types of plague–i) Bubonic rats traversed through the trade routes of Asia
ii) P neumonic iii) Septisemic.Bubonic and Minor to Europe and contaminated the big brown
septisemic plague usually occur due to contact with rats of Norway. (Rattus norvegicus).According to
flies. When the bacteria enters into the body of a these scientists, rat ecology had interaction with
fly, the fly feels extremely hungry and the fly meets human ecology which resulted in wide-spread
its appetite by biting fiercely. In time of biting, the prevalence of plague all over Europe.
bacteria infected poisoned blood pierces the injured However, recent scientific and historical
area of a person and automatically the person investigations have led researchers to doubt the
becomes plague infected, while the hungry fly dies. long-held belief that Black Death was an epidemic
11
of Bubonic plague. For example, in 2000 Gunnar much longer than other confirmed yersinia pestis
Karisson (Iceland’s 1100 years: The History of a plagues. A longer period of incubation would allow
Marginal Society) pointed out that the Black Death carriers of the infection to travel further and infect
killed between half and two-thirds of the population more people than shorter one. These researches
of Iceland, although there were no rats in Iceland at are exposed to us through the book called ‘Return
this time. Rats were accidentally introduced in of the Black Death: The World’s greatest Serial
Iceland in the 19th century, and have never spread Killer.’
beyond a small number of urban areas attached to In a similar vein, historian Norman F. Cantor, in
seaports. In the 14th century there were no urban his book ‘In the Wake of the Plague’ (2001),
settlements in Iceland. Iceland was unaffected by suggests the Black Death might have been a
the later plagues which are known to have been combination of pandemics including a form of
spread by rats. anthrax a cattle murrain. He cites many evidences
In 1984, Graham Twigg published ‘The Black including reported di sease symptoms not in
Death: A Biological Reappraisal’, where he argued keeping with the known effects of either bubonic
that the climate and ecology of Europe and or pneumonic plague, the discovery of anthrax or
particularly England made it nearly impossible for pneumonic plague, the discovery of anthrax spores
rats and fleas to have transmitted bubonic plague. in a plague pit in Scotland and the fact that the
Modern researchers of plague epidemiology have meat from infected cattle was known to have been
proved that the biological information which are sold in manyrural English markets prior to the onset
available about R. rattus and R. norvegicus and of the plague. It is notable that the level of infection
the common fleas, X. cheopis and P. irritans were varied widely, from human to human contact as in
native species in India. Twigg concludes that it Sicily (which speaks against a virus or in this
would have been nearly impossible for Y. pestis to specific case, anthrax).
have been the causative agent of the beginning of Apart from Christian evidences, Chinese and
the plague. Twigg also shows that the common Muslim medical records suffice us with reliable
theory of entirely pneumonic spread does not stand medical records which are expected to be more
anywhere. He proposes, based on a re-examination informative.
of the evidence and symptoms, that the Black Death Historians do believe that the spread of the
may actually have been an epidemic of pulmonary plague could be due to low levels of immunity in
anthrax caused by B. anthracis. that period’s European population. Historical
In 2001, epidemiologists Susan Scott and examples of pandemics of other diseases in populace
Christopher Duncan from Liverpool University without previous exposure, such as smallpox and
proposed the theory that the Black Death might tuberculosis amongst American Indians, show that
have been caused by an Ebola –like virus, not a the low levels of inherited adaptation to the disease
bacterium. Their rationale was that this plague cause the first epidemic to spread faster and to be
spread much faster and the incubation period was far more virulent than later epidemics among the
12
Dr.Tapati Dasgupta
descendants of survivors. Also, the plague returned growing immunity capacity of the people in general
again and again and was regarded as the same iii) the growing awareness of the people and the
disease through succeeding centuries into modern preventive measures taken up by the people.
when the Yersinia bacterium was identified. Preventive Measures (Management): Paul Slack in
It is interesting to go through the findings of his famous article called ‘Disappearance of the
tooth pulp tissue from a 14th centuryplague cemetery Plague: An Alternative view’ enumerated several
in Montpellier from which the germs of Y. pestis reasons for the disappearance of the plague and
DNA could be detected. However, such a finding the preventive measures that were taken up by the
was never confirmed in any other cemetery in the people themsel ves to do away with such a
Christian world. In September 2003, a team of damaging demise. After much researches, it was
researchers from Oxford University tested 121 teeth analyzed that the plague disease had its occurrence
from 66 skeletons found in 14th centurymass graves. in first summer and in first autumn. After much
The remains showed no genetic trace of Yersinia exploration, it has been also found out that the
pest is and the researchers suspect that t he disease spread mostly in poverty – stricken areas
Montpellier study was at flaw. and in congested town areas. An Italian Researcher,
Recurrence of Plague: The 14th centuryBlack Death named Giralamo Fracastoro first discovered the fact
(1347-50) scenario was once again repeated in that the disease originated from poor slum areas.
Europe in the 17th century, amongst which the most The first preventive measure which was taken up
ill-famous was ‘Great Plague of London(1665-66). by the people of medieval Europe was that they
This recurrence sounded the death-knell of many tried to remain aloof from the infected person. They
millions in England. The Great Fire of London(1666) migrated in large numbers from the infected towns
brought a respite to the incident in the sense that it to far away village and suburb areas. They regarded
destroyed the plague germs, specially the carriers the measure to be most wise. There are evidences
of plague, i.e. the black and brown rats to a great in some of the families, that the diseased person
extent. was left alone in charge of a servant and the rest of
The next plague occurrence took place in Italy the family members fled away to distant places. In
in 1629-31. Historians are of opinion that this plague some other families, one member only took the
germ was carried by the soldiers of the Thirty Years’ responsibility of buying the food products and
War. In 1679 plague prevailed in Vienna, which doing the outside works alone in order to avoid
according to some historians had its roots from the contamination. The richer families remained little
trade ports of the Occident through the merchants. safer, because they could maintain at least some
The last plague, is recorded to have taken place in hygienic measures.
1722 in Western Europe. The quarantine method first started in Italy in
Disappearance of the P lague: The causes of the 15th century. A family, a colony or a town was
depletion of plague epidemic from European soil completely disjointed with other connections for
are focused to be i) Great Fire of London ii) the the safety of public health. Again, it was in Italy
13
first, that the diseased people were immediately slaughter of these two sections of people by others.
taken to plague hospitals. Severe inspective The Jews were put to death by fire or they were
measures were regulated on travellers from other drowned in any kind of waterbody forcibly. This
places and they had to show medical certificates kind of practice first started in Southern France.
that they were not carrying plague germ. Strict The level of t orcher reached maxi mum in
measures were also taken by 16th century to allow Switzerland and Germany. Bern witnessed the
people to get out of Quarantine Area. torcher on Jews to its most cruel limit. The Popes of
In the 17 th century, when Medical Science Catholic Church tried their best to stop these
became much improved, the Govts of different inhuman exploitative measures on Jews and Lepers,
European countries took the precaution of creating but they were not much successful. The level of
a Medical Boundary or Cordon Sanitaire, so that cru elty decreased only when plagu e slo wly
entry of plague could be checked from the eastern diminished from the European countries in its normal
countries. Each traveller from Ottoman Empire had process.
to undergo medical test and every ship had to wait Modern researches reveal that one third of the
in the Quarantine Area for checking of every population of Europe were depleted as a result of
passenger minutely. The Roman Government also this plague epidemic. The demographic record tells
established a Medical Border beyond the river us that out of 12,000 people in Bremen in Germany,
Danube for limiting the contacts with the Ottoman 7000 lost their lives. In the flourishing city of
Empire. The citizens, who tried to violate these rules Florence of Italy, out of 90,000 people, 40,000
were shooted mercilessly. It seems that the Cordon succumbed to death. In Paris, the beautiful city of
Sanitaire proved successful to a certain extent, France, out of 180,000 people 50,000 accepted
because plague could be checked in Western mortality. All big cities turned into graveyards. Some
Europe by the end of 16th century. But Bubonic other cities remained barren because of high degree
Plague still kept stirring in the coastal areas of the of migration from towns to villages. The artisans
Mediterranean Sea for many more years. and the merchants were the first to migrate to remote
Consequences: Depopulation: The disastrous places. This damage on European population was
consequence of the plague epidemic befell on unrepairable.
mortality of people at large, which depopulated The contemporary records unfold the fact that
many cities and towns in a ruthless manner. The in Hubei district of China, 90% population was
contemporary chronicles have described Black di stressed. In Chi na, total 8 dist rict s were
Death as a ‘horrible and cruel thing.’ As a result of devastated by the black blemish of plague. It is
the occurrence of plague, the Jews and Lepers were estimated that 25 million people fell death victims.
tormented to a cruel extent. Some people nurtured Comparatively Poland and Lithuania were safer in
the idea that the Jews and Lepers were mainly position than most of the countries in Western
responsible for contaminating air and water, i.e. the Europe. In the opinion of John Kelly “Woefully
environment in a fatal manner. This led to cruel inadequate sanitation made medieval urban Europe
14
Dr.Tapati Dasgupta
so disease-ridden, no city of anysize could maintain his view that as a result of Black Death i) the power
its populatio n without a const ant infl ux of of the Church decreased b) there cropped up
immigrants from the countryside. The influx of new alarming revolts, like the Jacquerie Revolt in France,
citizens facilitated the movement of the plague Ciompi Revolt in Italy (it devastated the city of
between communities and contributed to the Florence completely) and the English Peasant Revolt
longevity of the plague within larger communities.” in England. According to Braudel all these
It was quite impossible to calculate the mortality happenings were the resultant effects of the economic
rate of the people in Middle East. The mortality rate depression cropping out of Black Death.
was higher in village areas, particularly in the village Some historians are of opinion that as a result
areas of Palestine and Syria. It has been recorded of sudden scarcity in labour, the landlord section
that the village people vacated their accommodation started appointing new labourers who got better
and planting plots and migrated to other places in salary and better incentives. This created a gulf
large number. In 1348, there is the report that 10,000 between the traditional workers and the new
dead bodies were found in Ghaza and in Aleppo; workers of the 15th and 16th century and this was
there is the report of daily mortality of 500 people. one of the vital reasons for the roots of capitalism.
In the same year, in Damascus, there is the report of The same pattern was repeated in case of landed
1000 mortality. In 1349, in Syria there is the report of aristocrats, who found that acres of cultivable land
400,000 deaths and it is also reported that plague remained barren because the peasants fled far away
was almost extinct in other parts by that time. in fear. New sections of peasants got assignments
Socio-Economic Effects: During the time of and after 1470, drastic social changes followed in
epidemic, many kings and kingly families stopped trail. According to a group of historians, these
export market with the outside countries for eventful years gradually paved the path for the
checking plague. Strict control was kept over black- Renaissance and Reformation in Europe.
marketing and fishing on large scale was declared In Eastern Europe, events took an opposite turn.
illegal. All these measures were undertaken in order The traditional farmers were kept attached with their
to check contamination from plague. But as a result old plo ts t hrou gh t he process o f serfdo m.
of water mismanagement, the number of pirates Historians opine that because of lesser impact of
increased and their onslaught also increased. Black Death on Eastern Europe, the people could
From 1337 onwards, there began the famous sustain their old way of living.
Hundred Years’ War between England and Scotland Precautions: Black Death incurred upon the people
which led to severe economic distress, demographic of Europe some fanatic and barbaric beliefs, from
disaster and infrastructural damage. The ill-effects which they could not recover for a long time. It has
of the Hundred Years’ War was accompanied by been mentioned earlier that the Jews became the
the plague epidemic which resulted in terrible famine worst victims of torcher, because there grew the
and economic inflation. stubborn belief that Jews were the carriers of this
Economic historian Fernand Braudel expresses disease. The Jews were killed in inhuman ways and
15
by 1351,60 major and 150 minor Jew communities Church in the eyes of the people.
were completely destroyed. The Jew Ghettos were Other Social Effects: The other social effects which
totally detached from the main towns. The lepers were felt o n so ciet y were t heft s, dacoi ty,
became the second victims, because there was prostitution, addiction to liquors etc. which were
general religious norm that due to acute sins some of the ugly and ancient evils of society.
committed by a section of people, leprosy, which Black Death in Literature: The black shadow which
was an alarming skin disease prevailed among them. had its curtain dropped in the Medieval European
As Bubonic plague also was initiated with black stage due to Black Death was reflected in literature
scars, leprosy was suspected to be connected with of the time. Actually, an overall depression was set
it in some way or other. So, the innocent lepers in different layers of society and literature was one
were also torchered in a brutal manner as carriers of of the main avenues through which this state of
plague. depression would be best unravelled. Agnolo di
Religio n: P eopl e became so ferocio us and Tura the Fat of Siena records his experience like
bewildered at that time that they came to believe this:
that the Church was an useless citadel representing “Father abandoned the child, wife husband, one
religious dictums and faith. The Popes and Monks brother another; for this illness seemed to strike
were ridiculed and hated because of their incapacity through the breath and sight . . . . . None could be
of redressing the disease. Some people also started found to bury the dead for money or friendship.
to believe that they themselves were responsible Members of a household brought their dead to a
for bringing about such a big curse on society. ditch as best as they could, without priest, without
They became so much desperate that they began divine offices . . . . great pits were dug and piled
caning themselves for avenging their sins. The deep with the multitudes of dead.
Church itself became stupefied at this awesome . . . . . . And I, Agnolo di Tura, called the Fat,
hazard and found no way for redress of the disease. buried my five children with my own hands. And
The Papal system became very unpopular under there were also those who were so sparsely covered
Pope Clement VI. This age has been described as with earth that the dogs dragged them forth and
the age of Babylonian Captivity because of its devoured many bodies throughout the city.”
despair, disdain and degradation. Some of the The scene Di Tura describes is repeated over
monasteries got much affected by plague because and over again all across Europe and these personal
their abodes were in close vicinity with the plague experiences were told by Gabriel de ‘Mussi from
dwellers. This resulted in a mass influx of new Sicily,Henry Knighton from England and others.
clergy members, most of whom did not share the In addition to these personal accounts, many
life-long convictions and experiences of the presentations of the Black Death have entered the
veterans they replaced. This again resulted in general consciousness as great literature. For
abuses committed by the clergy in years afterwards example, the major works of Boccaccio (the
and a further deterioration of the position of the Decameron), Petrarch, Geoffrey Chaucer (the
16
Dr.Tapati Dasgupta
Canterbury Tales) and William Langland (Piers symphonies which exemplified the depressed
Plowmen) are all documents of death that blurred mental state of affairs of the people of the time.
the society with its black blemishes in the medieval Modern Films: Some of the film directors tried to
times. Alexander Pushkin’s “Feast in the time of depict the art of death in their films in a very intricate
the Plague’ carriers a lofty weight in literature in manner. One such example is Det sjunde inseglet
this connection. (The Seventh Sea) by Ingmar Bergman (1957) which
Black Death in Art, Architecture &Music: A kind was a real sensational film. In 1988, a Science Fiction,
of distortion and ugliness could also be identified named ‘The Navigator – A Medieval Odyssey’ also
in art, architecture and music. Le Danse Macabre could create some impressions on spectators about
or the Dance of Death, is an allegory on the Black Death.
universality of death, expressing the common Modern Novels – Some modern novels, like Hugo
wisdom of the time that no matter one stations in Award Winning Fiction Novel, ‘Dooms – Day Book’
life, the dance of death united all. It consists of the (1993), The Years of Rice and Salt’ byKim Stanley
personified Death leading a row of dancing figures Robinson (2002) unfold some of the glaring pictures
from all walks of life to the grave – typically with an of Black Death, which shattered men and mankind
emperor, king, pope, monk, youngster, beautiful girl, to its cruelest extent.
all in skeleton-state. Other artistic examples are from Conclusion: The ‘Black Death’ of Europe in the
the frescoed cemetery of the Church of the Holy 14 th century and its after years brought about
Innocents in Paris (1424), works by Knorad Witz in gruesome deaths in millions, devastated the society
Basal (1440), Bernt Notke in Lubeck (1463) and and its morals, penetrated deeply in the economy
Woodents by Hans Holbein the Younger (1538). of the time, impoverished men both mentally and
The paintings of Oreagna(1354-57) expose a socially. The preventive measures which were
picture of terrorized distorted figures of the age. undertaken were very slow in comparison to the
Francesco Trainis’ ‘The Triumph of Death’ (1350) gnawing bruises in people’s soul and the soil of
is a fantastic distorted painting in this arena. Philippe Europe which could not be erased so easily. The
Aries painted the excellent picture named ‘The Hour healing effects which brought solace in society later,
of our Death’ with unique artistic sense. could not rescue it however from its gloomy impact
In Eastern Europe too, some instances of this on literature, art, architecture, music and overall on
kind of art are found especially in mosque human morals. So, Black Death really proved to be a
architecture. The walls of certain Madrasas of 1356- disastrous disaster that brought about a black effect
61 bear the evidences of this art. on European civilization of 14th, 15th and 16th century.
Black Death had its impact on Music also and
the music that were composed during this period References:
were mainly Church Choirs. But these Church • Herbihy David. 1997 ‘The Black Death and the
Choirs were devoid of the earlier tunes of devotion, Transformation of the West’, Cambridge.
love, joy and optimum. These were all melancholic • Gattfried Robert. 1983 ‘The Black Death’, New York.
17
• Derr Mark. 2001 New “Theories Link Black Death to • Cantor Norman F. 2002 ‘In the Wake of the Plague’,
Ebola – Like Virus”, The New York Times, Science Simon & Schuster, New York, 2001 ; Harper Perennial,
Section. New York.
• Kelly John, 2005 The Great Mortality, An Intimate • Appleby Andrew B. 1980 ‘The Disappearance of the
History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague: A Continuing Puzzle’, Economic History
Plague of All Times,’ New York. Review, 33, 2, 161-73.
• Karisson Gunnar. 2000 ‘Iceland’s 1100 Years: The • Slack Paul. 1981 “The Disappearance of the Plague:
History of a Marginal Society’, New York. An Alternative View”, Economic History Review, 34,
• Twigg Graham. 1985 ‘The Black Death: A Biological 3, 469 – 76
Reappraisal’, London. • Braudel Fernand. 1994 ‘A History of Civilizations’,
• Scott Susan and Christopher Duncan. 2004 ‘Return New York.
of the Black Death: The World’s Greatest Serial Killer’ • Agnolo Di Tura, A Chronicler from Siena, Italy, 14th
West Sussex, Century, from Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia.
18
(Trans) porting Play-texts into Films: Dynamics of De/Re-
contextualization in Select Appropriations of Shakespeare's Macbeth
Soumyadeep Chakraborty
ABSTRACT
Film appropriation is an aesthetic transportation of a 'literary text' or 'theatrical text' in the form of a 'motion text' or
film. It is an ongoing process and is heavily grounded in interdisciplinarity. To make a film appropriation, one needs
to de-construct the pre-established contextual affinity of the text and to re-contextualize it again in a different scenario.
The subtlety, artistry and skillful handling of this process of transportation indeed make a successful appropriation.
Throughout the ages, a large number of canonical Shakespearean texts have been de/re- contextualized and appropriated
by film-makers across the globe. My paper aims to analyze two of the cinematic appropriations of Shakespeare's
Macbeth viz. Scotland, PA (2001) and Maqbool (2003) in the light of de/re-contextualization.
Key Words: transportation, appropriation, de/re-contextualization, canonical Shakespearean texts
To be brief, 'film appropriation' is an aesthetic 'adaptation', deals with change in terms of the
transportation of a 'literary text' or 'theatrical text' in original point of enunciation; whereas in an
the form of a 'motion text' or film by appropriating adaptation, the original point of enunciation remains
the basic frame-work, ideas, concepts, theoretical the same. Unlike adaptation, the art of film
standpoints, motifs of the literary text to an appropriation concentrates more on the audience
altogether different time-setting, geo-political and than on the author of the 'source-text' or 'reference-
socio-cultural situation. So, to make a film text'. If film appropriation explores a dynamic,
appropriation, one needs to de-construct the pre- interesting and popular field of transportation of
established contextual affinity of the text and re- literary texts into films, Shakespearean texts
contextualize it in a different scenario. The subtlety, contribute to this field to a great extent. A large
artistry and skillful handling of this process of de/ number of canonical Shakespearean texts have been
re-contextualization indeed make a successful de/re-contextualized and appropriated by film-
appropriation. Film appropriation is an ongoing makers across the globe. My paper aims at an
pro cess and is heavily grou nded in analysis of two cinematic appropriations of
interdisciplinarity. Appropriation, as opposed to Shakespeare's Macbeth viz. Scotland, PA (2001) and
Guest Lecturer & Research Scholar, Dept. of English, Raja N.L Khan Women's College, Midnapore-721102, West Bengal,
India
19
Maq bool (20 03) in t he l ight of de/re- William Reilly’s Men of Respect (1991) retells the
contextualization. story of Macbeth as a mafia power struggle in New
Successful Shakespeare appropriations exhibit York. Coping brilliantly with this treasure-house of
brilliant handling of contextual and socio-cultural Shakespearean appropriations, Billy Morrissette's
shift. Fred M. Wilcox in Forbidden Planet (1956) Scotland, PA (2001) and Vishal Bhardwaj's Maqbool
fits The Tempest, one of the 'Last Plays' of (2003) have registered an esteemed place.
Shakespeare, into the science fiction mould. Akira Bil ly Morri sset te’s Sco tlan d, PA is a
Kurosawa's The Bad Sleep Well (1960) is a dark restructuring of Macbeth as a ‘black comedy’ that
appropriation of Hamlet, and the film is set in the takes place in Pennsylvania. Morrissette here, not
corrupt corporate world of post-World-War Tokyo. only de-contextualizes Shakespeare's 'tragedy of
In Ran (1985), Kurosawa appropriates King Lear ambition' from its seventeenth century ambience
to the context of feudal, samurai Japan. Baz of monarchism, ambition for the throne, witchcraft,
Luhrmann’s Romeo+Juliet (1996), set in an valorous battles etc., but re-contextualizes it in a
American context, delineates the Romeo and Juliet fast-food corner, expanding from a mere restaurant
story. It represents the Montagues and the Capulets to a food industry, in a small American rural town.
as warring mafia empires and Shakespeare is here Scotland, PA is partly a parody of Macbeth and a
truly 'Americanized'. Al Pacino's Looking for pungent satire on modern consumer culture and
Richard (1996) is an appropriation of Richard III class aspirations. The setting of seventeenth
and it reflects the ways we have understood century Ma cbet h i s al so radicall y al tered;
Shakespeare at the end of the twentieth century. In Morrissette has transferred it to a colonial site,
the film King is Alive (2000), Levring relocates King Pennsylvania, or PA in short. Regarding the setting,
Lear in an abandoned mining town in the Namibian Jess Cooke comments in Shakespeare on Film,
desert. Nelson's O (2001) is an appropriation of “Scotland, PA imaginatively transfers the play's
Shakespeare's Othello for a teen film. These setting to its colonial 'sequel', which was founded
aforesaid details highlight an enriching tradition of in the nineteenth century by Scottish immigrants”
film appropriation of Shakespearean texts in general (91). The film projects America in the 1970s where
with a brilliant display of de/re-contextualization. Macbeth turns into McBeth and his wife Pat
This tradition will unfold with even greater vigor if becomes emblematic of Lady Macbeth. The couple
we pay attention to the appropriations of Macbeth works at a small town food restaurant owned by
in particular, down the ages. Ken Hughes' Joe Norm Duncan, a substitute for King Duncan in
Macbeth (1955) resettles the story of Macbeth Macb eth. Norm Duncan is found rej ecti ng
amidst a gang-war in Chicago. Kurosawa’s Throne McBeth's plea for promotion; he also casts aside
of Blood (1957) is an appropriation of Shakespeare’s McBeth's idea of improving the store and spreading
Macbeth and stands as a meeting point of western the business through a French fry truck and
and Japanese classical modes. The first series of chicken nuggets with dippings. Being thwarted by
The Black Adder (1983) is a parody of Macbeth. the proud, autocratic attitude of Duncan, McBeth
20
and Pat become disappointed thinking of their bleak to venture into the food-processing unit and their
future in the hands of the stubborn master. living space, and here he is able to collect ample
Continual dissatisfaction and disappointment give evidence against McBet h. One t hing to be
birth to the ambition of going beyond the clutches mentioned, at this juncture, is that the Birnam wood
of the master. The instigating agency of the here is represented as a wildlife preserve or a forest
supernatural is also presented here, but with certain park. Eventually, McDuff vanquishes McBeth in a
variations as the weird sisters are transformed into climactic sequence on the roof of the hotel. The
gay hippies with individual names Stacey, Hector ending of Scotland, PA is quite different from the
and Jesse. This projection is evocative of the play-text: instead of Malcolm, McDuff takes hold
emergence of the hippies in America during of the fast food manufacturing enterprise and the
the1970s. restaurant, remodeling it for the second time after
The ambition of Mc and Pat of getting rid of the his own name. Courtney Lehman quite remarkably
master gradually starts to take on a 'black' texture comments in Out Damned Scot: “Unlike the other
when they initiate the plan to remove Duncan and Macbeth films…Scotland, PA is the only one that
take ho ld of the whol e food manufacturing privileges place over protagonist, underscoring the
company. When Duncan's sons are declared as new notion that this is not really Mc's tragedy but
managers, the couple beco mes desperat e. PA(T)'s, the figure most identified with her
Eventually Duncan is killed by two of his employees surroundings” (246) . Like Macbeth, here in
who drown his head in the sizzling oil contained in Scotland, PA, we can certainly see the interplay of
a French-fryer. Usurping the 'fast-food empire' of the dual machinery of ambition, one comes from
Duncan, Mc and Pat illegitimately grab it. The Mc and the other from Pat. Like Lady Macbeth, Pat
continuous haunting of Lady Macbeth's guilty also requires a man to execute her plan of reaching
co nsci ence is refl ected in Pat 's fearful high, and here the man is none other than McBeth.
consciousness of the burn that she gets on her Lady Macbeth's deterioration into insanity and
hand while killing Duncan. They introduce new subsequent death has been reflected in Pat's
business ideas: with 'the nomadic technology of obsession with the burning mark which ultimately
drive through and moving French trucks', Mc's drags her to insanity. It makes her so depressed
business prospers. Soon, Mc and Pat's socio- that she even goes on to remove her hand off out
economic status and power increase as well. of guilt-consciousness.
However, their success is hampered by the advent The film provides us a beautiful cluster of 'rock'
of a vegetarian detective Lieutenant McDuff who music composed by the English rock band Bad
starts to investigate Duncan's murder. Time and Company, which was founded in 1973 and created
again he begins to come to the couple and pursue euphoria throughout Europe during 70s. This rock
them tirelessly. One day, when McBeth is found to musicality in the film has created a prominent socio-
wander through Birnam wood for hunting with cultural ethos of the then America and has helped
Banco and his friends, McDuff gets the opportunity the film-maker to create a successful ‘Americanized
21
Shakespearean appropriation’. The film is also behind in this regard. Vishal Bhardwaj's film,
dominated by drinking, eating and lecherousness. Maqbool (2003) is a Bollywood appropriation of
Thomas Cartelli and Katherine Rowe remark: Shakespeare’s Macbeth, crafted as a Mumbai
...the intrusion of the fast food industry into gangster film. It aesthetically fuses the basic motifs
urban and rural communities has become a of Macbeth - ambition, treachery, bloody violence,
do minant symbo l o f the evils of fall, and death – with the complex and crude power-
globalization. Where Shakespeare's play mongering of the Mumbai underworld. The film is
provides for Malcolm's return to the throne, Bhardwaj's 'retelling' of Macbeth in the context of
Morrissette's film provides the equivocal smuggling, contract killing, and corporate crime
triumph not of individuals but of an industry. against the backdrop of the Mumbai of the 1960s
(107) and 1970s. Shakespearean 'tragedy of ambition' is
The film pin-points McBeth's desire for 'private decont extualized here from the Elizabethan
ownership' and in its attempt to project that, the concepts, values and perspectives such as politics
film also satirizes contemporary American consumer of kingship, witchcraft, 'de-sexed' woman-hood,
cul ture and market eco nomy. Mc, the male revenge etc. Being set in urban Mumbai during 60s
protagonist, is also emblematic of the towering and 70s, Maqbool exhibits the illegitimate rise of
ambition which is at the core of the American Dream. Mian Maqbool to power in the underworld empire
Being instigated by the 'post-industrial capitalist of Abbaji/Jahangir Khan by dethroning and killing
boom', American Dream propagated material gain, him, and also displays subsequent fall and death
worldly success, money, happiness and freedom, of the same (Maqbool). Maqbool is a story of
or, better to say, 'license'. In Horatio Alger's words, passion, power, seduction coupled with brooding
it is the 'rags to riches' instinct that hastened the crime and reverberating self-punishment. The movie
immoral access of this Dream in the humdrum lives reveals the politics of power, lust, and passion
of ordinary individuals. The desperate attempt of simultaneously as Mian Maqbool, the right hand
the ordinary couple, Mc and Pat, to grab the food man of the ganglord, Abbaji, falls in love with
industry and reach to the level of extra-ordinary is Abbaji's throne and mistress both. A saga of
indeed evocative of this harmful American Dream. massacre ensues. Nimmi, Abbaji's mistress, plays
Macbeth and Lady Macbeth's joint venture to the same crucial role here as that of Lady Macbeth
murder Duncan and grab the Scottish throne is in Macbeth. She plants the seeds of treachery in
beautifully de/re-contextualized by Morrissette in Maqbool's mind. Nimmi's stand-point introduces
the form of Mc and Pat's plot to murder their boss issues of lust and extra-marital relationship in the
and possess t he ownership of the fast food narrative. Cataclysmic intervention of the witches
manufacturing industry. and their prophesying are transformed into selfish
Shakespeare has been a rich store-house for instigation of the cops and their kundali/horoscope.
film-makers in matters of appropriations, over the Colours of Indian gangsterism and Mumbai-
globe, and Indian Bollywood is not lagging far underworld become far more prominent as the two
22
cops in the film are presented almost like slaves, from the utterance of the film-maker himself in an
sufficiently bribed by the gang; their kundali/ interview, “[I] have tried to be true to the play's
horoscope, like the witches' prophecy, acts as a spirit than to the original text” (Bhardwaj, “Rediff
signifier of forthcoming violence, predicts both Interview”). The film ventures to assimilate
success and failure for Maqbool. Just like the Shakespeare, 'a global phenomenon' to Bollywood
witches, they act like slaves but only to make gangster genre and an urban Mumbai setting, and
Maqbo ol their slave. Througho ut the story, thus articulates the 'translocal', 'transnational' and
Maqbool is haunted by hallu cinations, 'glocal' forms, emerging in 'post-millenial Shakes-
manifestations of his ‘guilt-consciousness’ and pearean cinema'.
‘fear to fall’, and it affects him a lot to hold his Besides these bold impressions of de/re-
gangster-empire, grabbed by usurping Abbaji. contextualization in terms of time, space, society
Freudian interpretation of the hallucination as an and culture, Maqbool has displayed a crucial
articulation of 'id' is as vivid here as in Macbeth. ideological shift as well. It is been an age-old
The film ends with the death of Maqbool, inflicting concept that drama is basically an aesthetic output;
and projecting violence and blood, but this time on hence it should desist from all 'foul display'. By
the killer. 'foul display', the classical masters primarily mean
Kathy M. Howlett remarks: “gangster films 'open display of blood-shed'. Though Shakes-
emphasize the historical realities of crime while pearean productions, in their time, challenged most
celebrating the criminal protagonist” (136); the same of the orthodox parameters of classical dramaturgy;
thing is reflected in Maqbool. Besides celebrating in the play-text Macbeth, we see Shakespeare
the eponymous criminal protagonist Maqbool, it maintaining the afore-said convention, at least in
also emphasizes the historical realities of crime and the case of Duncan's murder which is merely
gangsterism in urban India. The film speaks reported without making an open stage-display. In
unmistakably of the concealed interlink between Shakespeare's text, we onl y have Macbeth's
underworld administration and Bollywood. Unlike statement- “I've done the deed” and the blood-
most of the Bollywood films, Maqbool limits the stained dagger is ocular proof of the heinous deed
exuberant emplo yment of music and songs. he has committed by killing Duncan. But here in
Bhardwaj, himself being the music-composer of the Maqbool, the murder of Abbaji is displayed in
film, applies delicate tunes that often act as the utmost detail. Regarding this naked, bloody
background score of a particular situation, whether projection of murder, Bhardwaj has never felt that it
of seduction, guilt-consciousness or of revenge. has affected the aestheticism of the film at any
Hence t he music of the film seems not point. Such sensational detailing and display of
supplementary but complimentary to the core. murder is also designed by Roman Polanski in his
Bhardwaj, here, tries to hold the 'soul' of Macbeth widely celebrated film adaptation of Macbeth (1971).
and cinematically changes its 'physic' through the The basic reason behind such projections by
process of de/re-contextualization. This is evident noted modern and post-modern directors may be
23
illustrated by Bamber's words: “If you make a film of de/re-contextualization by the respective film-
about murder, you have to show the murder…If makers, they also vindicate the range and dynamism
you use the screen as a medium, then what you tell this de/re-contextualization may give to a text. In an
has to be told by visual means.” oblique manner, this kind of transportation and
What gangster films do have in common is the dynamism of a Shakespearean play-text again proves
'quest for power' in the context of the protagonist's that Shakespeare is truly for all and for all time.
racial or ethnic difference and in a putative world
where illegal activities and its exercise are the only
and best means to achieve power. Bhardwaj's
Works Cited
Maqbool fulfills this issue to the core. One thing • Bamber, Martyn. “Macb eth. ” Senses of
that may crop up, at this juncture, in the psyche of Cinema:<http: // www. archive.senses ofcinema. com/
an audience with a scholastic bent of mind is, 'To macbeth. html/>, accessed on Sep. 24, 2015. Web.
• Bhardwaj,Vishal. “The Rediff Interview”. http://
what extent should one consider it a Shakespearean in.rediff.com/movies2003/nov/06vishal.html/, accessed
appropriation in a gangster film and to what extent on Sept. 24, 2015.Web.
should one take it as another gangster film?’ An • Biswas, Moinak. “Mourning the Blood-Ties: Macbeth
in Mumbai.” Journal of the Moving Image [Online]:
answer may be attempted in this way that a gangster • http://www.jmionline.org/jmi5_4.htm>/ , accessed on
film must be taken by an audience just to be a gangster Sep. 11, 2015. Web.
film, sometimes to have pure entertainment, and • Cartelli, Thomas, and Katherine Rowe. 2007 New
Wave Shakespeare on Screen. USA: Polity.
sometimes to enjoy a 'meta-textual life for digesting • Harrison, G. B. 1961Shakespeare’s Tragedies.
and negotiating a position in the gangster pantheon' Routledge: London.
Poststructuralism challenges systematized • Howlett, Kathy M. 2000 Framing Shakespeare on
Film. Athens: Ohio University Press.
constructs like 'text and its originality', 'autonomy • Jess-Cook, Carolyn 2007 Shakespeare on Film: Such
of the Author', objective of a text in the form of Things As Dreams Are Made Of. Wallflower:London
'signi fied' et c. Contradicting these i ssues, and New York.
• Lehmann, Courtney. 2002 “Out Damned Scot:
poststructu rali sts argu e in favour of t he Dislocating Macbeth in Transnational Film and Media
'decenteredness' of the text. Challenging the search Culture.” In C. Lehman and Lissa S. Starks (eds.),
for the objective or 'signified' of a text, they raise Spectacular Shakespeare: Critical Theory and Popular
Cinema, N.J.: Farleigh Dickinson UniversityP, pp243-
their voice in support of the study of a text in terms 51.
of 'multiple signifiers'. Film appropriations, • Maqbool. Dir. Vishal Bhardwaj. 2003 Kaleidoscope
functioning in an interdisciplinary way, conform to Entertainment and Vishal Bhardwaj Pictures Pvt. Ltd..
Film.
these poststructuralist parameters to a notable • Sanders, Julie. 2006 Adaptation and Appropriation.
degree, with more dynamism. Critical Idiom Series, Routledge:London and New
Thus, these two film appropriations, Scotland, York.
• Scotland, PA. Dir. Billy Morrissette. 2001 Lot 47
PA and Maqbool, not only show skillful handling Films.. Film.
24
Lhotshampas Refugees: Implications on Nepal-Bhutan Relations
Eyasin Khan
ABSTRACT
Refugee problem is an important arena of study on Human Rights. State policy makes refugees. There is a complex
relationship between Human Rights and refugee problem. There are instances of exploitation in the hands of
enforcement officials, citizens of the host country, and even United Nations peacekeepers. Instances of human rights
violations, child labour, mental and physical trauma/torture, violence-related trauma, and sexual exploitation,
especially of children, are not entirely unknown. In spite of absence of a viable refugee regime, South Asian countries
continue to host a huge population of refugee and their preferred mode for the quest of durable solution has remained
ad hoc with preference accorded to bilateralism between the refugee generating and refugee hosting countries. The
experiences of the Bhutanese refugees in Nepal, evidence the inherent imperfection of bilateralism in the region and
warrant a serious rethinking of the refugee approach of SAARC. Against this back drop, this paper attempts to
understand the Nepal–Bhutan bilateralism with special emphasis on Lhotshampas Refugees.
Key Words: Lhotshampas, Nepal, Bhutan, SAARC, GNH, Human Rights, Refugee.
1.0. Introduction of the changes that have occurred in these two

The two SAARC member countries - Nepal and countries becomes quite important to anyone
Bhutan - are situated between India and the Tibet interested in the study of relations between these
China with a very potential geopolitical importance. two countries (Khadka 2003).
Although from the very beginning, Nepal and Both the nations had formally established
Bhutan have maintained extremely good mutual diplomatic relations in 1983. Bhutanese King Jigme
relations in political, religious and cultural fields, Singye Wangchuk visited Nepal to attend the 3rd
at present there seems to be a kind of uneasy SAARC Summit in 1987. Late King Birendra of
diplomatic tensions between them due to the Nepal visited Bhutan to attend a SAARC meeting
problem of the Nepali origin Bhutanese citizens in 1988. The Prime Minister of Bhutan had visited
exiled from Bhutan and taking refuge in Jhapa and Nepal in 2002 and 2014 to attend a SAARC summit.
Morang districts of Nepal. Therefore, the study Both the countries have made transition to
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Political Science With Rural Administration, Vidyadasagar University,
Midnapore
25
democracy following a very problematic course of cooperation between the two countries include
movement. While the former has cleared the acid trade and services, sports, technical and cultural
test with aplomb so far, Kathmandu’s tryst with cooperation, among others (Monograph 2004:71).
democracy is still tenuous and full of uncertainties. The relationship between Nepal and Bhutan may
The primary reason behind this is the deep-rooted be examined in various ways which includes
fractious and gutter-level politics of Nepal as economic, political as well as cultural dimensions
opposed to a much more dignified and peaceful with special emphasis on Lhotshampas.
policy of Bhutan. Here is an example: 1.2. Lhotshampas Refugees
In mid-2009, Bhutan was confronted with Bhutanese Refugee namely Lhotshampas1 in Nepal
a litmus test for its nascent democracy. has a unique identity and implications in the region
The t wo houses of the Parliament– of South Asia as well as the rest of the World.
National Assembly and National Council Gross National Happiness (GNH) index shows that
– got embroiled in which one is more Bhutanese are the world’s happiest people. But
powerful. The National Council had a bee the refugee crisis is one of the most problematic
in its bonnet and decided that it could matters for such an observation. Bhutanese who
oversee the National Assembly and could consider themselves as son’s of the soil thought
call the Ministers of the Council during that Lhotshampas, who originally came from Nepal,
the Question Hour to explain their actions. were not the real citizens. Further, they annoyed
The Prime Minister intervened to say that the Bhutanese by raising economic and other
in democracy all were equal and the matter demands which created lot of problems in the
rested at that. In another incident, on July country at large. So Royal Bhutan Government had
17, 2009 the National Assembly decided thrown these groups out of their lands.
that the government did not intend to Lhotshampas fled from Bhutan to India and
implement controversi al Drig la m then they entered their own homeland Nepal but
Na mzha (t radit io nal et iquet tes) Nepal’s Government did not recognize them as the
programme by force, but by education. citizens of Nepal. They were treated as ‘State less’
The Bhutan government took note of the and ‘Home less’ people in Nepal and were housed
fact that the brutally strict implementation in Some Refugees Camps.
of the pro gramme in mi d-eighti es Historically the movement of Lhotshampas
alienated large pockets of the population has been very unique. This community first of all
and result ed in the u pri si ng of entered into Bhutan from Nepal and then returned
Lh otsha mpa s in sou thern to Nepal during a span of 100 years. Therefore, the
Bhutan (Sharma 2010). causes of migration are to be discussed from
However, there is potential mood to develop different perspectives.
and enhance co-operat ion i n many areas of The main causes of migration from Nepal to
common interests. Until now, some areas of Bhutan may be identified as follows: (a) British
26
Eyasin Khan
imperialist policy; (b) Economic opportunity of the ‘One Bhutan, One People’ policy. Nepali language
Lhotshampas in Bhutan; (c) Lhotshampas’ psyche was removed from the school curricula and it was
to living in Hill area; (d) the Policy of Nepal mandatory for the entire population to wear the
Go vernment s, Bhutan and India and other natio nal dress o f t he north. The sou thern
concerns; (e) External influences; (f) Educational Bhutanese resisted the policy, as there was still a
and Cultural awareness of the Lhotshampas, etc. strong attachment to their Nepalese cultural
The Bhu tanese refu gees were t he herit age. Demonstrati ons ensu ed and t he
descendants of Nepalese migrants that settled in Government began to crack down on what they
Southern Bhutan in the late 1890’s. Originally deemed were ‘anti-nationals’ from Southern
recruited by the Government of Bhutan to clear Bhutan. There were wi despread reports by
the jungles of Southern Bhutan in late 1890’s, they Lhotshampas of arrests, detention, rape, and
were called Lhotshampas, meaning ‘People from tort ure. They repo rted being forced to sign
the South’. Over the time, the Lhotshampas ‘voluntary migration’ forms. By 1991, thousands
prospered in Bhutan and became high-ranking had started to flee to Nepal via India by truck. In
government officials and educators. According to 1992 UNHCR established the first camps in Eastern
the Census of 1988, they made up 45 per cent of Nepal to house more than 105,000 refugees. An
the population of Bhutan. additional 20,000 refugees (estimate) fled to other
In 1958, the Bhutanese Government passed parts of Nepal and India.
the Citi zenship Act , which granted t he Hari Phuyal(1997: 241) pointed out that:
Lhotshampas the right to Bhutanese citizenship. The Bhutanese Government adopted a
Every citizen was provided with a land tax receipt. number of legislations and policies to
From 1958 to 1985, the Bhutanese Government push the southern Bhutanese out of their
introduced integration programmes and incentives country: i) the Marriage Act of 1980; ii)
for intermarriage between the Lhotshampas and Bhutanisation Policy; iii) Citizenship
other ethnic groups of Bhutan. However, the Laws; iv) Compulsory national work; v)
Buddhist Druk 2 majority became increasingly Green belt policy; vi) Language policy;
concerned mainly over the growing population and vii) Religious policy; viii) No-objection
power of the Hindu Lhotshampas. certi ficate; i x) Vol unt ary Leavi ng
In 1988, the Government of Bhutan conducted Certificate (VLC) and x) Census of 1988.
a Census, which took place only in Southern 1.3. Economic Dimensions
Bhutan. It required the citizens to produce the land Bo th Nepal and Bhu tan are predominant ly
tax receipt of 1958. Following this census, the agricultural countries. However, there exists scope
Lho tshamp as were re-classifi ed as ‘i llegal for increasing bilateral trade, cultural exchanges
immigrants’ despite having produced land tax and cooperation in the field of tourism. An MOU
receipts from 1958. was signed in March 2005 between FNCCI and
In 1989 King Jigme Singey Wangchuk adopted Bhutan Chamber of Commerce and Industry to
27
promote trade and economic relations between the alliance, organizing exchange programmes and
two countries. The first meeting of Nepal-Bhutan establishing Kathmandu and Paro as ‘sister
Bilateral Trade at the level of Joint Secretaries of destinations’.
the Ministries of Commerce was held in Kathmandu Nepal continues to be an important destination
on 17 March 2010 and the second meeting was for many Bhutanese pilgrimages as it has many
held in Thimpu on 24-25 May 2011 to discuss the sacred Buddhist sites such as the birthplace of
Draft Agreement on Bilateral Trade (SAD 2013). Lord Buddha in Lumbini. The two countries
On 7th August 1990, Bhutan and Nepal have possess great potential in enhancing bilateral
signed an Air Services Agreement, and Druk Air relations through cultural cooperation, considering
cu rrent ly operat es two flights a week to that Buddhism continues to flourish in Nepal and
Kathmandu. Over the years, Bhutanese nationals permeates all aspects of life in Bhutan. Bhutan is
have availed fellowships offered by Nepal in the already a member of the Lumbini Development
field of animal husbandry, as well as several Adviso ry Committ ee entrust ed with several
opportunities of trainings and workshops under responsibilities and plans underway to construct
UN, SAARC and other regional and international a Bhutanese monastery in Lumbini. Imperative to
organizatio ns. In sports, several exchange the establishment and maintenance of strong ties
Programmes and interactions have taken place. of friendship and cooperation, state and official
Considering the fact that Nepal is more advanced visits between the two nations have taken place
than Bhutan i n many respect s, the l att er since the first royal visits from Nepal in the 1970s
acknowledges the usefulness of receiving technical (Monograph 2004:71-74).
help in this field. Sports of interest include football, 1.4. Political Relations
table tennis, rifle shooting and taekwondo. As of Both the kingdoms in the Himalayas, Bhutan and
date, trade and economic relations between the Nepal share many commonalities, one of which is
two have not been particu larly subst anti ve to form a buffer between India and China following
although initiatives continue to be taken since the Chinese takeover of Tibet. Although non-
Bhutan made some efforts to build up trade links resident relations between the two countries were
with Nepal following the establishment of SAARC. established in 1983, it has been the issue of the
In order to promote tourism between the two people in the refugee camps in Nepal that has
countries, a Memorandum of Understanding overridden bilateral relations since the 90’s.
(MOU) was signed on 3rd May 2003 between the The issue of Bhutanese refugees has remained
Association of Bhutanese Tour Operators (ABTO) a challenge for the cordial and friendly relations
and the Nepal Association of Travel Agents traditionally subsisting between the two countries.
(NATA). Among ot hers, the MOU ai ms at Since 1990, the Lhotshampas have left Bhutan in a
establi shi ng cl ear underst anding and huge number, crossed the Indian Territory and
professionalism, integrated promotion of tourism sought asylum in eastern Nepal. Since then, Nepal
in the Himalayan region, strengthening tourism has been trying to utilize all available avenues for
28
Eyasin Khan
solving this humanitarian problem in a peaceful signing of an agreement to constitute the Joint
way so that the refugees could go back to their Ministerial Committee (JMC) with three members
homeland with honour and dignity. from each of from both the countries, headed by
A Joint Ministerial Committee (JMC) between their respective Home Ministers. The committee
Nepal and Bhutan was formed in 1993 initially at was empowered with the following mandate:
Home Ministers’ level with a vision to resolving (Mayilvaganan 1993).
the problem of Bhutanese refugees living in various i. To determine the different categories of people
camps in the eastern part of Nepal. Later, the claiming to have come from Bhutan in the
committee was headed by the Foreign Ministers refugee camps in eastern Nepal; and
of both the countries. The JMC met for fifteen times ii. To arrive at a mutually acceptable agreement
till 2003 and it has not been able to meet after that. on each of these categories that in turn would
Nepal has, however, been requesting Bhutan to provide the basis for the resolution of the
revive the committee and recommence dialogue for problem.
the dignified repatriation of Bhutanese refugees The first JMC meeting was held in October 4-
to their homeland (Ghosh 2010:162). 7, 1993, with the Bhutanese team led by its Home
The RGoB was adamant in its claim that the Minister Dago Tshering and the Nepalese team
refugees in the camps were not Bhutanese and led by his counterpart Sher Bahadur Deuba, agreed
that they were a collection of poor Nepalis from to categorize the refugees in the following four
different parts of India and Nepal, confined in the groups (Khanal 1999: 465-468):
camps to acquire international sympathy and claim, 1. Bonafide Bhutanese, if they have been evicted
which has changed with the passage of time. Nepal forcefully;
maintained that the refugees were Bhutanese and 2. Bhutanese who emigrated;
that Bhutan undertook its state responsibility by 3. Non- Bhutanese people; and
repatriation and reintegration of willing refugees 4. Bhutanese who have committed criminal acts.
in the Bhutanese mainstream. India remained The pro nou ncement of the result s of
steadfast in its point that the refugee issue is a verificatio n, categorization and the Agreed
bilateral problem between the two Himalayan Position on the Four Categories (APFC) sparked
neighbors and that they should solve it bilaterally. restlessness amongst the refugees, with protests
The bilateral exercise was put in track 25th April and hunger st rikes organi zed in t he camps
1993 when Nepal sent an official intimation to demanding review of the whole process by the
Thimpu expressing its wish to have direct meeting respective Governments. An overwhelming 94 per
with Bhutan which followed an official invitation cent of the categorized refugees appealed against
to Nepalese delegates by Bhutan for bilateral talks. the decision of the JVT, although no neutral
The Nepalese delegation led by the then Home authority was in place to look into their appeals.
Minister became the ever first official engagement The JMC was imposed as the appellate body from
with Bhutanese counter-part that culminated in the which expectation of justice was immatured.
29
Amidst this state of confusion, the 15th meeting be analyzed in the context of international pressure
of the JMC was held in the Bhutanese capital, building upon it necessitating it to engage Nepal
Thimphu, on October 20-23, 2003, the Nepalese to send a positi ve signal for int ernat ional
side led by its ambassador at large Dr. Bhekh B. consumption (Sharma 2009: 9).
Thapa and the Bhutanese team was led by its The incident that occurred in Khudunabari
Foreign Minister Lyonpo Khandu Wangchuk. The camp on 22nd December 2003 during a briefing
two Governments touted the outcome of the session by the Bhutanese members of the JVT to
meeting as a major breakthrough in the refugee the verified and categorized refugees when they
stalemate. They issued a 15 point joint press release were manhandled by an agitated group of refugees
after the conclusion of the talks where “the two has been cited by the RGoB as a reason sufficient
leaders expressed t heir firm reso lve and to freeze t he bilat eral exercise. The RGoB
commitment to arrive at a lasting solution to the maintained that internal disturbance in Nepal and
issue of the people in the camps in Nepal through the frequent changes of Governments had been
the bilateral process”. The Nepalese delegation of the stumbling blocks in the perusal o f t he
the JMC revealed that the repatriation of the bilateralism. Citing the 22nd December incident, the
Bhutanese refugees would begin as early as the RGoB explains the rationale for discontinuation of
second week of February, 2004 (The Kathmandu the bilateral exercise as “an immediate resumption
Post 2003). Nepali Times, quoting the leader of the of the work would be counterproductive and risky
Nepalese delegation highlighted the optimism that as another untoward incident would derail the
the first trucks carrying refugees will start moving whole process” ( Quigley 2004:187-200).
from eastern Nepal to the Dragon Kingdom by mid- A group of non- governmental organizations
Febru ary 20 04. Despi te al l t hese i nit ial ly involved with the Bhutanese refugees in Nepal
manufactured hype and hope, the Bhutanese quite succinctly summarizes the intent of the RGoB
refugees continued languishing in the camps with vis-à-vis the refugees. It says: “Bhutan’s Foreign
the bi lateral process aborted. The bil ateral Minister, Lyonpo Khandu Wangchuk, dismissed
engagement spanning over a decade and a half the legitimate concerns of the refugees concerning
has remained where it had begun no outcome. The the categorization and repatriation process in his
reasons are as follows: briefing t o t he Nat io nal Assembly o n t he
Despite the completion of verification and Khudunabari incident. He was equally dismissive
categorization, repatriation has never begun. It is of the Nepalese government’s suggestion that the
necessary to enquire into the intricacies of the violent behaviour of a small number of refugees
issue to locate the failure of bilateralism. As may have been provoked by their extreme
suggested earlier, the failure of bilateralism needs frustration at the lack of resolution to their plight.
to be viewed in the context of Bhutan’s ethnic His presentation of the situation appears to have
policy and Nepal-Bhutan relational backdrop. The been a calculated attempt to foster hostility towards
intention of the RGoB in pursuing bilateralism is to the refugee community” (Goodman 2004).
30
Eyasin Khan
The above posi tio n of the RGoB is and unmake futures of the helpless’. The bilateral
demonstrative of its refugee policy. While the exercise proposed by Bhutan and endorsed by
RGoB had in the initial years maintained that there Nepal started i n a wrong Bhut an-centric
was no single Bhutanese in the refugee camps, the presumption that a majority of the refugees have
results of verification revealed otherwise. The left Bhutan at their own will thereby wrongly
RGoB is aware that there are more Bhutanese in ignoring the role of the Bhutanese state in refugee
the camps than it intends to accept and that has generation.
not changed its refugee policy. Acceptence of the B. Flaws in Verification Exercise: The status-
status of the verified refugees were Bhutanese verification process was a purely bilateral exercise
nationals has alarmed Bhutan in retrospect. The between the two Governments and the trajectory
repatriation of all these would not fit in its national thus far reveals that it was the Bhutan’s expediency
agenda of ‘one nation and one people.’ to engage in the process rather than an honest
The RGo B appears t o be in favou r of move to address the political and humanitarian
internationalizing the refugee issue for the purpose concerns of the refugees. A coalition of NGOs
of finding a durable solution to the problem feels stated on 28 October, 2003 that “these talks
that it would entail other countries to agree to the between Nepal and Bhutan were neither historic
settl ement of refugees in co unt ri es. This nor a breakthrough. The bilateral talks have ignored
proposition concurs with the RGoB’s original blue- the concerns of the international community and
print of creating “one nation one people” based failed to provide a solution for the Bhutanese
on the ethos of the ruling Drukpas. In perpetuating refugees in Nepal. Donor countries must insist on
this agenda, the RGoB forgets that it has its own the full involvement of the international community
state responsibility towards its people whom it had in solving the refugee crisis” (Reilly 2003). The
coerced to leave from the country. While correctly international NGOs further observed that “the
maintaining that refugee crisis is an international refugee screening pro cess viol ates every
probl em, t he RGo B cannot evade it s o wn international norm in the book” and ask donor
international obligations towards the refugees. governments to insist on the process of meeting
Sharma (2009) rightly points out that there are some the int ernational human rights and refu gee
loopholes in the political relations between Nepal standards (Human Rights News 2003). Bhutan’s
and Bhutan in respect of Lhotshamapas. These insistence on a purely bilateral exercise is indicative
are: of its original strategy of engaging Nepal in the
A. Difficulties in Categorization: Categorization process, getting the exercise protracted as long as
into 4 categories is the main stumbling block. possible and thereby discouraging return of
Categorization ought to have been two; namely, refugees. The result of verification from one of the
Bhutanese and non-Bhutanese. Nepal acquiesced camps reveals that the process was Bhutan-centric
to this brazen exercise of human classification on and hostile to refugees’ interest. The process
Bhutan’s insistence, a diplomatic exercise to ‘make neither inclu ded a third co unt ry no r t he
31
representatives of the refu gees whi ch heads of househo lds, denying women the
demonstrated that the two governments were opportu nit y t o have t hei r claims fairly
restless for an imposed solution in isolation to considered;
refugees’ interests or concerns. i) There were no women on the joint screening
The NGOs havi ng studied the cases of team for most of the review process; and
verified refugees pointed to the following flaws in j) The categorization of refugees into 4 categories.
the verification process: C. Flaws in Harmonization: The RGoB thus had
a) Refugees were forced to recount their reasons underscored its intention that while it might engage
for leaving Bhutan to officials of the same Nepal in the bilateral exercise, they would not do
government responsible for their persecution and anything that would contravene “our citizenship
flight; and immigration and Immigration Laws”. Without
b) The criteria for categorizing refugees are not amending the citizenship laws of Bhutan, the
made public, so the refugees cannot effectively Bhutanese refugee situation could not have been
appeal their classification; addressed since the issue of citizenship lies at the
c) The majority of the refugees (70 per cent) were core of the problem. To uphold the sanctity of its
classified as “voluntary emigrants” after signing self-imposed doctrines which in essence are an
“voluntary migration forms” under threat when effort to conceal the ingenuity of its expediency,
leaving Bhutan; the RGoB imposed the following conditions for
d) Many refu gees in thi s category to ld t he willing returnees to fulfill (Chandrashekaran 2004):
delegat ion that they were forced to fl ee i) All members of a family must be physically
discrimination, arbitrary detention, sexual present at the desi gnated offi ce whi le
violence and threats to their physical safety in submitting the re-application forms;
Bhutan; ii) A member of a family cannot apply on behalf of
e) In some cases, members of the same family were other family members who are in the camps;
placed in different categories, even though their iii) An individual form on the camp cannot apply
reasons for fleeing Bhutan are identical, so they for family members from other camps;
risk separation in the event of repatriation; iv) The minimum period of probation will be at least
f) Some of the children born in refugee camps were 2 years;
classified as so-called ‘criminals’ and could be v) The re-applicant must reside in the country for
liable to stand trial in Bhutan; the entire period of the probation;
g) Some refugees who were minors in Bhutan and vi) He/she must not be engaged in activities that
thus were not given identity documents and contravene the laws of the country;
classified as non-Bhutanese, even though their vii) He/she must be able to speak Dzongkha;
parents possess identity papers and were put in viii) He/she must have good knowledge of the
different categories; culture, customs, traditions and history of
h) The joint screening team only interviewed male Bhutan;
32
Eyasin Khan
ix) The re-applicants shall not be associated with The language used in the “terms and
activities of any anti-national organization/ conditions” is non-committal in the sense that
individuals; condition no. 11 envisages the grant of citizenship
x) The persons must have no record of having only after the fulfillment of the imposed criteria. It
spoken or acted against the King, Country and was left at the prerogative of the RGoB to decide
People of Bhutan in any manner whatsoever; whether or not the criteria were fulfilled. Given the
and hostility that the RGoB nurtured against the
xi) If the conduct of the applicant is found refugees in particular and the southern Bhutanese
satisfactory at the end of the probation period, in general, it was unlikely that the RGoB would
he/she may be granted the citizenship in interpret those terms and conditions liberally.
accordance wi th the Cit izenship Laws Condition no. 11 makes use of the word ‘may’ and
(Fulfillment of the criteria). not ‘shall’ thereby making the whole issue a
According to the APFC, Nepal agreed to offer prerogative of the RGoB, which it had sought to
citizenship to those refugees who did not desire to exercise against the interests of refugees.
return, if Bhutan undertook repatriation of those There were a lot of reasons which were
falling in categories I, II and IV, namely, Bhutanese responsible for the failure of bilateral talk between
forcefully evicted, Bhutanese who voluntarily Nepal and Bhutan in respect of Lhotshampas.
emigrated and Bhutanese who committed criminal These are as follows:
activities in Bhutan, respectively. Despite this i) Bhutan’s E thnic Pol icy and Popul ati on
accommodative gesture of Nepal, Bhutan set Politicking
outrageous conditions as pre-conditions for the ii) Nepal-Bhutan Relation: A No-Relation Status
grant of citizenship. The conditions in the first iii) Nepal’s inept handling of Refugee Diplomacy
place were drawn to discourage the return of the iv) India’s status quoism
refugees. It was indeed disastrous for the refugees v) Fallacious basis of Bilateralism
to accept the 11 terms and conditions laid down vi) UNHCR’s failure to carve out a space for
by Bhutan as preconditions to repatriation. For itself in the Nepal-Bhutan Engagement
instance, condition no. 10 above states that the vii) UNHCR’s Failure in Promotion of Solution
applicant “must have no record of having spoken Function
or acted against the King, Country and People of viii) Ambivalence of Refugee Leadership
Bhutan in any manner whatsoever”, which was ix) Minus-Bhutan Approach of the International
impossible for the majority of the refugees to meet. Community
And similarly, all the conditions were unreasonable x) Non-Existence of a Refugee Regime prescribing
aimed firstly to preempting the refugees from modality of Solution etc.
return; and secondly, even if they had opted to The recourse to bilateralism had a number of
return, depriving them of citizenship with a strict adverse impacts. While on the one hand, refugees
interpretation of the terms and conditions. were made victims of diplomatic vagrancies and a
33
subject of haggling between the states, the states the Bhutanese Nepalis or Lhotshampas whose
of origin were often condoned from the action of representation has had been made by the BSC
refugee generation. Actually, in the name of since 1952. Now other parties are also in the picture
bilateral talking, Bhutanese Refugees experienced despite the internecine inter-party confl icts
a lot of delay for the solutions of their problem. between the two groups–The Bhutan People’s
Bilateral engagement between the two countries is Party and The Bhutan National Democratic Party.
aborted and its resumption is not likely in the near The organization of BSC and the demonstration it
future due to a variety of reasons. staged in 1954, and the demands made by the new
First, Bhutan’s success in convincing the parties for redressing the complaints of the
world of its efforts towards ‘democratization’ has aggrieved community-Lhotshampas-have had
bestowed upon it an enhanced image of a liberal enough grounds for so wing mutual distrust
monarchy and has taken the focus away from the between Bhutan and Nepal (Baral 1993).
refugee issue. In the context of the influx of Bhutanese
Secondly, upheavals and political changes in refugees and the violation of human rights by the
Nepal create non-conducive environment for its Royal Government, the official Bhutanese position
engaging with Bhutan; and is somewhat characterized by a sense of paranoia
Finally, a huge number of refugees, frustrated by trying to link the domestic ethnic problem with
with the non-deliverance of bilateralism opted for the alleged support of the present Nepali Congress
re-settlement in third country; Government for the anti-regime movement in
In this state of play, it becomes pertinent to Bhutan. Although the predecessor of the present
explore the exact nature of human rights condition King had introduced some reforms in his absolutist
of Lothshampas in the context of Bhutan-Nepal regime The Citizenship, 1958 Act empowering the
bilateralism. local officials to grant citizenship certificates gave
1.5. Issues of Human Rights rise to internal problem despite the fact that there
Bhutanese ethnic conflict has assumed both were pro vi sio ns for impro vement i n t he
national and international dimensions because of representation pattern having 16 Lhotshampa
the alleged violation of human rights by the Royal representatives in the 158 member National
Government whose accountability and legitimacy Assembly and one representative for the 10
before the world community is nil. Despite its clever member Royal Advisory Council and one judge in
propaganda that the minority was out to capture six members High Court. In addition, according to
power by raising the bogey of bad human rights the official version, by 1990, 39 per cent of all
records of Bhutan and the discriminatory policy of Bhutanese civil servants were Lhotshampas but
the Government forcing the Lhotshampas to join by July 1992, 475 of them had fled the country
the refugee camps in Nepal and India, the Sangrila- (Hutt 1993).
la image is being eroded. And the main villain The flight of trained man power and their
behind such an erosion is obviously the case of joining the movement against the monarchyis likely
34
Eyasin Khan
to be more taxing for the regime. Branding them as only to create conditions for the safe repatriation
trait ors and ‘ant i-nat ionals’, as a common of Bhutanese refugees residing in camps in Nepal
vocabulary is used by the royal regime in Nepal and in India, but also to introduce democratic
for stigmatizing its enemy, the Nepali Congress-in reforms that are likely to change power structure
the 1 960 s and 70 s, the ro yal Bhut anese in Bhutan. Thus, showing his assertive postures,
government is being accused of adopting a policy King Jigme singye Wanchhuk said in 1993, that all
of ‘ethnic cleansing.’ Prior to the intensification of those in the refugee camps in Nepal are not
the present crisis, some members of the National Bhutanese nationals, as many people from India
Assembly and Royal Advisory Council had drawn are also joining as refugees due to the attraction of
the attent ion of the king i n respect o f t he money distributed by the United Nations High
‘classifications of people as nationals, non- Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Following
hearsay.’ Instead, making them as security problem, the breakdown of the talks between the king of
the Government branded them anti-national and Bhutan and the Prime Minister of Nepal during the
went on a repressive spree. One of the royal Seventh SAARC Summit in Dhaka in April 1993,
advisors, Tek Nath Rizal, was expelled from the senior government officials of Bhutan, as the official
Council for inciting people and spreading false paper, the Kuensel-said: “ convinced that the
propaganda against the Royal Government. After position adopted by Prime Minister Koirala in
fleeing the country, Rizal continued his human Dhaka cl early indicates his support for the
rights campaigns in various forms including the objective of the dissident groups to congregate as
distribution of pamphlets, activities which the royal many ethnic Nepalese as possible in the camps in
government called ‘seditious’. Later, Rizal and two Nepal to mobilize international sympathy and
of his colleagues were arrested in Nepal on 15 support” (Kuensel 1993). Senior Bhutanese officials
No vember, 198 9, and ‘handed o ver t o t he point out that the role played by Prime Minister
Bhutanese authorities the next day.’ (Rimal 2005) Koirala in establishing the BSC in 1950s has now
The Amnesty International has since adopted Rizal assumed great significance (Kuensel 1993).
and other six southern Bhutanese as prisoners of The initial remarks made by G P Koirala on the
co nscience. In 1 990 , demonstratio ns were Bhutanese refugee problem and its background
organized in southern parts of Nepal turning ethnic have not been taken positively by the Bhutanese
conflict into a full scale movement for democratizing side. Koirala’s comment and the reactions that
the Bhutanese power structure. The successful appeared in the Nepali press are interpreted as an
anti-regime movement of 1990 was also an act of abetment to the Bhutanese fugitives. This
immediate impetus to the Bhutanese dissidents stultified the process of negotiations that were
living in exile in India and Nepal. more related to the status of refugees, repatriation
The relations between Bhutan and Nepal were process and nature of negotiation. Rejecting the
further strained by the swelling refugee population Nepali demand that the people residing in the
and organization of parties whose objective is not refugee camps be treat ed as refugees, t he
35
Bhutanese side maintained that only the joint Territory, as Indian and Nepali nationals are not
committee set up by the two sides could determine required to possess such documents along the
the genuineness of Bhutanese nationals in the open Indo-Nepal border. It was also found that the
camps while the Nepali side wanted to call them Indian authorities themselves encouraged the
refugees awaiting safe return to their country. Later, southern Bhutanese to go to Nepal when they were
obviously piqued by the sudden change of attitude required to transit themselves from Bhutan to Nepal
of Bhutanese authorities on the issue of a ministerial (Baral 1993). Lhotshampas community faces lots
committee, Koirala said that “Nepal should now of challenges due to their status of ‘stateless’ and
ask the world community to help it cope with the the conflicting approach of Nepal and Bhutan. Thus
burden imposed on it by the influx of Bhutanese their rights as human beings suffer from various
refugees” (Rising Nepal 1993). ways.
Another issue appears to be mo re 1.6. Gross National Happiness
psychological having long-term and deep-rooted The small countries, like Bhutan, which are
implications for the existing regime in Bhutan. The politically, economically and militarily weak - are
foreign minister of Bhutan, Lynopo Dawa Tsering, vulnerable to external influences and their foreign
is of the view that by bringing as many ethnic policy does not bear much significance in the sense
Nepalese as possible to the camps in Nepal and that they do not have the capacity to play any
proj ecting them as Bhutanese refugees, the significant role and influence the dynamics of
dissident groups are calculating on mobilizing international politics. However, Bhutan’s foreign
international opinion against Bhutan in return he policy has gradually emerged with a limited interest
states, “in triumph with over a hundred thousand to pursue its national interests in the arena of
ethnic Nepalese to achieve their objective of international politics (Kharat 2005).
turning Bhutan into a Nepali dominated state” In making of her foreign policy, Bhutan’s
(Rising Nepal 1993). dilemma seems to have been to modernize and
Nepal’s ‘open door policy’ allowing all people develop the country, but at the same time to
to cross the border had, in the Bhutanese version, preserve its traditional and cultural uniqueness.
complicated the situation. The Bhutanese king had Therefore, Bhutan’s major concern has been to
reportedly advised Prime Minister Koirala to ensure development and modernization along with
discourage the people from coming to Nepal to preservation of its traditional cultural identity.
which Prime Minister Koirala expressed inability Bhutan’s ruling elite has envisaged an alternative
to do so because of public opinion and political path of development in order to attain the twin
opposition. Although such a suggestion was objectives. Bhutan’s alternative thinki ng to
theoretically correct, as no Bhutanese nationals development in terms of Gross National Happiness
could enter Nepal without valid travel documents, (GNH) has been a step towards that direction.
it was not possible for Nepal to prevent any person Bhutan has tried to concept ual ize i ts
from coming after having crossed the Indian developmental needs and efforts in the context of
36
Eyasin Khan
the cultural identity and environment of the It is clear that Bhutan believes that her unique
country. Bhutan has framed the concept of GNH cultural identity is an asset to its survival and
with this objective. This concept was articulated sustenance as a sovereign nation state. It is for
by King Jigme Singye Wangchuck towards the this reason that the preservation of cultural identity
late 1980s. The focus of GNH is human being. The is an essential component of the GNH. The self-
ultimate goal of an individual should be to attain styled developmental process and the preservation
happiness. Hence the central focus of development of cultural identity have an external dimension as
should be to attain happiness in place of materialist well, which has to be attained through foreign policy.
gains. The concept of GNH focuses upon limiting Bhutan and Nepal differ significantly in terms
human needs in accordance to the available of the nature of political structure and its stability.
resources and the conditionalities. The concept of Democratic movement was restored in Nepal in 1990
GNH is rooted in the traditions of Mahayana but Nepal still faces political instability. There have
Buddhism. The core of Buddhist philosophy is that been frequent changes of Government. Corruption
the ultimate goal of every human being is to attain and inter-party and intra-party conflicts are widely
happiness. It is possible by combining material prevalent. Opposition parties label any initiative
gains with spirituality. Every individual is required by the ruling party as selfish and anti-Nepal even
to learn how to restrain his aspirations and live in though some initiatives would benefit the country
happiness with whatever means are available. The as a whole. For example, in 1991, the opposition
question of restraining aspirations is closely party opposed Prime Minister G.P. Koirala’s
related to the question of securing the cultural initiatives to have close economic and security ties
identity. Thus, it is believed that the uncontrolled with India. Conflicts and feuds among Nepal’s
development may result in the destruction of the po lit ical el ites have prevented Nepal from
cultural identity of the country. While explaining developing a consensus policy towards India.
the idea of GNH the King of Bhutan said: Besides, many view Nepal Congress Party as an
Our country has an ancient and unique extension of the Indian Congress Party (Gyawali
cultural heritage which we wish to preserve and Sharma: 2005). There is an ever increasing effort
as we feel that this is of vital importance to pursue policies quite different from India. In
for a small nation like ours. We do not wish Bhutan, there are few political parties and there
to be swept away by the tide of materialism had been little fight for power among factions or
and consumerism. We are determined to any groups. It enjoys a very stable political
preserve our rich spiritual and cultural structure and has been pursuing a relationship with
values and traditions. At the same time, India which ensures its economic and military
we must achieve a high level of economic security. This apart, plight of Lhotshampas are
growth with equality in order to improve largely affected by the strained relations between
the quality of life of our people (Kuensel Nepal and Bhu tan which has regio nal and
1990). international significance.
37
1.7. Conclusion holding jewels to represent wealth. In Dzongkha,

Bhutan-Nepal relationship has never witnessed Bhutan is called Druk Yul ”Land of Dru”, and
any vibrancy and despite being neighbours, there Bhutanese leaders are called Druk Gyalpo, “Thunder
exists no mutual intercourse between the two. Dragon Kings”.
Despite geographical proximity, they began their
diplomatic relationship only in the mid 1980’s as References:
members of the SAARC, which, however, did not • Baral 1993, Available at: Bilateralism Under the
cu lmi nate int o any meani ngful bi lateral Shadow: The Problems f Refugees in Nepal Bhutan
engagement. With the refugee issue coming to the Relations http://himalaya.socanth.cam. ac.uk/
limelight, their relation started in a refugee-centric c o ll e c t i on s / j ou r n a ls / c o n tr i b u ti o n s / p d f /
framework and was greatly marred by distrust and CNAS_20_02_05.pdf; Accessed on: 27.06.2015.
animosity. The bilateral engagement needs to be • Chandrashekharan,S. 2004 “Bhutanese Refugees:
understood in this relational backdrop that to an Repatriation Chances Look Bleak”, Update 37, South
extent expl ai ns the co nti nuo us failu re of As ia Analysis G ro up, available at: http://
bilateralism, which in turn has further complicated www.southasiaanalysis.org/note212, Accessed on
their relationship. The refugee issue is the creation 27.06.2015.
of the larger agenda of the Royal Government of • Ghosh, Peu 2010 Bhutanese Refugees: A Forgotten
Bhutan (RGoB) of creating an ethno-cratic nation Saga, Minerva, Kolkata.
based on the traditions of the ruling Drukpas to • Goodman, Diane. et al,2004 “Letter Regarding
which ethnic stock the Bhutanese king belongs, Bhutanese Refugee Conditions”, Human Rights News,
and the failure of bilateralism needs to be seen in December 2004, available at http://hrw.org/english/
the specific context of RGoB’s ethnic policy. The docs/2004/1 2/16/nepal9901.htm Accessed on
incoherent handl ing of the i ssu e by Nepal 14.10.2013.
government, exclusion of refugee representatives • Gyawali, Bandana and Sharma, Sudhindra 2005
and/or the UNHCR and the Indian stance vis-à-vis “Sociology and Political Economy of Maoist Conflict
the issue are additional reasons for the failure of in Nepal”, paper p res ented in the workshop
Nepal-Bhutan bilateralism. Development Cooperation Ongoing Conflict in
Nepal, 10th November 2005, Kathmandu.
Notes: • Human Rights News 2003, “Nepal: Bhutanese
1. Lhotshampas or Lhotshampa means “southerners” Refugee Screening Seriously Flawed” Human Rights
in Dzongkha, the national language of Bhutan. The News, available at, http://www.hrw.org/press/2003/
term refers to the heterogeneo us 09 /n ep al-bh uta n0 90 203 .h tm , Acc es sed on
ethnic Nepalese population of Bhutan. 14.10.2015.
2. The Druk (Dzongkha) is the “Thunder Dragon” • Hutt, Michael 1993 “Refugees from Shanri-la” , A
of Bhutanese mythology and a Bhutanese national Paper presented at the seminar at the School of
symbol. A druk appears on the flag of Bhutan, Oriental and African Studies in London on March
38
Eyasin Khan
21-23,1993. Available At: http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/ What Role now for the European Union and the United
view/type/article.html, Accessed on: 27.06.2015. Nations High Co mmissioner For Refugees ?”,
• Khadka, Naveen Singh, 2003 “Which way: A Hurdle Contemporary South Asia 13 (2), June 2004, available
in the Much lauded Breakthrough” Nepali Times online at http ://w ww.eia s.org /sta ff/d ocs/
available online at, http://www.nepalnews.com/ntimes/ CSA_Bhutan_refugees.pdf Accessed on 19.10.2015.
issue167/headline.htm. Accessed on 28.06.2015.
• Khanal, Krishna P. 1999, “Human Rights and Refugee • Reilly, Rachael 2003 “Nepal/Bhutan: Bilateral Talks
Problems in South Asia: The Case of Bhutanese Fail to Solve Refugee Crisis” JRS Statement, Nepal/
Refugees” in Regional Security in South Asia: The Bhutan, available at, http://www.jrs.net/statement/
Ethno-Secterian Dimensions, Lancer Books, New stat.php?lang=es&statId=np031028en ,Accessed on
Delhi. 10.12.2013.
• Kharat, Rajesh S. 2005 Foreign Policy of Bhutan, • Rimal, Simon 2005 “Information Of Bhutan: The
Manak Publications, New Delhi, 2005. History”, Available at: http://simon.rimal.free.fr/
• Kuensel 1990,Thimpu July 2, 1990 – 1. index.php?mod=h, Accessed on: 29.10.2015.
• Kuensel 1993, April, 17. • Rimal, Simon 2005 “Information Of Bhutan: The
• Mayilvaganan, M. 1993 “Bhutanese Refugees in History”, Available at: http://simon.rimal.free.fr/
Nepal: Problems and Prospects”, available online at index.php?mod=h, Accessed on: 29.10.2015.
http://nccs.org.np /journal/ Bhutanese % 20Refugees • Rising Nepal 1993, April, 13.
%2 0in %20 Nep al-prob lems% 20and% • SAD 2013 Bilateral Relations (Nepal-Bhutan), South
20Prospects.pdf (accessed on 9th June 2008), p. 10. Asia Division Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Kathmandu,
• Monograph, 2004, “Economic and Political Relations - See more at: http://www.mofa.gov.np/en/bilateral-
Between Bhutan and Neighbouring Countries”, A r e l a t i o n s - n e p a l - b h u t a n -
Joint Research Project of The Centre for Bhutan 128.html#sthash.Nof11laS.dpuf, Dated: 12.05.2015.
Studies (CBS) and Institute of Developing Economies, • Sharma, Narayan 2009 “Bhutanese Refugee Situation:
Japan External Trade Organization (IDE/JETRO), An Assessment of Nepal-Bhutan Bilateralism”,
available at: http://www. bhutanstudies. org.bt/ Kathmandu School of Law, Dadhikot 9, Bhaktapur,
publicationFiles/ Monograph /mono-Ecnmc-Pol-Rel- 2009, Available at: www.ksl.edu.np , Accessed on:
th
Bt-Nghbrng.pdf, Accessed on 18 May 2015. 19.05.2015.
• Phuyal, Hari 1997, “Nepal’s Refugee Burden”, States, • Sharma, Rajeev 2010, “South Asia’s Rectangular
Citizens and Outsiders: The Uprooted Peoples of Triangle – Nepal, Bhutan and India” - See more at:
South Asia, edited by Tapan K. Bose and Rita h t t p : / / w w w. s o u t h a s i a a n a l y s i s . o rg /
Manchanda, South Asia Forum for Human Rights, pa per4 012 #stha sh .p Cei1N 7F. dp uf, Dated :
Nepal. 12.05.2015
• Quigley, John 2004 “Bhutanese Refugees in Nepal: • The Kathmandu Post (2003), October 24, 2003.
39
Little Magazine: The Prime Space for Study of Sociology,

Anthropology and Folklore of Rural Bengal
Biswajit Adhikary
ABSTRACT
Little Magazine, which just crossed the centenary year (2014) of its initiation, is a special kind of periodical
generally meant for arts and literature. Alongside the experimental literary works by younger authors, Little
Magazines also publish articles on different branches of Social Sciences. This paper tries to check the significance
of such magazines in study and research of Sociology, Anthropology and Folklore in rural Bengal. It also examines
the exclusiveness as well as the exhaustiveness of the published information, and the regional responsibility of the
magazines. The paper concludes with the comments that the volatile and short-lived publications should be
archived with care and the information lying scattered there should be indexed properly.
Keywords:Little Magazine, Social Science, Sociology, Anthropology, Folklore, Library acquisition, Document
selection, Information sources, Information storage, Information dissemination, Article indexing.
1. Introduction Information Centres are not enough to meet the

Large number of studies had been conducted into increasing demand of the recent times. The
the requirements of scientists for information, but conditions are even worse in the developing
very few had been done in the field of social science countries like India. Therefore, the Librarians must
information. There are a number of possible reasons keep themselves busy to anticipate the information
for that. Social scientists have been much less needs of the Social Scientists and should always in
information-conscious and less inclined to seek for quest for the potential resources.
solutions because there was much smaller total Though the word magazine is associated with
volume of information available for them. Moreover, their name, the Little Magazines are not magazines
there are very few specialist libraries for social in true sense. They do not have big circulation,
sciences, and few librarians have to confront with popularity and regularity as well. They are not
social scientists’ information needs. research periodicals or popular journals. Actually,
One of the major problems in the research of they belong outside the existing categorization.
Social Sciences is the absence of proper information Little Magazines are not the traditional sources for
systems. The available resources from Libraries and Social Science information. They were initiated in
Librarian, Raja N.L. Khan Women’s College, Midnapore 721102, West Bengal, India.
40
Biswajit Adhikary
the West as well as in our country as the modernist century; and, the Little Magazines appear in reaction
literary periodicals. However, right from the to them (Peterson, 1956). Little Magazines were
beginning they had a rich tradition to publish initiated from about 1880, and flourished in the
thoughtful essays on different social issues. As United States and England. Moreover, the French
there were magazines like Poetry or Little Review writers often had access to a similar type of
dedicated for creative literatures, Freewomen or publication and German literature of the 1920s too
Dial were also there to analyze and comment on was indebted to them. Foremost examples of such
contemporary social phenomena. Now the question magazines are the Poetry (1912- ) and Little Review
is ‘do the magazines have eligibility to being (1914-29) from US; Egoist (1914-19) and Blast (1914-
preserved in the Libraries?’ Their importance as the 15) from the UK; and the Transition (1927-38) from
literary media have been tested and recognized France.
decades back. Yet, are they equally relevant for the According to the theoreticians, the adjective
study of social sciences like sociology, folklore etc.? ‘little’ actually came from another contemporary
movement namely the ‘Little Theatre’ in the US.
2. What is Little Magazine The objective of that movement was to free dramatic
2.1 Definition and History forms and methods of productio n from the
Jibanananda Dash, one of the leading Bengali poets limitations of the large commercial theatres by
in the post-Tagore era, wrote in an essay named establishing small experimental centres of drama.
“Kovitar katha” that, not everyone but only few According to the Merriam Webster dictionary, the
are poets. In that same tone, it can be inferred that first known use of the term Little Magazine dates
not all the poor noncommercial irregular short-lived back to 1900.
and slender periodicals are little magazines. Little The Dial was the first ever magazine with
Magazine is a rare intellectual phenomenon. To be features of a little magazine. It was an American
a Little Magazine a publication has to satisfy some magazine published intermittentlyfrom 1840 to 1929.
strict ideological criteria. In its first form, from 1840 to 1844, it served as the
For a copybook definition, we can quote—”A chief publication of the Transcendentalists. In the
non-commercial periodical of limited circulation, 1880s it was revived as a political magazine. From
usually dedicated to publishing experimental art and 192 0 to 192 9 it was an infl uent ial outl et
literature and/or unconventional social ideas and for Modernist literature in English.
political theories. The term little refers to the After the 1880 there was a sudden explosion in
circulation, rather than the physical size, and is a number of the Little Magazines in the US and in
relative and variable measure. These magazines Europe in between a period of 30/ 40years.Until 70s
fueled the turbulent movement called modernism.” of the last century, there were four principal periods
(Index of Modernist Magazines, 2014) of the Little Magazines in the West. Those were- (i)
The popular mass magazines began to flourish The introductory Age (1890-1915), (ii) The Golden
in Europe and America at the end of the nineteenth Age (1915-1930), (iii) The Age of Leftist Little
41
Magazines (1930-1950), and (iv) The Age of the sixties of last century in many languages like
Spreading out (1940-1970). Bengali, Tamil, Marathi, Hindi, Malayalam Gujarati
In India, the first Little Magazine Sabujpatra etc. However, Bengali Little Magazines always lead
was launched at Kolkata under the editorship of from the front. Some kind of unyielding activism
Pramatha Chudhury on 1914. It was none other and madness were associated with the movement
than Rabindranath Tagore who mentored and in all over the Bengali-speaking region including
inspired Chaudhury to edit such a magazine. Bangladesh. Leftist political ideology influenced
Predecessors like Bangadarshan (1872), edited by the movement largely in the 70s, as it occurred in
the great novelist Bankimchandra Chattopadhyay the West during the 30s to 50s.
and Sadhana (1891), edited by Tagore prepared The princi ple eras of the Bengali Litt le
the soil for sprouting of Sabujpatra. From then on Magazines are: (i) Sprouting Age (1914-30),
numbers of such magazines were published from example: Sabujpatra, Kallol, Kalikalam; (ii)
Bengal over the years. Renowned li terary Golden Age (1930 -40), example: Parichay,
personalities like Nazrul Islam, Sudhindranath Dhu mket u, P urba sha, Kovita; (i ii)Age of
Du tta, Buddhadeb Basu , Premendra Mitra, Spreadi ng Out (1940-50), example: Ek ak ,
Achintyakumar Sengupta, Nirod C. Chaudhury Samasamayik, Uttarsuri, Chatuskon; (iv) Age of
were associated with them. Poetry (1950-60), example: Shatavisa, Krittibas,
The so-called “Little Magazine Movement” in Simanta, Samakalin, Kovipatra; and (v) Age of
India was initiated after the independence. The Ideological Influence (1960-70), example: Aneek,
movements came to prominence in the fifties and Anustup, Alinda, Ekshan
Diagram 1: District wise breakup of the Little Magazines
42
Biswajit Adhikary
In 2013-2014, there were approximately 1565 whether the publication is commercially motivated
living Little Magazines in West Bengal (Hasan, or not, whether it appears regularly or irregularly,
2014). The district wise breakup is given in the whether it is short-lived or long-lived. It simply must
following diagram. However, the exact number of be in the vanguard, help establish a mainstream
small magazines is much greater.Some of which current. Pondrom suggests that avant -garde
might have been eliminated by Hasan from the list, magazines exhibit six characteristics:
depending upon some qualitative yardsticks. 1. Publish “little known writers with ability”;
It is generally found that, out of the total, almost 2. “produce a ferment of ideas, . . . serve as a gadfly
70 to 75 percent magazines are dedicated only for to the status quo”;
poetry (Dutta, 2014). The residue, i.e. 25 to 30 3. maintain literary standards to “shield the writer
percent of magazines also prints poetry with fiction, from some of the demands of the commercial
essay and criticism. Little Magazine without poem press and social convention”;
is very rare in West Bengal. The Magazines, which 4. “extend the audience for good work”;
have rich prose section, publish thoughtful articles 5. create a “place where experiment is
on various disciplines. untrammeled”; and lastly
2.2 Key features of the Little Magazines 6. Maintain a sti mulating and congeni al
Why such magazine i s prefixed with the environment of perso nal relatio nships– a
adjective‘little’? Which among the symptoms like- community of interest and friendship among
‘little size’, ‘small circulation’, and ‘little lifetime’ is writers and editors and readers.
responsible? Every reason is true but those are not Shibnarayan Ray (Ray, 1988) pointed out some
exhaustive; more meanings are lying hidden inside reasons, for which a magazi ne cannot be
the word ‘little’. regarded as a Little Magazine-
According to Buddhadeb Basu (Basu, 1953), 1. Magazine having the main objective to earn
firstly, the word ‘little’ is for protest: protest against money is not a Little Magazine.
the importation of everything in between a pair of 2. Magazine published to entertain the public is not
covers, protest against the big publicity and the a Little Magazine.
extensive mediocrity. Little Magazine; by the name, 3. Magazine administrated by any political party,
it is clear that the stigma of popularity will never even if its circulation is very little, is not a Little
touch its soul, and it will never be available in an Magazine.
open market for cash price, but some day there may 4. Magazine speaks for any professional group or
be some eagerness among the learned society for organization is not a Little Magazine.
an old issue of the magazine. It would be possible 5. Magazine depends upon the income from the
because it never tried to entertain; it tried to awake advertisements or upon the compassionate
the mind. writings by famous authors is not a Little
Pondrom, Cyrena (Pondrom, 1965) describes the Magazine.
little magazine as serving in avant-garde function, So we can summarize, Little Magazines are
43
short-lived and non-commercial periodicals having • Rardhkatha. Edited by Kishore Das. Siuri,
cou rage to prot est agai nst any kind of Birbhum. (presently shifted to Hooghly)
establishments. They publish little known writers • Anriju. E dited by Subhas Ray. Manbhum
with ability and provide the space for experiments. Loksanskriti Kendra, Puruliya.
With very little capital and small circulation they • Lokayata Sanskriti. Edited by Achintya Jana.
extends the audience for good work. Katjuridanga. Bankura.
• Ebang Sayak. Edited by Surya Nandi. Dantan,
3. Scope and Methodology of the Study Paschim Medinipur.
3.1 Scope • Sahajiya. Edit ed by Madhusudan
For the present study, the entire “300” class of the Mukhopadhyay. Kolaghat, Purba Medinipur.
Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC, 21st Ed.) has Mo reover, some int erviews have been
been taken into consideration. Moreover, the conducted with the editors (20) of such magazines
subjects which belong outside “300” class but deals of the districts and with some scholar peoples (50)
with the human society are also included within of University and Colleges.
the parenthesis. The outsider disciplines are- 3.3 Methodology
Information Science, Media St udies, Social All the collected articles are entered into a
Psychology, Dialects, Social Geography, Folk Arts, spreadsheet to design a bibliographic database. The
Fo lk Songs, Lo cal Hist ory and Biography, articles are classified as enumerated in Dewey
Archaeology etc. Decimal Classification (DDC, 21st Ed) Scheme. And,
3.2 Sources of Data general subject headings have been assigned to
All the contents of the five sample Magazines them. The responses of the editors and the scholars
form five comparatively backward distri cts interviewed have been tabulated objectively.
published during the period of 12 years (2001-2012) 4. Analytical Study of the Sample Articles and the
are the main sources of data for the present study. Responses from Interviews
The sample magazines are listed below- 4.1 Editors’ Strategy to Select the Topic(s) of the
Diagram 2: Editor’s strategy of the Little Magazines to choose the topics
44
Biswajit Adhikary
Magazines or ultra-left political ideologies had some definite

20 editors of Little Magazines from those 5 districts influences in this context. Consequently, the term
were interviewed with a structured questionnaire. Li ttle Magazines beco me famil iar to t he
The factors they prefer to keep in mind for selection intellectuals.
of the topic(s) of their magazines are graphically To know the impact of such periodi cals
represented here. Except the occasions like golden interviews have been conducted with 50 scholars
jubilee, silver jubilee etc. of any author, or of any of Social Science of those five districts.
incident or of any book and journal (e.g., we just Percentage of response from Scholars to
crossed the centenary year of Song Offerings by some questions in a scale of 4 to 0
Tagore o r Sa bujp atra edit ed by Pramat ha Questions Scale
Chaudhury), two most important factors are the 4 3 2 1 0
contemporary phenomena and the local issues.
Novelty of the articles 12 18 21 38 11
Among local issues anthropology and folklore have
the prominent shares. Are they substitute* 7 14 26 29 24
4.2 Little Magazines and scholar community
Are they complementary* 20 36 20 13 11
Persons did not have interest in modern or
postmodern literature, are not aware of Little Are they exclusive 6 13 27 43 11
Magazines. Even a large number of learned people
Are they exhaustive 6 11 12 44 27
did not hear the terminology. Those publications
*Compared with the articles published in formal academic
were only for the author, poet and editor themselves. journals
From the 70s of the last century the scenario has
been changed. Young generations become more 4.3 Tendency of the Magazines in selection of
and more passionate about different arts and literary subjects
movements. Their devotion towards the left and/ There are tendencies of the magazines from rural
Diagram 3: Percentage share of the subjects of the sample articles
45
areas to publish articles on subjects like Sociology, 4.4 Panel of almost unknown authors
Anthropology, Folklore, Folk music, Folk dance, Non-academic persons are the main contributors
Archaeology etc. And, the tendency seems quit and readers of the Little Magazines. Academic
natural if we properly study the rural society of our persons as author and reader of such periodicals
state. The subject shares out of the sample articles are minority. However, as the editor the percentage
are given below. of teachers or professors is quite better. The
Arranging all the entries (titles of the common people with moderate education (e.g.
articles) according to their Class No.,we got some Graduate), usually not so successful in their career,
dense clusters around the Class like 301 (Sociology are at the forefront of the movement. As they belong
& Anthropology), 398 (Folklore and Folk literature), closer to the lower middle class, which is the major
745 (Folk arts), 781 (Folk Music), 793 (Folk dance), section of the population of our country, a true
and 93 0 (Archaeolo gy). The graphical reflection of the society is found in their literary
representation of the data is given in the following and cultural activities. Browsing the magazines
diagram. published from rural areas, we can get some fresh
thoughtful works from almost unknown authors.
Diagram 4: Cluster of the entries according to That freshness is one of the specialties of a true
their Class Numbers (DDC, 21st Ed.) little magazine. Who knows better about the
customs etiquettes or folklore of certain community
than the common people belonging closer to that
community? The writings of those unknown
authors are more reliable than the research articles
of any academic scholars living in distant city.
4.5 Non-academic as well as anti-establishment
attitudes
The content and the style of representation in Little
Magazines are generally nonacademic. Structured
and mechanized methodology of research is not
followed here. The articles in these publications
are based on primary and first hand experiences.
Those articles may not be regarded as customary
research works but they have the potency to raise
some research questions and show the probable
way for solutions.
Previously the aborigine societies as well as
the downtrodden societies were studied from a
traveler’s point of view by the urban civilized
46
Biswajit Adhikary
Diagram 5: A Snap of Database showing some titles on local issues
47
scholars. That kind of approach was failed to find folk music etc., Little Magazines are the exclusive
out the actual truth about the ancient inhabitants media. It is impossible to conduct any research on
of India. Recently the trend has been changed and Kathakata, Palagan, Tushugan, Bhadugan,
terminology like ‘subaltern’ has been introduced. Chhou-nach, Nachni, without the help of these
Little Magazines played a significant role in this magazi nes. They provi de near-exhausti ve
context. The sample magazines of this study are information on topics like folk beliefs and prejudice
some good examples for this. of rural Bengal.Some prominent examples:
4.6 Regional Responsibilities a) Ebang Sayak published a special issue
Regional responsibility is a salient feature of the on the excavation of “Moghulmari”, an ancient
magazines published from the rural Bengal. Topics Buddhist Monastery, which discovered a missing
on local folklore, custom, archaeology etc. are link of the history of Bengal. All the formal media
published in priority basis. The following snap started to highlight the subject only after the issue
shows some articles on archaeology of Birbhum in of Ebang Sayak had been published.
the magazine Rardhkatha. b) Sah ajiya, from Kol aghat of Purba
4.7 Exclusiveness and Exhaustiveness of published Medinipur, prints several article on folk literatures
information like Sitalamangal etc. and their poet Nityananda,
For subjects like anthropology, customs, folklore, who lived at a nearby place.
Diagram 6: A snap of the database displaying some articles on folklore etc.
48
Biswajit Adhikary
c)Anriju and Lokayata Sanskriti form Puruliya and published approximately 450 articles).
Bankura respectively published several valuable 2. Local nonacademic intellectuals along with
issues on Tushu-gan, Vadu-gan, Chhou-nach Leading Social Scientists contribute in these
etc. magazines regularly.
5. Conclusion and Findings 3. The information in some branches of Social
To be a ‘Little Magazine’the slender and often Sciences (folklore, folk literature, social
short-lived publications have to satisfy some tough anthropology, archaeology etc.) is Exclusive.
idealistic criteria. That is why the articles published 4. Some near exhaustive information on some areas
in a ‘true’ Little Magazine possess a standard of Social Sciences (folklore, folk literature, social
quality. As they have their antiestablishment, and anthropology, archaeology etc.) are published
noncommercial attitude, the articles they publish in the Little Magazines.
always have the social responsibilities. Moreover, 5. The Little Magazines of the backward districts
they create the healthy environment for rational are responsive to their time and space.
argument s on different social and politi cal 6. Little magazines have been recognized by the
problems. The mass voice ultimately drives us Scholars
towards the truth. a) For their novelty
It has already been accepted by the author, b) As they are substitute of the conventional
reader and critic that Little Magazines are the main journal
stream for modern literature. Novels like Ulysses by c) As they are co mplement ary to t he
James Joyce and Padmanadir Majhi by Manik conventional journal
Bandyopadhyay were first published in the pages d) As they are exclusive in some areas
of such magazines (in Little Review and Purbasha e) As they are exhaustive in some areas
respectively). Now, it is time to recognize those as After the above discussion, it is clear that the
a newer source of Social Science information. As Librarians must have a definite role to preserve
the literary periodical the ‘littles’ are far ahead to process and disseminate such magazines. They are
their ‘big’ counterparts. For Social Sciences, they always in quest of the newer sources of knowledge
may be considered as the complementary sources and eager to add those in their collection, so that
beside the conventional research journals. They they are able to answer the all types of quarries of
provide an important space for study and research the users.
of the subjects like Sociology, Anthropology and The reasons for which a Librarian cannot
Folklore. overlook Little Magazines are listed below-
The findings from the above study are listed 1. Huge numbers of article on certain branches of
below: Social Sciences published every year.
1. The number of published articles on Sociology, 2. On topi cs l ike folklore, archaeology,
Anthropology and Folklore is found enough anthropology the information are exclusive.
(within a period of 12 years 5 magazines 3. They reflect the thoughts of the regional learned
49
society. That bibliographic database would be a handy

4. They are the only media to encourage the document for researchers of Social Sciences. The
cultivation of Social Science in Bengali language. Librarians of nearbyAcademic and Public Libraries
5. These priceless publications are volatile in should also extend their assistance and technical
nature. They shoul d be archived wi th support for such noble project.
professional care.
We may conclude with the comments that the References
Little Magazines are still unexplored and unfamiliar • Basu, B. (1953). Sahityapatra. Desh, 53.
sources of knowledge especially of the Social • Dutta, S. (2014). Little Magazine bhabnay. Kolikata
Science disciplines. The irregular volatile and even Little Magazine Library o Gabesana Kendra:Kolkata.
short-lived publications should be collected with • Hasan, J. (2014). Sahityer yearbook. Purbaa:Kolkata.
immense care. Moreover, the articles published • Index of Modernist Magazines. (2014). Retrieved
there should be indexed properly. It is better to October 30, 2014, from Index of Modernist Magazines:
manage them digitally, so that the preservation and http://sites.davidson.edu/litttlemagazines/definitions/
dissemination of the information become easier. A • Kupar, A., & Kuper, J. (2003). The Social Science
collaborative approach of the stakeholders of such Encyclopedia (2nd ed.). Routledge:New York.
publications may be fruitful in this regard. • Peterson, T. (1956). Magazines in the twentieth
There are various Committees and Associations century. The University of Illinois Press:Urbana.
of editors in every district, who usually cooperates • Pondrom, C. N. (1965). Little magazine (Ph.D.
with each other to enhance the quality of the content dissertation. Columbia University). English Literary
and to promote such publications in the book fairs Periodicals.
or other such occasions. Those Associations • Ray, S. (1988, July). Abhijatri sahityapatra. Kourab, 9.
should take the primary initiatives to digitize and • Whittemore, R. (1963). Little Magazines. University
preserve the selected articles published in local of Minnesota Press:Minneapolis.
magazines with all necessary bibliographic details.
50
Domestic Violence Against Women In India
Dr. Rina Pal
ABSTRACT
Domestic violence in India includes any form of violence suffered by a person from a biological relative, but
typically is the violence suffered by a woman by male members of her family or relatives. The contributing factors
could he the desire to gain control, the desire, to exploit someone for personal benefits, the flare to be in a
commanding position all the time showcasing one’s supremacy so on and so forth. On various occasions,
psychological problems and social influence also add to the vehemence. The present review work deals with
domestic violence against women prevalent in India. The after effects of domestic violence and the possible
remedies have been highlighted. Finally, a conclusion has been drawn after the complete analysis of the topic
considering the facts and figures at hand.
Key words : Domestic violence, woman.
Introduction economic and cultural population subgroup and

Domestic violence is being recognized globally as in many societies, including India.
a majo r issue for women’s Human Right s. It is important here to clarify the concept of
According to recent World Health Organisation violence against women. The United Nations
(WHO) report, one in six women around the world Commission on the status of Women defines
suffers from domestic violence. Domestic violence violence against women to include, “any act of
cuts across class, caste and religious boundaries. gender based violence that results in or likely to
It is one of the most powerful means of patriarchy result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or
to maintain the subordinate position of women. It suffering to women.”
is the crude use of force to put women into a A term ‘domestic violence’ in the context of
subordinate position. Since the 1990s, there has women includes various forms of violence that
been increasing concern about violence against women face both in their natal and marital homes, at
Women in general and domestic violence in the hands of their father, brothers, sons, uncles,
particular, in both developed and developing husband and in laws. Domestic violence can be
countries. Domestic violence occurs in all socio- physical, emotional, verbal and psychological
Associate Professor, Dept. of History, Raja Narendralal Khan Women’s College, Midnapore, Paschim Medinipur, W.B.
India.
51
abuse. In this section, women’s experience of physical

According to United Nation Population Fund violence since age 15 is discussed, followed by a
Report, around two-third of married Indian Women discussion of their lifetime experience of sexual
are victims of domestic violence and as many as 70 violence. Indicators of the ever experience of
per cent of married women in India between the physical or sexual violence are also discussed.
age of 15 and 49 are victims of beating, rape or Table I : Experience of physical violence
forced sex. In India, more than 55 percent of the Percentage of women age 15-49 who have ever
women suffer from domestic violence, especially experienced physical violence since age 15 and
in the states of Bihar, U.P., M.P. and northern percent age who have experienced physical
states. violence during the 12 months preceding the
Experience of Violence by Women Age 15-49 survey, by background characteristics, India, 2005-
06.
Table I : Experience of physical violence
Percentage who have Percentage who have experienced physical
Background characteristic ever experienced violence in the past 12 months
physical violence since
age 15 Often Sometimes Often or Number of
sometimes women
Age
15-19 20.7 2.8 11.7 14.5 16,617
20-24 30.8 4.1 15.8 19.9 15,427
25-29 38.1 5.2 18.3 23.5 13,832
30-39 39.4 4.6 16.4 21.0 22,542
40-49 37.7 3.1 12.4 15.5 15,286
Residence
Urban 28.3 2.9 12.0 14.9 27,371
Rural 36.1 4.4 16.4 20.9 56,332
Education
No education 44.3 5.7 19.9 25.6 34,138
<5 years complete 39.1 4.7 17.2 21.9 6,600
5-7 years complete 32.4 3.7 15.1 18.7 12,557
8-9 years complete 26.0 2.9 12.3 15.2 11,700
10-11 years complete 21.3 1.9 8.7 10.6 8,683
12 or more years complete 14.3 0.8 5.2 6.0 10,023
Employment
Not employed 29.1 3.2 13.4 16.6 47,720
Employed for cash 39.6 4.9 17.3 22.2 24,079
Marital status
Never married 16.1 1.4 8.1 9.5 16,477
Currently married 37.4 4.7 17.5 22.1 62,652
Married, gauna not performed 14.9 0.7 5.6 6.3 568
Widowed 37.9 0.3 1.4 1.7 2,692
Divorced/separated/ deserted 66.1 11.0 13.2 24.2 1,314
52
Dr. Rina Pal
Percentage who have Percentage who have experienced physical

Background characteristic ever experienced violence in the past 12 months
physical violence since
Often Sometimes Often or Number of
age 15
sometimes women
Household structure2
Nuclear 35.7 4.2 16.4 20.5 43,551
Non-nuclear 31.2 3.7 13.5 17.2 40,152
Religion
Hindu 33.7 3.9 14.9 18.8 67,426
Muslim 34.6 4.9 16.2 21.1 11,396
Christian 27.8 3.0 13.8 16.7 2,039
Sikh 26.1 1.5 11.9 13.3 1,492
Buddhist/Neo-Buddhist 40.9 4.1 14.4 18.5 681
Jain 12.6 1.4 3.9 5.3 264
Other 36.3 2.8 18.2 21.0 333
Caste/Tribe
Scheduled caste 41.7 4.9 19.0 23.9 15,609
Scheduled tribe 39.3 5.5 19.0 24.5 6,866
Other backward class 34.1 4.0 15.1 19.0 32,938
Other 26.8 3.1 11.4 14.5 27,582
Don’t know 28.5 1.6 15.5 17.2 466
Wealth index
Lowest 44.5 6.6 20.9 27.5 14,763
Second 41.8 5.5 19.6 25.1 15,997
Middle 35.9 4.3 16.2 20.5 16,790
Fourth 29.7 2.8 12.7 15.5 17,499
Highest 19.2 1.3 7.3 8.6 18,654
Total 33.5 4.0 15.0 18.9 83,703
Source: NFHS-3 Final Report
who have experienced violence report current or

By age, the prevalence of physical violence is former husbands as the persons who inflicted
lowest, at 21 percent, for women age 15, 19, followed violence. Eighty-five percent of ever-married
by 31 percent for women age 20-24 and 38-39 women who have experienced violence since the
percent for women in the older age groups. age of 15 have experienced it from their current
Among women age 15-49 who have experienced husband. Only 2 percent mention a mother-in-law
physical violence since age 15, percentage who as the perpetrator. Never married women and
report specific persons who committed the violence, women whose gauna has not been performed
according to the respondent’s marital status, India, mainly report family members, particularly mothers,
2005-06 (Table 2). as the person committing the violence. Notably,
As expected, almost all ever-married women about one i n seven of these women reports
violence at the hands of a teacher.
53
Table 2 : Persons committing physical violence
Marital status
Person Ever Married, gauna not Never Total
married performed married
Current husband 85.3 (4.9) NA 77.0
Former husband 7.3 (0.0) NA 6.6
Current boyfriend 0.0 (0.0) 0.1 0.0
Former boyfriend 0.0 (4.9) 0.5 0.1
Father/step-father 4.4 (29.5) 26.6 6.6
Mother/step-other 8.9 (64.3) 57.1 13.7
Sister/brother 4.7 (19.6) 36.3 7.8
Daughter/son 0.1 (0.0) 0.5 0.1
Other relative 1.4 (3.4) 3.0 1.5
Mother-in-law 1.9 (0.0) NA 1.7
Father-in-law 0.6 (0.0) NA 0.6
Other in-law 1.5 (0.0) NA 1.3
Teacher 1.7 (16.3) 14.9 3.0
Employer/someone at work 0.0 (0.0) 0.1 0.0
Police/soldier 0.0 (0.0) 0.1 0.0
Other 02 (0.0) 0.8 0.3
Number of women 25,337 85 2,656 28,078
shows that 9 percent of all women age 15-49 report

Lifetime Sexual Violence having experienced sexual violence at sometime
NFHS-3 included two sets of questions on during their lifetime.
sexual violence. The first set asked only ever- Ten percent of currently married or widowed
married women about sexual violence bythe current women, 1 percent of never married women, and 2
husband if currently married and the most recent percent of women whose gauna has not yet been
husband if currently divorced, separated, deserted performed report have experienced sexual violence.
or widowed. The second asked all women, However, compared not only with women in other
regardless of marital status, whether they had ever, marital statuses, but also with all other subgroups
as a child or as an adult, experienced sexual in the table, it is divorced, separated, or deserted
violence. Sexual violence here includes being women have the highest prevalence of sexual
forced to have sexual intercourse or perform any violence (25 percent).
other sexual acts against one’s own will. Table 3 Five percent of women age 15-19 report having
54
Dr. Rina Pal
experienced sexual violence, the lowest rate among religion, Buddhist/ Neo-Buddhist and Jain women
all the age groups. Ten percent of rural women have the lowest prevalence of sexual violence (3
have experienced sexual violence, compared with and 4 percent) and Muslim women the highest (11
6 percent of urban women. The prevalence of percent), followed by Hindu women (8 percent.
sexual violence declines sharply with education Prevalence of sexual violence is somewhat higher
from 12 percent among women with no education for the scheduled castes (11 percent) and scheduled
to less than 5 percent of women with at least tribes (10 percent) than for women not belonging
10years of education. As in the case of physical to the scheduled castes and tribes (7-9 percent).
violence, women who were employed (either for As with physical violence, prevalence is highest
cash or not for cash) during the 12 months among women in the poorest wealth quintile (13
preceding the survey have a somewhat higher percent) and declines steadily with increasing
prevalence of sexual violence (10 percent) than wealth to a low of 4 percent among women in the
women not employed (7 percent). According to highest quintile.
Table 3 : Experience of sexual violence

Percentage of women age 15-49 who have ever experienced sexual violence by background characteristics India,
2005-2006.
Background characteristic Percentage who have ever Number of
experienced sexual violence women
Age
15-19 4.5 16,617
20-24 8.6 15,427
25-29 10.2 13,832
30-39 10.2 22,542
40-49 8.5 15,286
Residence
Urban 5.9 27,371
Rural 9.7 56,332
Education
No education 12.1 34,138
<5 years complete 10.5 6,600
5-7 years complete 8.1 12,557
12 or more years complete 2.3 10,023
Employment (past 12 months)
Not employed 7.4 47,720
55
Employed for cash 9.7 24,079

Background characteristic Percentage who have ever Number of
experienced sexual violence women
Employed not for cash 10.1 11,880
Marital status
Never married 1.1 16,477
Currently married 10.1 62,652
Married, gauna not performed 1.8 568
Widowed 9.7 2,692
Divorced/separated/deserted 24.6 1,314
Nuclear 8.5 43,551
Non-nuclear 8.5 40,152
Religion
Hindu 8.3 67,426
Muslim 10.9 11,396
Christian 5.8 2,039
Sikh 4.6 1,492
Buddhist/Neo-Buddhist 2.8 681
Jain 3.9 264
Other 9.3 333
Caste/tribe
Scheduled caste 11.0 15,609
Scheduled tribe 10.2 6,866
Other backward class 7.4 32,938
Other 7.8 27,582
Don’t know 8.7 466
Wealth index
Lowest 13.2 14,763
Second 11.1 15,997
Middle 8.8 16,790
Fourth 6.8 17,499
Higher 3.7 18,654
Total 8.5 83,703
Source: NFHS-3 Final Report is not known as these acts were committed in a marital
Table 4 shows percentage distribution of women who relationship. The data also suggested that non marital
have experienced sexual violence with relation to their sexual violence typically occurred in the age group 15-
age at first experienced of sexual violence. For majority 19 and a significant proportion also reported acts of
of women who report sexual violence, the information sexual violence even before the age of 15. Again about
of age when first experience of sexual violence occurred one in four women report sexual violence by someone
56
Dr. Rina Pal
Table 4 : Age at experience of sexual violence

Percent distribution of women age 15-49 who have experienced sexual violence by age at first experience of sexual
violence, according to current age, India, 2005-2006
Age at first experience of sexual violence

Age Less Age Age Age Not Number
than age 10 10-14 15-19 20-49 determined/ Missing Total of women
don’t know1
15-19 2.1 9.8 32.2 NA 55.3 0.7 100.0 751
20-24 0.0 4.4 18.3 7.3 69.8 0.3 100.0 1,324
25-29 0.2 4.6 10.5 8.4 76.2 0.2 100.0 1,413
30-39 0.4 3.9 10.3 8.3 77.1 0.0 100.0 2,308
40-49 0.0 4.3 10.6 11.3 73.5 0.2 100.0 1,293
Total 0.4 4.8 14.2 7.8 72.6 0.2 100.00 7,090
other than a current or most a recent husband. wo men repo rting any sexual vio lence have
1
i nclu des wo men who report ha vin g ever experienced such violence at the hands of a
experienced sexual violence committed only by husband, 2 percent report sexual violence by a
their current husband if currently married or most relative, 1 percent report sexual violence by a
recent husband if widowed, divorced, separated, friend/ acquaintance, and about half a percentage
or deserted. For these women, the age at first point each, report sexual violence by a boyfriend,
experience of sexual violence is not known. an in-law, a family friend, or a stranger. Never
Table 5 shows the perpetrators of sexual married women who have experienced sexual
violence according to women’s marital status and violence have most often been abused by a relative
age at first experience of violence. The table shows (27 percent), a friend/ acquaintance (23 percent), a
that although the vast majority of ever-married boyfriend (19 percent), a stranger (16 percent), and
a family friend (8 percent).
Table 5 : Persons committing sexual violence

Among women age 15-49 who have experienced sexual violence, percentage who report specific persons committing
sexual violence according to age at first experience of sexual violence and current marital status, India, 2005-2006.
Mari tal status Age at fi rst experience of
sexual vi ol ence
Person Ever Never <15 15 years Total
marri ed marri ed years or hi gher Don’t know 1
Current husband 87.5 0.0 47.1 75.1 91.0 85.2
Former husband 7.9 0.0 8.0 5.5 8.3 7.7
Current/former boyfriend 0.4 19.2 2.2 2.9 0.1 0.9
Father 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0
Step father 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.01 0.0 0.0
Other relative 1.7 26.7 18.6 5.7 0.2 2.4
In-law 0.4 1.5 0.0 1.1 0.2 0.4
57
Own friend/acquaintance 1.0 22.9 10.2 4.3 0.1 1.6

Person Mari tal status Age at fi rst experience of
sexual vi ol ence
Ever Never <15 15 years Total
marri ed marri ed years or hi gher Don’t know 1
Family friend 0.4 7.6 4.6 1.4 0.0 0.6
Teacher 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0
Employer/someone at work 0.2 3.0 1.3 0.8 0.0 0.2
Police/soldier 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Priest/religious leader 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Stranger 0.5 15.6 7.8 2.1 0.0 0.9
Other 0.1 1.3 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.1
Number of women 6,900 190 371 1,566 5,144 7,090
Note : Total includes women with missing information on age at experience of sexual violence, who are not shown
separately. identified in the literature as risk factors for violence

Source: NFHS-3 Final Report (Campbell et al., 2003; Kishor and Johnson, 2004).
Includes women who repo rt having ever Accordingly, NFHS-3 sought information on six
experienced sexual violence committed only by their controlling behaviors that may be manifested by
current husband if currently married or most recent husbands, by asking each ever-married respondent
husband if widowed, divorced, separated, or the following: whether her husband is jealous or
deserted. F or these women, the age of first angry if she talks to other men; frequently accuses
experience of sexual violence is not known. her of being unfaithful; does not permit her to meet
Among women for whom the age at first sexual her female friends; tries to limit her contacts with
abuse is known, 371 were younger than 15 years her family; insists on knowing where she is at all
when they were first abused. Almost half (47 times; and does not trust her with money. For
percent) of this small number of women, say that currently married women these questions refer to
their current husband was the perpetrator of the their current husband and for formerly married
violence and 8 percent say that it was a former women to their most recent husband. Table 6
husband. Among women who first experienced shows the percentage of women who have been
sexual viol ence befo re age 1 5, significant su bjected t o t hese behavi ors, acco rdi ng to
proportions say that the violence was perpetrated background characteristics. The most common
by a rel ative (19 percent) or by a friend or behavior of all the behaviors asked about is
acquaintance (10 percent). Among women who first jealousy or anger if the wife talks to other men.
experienced sexual violence after age 15, husbands This behavior is experienced by a quarter of ever-
are by far the most common perpetrators of sexual married women (26 percent). The next most
violence. commonly experienced controlling behaviors asked
Martial Control about are the wife not being trusted with money
Certain male behaviors meant to keep tight (18 percent) and the wife not being allowed to meet
control over women, particularly wives, have been her female friends (16 percent). However, few
58
Dr. Rina Pal
women have husbands who show a significant women have husbands who display three or more
number of these behaviors: only 12 percent of of these behaviors, and 57 percent have husbands
who display none of them.
Table 6 : Degree of marital control exercised by husbands
Percentage of ever-married women age 15-49 whose husband has ever demonstrated specific types of controlling
behaviours, according to background characteristics, India, 2005-2006.
Percentage of women whose husband
Background Is jealous Frequently Does not Tries to Insists on Does not Husband Husband
or angry if accuses permit limit her know ing trust her displays displays
characteristic she talks her of her to contact where she with any 3 or more none of
to other being meet her with her is at all money of the the
men unfaithful female family times specific specific Number of
friends behaviours behaviours women
Age
15-19 33.6 11.7 19.3 12.3 16.1 20.9 17.2 49.5 4,643
20-24 27.7 8.2 15.9 10.3 12.7 18.5 12.7 56.3 11,642
25-29 27.1 8.7 16.1 9.8 12.7 18 12.4 55.9 13,006
30-39 25.8 8.5 15.9 10 11.2 18.8 12 57.5 22,191
40-49 23.5 7.7 14.9 8.7 10.4 17.1 10.4 59.8 15,175
Residence
Urban 20.5 6.4 14.3 8 9.3 17.1 9.6 63.7 20,441
Rural 29 9.4 16.6 10.7 13 18.9 13.3 54 46,217
Education
No education 32.3 10.8 16.5 11.4 13.4 19.3 14.5 51.5 32,024
<5 years complete 28.3 9.7 19.7 11.6 14.8 21.2 14.8 53.1 5,647
5-7 years complete 25.7 8.1 15.8 9.8 11.8 17.9 12.1 57.8 9,900
8-9 years complete 21 6.1 15.1 8.6 10.8 17.2 9.8 61.9 7,585
10-11 years complete 17.2 4.3 13.8 6.8 8.4 16.6 7.9 65.5 5,440
12 or more years complete 9.6 2.6 12.4 4.5 6.2 14 5 73.8 6,059
Employment (past 12 months)
Not employed 23.6 6.7 15.2 9.1 10.9 18.1 10.7 59.3 37,020
Employed for cash 28 11.5 17.2 11.3 13.5 18.8 14.5 55.6 19,668
Employed not for cash 33.8 9.1 16.3 10.1 12.5 18.3 13.2 50.8 9,958
Marital status
Currently married 26 7.8 15.6 9.4 11.4 18 11.6 57.3 62,652
Widowed 24.8 9.9 15.2 9.4 12.5 17.6 12.9 59.9 2,692
Divorced/separated/deserted 50.7 38.1 32.3 31.3 33.7 36.1 39.5 31.8 1,314
Marital duration1
Married only once 25.7 7.7 15.5 9.3 11.2 17.9 11.4 57.6 61,395
0-4 years 24.3 7.4 1.5.5 8.6 11.7 17.7 11.5 59.5 11,411
5-9 years 26.7 7.6 15.6 10.1 12 17.7 12.1 56.8 12,261
10+ years 25.8 7.8 15.4 9.3 10.8 18 11.2 57.3 37,723
Married more than once 37.9 14.8 22.5 15.1 21 23.2 21.1 45.2 1,258
Number of living children
0 27 10.2 17.1 10.9 14.6 18.9 14.1 56.4 7,530
1-2 23.2 7.6 14.9 9 10.8 17.2 11 60.9 29,164
3-4 28.6 8.9 16.6 10.3 12.2 19.1 12.8 54.2 22,244
5+ 32 9.2 16.8 11.1 12.6 19.8 13.3 50.5 7,620
59
Percentage of women whose husband

Background Is je alous Frequently Does not Tries to Insists Does not Husband Husband
or angry accuses permit limit her on trust her displays displays
characteristic if she her of her to contact knowing with any 3 or more none of
talks to being meet her with her where she money of the the
other unfaithful fe male fam ily is at all specific specific Number of
men friends times behaviours behaviours women
Nuclear 26.3 8.7 15.3 9.6 11.5 17.8 12 57.6 33,989
Non-nuclear 26.6 8.3 16.6 10.1 12.3 18.9 12.4 56.2 32,669
Religion
Hindu 26.4 8.4 15.8 9.5 11.4 18.1 11.9 57.3 54,208
Muslim 29.1 9.3 16.8 12.8 14.8 19.8 14.4 52.3 8,795
Christian 18 7.4 9.8 6.3 10.4 11.8 8.6 69.5 1,500
Sikh 22.1 5.2 19.9 5.1 11.7 21.9 10.9 59.2 1,115
Buddhist/Neo-Buddhist 19.1 12.2 22.8 16.7 15.4 30.8 18.5 51.9 537
Jain 10.7 3.2 20.7 2.3 5.1 22.7 5.1 66.4 190
Other 27.1 8.6 13.2 10.2 25.6 15.6 12.6 50.6 245
Caste/tribe
Schedule caste 29.7 10.5 17.6 10.7 12.9 20.2 14.1 53.7 12,701
Schedule tribe 31.3 12 17.6 11 15.3 18.9 16 52.7 5,562
Other backward class 27.2 8.2 13.6 9.8 11.1 16.1 11.5 58.3 26,428
Other 22.2 6.6 17.4 9.1 11.4 19.9 10.9 58.3 21,393
Don’t known 31 16.1 17.4 16.2 18.2 16.6 18.5 53.6 375
Wealth index
Lowest 33.9 12.4 17.2 12.8 15.4 19.8 16 49.3 12,815
Second 32.1 10.8 17.9 11.6 14.2 20.6 15 50.1 13,384
Middle 28.8 10 16 10.5 12.3 17.9 13 55.6 13,386
Fourth 23 6.5 14.6 8.8 10.8 17 10.5 60.9 13,444
Highest 14.8 3 14 5.8 7.1 16.6 6.8 68.1 13,628
Total 26.4 8.5 15.9 9.9 11.9 18.3 12.2 56.9 66,658
husbands than urban women, the differentials tend

to be relatively small. The proportion of women
The proportion of women whose husbands experiencing controlling behaviours also tends to
show three or more controlling behaviours declines decline with increasing education and wealth, and
with age. Husbands of the youngest married is higher for women who are employed, particularly
women (15-19 years) appear to be the most if employed for cash, than if they are not employed.
controlling, with 34 percent reporting that their Differentials by religion and caste/ tribe are also
husbands are jealous or angry when they talk to evident.
other men, 21 percent reporting that their husband Spousal Violence by State
do not trust them with money; and 19 percent Table 7 gives the percentages of ever-married
reporting that their husbands do not permit them women who have experienced different types of
to meet their female friends. While rural women are spousal violence by state. The most common form
more likely to report controlling behaviours by their of violence in all states is physical violence. Sexual
60
Dr. Rina Pal
violence is reported least often in most states. The than those who have experienced physical or sexual
only exceptions are West Bengal, where the violence.
prevalence of sexual violence is much higher than Slapping is the most commonly reported act of
the prevalence of emotional violence, and Manipur physical violence. Thirty-four percent of ever-
where the two are equally prevalent. Sexual married women report being slapped by their
vi olence is mo st commo n i n West Bengal, current or most recent husband, and 20 percent of
Rajasthan, and Bihar where the prevalence is twice ever-married women (except widows) report having
the national average. been slapped in the 12 months preceding the
The prevalence of physical or sexual violence survey. The next most common acts of physical
ranges from 6 percent in Himachal Pradesh and 13 violence experienced by women involve having
percent in Jammu and Kashmir and Meghalaya, to hair pulled or arms twisted (15 percent) and being
46 percent in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan and pushed shaked or having something thrown at
59 percent in Bihar (Figure 15.2). Other states with them (14 percent). Twelve percent of women report
40 percent or higher prevalence of spousal physical having been kicked, dragged, or beaten up, and 2
or sexual violence include Tripura, Manipur, Uttar percent report that their husbands tried to choke
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Assam. or burn them on purpose. Overall, 35 percent of
For most states, the proportion of ever-married wo men report havi ng experi enced physical
women who have experienced emotional or violence at the hands of their current or most recent
physical or sexual violence is only slightly higher husband.
Table 7 : Experience of physical of sexual spousal violence by state
Percentage of ever-married women age 15-49 ho have experienced physical or sexual violence committed by their
husband by State, India, 2005-2006
Percentage who have experienced
Emotional Physical Sexual Physical or Emotional or
State violence violence violence sexual violence physical or
sexual violence
India 15.8 35.1 10.0 37.2 39.7
North
Delhi 4.9 16.1 2.1 16.3 17.2
Hariyana 8.7 25.5 7.1 27.3 28.0
Himachal Pradesh 3.8 5.9 1.8 6.2 6.9
Jammu & Kashmir 8.9 11.5 3.9 12.6 15.1
Punjab 10.7 24.4 7.2 25.4 26.7
Rajasthan 22.9 40.3 20.2 46.3 50.2
Uttaranchal 8.9 27.3 6.1 27.8 29.8
Central
Chattisgarh 12.7 29.2 6.9 29.9 32.3
Madhya Pradesh 22.5 44.0 11.0 45.7 49.1
Uttar Pradesh 16.1 41.2 9.4 42.4 45.0
61
Percentage who have experienced

Emotional Physical Sexual Physical or Emotional or
State violence violence violence sexual violence physical or
sexual violence
India 15.8 35.1 10.0 37.2 39.7
East
Bihar 19.7 55.6 19.1 59.0 60.8
Jharkhand 18.0 34.7 12.5 36.9 40.9
Orissa 19.8 33.5 14.7 38.4 41.2
West Bengal 12.3 32.7 21.5 40.3 41.8
Northeast
Arunachal Pradesh 16.6 37.5 9.5 38.8 43.0
Assam 15.6 36.7 14.8 39.5 42.1
Manipur 13.9 40.7 14.0 43.8 46.2
Meghalaya 7.1 12.6 1.6 12.8 15.0
Mizoram 11.0 22.0 2.0 22.1 25.1
Nagaland 12.6 14.0 3.0 15.3 21.3
Sikkim 10.2 14.8 4.8 16.3 18.8
Tripura 22.8 40.9 19.0 44.1 46.6
West
Goa 12.0 16.5 2.8 16.8 19.6
Gujarat 18.5 25.7 7.5 27.6 33.8
Maharashtra 17.5 30.6 2.0 30.7 33.4
South
Andhra Pradesh 13.3 35.0 4.1 35.2 36.8
Karnataka 8.1 19.5 4.0 20.0 21.5
Kerala 10.1 15.3 4.8 16.4 19.8
Tamil Nadu 16.8 41.9 3.2 41.9 44.1
Note : Husband refers to the current husband for currently married women and the most recent husband for
widowed, divorced separated, or deserted women. Source: NFHS-3 Final Report
62
Dr. Rina Pal
Figure 8 : Spousal Violence by State
Figure 9 : Forms of Spousal Violence Experienced by Ever-married Women
63
greed of dowry, desire for a male child and

Ten percent of women report experiencing one alcoholism of the spouse are major factors of
or both types of acts of sexual violence; most of domestic violence against women in rural areas.
these women report experiencing the violence in Women are socialized to accept, tolerate and
the last year. Being physically forced to have sexual even rationalize domestic violence and to remain
intercourse is more common (10 percent) than being silent about such experiences. Violence of any kind
forced to perform any other sexual acts that she has a detrimental impact on the economyof a country
did not want to perform (5 percent) (Figure 9). through increased disability, medical costs and loss
Sixteen percent of ever-married women report of labour hours, however, because women bear the
having experienced emotional violence. Thirteen brunt of domestic violence, they disproportionately
percent said that their husband had said or done bear the health and psychological burdens as well.
something to humiliate them in front of others, 8 A psychological set back and trauma because of
percent said that their husband had insulted them domestic violence affects women’s productivity in
or made them feel bad about themselves, and 5 all forms of life. The suicide case of such victimized
percent said that their husband threatened to hurt women is also a deadly consequence and the
or harm them or someone close to them. The number of such cases is increasing.
majority reporting any emotional violence also Domestic violence was recognized as a criminal
experienced the violence in the 12 months preceding offence in India in 1983. The offences chargeable
the survey. under section 498-A of the Indian Penal Code that
Overall, 37 percent of ever-married women have relates to domestic violence is any act of cruelty
experienced spousal physical or sexual violence, by a husband (or his family) towards his wife.
and 40 percent have experienced spousal physical, However, until recently, there was no separate civil
sexual or emotional violence. Smaller proportions law addressing the specific complexities associated
of women report experiencing both spousal with domestic violence. After a decade long
physical and sexual violence (8 percent), as well as process of co nsu ltatio ns and revi sio ns, a
spousal physical and sexual and emotional violence comprehensive domestic violence law, known as
(4 percent). the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence
The most common causes for women stalking Act 2005, took affect in 2006. Key elements of the
and battering include dissatisfaction with the law include the prohibition of marital rape and the
dowry and exploiting women for more of it, arguing provision of protection and maintenance orders
with the partner, refusing to have sex with him, against husband and partners who are emotionally,
neglecting children, going out of home without physically, or economically abusive.
telling the partner, not cooking properly or on time, The response to the phenomenon of domestic
indulging in extra marital affairs, not looking after violence is a typical combination of effort between
in-laws etc. In some cases infertility in female also law enforcement agencies, social service agencies,
leads to their assault by the family members. The the courts and corrections /probation agencies.
64
Dr. Rina Pal
The role of all these has progressed over last few prevention of domestic violence.
decades and brought their activities in public view. References
Domestic violence is now being viewed as a public • Barik C., Pushpesh Kumar Bishnu, S. Sarode. Usha,
health problem of epidemic proportion all over the 2010, G ender and Human R ights , R awat
world and many public, private and governmental Publications, Jaipur.
agencies are seen making huge efforts to control it • Chowdhury Aziur Rahman, Bhuiyan Jahid Hossain,
in India. Alam Shawkat Edited, 2010, Issues in Human Rights,
The irony is that international Human Rights Atlantic, New Delhi.
instruments and many domestic laws prohibit and • Kumar, Ankur, 2010, Domestic Violence in India:
condemn such violence. And still, it occurs. In Caus es, Consequenc es and Remedies, www.
reality, the societal responses to domestic violence, youthkiawaaz.com.
to date, primarily focus on crisis intervention after • NFHS-3 Final Report.
the harm has occurred. What is needed is a • Tiwari, R.K., 2011, Women and Human Rights (1st
co mprehensi ve st rat egy that addresses t he edition), Neeraj Publishing House, Delhi.
65
Comparative Study between the Kaivalya of Yoga and the Nirvāna

of Bauddha
Dr. Sukanta Das
ABSTRACT
It is known to all that the Buddhist Philosophy is different from the other systems of Indian Philosophy. Like the
other systems they have also admitted that suffering or bondage is the main problem to men which comes from
ignorance. Our aim should be free from this bondage through removing ignorance which is possible by practising

eight-fold means. We know that the Samkhya - Yoga is most ancient systems and almost all the systems have
followed the yogic methods for attaining liberation. This paper is attempted to show how we find yogic systems in
the Buddhist Philosophy for the attainment of absolute goal (liberation).

Keywords: Kaivalya, Nirvana, samadhi, astangayoga, 
astangika marga liberation.
  
Introduction: attainment of right knowledge. Hence, Śrī Krsna

We know that the Indian Philosophy leads us to  
says in the ‘Gītā’ rightly in the following:
the way of liberation. All the Philosophers of India “Na hi j ñān en a sadrs am pa vi tra mi ha
had realized the reality or truth. Hence, the term 
vidyate,
‘P hil osophy’ has been defi ned in Indi an 
Tat svayam yogasamsiddhah kālenātmani
Philosophy as ‘the realization of truth’. All of them 1

vindati”.
have admitted ‘moksa’ as the absolute goal of I

every human being except the Cārvākas. Though It is known to all that all the systems except the
their aim ( ‘moksa’ ) is same yet means are different. Cārvāka have mentioned that ignorance is the root

Many Philosophers of India have realized the cause cause of bondage and when it becomes removed,
of sorrow of men from long days and through the liberation is attained. Each and every man suffers
meditation they found various means for attaining pai n for who le li fe and it is very t rue t hat
freedom from suffering viz. Buddha has realized everywhere where birth there is sorrow. If we are
reality as four noble-truths, Kapila, Patañjali and able to stop the birth process, must be free from
others advise us to realize ourselves (essence of any kind of suffering. In this context, we may note
own self). It becomes possi ble through the a quotation of Jatindranath Sengupta: “Mithyā
Guest Lecturer, Department of Philosophy,Garhbeta College, Paschim Medinipur, W.B., India
66
Dr. Sukanta Das
prakrti , miche ānanda, mithyā rangin  sukh; of kaivalya is. It is not needed to mention that the

Satya satya sahasragun satya jīver dukh”. We founder of the Yoga Philosophy is Patañjali who
find four-fold purusarthas in Indian Philosophy wrote the ‘Yogasūtra’. The term ‘yoga’ has been

viz. dharma, artha, kāma and moksa . Among used in different senses. Generally, the term ‘yoga’

these, only mokca is absolute and eternal where is used as ‘the conjunction of any two individuals’.
other three are non-eternal. The term ‘ moksa ’ Literally, we can define it that the term ‘yoga’ comes

refers to ‘eternal cessation of suffering’. In the from the root ‘yuj’ which means ‘to yoke’ or ‘to
standpoint of the Vedas, moksa is the attainment join’. In this regard, yoga is defined as the union

of heaven where aspirant can enjoy eternal pleasure between the individual self and the supreme self,
and rejoice. The Upanisads state that moksa is an union between prana (vāyu) and apāna (vāyu)
  
identity of the self with the Brahman, the ultimate etc. Śrī Krsna says in the ‘Gītā’ that equanimity
 
reality. The Gītā has defined moksa differently in (samatvam yoga ucyate) is yoga. Though we find

various places such as equivalence with God, not various definitions of yoga like mentioned above
identity with God, as the contact with God, as yet we have to accept the definition of Patañjali,
transformation into the divine existence etc. because, his definition is more effective than
According to t he Samkhya  -Yoga, moksa o r others. He says, “ Yogas cittavrttinirodhah ”; 2that
  
li beratio n i s only (ai kā nt ik a) and et ernal is to say, yoga is the suppression of mental
(ātyantika) cessation of suffering (Trividha modifications. Vyasa, the commentator of yoga
duhkhatyantanivrttiratyanta - purusarthah ). In says, ‘Yoga is samādhi’. Both Patanjali and Vyasa
   
this system, purusa becomes devo id of three have mentioned definitions of yoga in the same

ingredients and remains in its own pure essence at sense; because, in both of the cases mental
the state of liberation or moksa which is called also modifications are arrested. The absolute aim of a

as ka iva lya. Acco rdi ng to t he Bu ddhi st yogi is the attainment of kaivalya. The term
Philosophy, liberation is called nirvana which ‘kaivalya’ has been mentioned in the Samkhya 

literally means ‘cooling down’ or ‘blowing out’. Philosophy. According to the Samkhya  , our main
Buddha says that desire, passions etc. are the aim is the attainment of vivekakhyāti. The term
cause of suffering. If we are able to blow out our ‘vi vek akh yāt i’ means the discriminati ve
passions, desires completely, must be free from all knowledge between purusa and prakrti .
 
kinds of suffering. On the other side, according to According to them aviveka (the identity knowledge
some, nivvana is the attainment of positive bliss between purusa and prakrti ) is the root cause
  
( nivvanam paramam sukham ). of bo ndage, t hat is, t hree-fold sufferi ng

However, in the perspective of aforesaid (ādhyātmika, ādhibhautika and ādhidaivika) and
descriptions we can say here that liberation is the after attaining vivekakhyāti an aspirant becomes
cessation of suffering. free from all kinds of suffering. According to the
II Yo ga Phi lo sophy, though a yo gi at tai ns
Let us see now what the yoga is and the nature vivekakhyāti through the practice of eight steps
67
of yoga viz. yama, niyama, āsana, pranayama , praptikaranam y a t h ā dharmmah s u k h a s y a ,

  
pratyāhāra, dharana , dhyāna and samādhi yet nanyathakaranam ”.5 These eight steps are-yama,
 
his absolute aim will be completed then when he niyama etc. The first step yama is divided into five
wi ll be disinterest ed not only in vario us  ), truth (satya), non-
viz. non-violence ( ahimsa
supernatural powers but also in vivekakhyāti. At covetousness (asteya), celibacy (brahmacarya)
that time, the pure self is devoid of three ingredients and not recei ving anyt hing fro m o thers
eternally; that is to say, and then only pure self (aparigraha). Niyama is divided into five parts
remains in its own essence. It is called the viz. cleanliness (śauca), contentment ( santosa ),

attainment of kaivalya of purusa . au sterity (tapah) , st udy the script ures
 
III (svādhyāya) and complete surrender to God (Īśvara
Let us see now the means to kaivalya of Yoga pranidhana ). The third step is āsana (bodily

and the means to nirvana of Buddhism. posture). Next step is pranayama.In the definition
 
Patanjali has mentioned that yoga is attained of pranayama. Patañjal i says, “Ta smin sa ti

through the repeated practice and detachment.3In s vasapras vasayorgativicchedah pranayamah ”.6
 
which way a yogi can remove rājas and tāmas Āsana and pranayam a help us to keep the body

vrttis from the mind and sāttvika vrttis remains that fit and grow both physical and mental strength.
 
is called practice. Detachment is the complete non- The last step of external aids is pratyāhāra
attachment to any external o bject. Like the (withdrawal of the senses from taking their own

Samkhya PhilosophyYoga also comments that the object form). Among these eight steps, rest three
cause of suffering (heya) is the conjunction viz. dharana , dhyāna and samādhi are called

between purusa and prakrti which are called as internal aids. When a yogi can fix his mind on any
 
drasta (seer) and drs ya (seen).4 Though we know particular object (any spot of his body or image of
 
that purusa is sentient and prakrti is insentient any goddess etc.), is called dharana . If that yogi’ss
  
yet when both are contacted with each other for fixation of mind becomes breakless like flow of oil,
their own necessities, prakrti becomes sentient will be called dhyā na. After att aining deep

like purusa due to ascription of purusa . Our duty meditation that yogi attains samādhi. In this state,
 
is to be detached from that contact which has been a yogi’s mind becomes identical with the particular
started from beginingless time (anādikāla). For object. Hence, Patañjali says, “Tadevārthamātra
this achievement Patañjali has prescribed us to nirbhāsaA svarū paśū-nyamiva samadhih ”. 7

practice eight-fold means of yoga. As a result, our Again, according to the Yoga, samādhi is of two
impurities (all the afflictions) become removed and types viz. samprajñāta and asamprajñāta. Again,
we can attain right knowledge (vivekakhyāti). In samprajñāta is divided into four parts viz. vitarka,
this context, we may mention a quotation from the vicā ra, ānan da and asmi tā. In the stat e of
Vyasabhācya: samprajñāta yoga, there may remain any type of
 
“ Yoganganustanamas uddherviyogakaranam seed of disposition or object-form. Hence, it is
 
yat hā p araśuśchedyasya, vivek akhyātesttu called savīja samādhi. Though the main aim of a
68
Dr. Sukanta Das
yogi is samādhi yet here we have to understand vitarka and vicāra, avitarka-vicāra and avitarka-
that samādhi means asamprajñāta ; because, in avicāra. Nun Dharmadinnā says, “Samādhi is one-
this state a yogi can remain in its own essence. pointedness of mind”.8 However, we see that at
This is cal led the attainment of ka ival ya the last state of samādhi, a mendicant attains right
of purusa . knowledge (samyak jñāna) and through it he must

In the Buddhism, liberation is called nirvana . be free from bondage.9 One who attains liberation,

According to them, everything of this world even rightly feels that ‘I am free, I am free from rebirth,
self is also non-eternal. Everything is changeable my celibacy has been completed; now I have
in this world like flow of water of a river. Even, the nothing to do more, all of my actions have been
self is also an aggregate of some physical and done’.10. But, the question is- we know that in the
mental sensation, idea, feeling etc. In other words, last state of samādhi, mind becomes completely
it may be stated that it is the aggregate of five arrested, so how can we say that after attaining
parts (skandhas). Like Patañjali, Buddha also says samādhi a person attains prajñā? In reply, it may
that ignorance is the root cause of suffering and be observed that l ike the Advaita Vedant a,
bondage which comes from the series of birth and Buddhist nirvana is that state where everything

death. He meant to say here that if we attain the is known as Brahman. Brahman is absolute or
right knowledge (knowledge of four noble truths), complete like a pot full of water. We know that
must be free from all kinds of suffering. The last such a pot has no sound and ripple just like the
noble truth leads us to the way of nirvana . In this state of prajñā which is full of knowledge.

state, we find the noble eight-fold path which is According to the Vijñānavādin, nirvana is the


called ‘ārya astangika mārga’. These eight steps essence of spirit or pure knowledge. They also

are divided into three parts viz. prajñā, śīla and to ld, nirvana is of fo ur ki nds vi z.

samādhi. Right faith (samyak ditti ) and right dharmakāya, upadhis esa, anupadhis esa and
  
mindfulness (samyak smrti ) allowed as prajñā. apratistita nirvana . Among these four, the last is
  
The next is śīla. Śīla refers to ‘right conduct’. Śīla the pure state of knowledge.
contains various ethical, religious or scrupulous IV
works in mind, speech and deed viz. non-violence, Let us see now a comparison between the
truth, non-covetousness, honesty etc. It purifies kaivalya of Yoga and the nirvana of Bauddha.

our mind and body. After the attainment of śīla, a Generally, we see that both of them have
mendicant can attain samyak samādhi. ‘Samādhi’ admitted eight-fold means ( astanga  yoga and

is mental restraint. In the Buddhist Philosophy, 
astangika mārga) to liberation. Buddhist eight-

samādhi is known as meditation or dhyāna. fold means have been divided into three parts viz.
Samādhi has been constructed with the three parts śīla, samādhi and prajñā. On the other side,
viz. samyak vyāyāma, samyak sm[ti and samyak  yoga is divided into two viz. external and
astanga

samādhi. Again, in some places, we find that internal aids.
samādhi is of four kinds viz. savitarka-savicāra, The first step śīla of Buddhism is same as yama
69
of yoga; because, it prescribes us to be non-violent, nirupadhis  esa . Sopadhis esa sa mā dh i of

 
to maintain the truth and earn in honest way. The Bauddha contains various gross and subtle object-
second śīla restrains us from killing, lust or non- forms like the samprajñāta samādhi of yoga. On
chastity which is equal as non-violence and the other side, there is no impression in the state
celibacy of yama of yoga. The last sīla or samyak of asamprajñā samādhi. Similarly, in the course
ājīva restrains us from stealing and it is as avarice of nirupadhis  esa sa mā dh i, the mind of a

of yama of yoga. Even, Buddha has pointed out: mendi cant becomes free from al l kinds of
“I say him as Brahman who is remained in the state impressions. Hence, Buddhist nun Śiśupacālā
of aparigraha”.11 
says, “Vimutto upadhisamkhaye ”.
Like the niya ma of yo ga, Bauddha have In the perspecti ve of above ment ioned
adopted aśubhakammaththāna, khanti-saAvara compari son a picture may be shown in the
etc. According to them, a mendicant should following:
maintain internal and external purity which is called Kaivalya of Yoga And NirvāGa of Bauddha
‘aśubha-kammaththāna’ and ‘dhūtaEgas’ or pure 1. Samprajñāta or Sopadhiśeca
disciplinary parts.12 Regarding the tapa% Buddha savīja samādhi nirvāGa
himself says that a mendicant must overcome the
conflict of winter-summer, hot-cold, hunger-thirst Self + body +mind + prāravdha karmas +
etc. or keep the body fit and will remain silent in impressions of particular object (dheya vicaya).
speech. 13
Buddhists have advised to practice āsana and 2. Asamprajñāta or Anupādāna parinirvāGa
prāGāyāma for keeping the body fit and calm mind. nirvīja samādhi
Regarding the pranayama we find a statement in

the ‘Viśuddhimagga’ as the name of ‘ānapānasati’ Self + body + prāravdha karmas
where it has been mentioned that a mendicant
should fix his mind on the inhaling (paśśāsa) and 3. Kaivalya or Nirupadhiśeca samādhi or
the exhaling (āśśāsa) of his breath with counting videhamukti mahāparinirvāGa
numbers.14
It is needless to mention that for the attainment Only pure self remains.
of samādhi Buddhists have maintained other rest In the picture mentioned above we have shown
parts from pratyāhāra to dhyāna. Regarding the a comparison where the kaivalya and nirvana
samādhi they have mentioned seven kinds of explain some state with different terms. In the first
sa mādh i whi ch is call ed step both of the cases self, body, mind, prāravdha
‘saptasamadhipariskara’ . karmas and dispositions of concentrating object

Both the systems have admitted samādhi as remains. In the second step, mind, body and organs
the highest goal of men. Like Patanjali, Buddhist are arrested. As a result, all the activities of mind,
samādhi is of two types viz. sopadhis esa and body and organs become stopped. But, for the

70
Dr. Sukanta Das
enjoyment of prāravdha karmas yogi’s body still 3. “Abhy±savair±gy±bhyāA tannirodha%”,

remains. At the last step, after enjoyment of “Yogasutra”, Verse No. 1/12.
prāravdha karmas a yogi becomes disembodied 4. ‘Yogasutra’, Verse No. 2/17.
which is called in Yoga the attainment of kaivalya 5. Yogabhāsya, Verse No. 2/28.
and i n t he Bauddha att ai nment of 6. ‘Yogasutra’, Verse No. 2/49.
mahaparinirvana. 7. ‘Yogasutra’, Verse No. 3/3.

V 8. Vidyaranya Swami,1999, “Bauddhadarsan O
In conclusion, after profound searching it has Dharma”, Paschimvanga Rajya Pustak Parsad,
been found that the Yoga Philosophy and its means Kolkata, P. 70.
have acquired an important place in the Indian 9. Vidyaranya Swami,1999, “Bauddha-darsan O
Philosophy. Almost all the systems have adopted Dharma”, Paschim-vanga Rajya Pustak Parsad,
their means for the attainment of liberation but they Kolkata, P. 79.
have used different terms. As an example we have 10. Vidyaranya Swami,1999, “Bauddha-darsan O
taken the Bauddha system here and saw that their Dharma”, Paschim-vanga Rajya Pustak Parsad,
eight-fold paths are similar as yoga. Of course, there Kolkata, P. 195.
is much dissimilarity between their theories but 11. Vidyaranya Swami,1999, “Bauddha-darsan O
our aim is only regarding the liberation. Patañjali Dharma”, Paschim-vanga Rajya Pustak Parsad,
has admitted God in his ‘Yogasūtra’ for helping a Kolkata, P. 120.
yogi to attain samādhi easily; but, Buddha himself 12. Dasgupta, S. N.,1975, “A History of Indian
is an idol like God to all the Buddhists and they Philosophy”, Vol. 1, Motilal Banarsidass, New
believe that by His grace a mendi cant can Delhi, P.101.
attain nirvana . 13. Vidyaranya Swami,1999, “Bauddha-darsan O
 Dharma”, Paschim-vanga Rajya Pustak Parsad,
Kolkata, P. 111.
Notes and References 14. Dasgupta, S. N.,1975, “A History of Indian
1. The ‘Gita’, Verse No. 4/38. Philosophy”, Vol. 1, Motilal Banarsidass, New
2. ‘Yogasutra’, Verse No. ½. Delhi, P. 103.
71
Tagore’s Song – the Source of Infusion of a new Life

Dr. Susanta Kumar Samanta
ABSTRACT
The Crisis in Civilization was apprehended by Rabindranath Tagore in the past. But it is till dominating today with
new dimension. We are under Political pressure, arrogance and brutality. Even our personal liberty is in distress. We
cannot trust on each other rather indulge into immoral competition. Finally, we are alienated from each other. There
is no limitation of defining and limiting the exact space of activity of the contending and the opposite forces of the
society. Conflict and rivalry within the society is causing distortion and disruption of human relation and reaction. It
leads to formidable barrier in the flow of life of the society. There is an identity crisis of human being. We want to get
rid of the dreadful situation with the messages of freedom, mutual trust and harmony and so on. All these intellectual
and emotional hospitality along with realization is available in the Writings and Creation of Rabindranath Tagore,
‘The greatest reconciler of the modern age’. Especially, we can do away with the situation only by the aid of His Song.
We can manifest our inner-self with the language and philosophy lies behind His Song. Man is revealed as well as
spirited by Tagore’s Song. Mental strength may be restored with the elements like self-control, self-respect, self-help
and co-operation etc. accumulated in Rabindrasangeet. With the help of such a cultural wealth as well as conscious
art we can combat the recent dreadful situation. Tagore’s Song is the most powerful source of inspiration to our new
life.
Keywords: Crisis, Harmony, Tagore’s Song, Manifest, Individual, Effort, Emotions, Feeling, Lyric, Human being.
Due to hankering for ungenerous and limitless li mit ing t he exact space of activity o f t he
greed for Political power, absolute control, contending and the opposite forces of the society.
appropriation and possession etc. alongwith Conflict among the members of the society i.e.
indulgence of arrogance and brutality in one hand between individual and individual, individual and
as well as rapid and vast change of habits and society, ruler and the ruled has caused a huge
behavior on account of enchanting and pernicious distortion and disruption of human relation and
motive of Neo-liberalization on the other the social reaction causing a formidable barrier in the flow of
harmony is at stake now. People are hostile to each life of the society. There is an identity crisis of
other. There always lies a situation of opposition human being in front of multifarious ways of rivalry,
and rivalry. There is no limitation of defining and unusual and undesired activities for competition,
Associate Professor,Dept. of Music, Raja N.L. Khan Women’s College, Medinipur, West Bengal, India
72
religion turbid, whirling and chaotic perspective. tobu kole dao naai sthan, / Apomaane hote habe
Reign of terror as well as ugly face of intolerance is tahaader sabaar samaan.”(GEETANJALI, 108 no.
appearing hand in hand in the picture. Continuous Song) Faith in our own strength (not power but
greed and enormous drive towards power and more spirit) and organizing strength is to be established
power alienating each other. There is no space for at any cost. Mental blocks is to be withered away
common people. Individual liberty is lost. Personal without any further delay and we have to develop
opinion is resisted by the powerful at any cost. a positive, an active and progressive attitude of
Theory of interdependence is nowhere. Undesired mind to overcome the inertia already engrained in
Law and Order situation is in force everywhere. our character. In such case, we should never forget
Mo ral strengt h is destroyed i nduci ng His appealing Message-
co mpromi sing att itu de and parti al passi ve “Ei sob murha mlaan muk mukhe
resistance. The Cri sis in Ci vil izati on as Dite hobe bhaasha – ei sob shranta shuska
apprehended past by Rabindranath Tagore, the bhagna buke
greatest thinkers of the world, is till dominating Dhwania tulite hobe aasha – dakia bolite
terribly. The experience of Him at that time is true hobe – Muhurta tulia shir ekotra danrao
even now also which may be shared in this manner- dekhi sabe,
“…. Dekhilam e kaaler Jar bhoye tumi bhito, se onnay bhiru tomaa
Atmaghati murha unmatwota dekhinu cheye,
sarbange taar Jakhani jagibe tumi takhani se palaaibe
Bikritir kadarja biddrup. Ekdike spordhito dheye;” (EBAAR P HIR AO MOR E/
krurata CHITRA)
Matwotaar nirlajja hunkaar, annyodike Self – identity is to be rediscovered through
bheerutaar rebuilding our self – reliance, self – help, self –
Dhidhagrosto charono bikshep…”(17 no. control, co – operation etc. By the invaluable as
Poem/PRAANTIK) well as precise guidance of Tagore we may be really
We want to get rid of the dreadful situation enlightened to make us free from ignorance, fear,
with the messages of freedom, mutual trust and narrowness of mind. Essence of our life and
harmony and so on. All these intellectual and existence does not depend on physical strength
emotional hospitality and realization is available in only; it requires freedom of spirit also to achieve
the Writings and Creation of Rabindranath Tagore, fu llness of the t rut h. As per “bro ader and
‘The greatest reconciler of the modern age’. At humanistic” outlook of Rabindranath human being
this time, we have no other alternative but to echo is to be developed both physically and mentally.
the voice of the Bard– “Hey more durbhaaga desh Human entity is meaningless without the presence
jader korecho apomaan, / Apomaane hote habe of conscious self. That’s why inner self should
tahaader sabar samaan. / Maanusher adhikare / never be narrowed but let it be enriched to its
bonchito korecho jaare, / Sammukhe danraye rekhe optimum level.To overcome the crisis of new
73
dimension, to combat the issue of “Power versus consciousness. As a combined art of literature and
Spirit” we may derive courage from His poem and music it shows us the way of self – introspection.
utter – “Shakti dao Shakti dao more/ Kanthe more For all its finest sensibilities or inner thoughts and
aano bazrobaani”. ( 17no. Poem/ PRAANTIK) profoundness Tagore’s Song is the superior source
Rabindranath was so conscious about time, space, of inspiration to us, to rebuild ourselves and to
perspective as well as various problems and their make us spirited in every respect to overcome
impact on the society that he always has to crisis. On the passing out of time and gradually it
continue fight against all the evils of the society has come out from the grip of personal area and
through his incessant creativity, justified opinion, become the inspiring source of all the people. It is
effective plan of action. He tried to resist by “spirit” not confined within the subject of entertainment
not by outward “power”. Naturally, here the term rather it is penetrating, inspiring and invaluable
“Shakti” is replaced by “spirit” and the prayer for subject to the people of the modern world. It is
“bazro baani” is nothing but the request for true in all sense. We may quote His idea about His
effective language (sound lyric) i.e. language of Song from His poem-
emotion with signs of feeling. Signs of feeling is “Aamaar gaaner moddhey sanchi to
essential in conscious art like music. It is similarly hoyeche dine dine
true i n case of Tagore’s Song i.e. Song of Sristir prothom rahosya, aaloker prokash,
Rabindranath or Rabindrasangeet also. As we Aar sri stir sesh raho sya, bhal obasaar
know, “…art is for evoking in our mind the deep amrito”. (PANERO/ PATROPUT)
sense of reality in its richest aspect.” (Tagore, In case of Rabindrasangeet, since lyric is the
20 00) Al though Tago re’s Song i s proper root of prospective song, Rabindranath was
combination of lyric and tune, it is primarily severely conscious, careful, cautious and sincere
dependent on “lyric”, there lies supplementary in the selection and use of words or words with
relation between lyric and tune, one does not impli cat io n i n t he construct io n o f t he
supersede t he other having a co mpromising lyric.Appropriate words with pleasing sound
attitude of both based on suitable rhythm with a quality, tonal feature, diction, rhetoric along with
total balance and harmony. Not only that the all other composites and its perfection become
meaning of the lyric as well as the suggestiveness transformed into meaningful and significant lyric
of it is so significant and far- reaching that the and Rabindrasangeet comes into existence as most
variety of feelings and tenderness of emotions are intellectual, emotional as well as cultural wealth of
duly reflected when it is sung. We can find life or the people. Man is revealed through His song.
vibration of life in His song. Actually, inner - self is Yearning by language it goes beyond language
re - arranged or manifested through His song. with all its relevant elements. The main objective
Tagore’s Song may be illustrated as tuned told – of Tagore’s Song is not only to reveal a particular
form (musical form) of untold form of self – feeling or subject but to make one conscious and
philo sophy derived fro m t he sense of li fe aware of it or involve with it as well as transmit the
74
same in the thought and mind of the other also. It saakhaa dhore chale, aabaar sur o kathaar srot mileo
is not only the best way of expressing the state of jay. …. Kathaao surke beg dyey, sur-o kathaake
mind but also the friendly ambience of reality and beg dyey, ubhayer moddhye aadaan-prodaaner
imagination, communication link between near and swavabik samparko aache;” (Thakur, BIBIDHO
far as well as direct and indirect. Rabindranath’s PROSANGO: PATRE, 1985) In this manner, thought
significant thinking on Music in this regard may and feeling is best conveyed through Tagore’s
be mentioned in this context – “the pure essence Song by virtue of intellectual and emotional bonding
of expressiveness in existence is offered in music. at a superior level. Signs of ideas as well as signs
Expressiveness finds the least resistance in sound, of feelings are blended in His Song in such an
having freedom unencumbered by the burden of astonishing manner that we find the way to absorb
facts and thoughts. This gives it a power to arouse in His thought and feeling even when the Song is
in us an intimate feeling of reality. … In music, the not sung i.e. within the written form of the Song.
feeling distilled in sound becomes itself an And when it is sung, it goes beyond lyric and
independent object. It assumes a tune - form which tune,‘represents the infinite’. Rabindranath Himself
is definite, but a meaning which is undefinable, also knew the artistic value of His Song. Even
and yet which grips our mind with a sense of today, we understand the permanent nature of
absol ute trut h.” (Tago re, 20 00) Actu all y, Tagore’s Song. The opinion of the eminent English
dependence on lyric does not mean ignoring the Translator, William Radice may be mentioned in
tu ne. Rather, Rabindranath has taken t he this context – “It is in his songs that Tagore is
association of tune as and when required to make nearest to his people and culture.” (Radice, 1995)
the word or words rather lyric more meaningful, Here l ies the relevance of a ‘well balanced
more impressive, more powerful. In Tagore’s Song, harmonious form of art’ like Rabindrasangeet in
the assistance of tune helps to overcome the the course of human culture and human resource
limitation of lyric and make us absorbed in the development as a whole to prevent and resist the
Song. Rabindranath introduced fundamental present crisis.We cannot deny the rational and
changes in Bengali vocal music through His Song quintessential feature of Tagore’s Song. Let us
by replacing word or words where there is limitation enquire into the basic idea in His Song for real
of ‘tune’ or ‘ raag-raagini ‘as well as by composing enlightenment and make us free from fear, reticence,
the song with appropriate additional tune to make inertia etc. in one hand and greed, oppression,
the song appear with profoundness, infinite- narrowness on the other. We may go for a few
suggestiveness along with aesthetic appeal and songs out of 2232 songs in GEETOBITAN to
its implications so far. In the process of creative conclude the discussion in a short period.
initiation, word and tune and vice versa want each For instance, We take the Song: ‘ NAAI NAAI
other to meet and create a uniqu e creation. BHOY HABE HABE JOY KHULE JABE EI
According to Rabindranath – “Ei pathe kathaar DWAAR’.When the situation is intolerable; the
dhaaraa eklaa jatraa kare, surer dhaaraao nijer people are helpless, feeling hopeless, already
75
swallowed by inertia and finally finding no way imbibing such an idea an individual shames to pray
out, they are seeking for leadership; the song acts for outside help, outside protection from danger,
like actual leader’s sincerely assurance that the rather he is so spirited and inspired that he realizes
victory is sure but we cannot pass the time his own strength and trusting on it he tries utmost
uselessly, there is no time for spoiling it by to get rid of the dangerous situation in his own way.
sleeping, we are to wake up immediately, we have Such motivation is the main theme of the said song.
liability towards the society as a whole which must So ng: ‘SANTRAASERO BIHWALOTA
be complied. Not only that the leader also reminds NIJERE APOMAAN’. The song conveys the
us to get back our right to world through it. message of the conscience as well as hints for the
Song: ‘AAMAAR MUKTI AALOY AALOY way out. For which the fearfull attitude is to be
EI AAKAASHE’. To Rabindranath ‘MUKTI’ does discarded. Mind should be made free. This will
not mean freedom from earthly attachments rather show the way of fearlessness to promote self-help.
it connotes ‘MUKTI’ as freedom of earthly Self-help is the best help and it gives no scope to
attachments in all issues i.e. revelation. It is based imagine crisis, to be overwhelmed. At the same
on liberty in all respect to grow individually as well time, the lyric of the song convey the most
as collectively. We not only build up ourselves outstanding idea that it is ones duty to protect the
physically and mentally in the natural environment weak and to drive the wicked and to respond in the
of the universe, we are also revealed through it. All call of human virtue.
these are reflected in the song. In addition, the Song: ‘AAMI BHAY KORBO NAA BHAY
so ng also asserts that the complet eness of KORBO NAA’. The song involves the language
revelation lies in ignoring distress, adversity and of self-expression with a fearless attitude. With the
other trifling matters and reach the goal even by gradual improvement in thought and feeling, an
dedicating the life also. individual entrusts on himself as well as on the
Song: ‘AAPNAAKE EI JAANAA AAMAAR assurance of the true leadership. The daring speech
PHURAABE NAA’. The song is bestowed upon as expected to be delivered by the individual in
the thought for all times. There is no end to know. this context is expressed appropriately in the song.
But on the way of self-assessment an individual Song: ‘NISHIDIN BHARSAA RAKHIS HABEI
cannot escape from the affinity of other as man HABE’. Rabindranath never thought to distrust
cannot live alone. This lesson is also available in people. He believes that reliance on the people will
the song. Finally this idea helps to manifest the assert collective effort when needed. This idea is
inner-self. This not only helps in self-development categorically expressed in this song along with the
but encourages collective effort for the betterment alert that one should never escape from his own
of the society and the country as a whole. duty or liability when the target is already fixed up,
Song: ‘BIPADE MORE RAKSHA KARO E where lies firm determination and where the
NAHE MORE PRARTHANAA’. Sense of self- intention is veryclear to fulfill the promise or target.
respect helps to get back self-confidence. And Song: ‘KHAROBAYU BOY BEGE CHARIDIK
76
CHAAY MEGHE OGO NEYE NAOKHANI BAIO’. the desire is high, the people are awaken, this is
When consciousness and desire to reach the goal supposed to be the expected call from them.
become optimum, eagerness to participate in the Invitation of new era also inspires them to pronounce
program is intensified and the motivation goes to the alphabets in such incomparable way.
the extreme point. The adverse situation does not “GAANER KATHA AAMI BOLI
get any scope for impediment during the course GAANE TEY, GAANER KATHA
due to strong mentality of the participants. In AAMAAKE PHER YODI BOLTE HOY
situation like this the call for action flows from BHAASATE, TABE AAMAAR UPOR KI
downwards to the upwards. The language of such JULUM HOYNA?” (Thakur, AVIVASAN 4,
order is envisaged through the mentioned song 1985) Here, I conclude with the appeal to
along with the alarming idea that there should be read the Song of Rabindranath as well as
no wastage of time with the apprehension of to hear them when they are sung.
opposition or oppression.
Song: ‘BAADHAA DILE BAADHBE LARAI
MORTE HABE’. With the recovery of moral strength References:
self-spirit is boosted, charged up. Insulted people, • Radice, W. 1995, Rabindranath Tagore Selected
injured people get the scope to forget humiliation, Poems, Penguin Books, Kolkata.
inhuman behavior of the tyrant. At this point of • Tagore, R. 1980, 1982, 1983, 1987. Rabindra-
time, the voice of the ruled, suffered urged to be Rachanabali, Vol. 1(July 1980)/ Vol. 2(May 1982 )/
changed. The mentioned song is conceived by all Vol. 3 (Nov. 1983)/ (Vols. I, II, III,IV (July 1987).
these ideas and echo the language of protest against Govt. Of West Bengal, Kolkata.
the ruler, the richer in such an unparallel manner. • Tagore, R. 2000. The Artist. In The Religion of Man,
Song: ‘BHAANGO, BAANDH BHENGE pp. 79-80, Visva-Bharati, Kolkata.
DAO’. It is like strong and appealing call for • Thakur, R. 1985, Bibidho Prosango : Patre In Sangit
salvation from the imprisonment of all sorts. Chintaa, p. 244, Visva-Bharati, Kolkata.
Illuminating power of the song reflects the said • Thakur, R. 1985. Avivasan 4. in Sangit Chinta, p.260,
louder and collective voice of the people. When Visva-Bharati, Kolkata.
77
The Concept of Religion

Gargi Medda
ABSTRACT
The proper study of mankind is man. And the study of man can never be complete unless it includes the study of
religion. Religion has been with man for thousands of years and has become a social institution. It is a common tie
of society to build up the world peace. Religion is a necessary aspect of human life and it regulates one’s way of life.
Religion builds up spiritual life and it is the ideal ground of morality. No moral progress and spiritual attainment
is possible without religion. It helps to unfold all that is best in man. It inspired him, guided him and took him to the
light he has reached. The inner aspect of religion is distinguished from the external aspect of religion. The real
essence of religion can be discovered from the inner aspect. Religion is a mental quest which helps man to realize
the infinite.
Keywords: Religion.
Religion plays a very important role in the history thing. Religion is a growth and development and
of human civilization. From the earliest times religion God is a being, nothing greater than him can be
has occupied a central place in human life. The true conceived. According to E.B. Tylor, Religion is the
history of man is the history of religion. The religion belief in spiritual beings.1 According to Max Muller,
has a widespread, impressive influence in the life religion is a mental faculty or disposition which
of human being. Religion embraces the whole of enables man to apprehend the infinite.2 Religion is
existence and the history of religion resumes the the worship of spiritual beings from a sense of need.
entire history of human development. G. Galloway states that, religion is man’s faith in a
Religion has manifested itself in a baffling power beyond himself whereby he seeks to satisfy
variety of forms, including much that is crude, futile emotional needs and gain stability in life, and which
and ignoble, as well as much that is noble, idealistic he expresses in acts of worship and service. 3
and conductive to human well-being. Religion is According to this definition religion is religious
not a stati c matter. It has passed throu gh a consciousness of human being. This definition
perplexing changes and evolutions in the history states the cognitive, affective and conative level of
of mankind. Religion is a growing and dynamic human mind.
Associate Professor, Dept. of Philosophy, Raja N.L. Khan Women’s College, Midnapore, West Bengal, In dia
78
Gargi Medda
According to Hegel; religion is the knowledge it was impossible to win over the calamities of
possessed by the finite mind of its nature as opposite power to protect his life. So, in that
absolute mind. Religion is man’s faith in a super- helpless moment he expected divine help from the
natural power and to satisfy this power or establish outside world and imagined that a super human
a relationship with this power he organizes worship power was existed behind the strong natural objects
and service.4 A religious person identifies this power and facts. By worshipping the power he prayed
as ‘God’ and he believes in the existence of God in help from the imagined power. By this way the
this world. But in the present time some people different doctrines have been originated, e.g.
establish different views. According to their fetishism, Animism, Ghost-worship doctrine,
opinion, the God of religion does not create mankind Totemism etc. By this process the Tribal Religion
but mankind creates the God or the theory of God was formed. In the process of the development of
is created by human imagination. The God is just a social-evolution the various tribal groups were co-
belief originated from human imagination, God has related with each other and constituted ‘Nation’
no real existence. This human imagination is not and at a time the Tribal Religion was transformed
eternal and does not exist before the existence of into National Religion.
human being. God can persist even as an imagined In this stage human beings imagined various
entity only as long as human beings exist. God is types of Goddess. In this stage humanity was
not the creator and the ultimate ruler of the universe. adopted upon the Goddess. Some National Gods
God is a fleeting ripple of imagination of man. The with human virtues are Easter of sumer, Emon of
religious consciousness is conferred in the human Thebes, Geova of Israel, Osiris of Egypt, Jews of
nature. So, the root of religion exists in the human Greece and the Vedic deities like Indra, Varuna, Agni
nature and not in the external source. When man etc
feels helpless and totally distressed, when he feels Upto 1000 B.C. to 300 B.C. this scopes of religion
that it is not possible to lead his life by his own is called ‘Golden Era’. Karl Jespers called this period
power, only then in that weak moment his life he as ‘Axial Period’.
naturally expects the help of some external power. At that period, different saints were appeared
The primitive people at the time of destruction and in different countries of the world. They connected
devastation in their lives seek the help of some morality with the traditional religion. They simplified
supernatural power to protect him. the righteous religious duties and doctrines and
The conclusion of the psychologists and preached these message to the common people. At
anthropologists is that the religion is originated that period the Ehudi religious preacher like Elijah,
from the basic need of human life – the struggle for Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Jeremiah declared that they
existence. The life of the primitive man was disrupted could hear the God’s message and they realized
by various ways, e.g. by hostile nature, involved in what is good or bad things of human life according
danger by the attack of some ferocious animal. The to the intension of Gods. These religious preachers
primitive man felt that by his limited and small power related morality with religion and made free the
79
religion from the existing superstitions. The famous men is determined by these three actions of mind.
religious preacher of this era were Zoroaster, On the basis of the superiority of these three actions
Pythagoras, Confucius, Buddha, Mahavira etc. there are three different theories in the field of
According to G. Galloway, the names by which religious experience and behavior – Cognitive
we know the various ‘Religion’ today were in fact Theory, Affective Theory and Conative Theory.
(with the exception of Islam) invented in the 18th Cognitive Theory:
Century. Before that they were imposed by the According to this theory the main root of the
influence of the west. None had thought of himself origin and development of religion is the thinking
belonging to one of the competing systems of belief of human beings. There is no contribution of
concerning which it was possible to ask ‘which of ‘feeling’ and ‘willing’ in the field of the origin and
these systems is the true one’?5 But from the age of development of religion. Religion is purely rational.
enlightenment the question arises in the human Religion is evolved out from the pure reason of
mind – which is true, Buddhism or Christianity or primitive men and in the later period the wickedness
Islam? But this type of question about religion is of man deformed the religion. Man is a rational
derived from the lack of knowledge about religion. animal. Though he have different types of mental
From the above discussion it is clear that the activities by man is mainly thoughtful and all his
main root of our religious faith is the feeling of act ivit ies is determined by his tho ught or
helplessness of human beings and his strong wish intelligence. According to Hegel, religion is the
of struggle for existence. His desire for existence knowledge possessed by the finite mind of its
and developed livelihood was hidden in his own nature as absolute mind. Religion is the divine
nature. From this natural desire he imagined a super spirit’s knowledge of itself through the mediation
natural power around this world. Religion is nothing of finite spirits.
but religious belief of human being to maintain his Affective Theory:
life. It may have social value, but it can not be Somebody says that ‘feeling’ is the most
determined as true or false. important mental factor in the scope of the origin
Since the time unknown, religion is closely and development of religion. The primitive men
associated with man. So, the question arises: What through their direct intention realized a super human
element exists in the inner level of human mind which power behind this mysterious world. This direct
has made man associated with religion? What was intentio n is the main basis of religion. The
present in the mental nature of human being for which supporters of this theory state that ‘feeling’ is the
primitive men feel satisfied through their religious main root of religious consciousness. We cannot
belief, religious behavior in spite of different changes detach feelings from the highly improved religion,
and evolution of human society? According to because if religious consciousness is excluded from
psychology there are three types of actions – feeling then we cannot regard this consciousness
thinking, feeling and willing through which we come as ‘religious’. If the attitude of human beings
to know the mind. Every experience and behavior of towards God is not overwhelmed by emotions and
80
Gargi Medda
feelings, if this attitude is not related to peace and the individual form of religion an individual tries to
satisfaction then it is not acceptable as religious establish communion with the divine soul. In the
attitude. According to Schleiermacher and W. James, social form of religion several people form one
‘Religion’ is the absolute dependence on God and religious group and each of them binds together in
‘feeling’ is the deeper source of religion. matter of spiritual beliefs and religious practices, e.g.
Conative Theory: Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Judaism, Islam etc.
According to Ritschlianism and Pragmatism the These religions have two common features:
conative and behavioural attitude of man is the main 1. Each living religion of the world has some
basis of religion. ‘Will’ is the primary and main object particular faith in regard to the world and life
of human live. So, religion is elevated from the ‘will’ situation as a whole.
or ‘desire’ of human beings. According to Ritschl 2. In the light of such faith of man each living
religion is raised in order to solve the contradiction religion gives directions for a specific way of
bet ween man’s i mpul se t o maintain his life for it’s followers
independence and his sense of limitation as a part From this point of view every religion of the
of his nature. 6 Sabatier stated that men only world is a specific way of life passed on certain
received failure and pain from his struggle for specific beliefs in connection with the world and
existence with the opposite nature by his limited life situation as a whole.
power and then he took shelter in his religious belief As for example, Buddhism does not believe in
to protect himself by his irrepressible will or desire.7 God but it has spiritualistic outlook and from this
Leuba in his “The Psychological Origin and the point of view it depicts a specific way of life. On the
Nature of Religion” declared that ‘Will’is the primary other hand, Christianity believes in a spiritual reality
and primitive activities of human mind. Without ‘Will’ i.e., God and from this spiritualistic belief it also
there is no thinking. Thinking is meaningless without depicts a specific way of life. This is similar in the
aim or purpose. Thinking is no existence without will case of all other prevailing religion of the world and
and it is a weapon of will. So, ‘Will’ or ‘desire’ is the for this reason all of them are called “religion’. The
primitive mental activities of men and from these living religions of the world are Hinduism,
activities of primitive men religion is originated.8 From Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism,
the above discussion it is clear that the origin and Christianity, Islam, Sikhism etc. These religions
development of the religion is not fully explained by have some special features as mentioned below:
any one of these three mental activities. These three Hinduism:
mental activities played a vital role to flourish the (a) Hinduism is a complex religion. It is polytheistic,
religion and religious consciousness. So, at the same monotheistic, monistic and atheistic – all at the
time the religion and religiousness is cognitive, same time. There are various kinds of beliefs
affective and conative. and practices amongst its followers.
Religion is the oldest human pursuit. There are (b) Hinduism has no one definite religious text.
two forms of religion, – ‘individual’ and ‘social’. In Vedas, Upanisads, Ramayana, Mahābhārata,
81
Purānas, Bhagavad!itā are sacred texts of rules of conduct and a way of life.
Hinduism. (b) It believes in the immortality of soul and a life
(c) In Hinduism, both the theist and atheist except after death.
the Cārvāka, believe that behind the material (c) It belief in the unit y and oneness of the
world there is a spiritual realm which is eternal. universal creator. Rel igio n promot es
(d) Hinduism believes that the essential nature of righteousness and gives one true happiness,
man is spiritual and his soul is immortal. peace and stability.
Jainism: Christianity:
(a) It is an atheistic religion, believing in no God (a) Christianity believes in only one God. God is
behind the World-order. But the Jains accept an internal trinity – God the father, God the son
the Tirthankaras as their God. and God the holy spirit.
(b) Man’s soul is immortal. The nature of the soul (b) It believes that the soul is eternal and there is a
is infinite power, infinite knowledge, infinite life after death.
faith and infinite bliss. (c) A sincere moral life of love is sufficient for man’s
(c) Moksa can be attained by right faith, right liberation without any rituals and sacrifices.
knowledge and right conduct. Islam:
Buddhism: (a) Islam believes in one and only one God, called
(a) Buddhism is a humanistic religion without God. ‘Allah’. It is a monotheistic religion.
Its main aim is the liberation from the sufferings (b) It believes in a life after death. Heaven and Hell
of mankind. are the permanent home of the righteous and
(b) Buddhism refute the authority of the Vedas and the evil doers – respectively.
Vedic ritualism. (c) It believes in perfect purity, service of humanity
(c) The main essence of Buddhism is the pursuit and brotherhood of mankind.
of the eight fold disciplines and the belief in In the above discussion some of the important
the four noble truths. beliefs and practices of different religions are
Zoroastrianism: outlines. It is clear that various differences and
(a) Zoroastrianism believes in only one almighty similarity are present amongst the religions. The
God. different religions have come out of different
(b) Zoroastrianism believes in a life after death. The traditions and against different backgrounds. So,
righteous acts of man are sent to heaven and differences are present in them. But besides this
the evil deeds of men are sent to hell. the people of different traditions have some
(c) Zoroastrianism believes that men must be common feelings, ideas and sentiments amongst
inculcated good thought, good word and good them. So, there are some similarities between them.
deed. Therefore, there is no cause for quarrel on account
Judaism: of the differences. Above all religion in one sense
(a) Judaism is an ethical religion giving out moral is a means of satisfying the hunger of the soul
82
Gargi Medda
attaining liberation from the strives and strains of References:

the material world. The people of different traditions 1. D. Miall Edward, The Philosophy of Religion, p.86.
try to satisfy this hunger in their own different ways. 2. Ibid.
Religion accompanies man for thousands of 3. George Galloway, The Philosophy of Religion, p.189.
years and it regulates, in some way or other man’s 4. D. Miall Edward, The Philosophy of Religion, p.86.
way of life. All moral progress and spiritual 5. George Galloway, The Philosophy of Religion, p.111.
attainment is possible through religion. Religion is 6. Ibid., p.76.
a principle of unification and harmonization. 7. Ibid.
Religion is the art of living through right action and 8. Ibid., p.78.
to lead a life of peace and happiness. It purities
one’s mind. So much as one can be engaged in Bibliography:
good thoughts, words and deeds. Religion is the • D. Miall Edward, 1993, The Philosophy of Religion,
straight path of truth that takes people ever forward Progressive Publishers, Calcutta.
to improvement in their mental, physical, spiritual • George Galloway, 1914, The Philosophy of Religion,
and material life. Religion is a forward much to T. and T. Clark, London.
eternity and divinity. • Harald Hoffding, 1906, The Philosophy of Religion,
Eng. Tr., MacMillan, London.
• John H. Hick, 1997, Philosophy of Religion, Prentice
Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi.
• John Caird, 1880, Introduction to the Philosophy of
Religion, Maclehose, London.
• J.H. Leuba, 1912, Psychological Study of Religion,
MacMillan, London.
83
The Land Where Women Prevail: Khasi Matrilineality and

Emergent Social Issues in Meghalaya
Dr. Animesh Roy
ABSTRACT
Khasi society in Meghalaya follows matrilineality- a social system in which family line is traced through women.
However, the society now happens to be passing through a transitional phase whereby a section of radical khasi
men destines to displace the years-old tradition. Given such situation, this piece of work has attempted to understand
the grounds and rationality of blooming of matrilineality among the khasi community through an ethnographic
research and its survival over time despite being surrounded by the patrilineal societies across India. It has also
sought to analyse the true status of both khasi male and female in terms of their involvement in social, economic
and political affairs under the matrilineal system. The study, however, concludes that despite bestowing laudable
respect towards women, today’s khasi society happens to be vitriolic due to its ‘customary code of conduct’ which
keeps the khasi women outside all political affairs and make them to be engaged only in domestic affairs.
Keywords: Matrilineality, khasi tribe, khatduh, dorbar, masculinity and Meghalaya etc.
Introduction: state’s total population. However, the khasis and

The state of Meghalaya in north-eastern India is jaintias have resemblance in religion, culture and
the homeland to three indi genous t ribal social structure and form more or less a composite
communities: the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia who group (Lyngdoh, 2012). Before the arrival of the
practice matrilineality by law. Matrilineality is a British in Undivided Assam 1 , the entire khasi
social system in which the family line, unlike community followed their traditional indigenous
patrilineal society, is traced through women. The religion called Ka Niam Tip Briew Niam Tip Blei
children adopt the mother’s surname and the meaning thereby the ‘Religion of Knowing Man,
property and wealth are inherited by the daughter Knowi ng Go d’(Mawri e, 19 81). Wit h t he
from the mother, not by the son from the father. establishment of Shillong as the headquarters of
Among these three tribal communities, the khasi is undivided Assam Province by the British Colonial
the largest one contributing about half of the Rule in1874, the land of these indigenous tribal
Assistant Professor, Giri Institute of Development Studies, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.
84
Dr. Animesh Roy
communities started facing a breeze of change, complemented by a discussion with a khasi leader
especially in religion, marriage2 and education. and Sordar (Chief/Headman) of a village named
Numerous British Christian Missionaries and their Smit near Shillong, his associates in the village
incessant attempt in dissemination of tenet, Darbar and some Shillong based NGO workers
language and western education brought a surge during the celebration of Ka Pomblang Nongkrem
in religious conversion from their indigenous festival in November 2015. It has also aimed to
religion to Christianity. Today, majority of the bring forth the emergent socio-economic and
Khasis are Christians and only a little proportion political issues that have been glaring in khasi
follows the traditional indigenous religion. As per matrilineal system since last few decades. Smit
the Census of Meghalaya 2011, three-fourth (74.59 village has purposively been chosen for this study
per cent) of the total population of Meghalaya now (ethnographic) because it has been recognized as
belongs to Christianity. Moreover, increasing the ‘Centre of Khasi Culture’ in Meghalaya. This
migrants from the patriarchal societies of the village has acclaimed ample recognition for Ka
neighbouring plains and media have been bringing Pomblang Nongkrem festival celebrated in the
about changes in social milieu in a once close-knit month of November which commemorates the
egalitarian khasi society with long-drawn-out evolution of the ‘Traditional State of the Khasi
traditions, values and strong community feelings People in the Khasi Hills’ of Meghalaya known as
(Nongbri, 2008 and 2014; Mukhim, 2014). Khasis ‘Hima’ (Nongkinrih, 200 2). There are 947
are now caught up in a confluence of traditional households in Smi t and all of t hem fo llow
and modern cu ltu re which is devel oping a Christianity.
perception of powerlessness among a section of Meghalaya at a Glance
khasi males under matrilineal system. The scenario The state of Meghalaya has an area of 22,429
is no longer same as it was several decades earlier. square kilometres and a population size of 29,66,889
Given the backdrop, this piece of work has persons (Census of India, 2011). It is a hilly state
attempted to understand and assess the social that comprises Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills. The
position of both khasi men and women through an state has seven districts: East Khasi Hills, West
ethnographic study in the context of changing Khasi Hills, East Garo Hills, West Garo Hills, South
social milieu under traditional khasi matrilineal Garo Hills, Ri Bhoi, and Jaintia Hills. Among them,
system. With the underlying characteristics of East Khasi Hills is t he most developed and
matrilineality, it would be logical to assume that populated district with an area of 2,748 km2 and a
women are likely to play greater role in social, population density of 300 persons / km2 (Census
political and economic spheres. This paper has of India, 2011). The capital of the state, Shillong is
tried to identify the cogency of such hypothesis situated in East Khasi Hills.
in the context of khasi society of Meghalaya with Khasi Matriline ality: Unde rstanding the
the prevailing folklore, existing literature and field Germination and Blooming
observations (ethnographic study) which were Khasi people mostly reside in the Khasi and Jaintia
85
hills. Asignificant number of this indigenous people the other patriarchal societies, the father has little
also live in Bangladesh. The mythology goes that authority in a khasi family. It is the maternal uncle,
khasis are the descendants of what they call the whether married or not, who acts as the children’s
Hynniewtrep (‘seven huts’). God put up the human mentor. Anyone in blood relation and in distress
race into seventeen huts in heaven. The residents gets shelter at khatduh’s home. Khatduh is
of seven huts climbed down a ladder resting on virtually an institution constituted by the khasi
the peak named Sohpetbneng in Meghalaya. society with a woman who is likely to have the
These residents of seven huts from the heaven strongest bondage for the entire family with great
and their offspring on the earth are known as Khasi solitaire. Therefore, a man married to the khatduh
tribe. Historians, however, claim that the khasi tribe is expected to be accommodating and open-hearted
descended from an ancient Tibetan group who about including every member of her extended
crossed the Himalayas southwards and settled in family under the same roof. The clan or kur is the
Meghalaya or migrated from the Khmer areas of strongest root on which Khasi society stands. The
Southeast Asia (Gurdon, 1914; Ehrenfels, 1955). social and political interests of a clan are determined
The fundamental point of matrilineality is that by the maternal uncle who draws his strength from
lineage comes from the mother’s clan. The strength his own maternal clan. Matrilineality safeguards
of matrilineality lies in the greatest respect that the women with children from social ostracism when
society bestows on women, especially on mother they remarry. No matter who the father was, the
and her clan (Mukhim, 2005; Subba, 2008; Nongbri, children will always have the family name of women
2008 and 2014; Das and Bezbaruah, 2011; Narzary even after their remarriages. The fundamental
and Sharma, 2013; Dasgupta et al, 2013 etc). Family integrity of matrilineality lies in the tenet that
life is structured around mother’s house, which is mother is the source of life and god has bestowed
guided by the maternal grandmother. Maternal upon her this power.
grandparents live with their youngest daughter Khasi society happens to be liberal towards
called Khatduh and her husband and children. The the women who enjoy their social space and rights
youngest daughter never leaves the house and at greater extent. The khasi tradition prescribes the
subsequently becomes the head of the family in handover of ancestral property to the female line.
absence of her mother. In khasi society, a man move Therefore, sons have legally no rights to it except
out of his mother’s house to join his wife’s fo r t hose famil ies having no femal e chil d.
household after marriage. Older daughters make Nonetheless, there are legal provisions over the
separate houses with their husbands around their disposal of self-acquired property3. In 1986, the
mother’s house (Headman, Smit Village, 2015). government of Meghalaya passed ‘Meghalaya
Children adopt their mother’s surname. The Succession to Self Acquired Property Act (Khasi
you ngest dau ghter act s as the custo dian of and Jaintia Special Provision) Act, 1986 to enable
ancestral property and is expected to take care of the khasis and Jaintias to dispose of self-acquired
the property for the longest possible time. Unlike properties by will (Government of Meghalaya, 1986).
86
Dr. Animesh Roy
However, the provisions for disposal of self- women at home. Consequently, the ancestral
acquired properties are different for khasi women property passed down through the female line from
and men. A married woman or a widow may pass mother to daughter. Returning home with safe lives
on her self-acquired property anytime to her adult was quite uncertain for the men and therefore, they
son and/or daughter. But on her demise without a decided to make women the keepers of the family.
will, it will be inherited by the youngest daughter. They entrusted the family name to women who
And if a woman having self-acquired property dies would not only take care of it but also save its
unmarried, her mother or sister will be the heir of inheritance and culture. Second proposition is that
the property. On the contrary, disposal of self- the Khasi and Jaintia kings preferred to entrust
acquired property by a khasi man is little complex, households to their queens when they went to the
especially if he passes away without making a will. battle ground. This act of giving responsibility to
Property earned or acquired by a man before his the queens by their kings in ancient khasi society
marriage would legally go to his mother or sister appeared as a great pride and respect to the women
after his death. Such property is called ‘ka kamai and the custom continued to be followed by the
ing kur’ (earning of the clan). But property earned khasis ever since.
or acquired by a man after marriage would go to Literacy and the Status of Khasi Women
his wi fe and dau ghter after his death. Such Literacy rate has always been recognized as a key
property is call ‘ka kamai ing khun’ (earning of the indicator of development. Female literacy reflects
children). If a married man brings his self-acquired the position and status of women in the society to
property from his mother’s house to uxorial family a greater extent. In several path breaking research
and establish commercial enterprise, the profits papers, eminent scholars like Lucas (1988), Barro
generated thereby would be counted as his own (1991), Mankiw et al (1992) and Basu and Foster
property. And on his demise without a will, such (1998) etc have also identified the impingement of
property will be owned by his mother or sister. education in economic growth among different
Nongbri (1988), however, argued that khasi men countries. Nevertheless, it was the pioneering work
often merge their self-acquired properties with the of Amartya Sen (1985) that brought the significance
propert ies of their wives; and when su ch of literacy rate and education in determining the
amalgamations takes place, wives and children standard of living into limelight.
become the heir of the property. Consequently, his Although Census of India (1981 and 2011) has
mother and sister end up with nothing. reported a substantial increase in literacy rate in
The Chief of Smit and his associates (2015) Meghalaya from 34.08 per cent to 75.48 per cent in
informed that there are two different propositions last three decades between 1981 and 2001, the
in khasi folklore about the evolution of matrilineal female literacy rate has remained constantly lower
system in khasi community. The first one is that in than that of male. While female literacy rate has
ancient period, men were traders and warriors. Men increased from 30.08 per cent in 1981 to 73.80 per
had to go to war for long period of time leaving the cent in 2011, male literacy rate has increased from
87
37.89 per cent to 77.20 per cent over the same time the political affairs at village and local level and
period. However, the noticeable fact is that the exclude the women from politics and decision-
gender gap in terms of literacy in khasi community making positions. Consequently, Dorbars are
has been, although marginally, reduced over time. always headed by men, not women. A section of
Despite having matrilineal system in practice educated khasi women and feminists, however,
among the tribal communities of Meghalaya, where believe that they are deprived of rights to decision-
higher priority to women is assumed, comparatively making in political institutions. Interestingly, any
lower literacy rate among khasi female corroborates debat e o r discussio n o n gender equit y and
a sense of negl igence to wards wo men for inclusion of women in political affairs is recognized
education. as acrimonious by the khasi males who argue that
Role of Women in Khasi Political Affairs women are already empowered as they hold right
Despite bestowing laudable respect towards to li neage and ancestral pro perty. The
women, the khasi society, however, seems to be traditionalists, on the other hand, assert that
vitriolic due to its customary code of conduct women are meant be in hearth and home; and
which keeps the khasi women awayfrom all political therefore, should not be involved in political affairs.
affairs and make them to be engaged in domestic Khasi society pejoratively calls a woman involved
affairs. Hence, women have the least or no role to in politics as ‘crowing hen’ (Planning Department,
play in the Khasi political system called ‘Dorbar’. Government of Meghalaya: Meghalaya Human
According to the Chief of Smit (2015), there are Development Report, 2008).
four stages of Dorbar: Dorbar iing (family Matrilineality vis-a-vis Masculinity: Attempt to for
Dorbar), Dorbar Kur (clan Dorbar), Dorbar Reconstructing a New Horizon
Shnong (village Dorbar) and Dorbar Raid (Dorbar Women in Meghalaya are believed to be better
of a cluster of villages). In recent time, the first two placed than their counterparts in the rest of the
seem to have lost their importance while the last country. In various parts of India where women
two have survived their political existence. The are usually crying out for rights, equality, respect,
wo men can art iculate their probl ems and protection and relief from violence, Meghalaya is
anxiousness only in family dorbar. And it is the a state where men are asking for their rights in the
men who carry forward those problems to the three society. Before independence and the arrival of
other dorbars. Politics is surprisingly male-centric modern transport, Meghalaya used to be one of
in Meghalaya and reflect a strong patriarchal the most isolated states in the country. Hence, the
biasness. Till date not more than 10 Khasi women khasi had the least opportunity to mingle with the
have been elected to the State Assembly (Mukhim, people of the progressive societies from the
2012). Despite having ancestral property rights, neighbouring plains. However, there has been a
family lineage and social mobility, the women in substantial change in this pattern in recent time. In
the khasi society access less power outside their last two decades, the state had witnessed a huge
family. The traditional khasi institutions regulate influx of legal and illegal migrants from both India
88
Dr. Animesh Roy
and Bangladesh. Subsequently, the social contact its gain. Ahmad (1994) and Van Ham (2000)
of the khasi with the in-migrants from patriarchal contented that such peanut status of men in khasi
societies has changed the perceptions of many society has lead to the formation radical SRT.
khasi males of Meghalaya about traditional societal Although the SRT is taking forward the campaign
values, norms and customs to a significant extent. of patrilineal society today, the idea has, however,
A section of radical khasi men and women believes been resisted by the khasi traditionalists and
that their traditional matrilineal society is backward feminist scholars. Nongbri (2008 and 2014) argues
and hindering the co mmunit y development. that the matrilineal system is not diminishing the
Interestingly, in 1990 these radical men and women status of men. Although women are custodians of
formed a social group called ‘Syngkhong Rympei immovable property and the family line is traced
Thymmai’ (SRT) in order to mobilise local people through them, it is the male who actually possess
against the matrilineal society. The literal meaning power. Matrilineal does not mean matriarchal. In
of Syngkhong Rympei Thymmai is ‘a new hearth’. The khasi society, women do not dominate men. Men
goal of this movement is to achieve equal rights have power but it is inherited from the women.
and social status for men and is to convert the Power at home is in the hand of women, in public it
centu ries’ o ld mat ril ineal system of Khasi is in the men’s hand. During the course of
succession into a patrilineal one. Many of the discussion with the Chief of Smit, his associates,
protagonists of SRT are actually silent supporters local school teachers, NGO workers and some
as they are too afraid to support this rebellious villagers including both men and women, the point
ideology openly. The followers of this group that came int o l ight i s that despite havi ng
strongly believe and contend that the progress persuaded a section of radical khasi males (called
and survival of the khasi community lies with the ‘communists’ by the traditionalists) against the
patriarchal society. matrilineality, majority of the khasi community still
Many cases, khasi kinship imposes dual loyalty heart ily support matrili neage syst em. They
upon men (especially eldest son) in the sense that strongly believe that it is not only the old tradition
on the one hand, they protect their wives and but also the unselfish love and care of a mother
children residing at wives’ households; on the other towards her every child with equity and generosity
hand, they spend much of their time in mothers’ or has led the khasi society to sustain matrilineage
sisters’ households (Nakane 1967 and Van Ham over years.
2000) to look after family’s property and guide Conclusion
sister’s children in upbringing and social welfare There is a well say: the culture, traditions and
(Planning Department, Government of Meghalaya: customs of a society have to change over time,
Meghalaya Human Development Report, 2008). else the society will perish. Tradition should never
Under the matrilineality, a Khasi husband lives in a be the pretence for avoiding social change. In the
household which virtually recognizes no authority era of globalisation and dissemination, no society
and social role to him and expects him to work for can hold on to tradition merely as a means to make
89
it ‘distinct’ or ‘unlike’. In the process of achieving Transition and the Status of Women among the
development and prosperity, every community and Khas i T ribes Meghalaya. Glob al Research
society at some point of time requires quality skills Methodology Journal, 1(2): p.p.16 – 22.
and statesmanship, which women are as equally • Ehrenfels, U. R. 1955,Three Matrilineal Groups of
endowed with as men. Despite being liberal to Assam: A Study in Similarities and Differ enc es .
greater extent, the abnegation of khasi women from American Anthropologist, 57(2): p.p.306-321.
taking part in political institutions reflects an • Government of Meghalaya,1986, The Meghalaya
injustice to them and does not recognize their rights Succession to Self Acquired Property
of being responsible citizenry. The roles of women (Khasi and Jaintia Special Provision) Act, 1986.
beyond household chores are substantially limited. Gazette of Meghalaya, Extraordinary (Published on
Although property rights are passed on through 03 June 1986).
women line, it is the men who play lead roles in • Gurd on, Lt. Co l. P. R. T. 1914, Th e Kh asis,
political affairs. In the contemporary phase of Macmillan, London.
mo derni ty and development, the khasi • Lyngdoh, Margaret, 2012, The Vanishing Hitchhiker
matrilineality has indeed begun to feel the breeze in Shillong: Khasi Belief Narratives and Violence
of these changes in their long-drawn-out traditional against Women. Asian Ethnology, 71(2): p.p. 207-
matrilineal system which is now being contested 224.
by a section of khasi men wishing to replace it with • Lucas, R. E. 1988, On the Mechanics of Economic
patrilineal system. However, majority of the khasis Development. Journal of Monetary Economics, 22
still consider matrilineality as the true foundation (1): p.p.3-42.
and symbol of Khasi identity. • Mankiw, N. G., P. Romer and D. Weil, 1992, A
Contribution to the Empirics of Economic
Growth. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 107 (3):
References p.p.407-438.
• Acharya, S. K. 1988, Ethnic Process in North-Eastern • Mawrie, H. Onderson,1981, The Khasi Milieu,
India. Economic and Political Weekly, 23(21): p.p. Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.
1068-1077. • Mukhim, Patrica, 2005, Khasi Matrilineal Society-
• Ahmed, S. Z. 1994, What Do Men Want? The New Challenges in 21st Century. Paper presented in the
York Times, 15 February, 1994. ‘Second World Congress on Matriarchal Studies’ held
• Barro, R. 1991, Economic Growth in a Cross-Section in Texas State University, USA on 29 September to
of Countries. Quarterly Journal of 02 October 2005.
Economics,106 (3): p.p.407- 444. • Mukhim, Patrica, 2014, One Region, Many Visions.
• Basu, K. and J. E. Foster (1998). On Measuring The Telegraph, 31 December 2014.
Literacy. The Economic Journal, 108 (451): • Narzary, P. K. and S. M. Sharma, 2013, Daughter
p.p.1733-1749. Preference and Contraceptive-use in M a t r il i n e a l
• Das, Gitika and Abhijit Kr Bezbaruah, 2011, Social Tribal Societies in Meghalaya, India. Journal of
90
Dr. Animesh Roy
Health, Population and Nutrition, 31(2): p. p. • Nongkinrih, A. K. 2002, Khasi Society of Meghalaya
278-289. A Sociological understanding. Indus Publishing, New
• Nakane, C. 1967, Garo and Khasi: A Comparative Delhi.
Study in Matrilineal Systems. Paris: Mouton & Co. • Planning Department, 2008, Meghalaya Human
• Nongbri, Tiplut, 1988, Gender and the Khasi Family Development Report, Shillong: Government Of
Structure: Some Implications of the M e g h a l a y a Meghalaya.
Succession to Self-Acquired Property Act, 1984. • Registrar General of India, 2011, Population Census
Sociological Bulletin, 37(1&2): p.p.71-82. of Meghalaya, 2011. Ministry of Home Affairs, New
• Nongbri, Tiplut, 2008, Gender, Matriliny and Delhi.
Entrepreneurship. New Delhi: Zubaan. • Sen, A. 1985, Comm od ities an d Ca pab ility.
• Nongbri, Tiplut, 2014, Development, Masculinity and Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Christianity: Essays and Verses from • Van Ham, P. 2000, The Seven Sisters of India: Tribal
India’s North East. Shimla: Indian Institute of Worlds Between Tibet and Burma. Munich, London,
Advance Studies. and New York: Prestel Publishers.
91
Religious Fundamentalism and Fundamental Unity of Religions

Neelanjana Chakraborty
ABSTRACT
The study of man can never be complete unless it includes the study of religion, for there is no more widespread,
impressive, or significant thing in his history than religion. Whoever takes a comprehensive survey of human
experience soon discovers that religion has from the earliest times and throughout the ages occupied a central place
in life and history. However crude religion may have been in origin, and however gross the superstitions with which
it has often been associated, its omnipresence and centrality in the history of the race are facts to be reckoned with.
When the cultural and intellectual attainments are low, religion is crude; when the cultural background is more
substantial and extensive, the religious ideas will be more expansive and the plane of thought higher. Finally, the mind
must win over the body. True ideology must score over false ideologies.
Key word- Religion, Culture.
Being a Human being we should have full trust in in rural areas where life depended on the mutual
humanity to honour other religions and cultures. inter dependence. Actually the co-existance was
It gives the right to survive honourably to all based on the acceptance and realisation of the
religions and cultures by recognizing their separate otherness of others and their cultural and religious
identity and the right to maintain it. In the same heritage. When and wherever this realisation of
world we have been living together over centuries otherness was ignored the problems emerged and
like good neighbours. All religious communities disturbed the peace and tranquillity of the multi-
were very much tolerant of the sister communities. cultural society.
They maintained not only economic, but social State and religion being the two most durable
relations with each other. They used to celebrate of human institutions, have symbolized authority,
the cultural and religious rituals of different power and stability. There is censorious impulse,
religions with friendly zeal and cooperation. Even wield power through political, religious, cultural
they had settled their differences on religious bases and literary institutions.
overriding extremism. The differences at the political Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) established his
level were not observed at social level, especially epoch-making thesis on earth revolving around
Guest Lecturer, Dept. Philosophy, Raja N.L. Khan Women’s College, Midnapore, West Bengal, India.
92
the sun in his study Dialogo Sapri du Maisimi Alternative History which was withdrawn from
sistemi del Mondo (1632). Hell broke loose around publication last year (2014) on why neither egg-
him immediately. He was charged with heresy and lobbing nor bans can deter her from her scholarly
breach of good faith and his “Dialogo” was banned work. Hindu Sena-Activists protested against
by Pope Paul in 1633. The book was incorporated Doniger’s book during Delhi World Book Fair
into the notorious index of prohibited books (2014). Complex psychological and historical
maintained by the Catholic church since 1559. The factors have bred in certain contemporary Hindus
sanction had the force of the canon law prohibiting a sense of shame for the eroticism of their own
the faithful from accessing such literature. religion. It has also robbed them of their sense of
The venerable old man of 70 was compelled to humour.
kneel, to be clothed in sack-cloth, and to deny that Salman Rushdie said “if freedom of expression
what he knew to be true. He promised, he would does not exist, then all other freedoms begin to
never again in words or writings spread this die”. He also hinted, “I think we are in a dangerous
damnable heresy. Galileo was not to be cowed position now in India where we accept censorship
down. He mumbled the following famous words, by verysmall numbers of violent people. Two things
as he rise from his knees: Never the less it does from the bedrock of any open society ….freedom
move. of expression and rule of law. If you don’t have
Galil eo was o bli gat ed as his reli gio us those things you don’t have a free society.”
punishment to recite the seven penitential psalms In India the issue of religious conversions has
once a week for three years. He was to make another taken centre stage with emotions running high.
historic statement by asserting. Holy writ was Christians argue that had their efforts at harvesting
intended to teach men how to go to heaven, not sou ls through conversio ns been st rong and
how the heavens go. widespread, they would not be just 2.3% of the
The phrase ‘religious fundamentalism’ was population. Muslims claim they do not indulge in
employed in the United States in 1920s to describe organized conversion efforts and the growth in
fundamentalist and evangelical churches-a mixed their proportion of the Indian population, from
bag of theologically conservative protestant under 10% in 1951 to nearly 14% has been through
church which had emerged in response to Charles higher birth rate. Hindus, reduced in proportion
Darwin’s, The Origin of Species. For them, final from over 84% in 1951 to 80%, state that their non-
authority resided in the word of God. The later day proselytizing culture works to their disadvantage,
protestants took over from the Roman Catholics so they have every right to ‘ghar- wapsi’
minus the legacy of papal sanction. programmes. Perhaps it’s time to dump the emotions
Salman Rushdie, Taslima Nasreen, Maqbool and take a rational look at the issue. In all honesty,
Fida Husain are cojointly victims of religious while there may be materials gains from religious
hooliganism dictating terms to the civic society. conversion, spiritually, it is almost always negative.
Wendy Doniger, author of the Hindus: An Why? Because true spiritual growth happens with
93
internal focus when you attempt to see truth within heart of all religious creeds.
yourself, not when you try to prove the “other Spiritual masters like Buddha and Mahavira,
religion” as false. But this is a complex topic, one Jesu s and Mu hammad and Gu ru Nanak –
that has been explored by the spiritually adept for evolutionary mutants who saw thought the illusory
millennia. di visiveness of rel igi ons barri ers t o t he
II undifferentiated unity of the human spirit preached
Religion has been defined from the aspects of a gospel of ownness. But their followers subverted
cognition, affection and conation. According to G. their teachings to foster separateness and strife,
Galloway ‘Religion’is man’s faith in a power beyond from the crusades, to the civil war in Buddhist Sri
himself whereby he seeks to satisfy emotional Lanka, to Khalistani terrorism, to the rise of the IS
needs and gain stability in life, and which he and t he kill ing of rat ionalists in Indi a and
expresses in acts of worship and service: Religion Bangladesh by Hindu and Islamist fanatics.
involves thought and activity as well as beliefs From being an aid to human evolution, religion
and values. Religion has manifested it self in a has become one of the most serious threats to
baffling variety of forms, including much that is civilisation, a construct based not just on the airy
crude, futile and ignoble, as well as much that is fairy ideal of a common humanity but on the literally
no ble, i deali sti c and conductive to human down-to-Earth reality that all of us share a common
wellbeing. planet equally endangered by environmental
‘According to socio-biology, in prehistory, despoliation and religio-political jingoism.
religion served an evolutionary end. The more All institutions, as products of the past, tend
cohesive a factor religion was in bonding a clan to develop inflexibility in their functioning and fail
to get her, and making i t bett er equ ipped to to keep abreast of the changing needs of the times.
overcome competing claims in the struggle for These tendencies seem to be greater in organised
survival, the more effective it became as an religion than in most other fields. Since the major
evolutionary tool. concern of religion is with the unknown and
From the outset, religions were genetically mysterious, and since religious doctrines rest upon
programmed to vie with each in fierce, often lethally belief and faith, it is strongly authoritarian, and
violent, competition. ‘Stronger’ religions-which not even infallible, in character. Novel ideas are
only had a comparatively larger number of followers, therefore, discouraged and looked upon with
but whose adherents were more committed to their suspicion by religious organisations. In the words
common faith system and therefore to each other- of Maciver: “Revelation stands in the way of
prevailed over ‘weaker’ religion which lacked both revaluation.” The solution of this problem lies in
numbers and unswerving singleness of belief. re-assessment, re-valuation and reconstruction. In
Fanaticism, unquestioning and unquestionable the words of Hartzler: To conceive of a non-
dogma, became the adrenaline, the testosterone, institutionalised religion is sociologically infantile.
of religion; violence, latent or manifest, lay at the The big tast is institutional reconstruction. Since
94
religious agencies of all kinds are made by man, One needs to be reminded of the fundamental
they must be and can be continually remade. If cat egori es of thou ght, and co nsequ ently of
men are to meet their spiritual needs in an ever science, being of religious origin.
more rapidly changing world, religion must be re- Unfortunately religion has come to be identified
defined, clarified, reorganised, and subjected to with religious fundamentalism in the popular mind.
much thoughtful experimentation. Religious fundamentalism appeals to the scripture
III in the literal sense. It identifies itself by its
Religions have played a central role in the mutual aggressive assertion of self-superiority, emphasis
understanding and co-existence between different on adherence to rit ualistic no rms and by
nations through its history. involuntarily crossing into the province of secular
In Hindu religious epic, and the Vedas, the word affairs of individuals and collectivises. Who would
“Om Shanti” was used as the expression of both care to listen to Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
the desire and prayer for peace. when he insisted, I decline to be bound by any
In Islam, the word “Bismillah” expresses the interpretation (of the scriptures) however learned
desire and practice of peace. it might be if it is repugnant to reason and moral
Jainism is a version of Hindu religion, which, sense.
in its doctrine, accepted the “Ahinsa” or Non- The ancient Indian saying of “Vasudhaiva
violence, as its essence. Kutumbakam” (the whole world is a family), still
Buddha was the first philosopher of the world holds good against the idea of conflict on the basis
to preach the principle and practice of equitable of differences in colour, culture, language or
equality among the people, which means that all religion. Truly the whole world is now a small
the people are equal and equity is their behavioural vi llage wit h t he technolo gical revolu tio n.
basis. Buddha had always been against any type Globalisation has brought people closer as never
of strata and structural violence. before, we have both bitterness and good memories
Jesus Christ asserted that “Blessed are the in our historical past. We ought to ignore the dark
peace-makers”, and “love your enemies.” Jesus aspects of our past for the betterment of our present
said to his disciples, as such: Peace / live with you, and future. No religion advocates violence, so the
my peace I give to you. followers of all religions ought to ponder over the
The Greek concept of “irene” means the contentious issues, which are detrimental to
combination of harmony, Justice and peace. humanity and peace. All over the world, the basic
In Judaism the word – ‘Shalom’ denotes human values are the same.
wholeness, completeness, harmony, peace of heart
and mind. Peace is inherent to the order of creation
it self. Bibliography
It shall be doing injustice to the institution of • Kar Parimal ,1964,An Outline of Sociology,
religion to equate it with religious fundamentalism. Book Land Private Ltd, Calcutta.
95
• Kumar, Girija, 2009, Censorship in India, New Foundation for Non-Violent Peace, Oslo.
Delhi, Har-Anand Publication Pvt. Ltd. • Durkheim, Emile, 1915, The Elementary Froms
• Cour, Ajeet, 2005, Cultural Connectivity for of the Religious Life. Eng. Tr. Geo. Allen and
peace in South Asia, SAARC Literary Wing of Unwin, London.
Academy of Fine Arts and Literature, New Delhi. • Edwards, D.Miall, 1960, The Philosophy of
• Haight,Anne Lymn,1978, Banned Books, 387 Religion, Progressive Publishers, Calcutta.
B.C. to 1978 A.D, Ed. 4 Bowker, New York. • The Times of India ,15.01.2008
• Guha, Amalendu, 2002, Philosophy, Science and • The Times of India, 15.03.2015
Cu ltu re of peace, Mahatma M.k.Gandhi • The Times of India , 22.09.2015
96
Śańkar’s Concept About The “Nature of Self”
Sandhya Nandy
ABSTRACT
According to Śańkara the concept of self is equivalent to Brāhmaņ. This unchanging self lies in the background and
illumines transient, everyday perceptions, it is the “unknown knower”, the self luminous witness of own delusively
conceived individuation. When the self takes itself to be an embodied and conditioned agent, it is called the Jiva when
embodied, a special sense organ, aften called the ańtahkarana is super imposed on the saksin; the antahkanana
functions as an awareness or attention “mechanism” while special and subtle, the ańtahkarana still lies in the sense
and object realm the world of relation and discrimination.
It acts through and correlates other sense but ultimately it too is an inconstant and delusive adjunct of the self.
Acharya Śańkara has logically proved that advaitavada is the central teaching of the upanisads and the self is
nothing but Brāhmaņ. His advaitavada which means spiritual non-dualism or absolutism has been the most logical
and the most celebrated tradition in Indian philosophy.
Keywords: Self, Brāhmaņ
Śańkara believes in unqualified monism. Śańkara’s of the knower and the known. They are opposed
conception of the self is absolutely identical with to each other like light and darkness. One is
Brāhmaņ. The concept of self in nothing but intelligence as such, the other is the intelligible.
Brāhmaņ itself. Hence there cannot be any identity between these
Indian system of Advaita Vedanta understands two principles. Their attributes also cannot be
that Jiva or individual self is finite but has the imported i nto each ot her. Therefo re, t he
potential to realize the whole. It is also the basic superimposition of the object and its attributes on
concept of advaita Vedanta that jivatma is Nitya the subject and vice versa ought to be regarded as
Śuddha Buddha, Mukta in nature a logical impossibility. Yet it is nature on the part
Man is apparently composed of the body and of man to identify the two and to superimpose the
the soul. But the body which we perceive is, like attributes of the one on the other. In asserting that
every other material objects merely an illusory the body is mine or the mind is mine, the self
appearance. For instance the case of the relation identifies itself with the body or the mind. Again in
Assistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, Raja N.L. Khan Women’s College, Midnapore, West Bengal,
India.
97
declaring that I am lame or I am blind, the self fails as conscious then the different parts of the body
to distinguish itself from the senses. But neither such as hands, legs, feet, etc. or its constituent
the body, nor the mind, nor even the senses can atoms must be admitted to possess conciseness.
really be the self. Seers and sages are pure in mind Vācaspati writes in his Bhamati that no action
and their intelligence is free from turbidity. The can be performed by a body which has different
eternal varities appear before their settled vision knowers because the knowers have often different
in unsettled from. And they have declared that the motives. It can not be said that they must always
soul is pure intelligence and bliss. have a unity of purpose. Further the body as a
Various system of Indian philosophy have there whole will be in danger of losing its solidarity, if
own observation regarding self through all the the different parts or knowers move in opposite
system of Indian philosophy recognized self as directions.
the ultimate real. But there is difference of opinion Udayana points out in his kusumāňjali (1/15)
regarding the nature of self. Their views are as that if the body be t he substrat um of
follows consciousness, then the phenomenon of memory
The cārvāka atheist maintains that the self is will remain inexplicable. Because the bodyof a child
no other than the body and it is the body that is totally different from the body of a youth, as the
thinks, feels and wills. The body formed by the growth of the body unmistakably shows. So it is
material atoms is to be regarded as conscious. And to be admitted that the combination of further
this conscious body is the self consciousness as atoms is responsible for the development of the
a quality of the body arises out of the four kinds of body. Where the body indentical with the self the
atoms (Earth, water, air, fire) in the same way as present body of a yo ung perso n wo uld not
intoxicating properties are generated by the mixture remember the events cognized in childhood; since
of ingredients which by themselves, are not the present body being absent in childhood, so,
inebriating. Conscious is destroyed with the the present body, thou gh different from the
dissolution of the body. The body is thus an pastone, can remember the objects apprehended
inalienable factor for consciousness which is not by the past body. But this is wholly untenable. For
possible in disembodied state. So, the existence of the impressions, being devoid of metion, cannot
the self as a spiritual entity and as distinct from be transferred from one body to another. Therefore
the body cannot be admitted. There is another it cannot be said by the cārvāka that memory is an
proof in favoure of the causal relation between attribute of the body and the body is that which
matter and consciousness. In medical literature it remember the past.
is described that the properties of particular The cārvāka, however rejoins that it is not the
preparation of food and drink e.g. Brahmighrta body as a whole it is consciousness. So there is no
result in the development of the intellectual powers. difficulty in the remembrance of past events. In
In crit ici sm of the cārvāka materi ali st reply to the cārvāka vardhamanā in his commentary
vātsyāyana observes that if the body be regarded on the identical passage of the kusumāňjali points
98
Sandhya Nandy
out that the atoms being devoid of gross magnitude souls. But does not the soul, owing to Karma, take
or perceptible dimensions are super sensible. For different bodies and suffers.
this reason the attributes pertaining to the atoms The Buddhist conception of the self as a series
cannot be perceived. Hence if consciousness be of sensations and feelings (Vijňanā & Antama)
admitted to be an attribute of the atoms, it cannot tenable becau se it cannot accou nt for t he
be di rectl y known. Bu t t here i s i nt ernal consciousness of the self as a permanent entity.
consciousness of conscious itself. The assertions According to Nyāya the pure self is a simple,
in the form of ‘I know’, ‘I am happy’ etc. clearly permanent ubiquitous, spiritual substance. The self
show that t here i s direct co nsciou sness of is not an attribute. It is a substance that exists by
consciousness. itself.
Other think that the self or the knower is According to kumārila, the soul is an active,
nothing but the organs of sense, during sleep and permanent, omnipresent being which is the
in the presence of or activity of the senses, the substratum of consciousness. It is distinct from
work of consciousness goes on; it is therefore cognition, the body and the senses. The activity
inferred that the senses are the self on the psychical of the soul is proved by the fact that it is the doer
reality. But this also is absurd. of sacrifices unlike the vaisésika, the Mimamsaka
The fact that an object is perceived by the does not think that activity always consists in
different senses probes that the self in not the motion. Motion is impossible in an Omnipresent
sense For example ‘I am blind’, ‘I am deaf’ and to being. The souls activity rather consists in directing
be regarded as erroneous. So the self is not the the body for the performance of acts. Without its
senses. Some think that the vital impulse as the inciting activity bodily motion will not be possible
arganic sensibility (prāna) is the self. But prāna is at all.
not the self. The soul is the abode of consciousness.
Someone thinks that the mind (or the mānās) Consciousness cannot be a special attribute of the
as the self or the knower. But the mind is an organ body; since the special attributes of the body are
of internal perception of pleasure and pain and so co-present with it. They vanish only with the
it can not be taken as the knower. destruction of the body. But consciousness is not
The jainas hold that the self is of intermediate co-exist with the body. So the soul is distinct from
dimension i.e. nither infinitesimal nor infinite. The the physical body.
dimension of the self is invariably associated with Kumārila holds that the self is ubiquitous. It
the eternity or no eternity of the self. If the self be can not be atomic. It does not stand to reason that
of madhyama-parimana, it is bound to be non- after death when the soul assumes a new body, it
eternal. According to them consciousness is a will contractor expand accordingly. Moreover, if it
quality of the self. The jaina assumption that the possesses dimensions of the body, it will consist
self is madhyama-parimana is thus untenable. of parts; and consequently it will be transitory.
The Jainas believe in the transmigration of Therefore the soul is not of limited magnitude but
99
all pervading. An all pervading substance is course, not made; it is eternally existing. But
necessarily without parts and an indivisible entity being a part of God, it cannot be infinite. Nor
cannot but be eternal. can it be said to have a medium dimension which
According to Kumārila the self can be known things composed of parts (such as tables and
by the mind as an object in the form of ‘I’ It is an chairs) have, for then it would be liable to
introspected datum of experience. But it many be destruction. Therefore, the soul is infinitely small
objected that the self or the knower cannot be the (anu) and not infinite or all-pervasive. But being
known too. For the agent and the object of an act very subtle (Śuksma) it can penetrate into every
canno t be t he same ent ity. The su bject of material substance and in this sense is described
knowledge cannot turn round and catch itself. The by the Upanisads as all-pervasive.
self being the seat of knowledge cannot also be Consciousness is not the essence of the self
the object meant by it. as held in the Advaita Vedanta. It is an essential
Prabhākara’s views with regard to the self are and, therefore, eternal quality of the soul and it
different from those of kumarila. He denies that the remains under all conditions. In dreamless sleep
self can be known as an object of cognition. The and even in the state of liberation, when the soul
expression ‘I know myself’ is used only in a is altogether disembodied, the soul remains
Fi gurat ive senses. The soul is natu ral ly co nsci ou s of i tsel f as ‘I am’. The sel f is,
unconscious but it becomes the substrate of therefore, identified by Rāmānuja with what we
consciousness. It is present as a necessary factor call the ‘I’ (aham), or the ego.
in every state of consciousness which is self As for the relation between God and the self
luminous. So the self cannot be cognized as the of man, Rāmānuja thinks that there is identity of
substrate of cognition. Rather it is known as an essence and difference in form between them.
object of introspection. The soul is finite and imperfect. As such, it
According to the Sāńkhya-Yaga, purusa or the cannot be identical with God in every respect.
self is different from body and the senses, the mind At the same time, man is not different from God
and the intellect. It is not anything of the world of in the sense that God pervades and controls man
objects and is above the whole material world. It is as well as; every other thing of the universe.
neither the body nor the brain, nor the aggregate Just as the existence of a part is inseparable from
of conscious states. The self is the conscious the whole, that of a mode or quality from its
subject of experience and can never become an substance, so the existence of man is inseparable
object of knowledge. It is not a substance with the from God. In this sense there is identity between
at tri but e o f conscio usness, but it is pu re the soul and God. It is true that identity cannot
consciousness itself. be asserted between two altogether different
According to Rāmānuja, the self of man is terms; but it is also meaningless to assert any
limited and finite like his body. The body is made identity between exactly identical terms; because
of matter which is a part of God. The soul is, of it would be a needless tautology. Identity can
100
Sandhya Nandy
be asserted’ between two forms of the same (ańtahkarana) and thinks ‘I am lame,’ I am ignorant.
substance. In the Upanisadic text ‘That thou art’ Thus arises the conception of the self as the ‘Ego’
(Tat tvam asi), the identity that is asserted is, or ‘I’ so the ego is not, the real self but is only an
therefore, between God with certain qualifica-tion apparent limitation of it.
(i .e. as man) and Go d wi t h cert ai n o t her ‘Āsmarathya’ regards the empirical self as
qualification (i.e. as Brāhmaņ); it is the identity partly different and partly non different from
of the same substance-existing in two different Brāhmaņ, even as the sparks are partly different
forms. and partly non different from a fire. As the sparks
The soul is not identical with the body, but issuing from a fire are not absolutely different from
is really a part of God who controls it from within. it because they both are of the nature of fire and
But when under the influence of its karma or on the other hand, are not absolutely non-different
ignorance, the soul identifies itself with the body from it, becau se int hat case they cou ld be
and regards it as itself, it becomes subject to the distinguished neither from it nor from one another.
limitations of the body and is in bondage. So the empirical selves also are neither absolutely
He who realises God is liberated from all different from Brāhmaņ. Because they both are of
bondage to the body for ever. But liberation is the nature of consciousness, non-absolutely non-
not the soul’s becoming identical with God. The different from Brāhmaņ. The consciousness of the
l iberat ed so u l havi ng pu re consci o usness self in bondage is limited.
become similar to God (Brahmaprakāra). Free from Audu lomi regards the individu al sel f as
igno rānce and bo ndage o f every ki nd, the different from Brāhmaņ, when it becomes impure
l iberated so u l enj oys infinit e j oy bo rn o f in contact with the adjuncts of body sense-organs,
complete communion with God. mānās and buddhi. But he regards it as non-
According to Śańkara When this is realized, different from Brāhmaņ when it is divested of the
the reality that remains in the soul which is nothing li mit ing adju nct s by right kno wledge and
other than Brāhmaņ. The meaning of “That thou meditation. The bound self is different from
art!” It is the supreme Brāhmaņ the self luminous Brāhmaņ, while the liberated self is non-different
infinitie, consciousness. The soul appears as the from Brāhmaņ. The self loses its individuality and
limited, finite self because of its association with realizes its identity with Brāhmaņ in the state of
the body which is a product of ignorānce. liberation.
Du e t o ignorance the sou l erro neously When a man is awake, he thinks himself
associates itself with the body gross subtle. This identifies with the gross body, as well as with the
is called bondage. In this, it forgets that it is really internal and external organs. When he falls asleep
Brāhmaņ. It behaves like a finite, limited, miserable and dreams, he is still conscious of objects that
being which runsafter transitory worldly objects arise from memory impressions and therefore, the
and is pleased to get them, sorry to miss them. It feeling of his limitation as a subject or knower
identifies itself with a finite body and mind opposed to objects still persists there. When he
101
has deep dreamless sleep, he ceases to have any names and forms which subsist in the adjuncts,
ideas of objects. In the absence of objects he ceases are attributed to the empirical self. Its origin from
to be a knower as well. The polarity of subject and Brāhmaņ like that of the sparks issuing from fire is
object, the opposition between the knower and really the origin of its limiting adjuncts.
the known, vanishes altogether. He no longer feels Śańkara adopts Kasakrtsna’s view. There is no
that he is confined to and limited by the body. But ontological difference between the individual self
yet consciousness does not cease in dreamless and Brāhmaņ. Their difference is empirical due to
sleep; for otherwise how could we remember at all the limiting adjuncts of body, sense, mansa and
on awaking from sleep that we had such a state? buddhi produced by nescience. The purity of
How could we report? I had peaceful sleep had no indeterminate Brāhmaņ is the real nature of the
dreams, if we were unconscious then? empirical self whose enjoyments sufferings and
The study of dreamless sleep gives us a the like are its accidental nature due to its limiting
glimpse of what the self really is when dissociated adjuncts.
from its feeling identity with the body. The soul in Śańkara does never think that the existence of
its intrinsic state is not a finite, miserable being. It the self (ātman) needs to be proved by any
dose not separate it self from the rest of existence argument. The self is self manifest in everyone.
and does not limit itself bya feeling of the ‘1’ (aham) Everyone believes that He exists, and never thinks
opposed to a ‘thou’ or ‘this’ or ‘that ’. It is also free I am not. But there are so many different kinds of
from all worries that arise from hankerings after meaning, attached to ‘I’ or ‘self that it requires a
objects. The self real ly then i s u nli mit ed good deal of analysis and reasoning to find out
consciousness and bliss. what the self really is.’
Kāśakrtna regards the empirical self as identical The empirical self is not a part of Brāhmaņ,
with Brāhmaņ. The empirical self is not different since Brāhmaņ is devoid of parts. It is not a
from immutable God or Brāhmaņ, they related to modification of Brāhmaņ, since Brāhmaņ is
each other as effect and cause since the former unchangeable. Brāhmaņ, the eternal,
depends upon the latter. transcendental consciousness, is the substrates
Audulomi looks upon difference and non- of the empirical selves and the entire empirical
difference of the empirical self from Brāhmaņ as universe, which cannot exist apart from it.
due to different conditions. It is different from Analysis of the meaning of ‘I’ shows pure
Brāhmaņ in the state of bondage, and non- different consciousness to be the essence of the self. The
from Brāhmaņ in the state of liberation. word ‘I’ seems sometimes to imply the body e.g. I
Kāśakrtna’s view accords with the Sruti which am fat, sometimes a sense e.g. I am blind, sometimes
say’s ‘That-thou-art’. The empirical self is identical a motor organ e.g. I am lame, sometimes a mental
with Brāhmaņ. If is not a modification, since if it facil it y e.g. ‘I am fool ish’, so metimes
were so, it would be merged in prakrti or maya in consciousness e.g. I known. Which of these
dissolution, and would not be immoral. So the should be taken to be the real essence of the self?
102
Sandhya Nandy
To determine this we have to remember the true consciousness, to be identical with bliss so we
criterion of reality. The reality or the essence of a can say Brāhmaņ is pu re consciousness the
thing is, as I saw previously, that which persists ground of both the self and the external world.
through all its states. The essence or the reality Maya or Avidya the principal of limitation and
behind the world of objects was found, in this way, multiplication of the one Brāhmaņ into many selves.
to be pure existence because while other things The individual selves (jiva) can then be imagined
about the world change and persists this always metaphorically as but the reflection (Pratibimba)
reveals itself in every state. The different particular of the infinite consciousness on the finite mirror of
and changing forms of consciousness can be ignorance (Avidya) and compared to one of the
shown, from their contradictory natures to be mere many reflections of the moon cast on different
appearances in this same was as the different forms receptacles of water. Just as there the reflection
of existence were shown to be so before. varies with the nature of the reflecting water,
This conclusion is further supported by the appearing clear or dirty, moving or motionless,
linguistic expressions ‘my body’, ‘my sense’ my according as the water is of one nature or another
intellect etc. which show that the self can alienate similarly does the human self the reflection of the
it self from these (body, sense etc.) and treat them infinite, vary with the nature of the avidya. I saw
as external objects distinct from itself. So I can say previously that the human body gross and subtle
my consciousness does not really imply distinction is the product of ignorance and the mind (the
between self and consciousness. antahkaraņa) is one of the elements composing
Comparison of the three states namely walking, the subtle body. The mind is thus a product of
dreaming and dreamless sleep again shows pure avidya.
consciousness to be the essence of the self. This The attempt to understand the appearance of
shows again that the essence of self is pure individual souls on the analogy of images is called
consciousness without necessary relation to the theory reflection (pratibimba vada). There is
object. So t here i s no reaso n t o t hink that no distinction between objects and objects, souls
consciousness is produced by the relation of the and souls, since all are of bottom the same pure
self to objects through some proper medium. The existence. What i s illusory here is only the
self is in intrinsic nature isolated from all objects, limitation, the finitude imposed on reality by
as it is dreamless sleep, is found to have blissful or ignorance. Every soul, even when supposed to be
peaceful existence. Consciousness in that state is limit, is really nothing other than Brāhmaņ.
bliss. Liberation consists only in breaking the illusory
Brāhmaņ the infinite existences-consciousness barriers. This alternative explanation is known as
is the only realty that constitutes the self and the the theory of limitation (Avacchedaka - Vāda).
external world. Brāhmaņ is also found to be bliss We thus see that the self s regarded in vedanta
or joy, since, the state of dreamless sleep exhibits as well as the views of sainkara that the eternal
the intrinsic nature of the self, pure objectless infinite, indivi sible, self –l umi nou s,
103
undifferentiated being-conscious-bliss. Being – ed.). India, Motilal Barnarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,
conscious- bliss are not the determinations of the Delhi.
self. The self cannot be concerned as a substance • Mudgal, S.G, 1975, Advaita of Sānkara A Reappraisal.
possessed of attributes. (1st ed.), India. Motilal Bararsidass, Varanasi.
Therefore the self must be all pervading. And • Grimes, John, 1990, The seven Grant Untenables
useless to posit many all-pervading selves, when (1st ed.). India. Motilal Barnarsidass Publishers Pvt.
are self can easily explain. The distinct feeling of Ltd., Bangalore.
pleasure and pain in so-called different selves by • Tiwari, N, Kapl. 1977, Dimensions of Renunciation
resorting to the different adjuncts (ańtahkarana) in Advaita Vedanta, (1 st ed.). Indian: Motilal
of the all pervading self. Barnarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Patna.
• Sharma, Chandradhar, 1983, 1996, Revised, 2007,
The Advaita Tradition in Indian Philosophy (1st ed.),
References: (Revised ed.). India : Motilal Barnarsidass Publishers
• Ray Chaudhuri, Anil Kumar, 1955, Self and Falisity Pvt. Ltd., Delhi.
st
(1 ed.) India: Progressive publishers (Chapter • Kumar Lal, Basant.,1978, Contemporary Indian
1,11,111 of Part -I), Calcutta. Philosophy (2nd ed.), Motilal Barnarsidass Publishers
• O. Fort, Andrew, 1990, The Self and its states (1 st
Pvt. Ltd. Varanasi.
104
Politics of Inclusion and Empowerment of Women.
The Post-Seventy Third Amendment Scenario in India
Dr. Anil Kumar Jana
ABSTRACT
Since independence the Government has been continuously pursuing policies of inclusive development of the excluded
including women which received a renewed focus in ‘Towards Equality’. But it was not a smooth sailing in view of
the constraints imposed by the forces of social exclusion. Hence, the constitutional amendments were passed in 1992
to provide reservation for elected women representatives in self-governing bodies at local levels. The Amendments
were followed by certain legislative and policy measures to strengthen the process. Emphasis has also been placed
for women’s empowerment in the Twelfth Plan in tune with the objectives of the MDGs. This paper seeks to examine
the areas of achievements, failures and constraints. It also tries to find out an alternative strategy.
Keywords:
Introduction equality, not merely formal, which aims at removing

The issue of inclusive development has been both the structural and organized constraints
recognized as one of the major areas of concern in imposed on the disadvantaged groups, though the
both policy-making and in implementation in India. policies and strategies adopted by the Government
As a result, considerable progress in the spheres over the years are not free from debates and
of social inclusion and democratic functioning deficiencies. The debates and dissensions are not
based on the principles of equality and social confined only to the scope and nature of such
justice, solemnly declared in the Preamble and policies but extend also to the mode and method of
subsequently outlined in Parts III and IV of the their implementation. Particularly, the efficacy of
Constitution, has taken place. The philosophy of the criteria of identification and classification of
extending equal benefits to all the disadvantaged the target groups has sometimes raised serious
and excluded categories of people including questions.
women is worked out in letter and spirit throughout The politics of inclusion got a violent twist in
the provisions of the Constitution. It may be stated different parts of the country during ‘mandalization’
that the Constitution provides for fundamental in 1990 and since then the issue of electoral gains
UGC Emeritus Fellow, Head and Former Professor, Department of Political Science with Rural Administ ration,
Vidyasagar University, West Bengal.
105
has become the sole determinant for most of the disadvantaged groups. The plan document itself
political parties. The Women’s Reservation Bill is admitted the bare fact that the growth was not
the victim of the politics of vested interests. The sufficiently inclusive for the excluded and that
controversy on the appropriateness of the criteria ‘gender inequality remained a pervasive problem’
like caste, economic backwardness, concept of and some of the structural problems were taking
‘creamy-layer’, status of earning female-headed place having adverse effects on women.1
family, demand for ‘quota within quota’ in case of The Approach paper of the Twelfth Plan is more
reservation of seats for women, and the like, has direct and focused, it is entitled: ‘Faster, Sustainable
been perplexing the issue time and again and a and more Inclusive Growth’. It aims at inclusive
national consensus is still beyond the perception. development of women and chil dren which
Perspectives constit utes aro und seventy per cent of the
Du ring the last seven decades of planned population. The main planks of the approach paper
development, all round progress has been achieved aim at elimination of poverty, inequality, regional
in diverse fields of economy, society and culture. imbalances through people’s participation and
With a robust economy of more than 1.9 trillion US empowerment. The Plan document also declares to
dollars combining around 8 per cent annual GDP in give particular attention to ‘the needs of the SC,
2011-12 representing 2.8 per cent share of global ST, and OBC population, women and children as
GDP, India represents the fourth largest economy also minorities and other excluded groups.’ 2
of the world. But there are critical areas where India The issue o f inclusive development as
still lags behind. There was an allocation of Rs. projected in both the plans is more relevant in the
7500 crore in social sector and poverty eradication context of the Millennium Development Goals
programmes in 1991 when economic reform was (MDGs) initiated by the U.N. General Assembly in
introduced and now at the time of commencement September 2000, which include eradication of
of 12th plan it has crossed the magic figure of 2 lac poverty, universal primary education, gender
crore, almost 26 times more. On the contrary, India equality and empowerment, reduction in child
now (2011) occupies 136 th place in Human mortality rate, improvement in maternal health,
Development Index of the United Nations as against combating malaria, HIV/AIDs and other diseases,
134th in 1991. The Human Development Index is environmental sustainability and development of a
prepared on the basis of three parameters by the global partnership for development to be realized
UNDP: life expectancy, access to education and by 2015.3 Recently, in January, 2014 the UNDP has
income level. According to the 12th plan, the rate of also adopted ‘Gender Equality Strategy – 2014-
elimination of poverty currently stands at 1.5 per 2017,’ which highlights the issue of women’s
cent while it was 0.8 per cent ten years before. Quite empowerment and declares to integrate gender
obviously, the soft target of injustice, malnutrition, equality and women’s empowerment into every
poverty, ill health, illiteracy, unemployment is the aspect of its work and to support the member states
wo men of all categories, more within t he to abolish poverty and reduce inequalities and
106
Dr. Anil Kumar Jana
social exclusion. provisions including prohibition on discrimination

The renewal of emphasi s on inclusi ve on grounds only of sex, race, caste and religion
development in policy approach of the 12th plan (Art. 15), equal opportunity in respect of public
has specific implications in the context of alarming employment (Art. 16), abolition of untouchability
child sex ratio as reflected in Census-2011, which is (Art. 17), equal pay for equal work for both men
lowest in last fifty years. The last census (2011) and women (Art. 39-C), humane conditions of work
has revealed that the ratio of girls to boys up to six and maternity relief (Art. 42), prohibition on
years of age has dropped to 914 for every 1000 practices derogatory to the dignity of women and
boys from 927 girls counted in the previous census the like. The Constitution also empowers the
of 2001 though the overall sex ratio has improved state(s) for enacting special provisions for welfare
since 1991, rising from 933 females to 1000 men in of women and children. Thus, it is quite clear that
2001, to 940 females in 2011. The decline in child the Constitution itself seeks to abrogate all sorts of
sex ratio has been persisting unchecked since the exclusi onary and discrimi nati ng no rms and
1961 census and this reflects the failure to stop practices which provided a subordinate position
selective aborti on of female foetu s despite for women.
preventive laws and campaigns, which again Beside these mandat ory provisio ns, the
indicates the cultural preferences for male child and government has been trying to promote social
general att itude of peo ple towards gender inclusi on o f the excluded t hrou gh vario us
socialization. The picture also depicts that girls are affirmative and legislative measures since the
made for household work and boys for the outside beginning for promoting social inclusion through
world which belittles the question of women’s development programmes in both rural and urban
empowerment. areas. Affirmative actions have been initiated on
Over the years, the State has taken diverse various occasions to rectify past discriminatory
inclusive programmes and varieties of affirmative practices against the traditionally and historically
act ions wit h hu ge resou rces and robust disadvantaged groups. After independence, the
implementing machinery at its command to bring state has passed various acts in order to secure
fundamental transformation in accomplishing the women’s status in law and in society in tune with
go als outl ined in the Constit utio n. The the constitutional provisions, as a result of which
constit utio nal provisions are exhaustive in women’s position has improved considerably in
themselves to ensure equal status and dignity for certain respects including life expectancy, health
women. The scope of the right to equality enshrined and hygiene, enrol ment in elementary and
in Article 14 is extensive since the article guarantees secondary education, level of emplo yment,
‘equality before the law or the equal protection of participation in social activities and extension in
the laws’ for all persons within the state. It is the traditional role as well. But again, there are certain
key provision to protect against social exclusion major problems which demand a fresh thinking. The
and is followed by a host of other such related problem is that the tradi tional paradigm of
107
development is still standing on its head and as large number of scholars and social scientists after
such the institutions, which are promoting equality its origin in France in the 1970s, when it was used
and modernity in some directions, are strengthening to identify the conditions of disabled persons, lone
the traditional dichotomy of gender roles. The role parents and unemployed who remained uncovered
of khap panchayats or the cases of rape and assault and unprotected by social security measures. The
on women is on the increase day by day. Hence, UNDP has been engaged since the middle of 1990s
the strategy of inclusive development needs to be to conceptuali ze the idea in the co ntext of
reviewed so that it does not onlyrefer to deprivation development strategies in the developed and the
from past historical prejudices but also includes developing countries. In fact, the concept is both
the happenings of recent origin. complex and multidimensional. It encompasses the
Exclusion and Inclusive Development broader aspects of deprivation, discrimination and
Inclusi ve devel opment refers to social and marginalization. It also refers to both individuals
economic inclusion of major components of the and gro ups, subject to organizational
society – women, marginalized groups like disadvantages, social alienation and lack of
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, OBCs, individual freedom.4 It is sometimes characterized
marginalized and unorganized wage earners, by certain historically determined criteria like
marginal farmers and landless agricultural workers ethnicity, gender, caste, ownership of property,
– in the process of mainstream development of the religious faith and commitments. Excluded people
country through neutralizing such elements and are sometimes identified by certain prevalent social
factors as may create, sustain and promote social criteria: if they fulfill the criteria, they are included,
exclusion in diverse fields of social, economic and otherwise they are excluded. However, there are
political life of the people. The main objective of differences in application of social justice in Indian
the inclusive policies is to empower the excluded and western contexts. In India, social justice
groups in the process of development to overcome embraces not only demand for human development,
the inherent limitations and societal constraints that but also development with dignity. The advocates
hinder their full and equal participation in civil of affirmative actions claim that social exclusion
society. It may be noted here that for more than 15 can be tackled through such policies and consider
per cent of the rural population, a half of which is these as restorative justice. The affirmative policies
women, poverty is the most retarding force. Though may eliminate the discrimination in the long run,
there is a debate on the role of poverty as a major but there is the urgent need for more drastic
cause of social exclusion due to its differential, measures for progress in the short term. Social
varying and transient effect, there is no doubt that inclusion is not just an attempt to correct the past
most of the marginalized people in India are also wrongs but, on the contrary, it strives for a good
poverty-stricken. society based on the idea of equal entitlement
The concept of social exclusion is highly arising out of membership of that society. Inclusive
debatable. But it has attracted the attention of a policies are followed with a view to including the
108
Dr. Anil Kumar Jana
excluded due to the inherent value of a civilized process. Issues of social exclusion in India are
and inclusive society. varied and multifarious. In the context of neo-liberal
Thus the concept of social exclusion is based phase of development, social exclusion is both
on diverse ideological persuasions. However, some latent and manifest in exposition. When it is
of the features may be traced out in the discussions expressed it takes different forms specific to the
involving various aspects associated with the situation and places. This trend of unevenness in
concept. Lack of participation in institutions of civil the process can be traced if we examine and
society on the part of excluded group is the most compare implementation of children immunization
prevalent characteristic of social exclusion though programme (2011) in the BIMAROU states in India.
there are differences over which aspects are It is found that the percentage of immunization is
important and identification of responsibility for 23 per cent in UP as against 26.5 per cent in
non-participation. Secondly, social exclusion Rajasthan, 32.8 per cent in Bihar, 40.3 per cent in
includes income and poverty but also refers to other Madhya Pradesh and 51.8 per cent in Odisha.5
kinds of disadvantages related to low income like Secondly, the neo-liberal argument in favour of
unemployment and poor self-esteem. Thirdly, it is market as promoting equality can never be equated
multi-layered in the sense that the causes operate with justice. It stimulates the opening of new outlets
at various levels like individual, household, of sale and exchange and thereby promote doorstep-
institutional and community. Lastly, the concept is marketization but cannot evenly empower the needy
dynamic one directing analysis in both the causes purchasers. It has been found that in Mumbai
and effects as well as in examining the feedbacks. certain bui ldings are exclusively identified
Social Exclusion and Politics of Inclusion ‘vegetarian’ in which only vegetarians can buy or
Some critics point out that the concept of social rent property in those buildings.6 Thirdly, it has
inclusion is incomplete in absence of understanding been pointed out by some scholars that the “…
it i n the context of excl usion. Viewing the concept social exclusion is inherently problematic
relationship between exclusion and inclusion simply as it faces three major challenges in India: the first
in terms of pure dichotomous relationship does not relates to the historical discrimination of certain
help to completely overcome the pervasive effects groups and their exclusion; the second is about
of exclusion on society, politics and economics. In the political economy of the excluded, and the third
fact, there is a dialectical relationship between questions the way in which equality responses are
exclusion and inclusion when we notice the trend restricted within the framework of social exclusion.”7
towards reverse exclusion in some cases. Inclusive Fourthly, social exclusion may take different forms
programmes put emphasis on the victims of in different situations. Its manifestation may include
exclusion but neglect the question about the kind the form of communal riots, class conflicts
and degree of exclusion – the factors and forces chauvinist terror, ethnic hate and conflicts and even
responsible for promoting exclusion. In such a organized genocide. In all these cases, women are
situation, we fail to consider exclusion as a social the soft targets. In the terrible Godhra incident, of
109
all the 58 victims, 43 were women and children.8 In of forming a women’s party for long time. Though
most of the third world countries like ours, it is the idea of an exclusively party of women has not
visible in terms of low agricultural growth, low elicited much support in political circles, it has
employment opportunities, low level of human occasionally become an issue of hot debates at
development, gender based unequal wages, rural- different women’s conferences. In the feminist
urban differences, regional imbalances, high level perspectives of empowerment, emphasis is always
of migration to urban centres, emphasis on ascribed placed on ‘power on’ and ‘power with’ and not on
status and gender i nequ alit ies. Thu s, t he ‘power over’. In this sense, empowerment aims at
phenomenon is problematic and, therefore, requires granting power and authority to an individual or a
specific programmes to eliminate social exclusion. group of persons who are denied of the same. The
The traditi onal percept ion of econo mic idea of empowering women is a bottom up approach
development as an antidote to social exclusion is with greater positive implications on development
no longer effective in such countries, ‘a redefinition programmes and is directed towards enabling them
of development must not only be about economic to participate actively in decision-making and
growth, but ensure a redistribution of resources, implementation of programmes directly affecting
challenge the gender based division of labour and their lives through strengthening autonomy and
also seek to provide for an egalitarian basis in social self-governing capacities. Empowerment may also
arrangements.’9 take place through innovation to enable people to
Whatever be the nature and contents of the comprehend the reasons of their vulnerability and
debates on exclusion and inclusion, there is no the possibilities of turning the table to their side.
doubt in the fact that rural women, constituting The inherent objective here is to empower women
more than 70 per cent of India’s women, are the to control the forces and situation that shape their
most excluded within the excluded due to their lives and livelihood. Thus transfer of power and
sufferings from the ‘triple handicap’ – as women, building consciousness are the two inseparable
as rural persons and as scheduled castes and aspects of the same process, though the second is
tribes.10 It may also be pointed out that the vicious more vital.
circle of social exclusion is far more consolidated in Herein lies the role of the state, though the
rural areas due to some factors like traditional and feminist approach denigrates the state as promoting
historical discrimination, mode of production and masculine virtues and patriarchy. Feminists (first-
the nature of economy of the marginal people and wave) are specifically critical of the liberal state in
prevalence of diverse socio-cultural norms and view of its accommodative attitude towards diverse
agencies of social control. shades of opinions and practices in its attempt to
Inclusive Policies and Women’s Empowerment ensure liberty, equality and freedom for all. It is the
Women’s empowerment has become a serious usual thesis that a liberal state has the potentiality
concern since the last quarter of the last century. to create spaces for women against exploitation,
Even there has been a demand for and justification fundamentalism and socio-cultural oppression
110
Dr. Anil Kumar Jana
not withstanding the fact that i t po ssesses reservation of seats for women in Parliament and
patriarchal and bourgeois bias which has been state legislatures has also percolated through their
argued by both the Marxist feminists and the radical organizational structures and selection of party
feminists. Second-wave feminists are not merely candidates for elections at the central and state
concerned with political emancipation but also with levels. Only in case of local bodies’ elections, the
‘women’s liberation. Marxist feminists try to explore volition of the parties in nominating candidates is
the inherent economic character of women’s restricted in view of reservation of seats and
oppression while the radicals criticize liberal political compulsions of competitive politics.
notions like equally and autonomy as inherently The idea of empowerment of women has
‘masculine’. They view politics as ‘po wer- become a regular issue at public forum more in view
structured relationships, arrangements whereby one of the meager percentage of women representing
group of persons is controlled by another’ (Kate Indian Parliament since 1952. The representation
Millett) and accordingly they consider the issue of of women in the Lok Sabha remained remarkably
women’s empowerment. low ranging from an average of 4.4 per cent in 1952
In general femi nist theories, women’s to 8.83 per cent in 1999 coming down to 8.1 per cent
empowerment depends on several factors like in 2004 and at last climbing to 10.8 per cent in 2009.11
ownership and control of property, income and The ratio of women-representation in Rajya Sabha
employment opportunities, infrastructure and public is in no way better. In 2010, there were 27 women
policy, education, access to public goods and members in Rajya Sabha which came down to 24 in
services etc, which can only be provided and February 2012, while in 1980 the number of women
maintained by the state. The progress in building members was 29 in the Upper House.12 It is reported
and strengthening women’s empowerment in India that the percentage of women members in the Lok
over the years thus leads us to construct a premise Sabha has marginally increased to 11.23 per cent
that in spite of all criticisms and also the fact that (61 members) at the 16th election, just held in May,
liberal democracy is never absolutely uncommitted 2014.13 But, most of the women elected members of
and free from contradictions and pressures, it offers Parliament belong to the politically established
the maximum possible option for strengthening families of the cou ntry or to middl e-cl ass
movement for women’s empowerment. professionals having no direct links with the people
The debates on the perspectives of women’s and specifically the excluded categories including
movement and an urge for securing a space for women. Thus women’s representation in Parliament
them in political arena of the country has compelled is a case of selective inclusion excepting one or
most of the political parties as well to adopt, though two cases. It is now acknowledged academically
half-hearted and inconsistent sometimes, an that Indian pol ity has fail ed t o gi ve due
approach in promoting the cause of women’s representation to women in Parliament even after
empowerment. Absence of a clear policy direction six decades.
in most of the political parties in respect of After independence, there have been various
111
attempts on the part of the government to address edu cati on and emplo yment were l aunched
women’s issues from welfare to development. But replacing the previous social welfare approach.
a major shift became evident by the end of the With the creation of a separate ministry for women
Fourth plan, when it became clear that the benefits and children in 1984, the whole emphasis on
of development did not percolate down to the development of women was shifted in focus by
bottom level, which was historically identified with according priority to programmes directed towards
the marginalized groups including women. During ensuring equality and enhancing the level of their
thi s period, the Go vernment appoint ed t he status and empowerment so as to bring them in the
Committee on the Statues of Women in India mainstream of national development. During the
(CSWI) to look into the conditions of women in period under U. N. Decade for Women (1976-85),
India and the committee submitted its report certain legislations were also passed including the
‘Towards Equality’ in which a grim picture in Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 and the Dowry
women’s development and empowerment became Prohibition Amendment Act of 1984 and 1986. But
visible: “Parties have tended to see women as the decade was also marked by an increase in
appendages of the males … Though women, do number of cases involving crime and violence
not constitute a minority numerically they acquiring against women.
the feature of one by the inequality of class, status The incidents like custodial rape of Mathura
and political power.”14 (1972), dowry murder of Sudha (1977), Shah Bano
To overcome the situation, the committee case (1985) and the so-called practicing of Sati by
recommended introduction of a certain quota for Roop Kanwar (1987) also took place during this
women candidates by respective political parties. phase which forced the Government to think
Pending the introduction of quota system, it positively and seriously. Thus the attempts made
recommended allotment of seats for women in by the Government over the years failed to ensure
munici palities and establi shment of women legitimate entitlements to the excluded categories
panchayats with autonomy and resources at the as citizens. The rural poor, mostly women “remained
village levels. Following the report of the CSWI largely untouched by legislation, because they have
(Towards Equality), the Government became neither the information, nor the machinery to claim
serious in introducing women-specific programmes their privileges or dues under the law (such as
during the Sixth plan period. The Sixth plan minimum wages, or maintenance of deserted
document incorporated a separate chapter on wives.”15
wo men and development and a host of Politics of Empowerment : The Seventy Third
development programmes including Development Amendment and After
of Women and Children of Rural Areas (DWCRA), The developments that took place in 1980s reflect
Integrated Child Development Service (ICDS), the critical role of citizenship associated with ‘a
Support for Employment of Women Programme masculine construct based on male supremacy’ as
(STEP) and the like with emphasis on health, claimed by the femi nist s, which cannot be
112
Dr. Anil Kumar Jana
denounced at the present situation. Rather attempts judgment. In such a situation, the Parliament came
need to be made to make citizenship and its forward to overcome to nation-wide resentment by
dependents, rights and freedoms of the individuals, enacting the Criminal Law Amendment Act in 1983
as agencies of social change and women’s enlarging the scope of redressal in rape cases.
empowerment. It has been rightly observed that The perspectives of women’s empowerment
“the challenge of modern era … is the creation of a and the developments taking place in two decades
moral and political order that expresses and enables after the report of the CSWI, Towards Equality,
an active citizenship” in building a level playing finally culminated in formulating a constitutional
field for equal participation of all people living in a framework for representation of women in decision-
state.16 India has all along been a witness to the making. Even some major political parties made
struggle between the fundamentalists and the commitments before the elections in 1989 for
moderates on the critical issues relating to women keeping thirty per cent seats reserved for women.
and this struggle came to a head-on collision in Though the promises were not kept after the
1980s following the Shah Bano case of 1985 and elections, a consensus was reached by them to
the stated practice of sati by Roop Kunwar in 1987 provide for reservation of one-third seats for
in which the Parliament first passed the Muslim women in local elected bodies in tune with the
Women’s Divorce Act in 1986 and then the Sati unanimous recommendation of the Committee on
Prevention Act in 1987, the first one a retrograde status of women, and accordingly the Seventy-
law to appease the Muslim fundamentalists, and third and Seventy-fourth Amendments were passed
the second one comparatively a progressive, by Parliament in 1992. The 73rd Amendment Act has
tho ugh both were t he pro ducts of politi cal far reaching implications for social inclusion in so
expediency. The attitude of the Government far as it relates to the weaker sections and women
reflected a lot of confusions and contradictions in of the society. The Act (Article 243D) makes room
creating an autonomous social space for women. for (i) reservation of not less than one-third of the
In fact, the Muslim Women’s Act passed by seats for women (including SC and ST), (ii)
Parliament and a judgment and more specifically reservation of not less than one-third of the seats
the observations of the Supreme Court in a allotted to scheduled castes and tribes for women
custodial rape of Mathura, a minor orphan girl on within the category, and (iii) reservation of not less
26 March 1972 gave a heavy jerk to the entire than one-third of the total number of seats for the
society.17 The judgment of the Supreme Court offices of the chairpersons at each level for women.
utterly destroyed the human values and civic sense Thus, the constitutional provisions no doubt
of the community and forced even the academics empower women to participate in panchayat raj
headed by Professors Upendra Baxi and Lotika bodies (municipal bodies in urban areas as well) as
Sarkar to make an open appeal to the Supreme Court members and also as functionaries. In fact, the twin
to review the judgment. Though the case was amendment has put in motio n a process of
reopened, there was no reversal of the previous empowerment for women securing gender balance
113
and so ught to deepening democracy at t he for women belonging to dalit, tribal and minority
grassroots. Within a decade after the amendments, communi ties within t he larger 33 per cent
more than one-third seats were occupied by women. reservation.
Now women constitute more than 47% of the From a report of the UNICEF based on the
elected representatives in the panchayat raj bodies findings of the MIT, it is revealed that ‘more than
across the States and Union Territories in India.18 the mandatory one-third women’ are elected to the
There are at present twelve states in which the village panchayats.21 Not to be solely judged from
percentage of women elected representatives the viewpoints of numbers of elected women
(EWR) has been raised to one-half of the total seats representatives in the PRIs, an interesting story
in the PRIs. In Sikkim, reservation for women is 40 from Keral a’s Poovachal Panchayat of
per cent. “As a result of this initiative, … the last Thiruvanthapuram indicates the extent of women’s
fifteen years of Panchayati Raj in India have seen empowerment when one Mrs Suni (39) got herself
women go from strength to strength in terms of elected as president of a village panchayat and her
their political participation.19 It is also to be noted husband Soman had been the driver of the jeep of
that the percentage of EWR in Himachal Pradesh that panchayat, used for travel of its president, she
and Manipur exceeds 51 per cent now (March 2013). nor her husband had any problem to adjust in their
But the disheartening fact is that the Amendment new roles.22
proposed and the bill introduced in the Lok Sabha However, there are other sides of the picture.
in 2009 (110th Amendment Bill) seeking to increase There is a story from Rajasthan in which Mukesh
the number of EWR in rural and urban local bodies Sharma’s wife (even her name was not known)
from one-third to half of the total number of seats sto od from rural Al war and, thanks to t he
lapsed to be passed due to dissolution of the 15th constitutional obligation, won the election, but her
Lok Sabha in May 2014. Similar is the fate of the husband wore garlands and celebrated the victory
108th Amendment Bill, 2010 which seeks to reserve with his friends. It was only when someone realized
33 per cent seats for women in Parliament and that her signature was required by the counting
legislative assemblies, though it had already been personnel that they sent for her.23 The story of
passed by Rajya Sabha in March 2010 amid stiff Phootwati, an elected sarpanch of Bamari gram
opposition from some key heartland parties like the panchayat in Hoshangabad district of Madhya
Rashtriya Janata Dal, Samajwadi Party, Bahujan Pradesh is more pathetic. The post was reserved
Samaj Party, and Janata Dal (U).20 The bill has seen for SC women and she was elected. After passing
a political tug-of-war for more than a decade, her days for several months as a bonded sarpanch
drawing stiff opposition from these parties on the to the majority in the village (upper-caste people)
plea that it would lead to election of women from she was forced to sell her house and to live in a hut
the society’s elite groups in legislatures at the in Banskhapa, a few kilometers away from the village
expense of those from the underprivileged sections. she had been representing. The upa-sarpanch and
The parties have demanded separate sub-quotas the panchayat secretary used to visit her for taking
114
Dr. Anil Kumar Jana
her thumb impressions on cheques and other empowerment of women by 2010.25

papers.24 Fol lowi ng t he declaratio n of the pol icy
Thus the post-Seventy Third Amendment statement and objectives of the national policy for
experiences exhibit a picture of having both the women’s empowerment, the major guidelines were
positive and negative aspects in the process of widely disseminated so as to encourage all
wo men’s empowerment calli ng for further stakeho lders fo r achieving the goal s.
supportive measures t o get gender into the Simultaneously, beside the programmes for self-
mainstream of development. As a result, the employment and income generating schemes like
National Policy for the Empowerment of women, MGNREGS, other programmes aiming at universal
2001 was declared with nine-point objectives that education through National Literacy Mission, Total
included: (i) creating an environment through Literacy Campaign and Saskhar Bharat Aviyan,
positive economic and social policies to enable decent livelihood for rural community (NRLM),
women to realize their full potential, (ii) enjoyment national social assistance (NSAP), rural sanitation,
of all human rights and fundamental freedoms in all supply of drinking water (NRWP), eradication of
spheres on an equal basis with men, (iii) equal access poverty, development of infrastructure and the
to participation and decision-making, (iv) changing latest initiative for food security etc have also been
social attitudes and practices, (v) main-streaming taken up in which the issues concerning gender
gender perspectives in the process of development, priorities occupy a central place. Inclusive measures
(vi) elimination of all sorts of discrimination and for facilitating decent living and human dignity
violence against women and children, and (vii) through programmes for micro-finance and micro-
bu ildi ng and strengthening civil society enterprises have been in the agenda for
organizations, particularly women’s organizations. implementation which serve as checks on social
The declaration also emphasized changes in laws exclusion. Inclusion of gender-sensitive provisions
relating to ownership of property and inheritance for women like equal wages, engagement of at least
to make them gender just and to bridge the gaps in one-third women as workers, arrangement for
policies and programmes through women-specific crèches for children of working mothers, opening
interventi ons as catal ysts, participants and of bank accounts for all job card holders including
recipients. The policy also called upon the central women (Swabhiman Programme 2011), provision for
and the state governments to draw up time bound works within 5 kilometres in employment guarantee
‘Action Plans’ specially including (i) achievement schemes (MGNREGS) have transformed unpaid
of measureable goals by 2010, (ii) identification and women workers into paid workers having positive
commitment of resources, responsibilities for implications on their empowerment through
implementation of actions, (iii) building of structure enhancing their role in selecting consumption
and mechanisms for implementation, monitoring baskets and spending on choice inside the family.26
and review, and (iv) gender-perspective in Now they are considered as assets in most families.
budgeti ng for both economic and social The process of their inclusion and participation
115
in public work schemes have effects at the privacy for the grown-up girls at the schools.
community level also which make women active Education has always been considered as
participants at the grassroots level functioning of having an empowerment effect on the society and
PRIs. But behind the curtain, there is another story. especially on women in view of the declining child
In 2012-13, the percentage of women in NREGS was sex ratio in favour of boys since 1990s. Girls are not
51.5 per cent. The provision of the Act (Sch. II, a ho mogenou s enti ty and hence t he diverse
para-6) raises doubt in the commitment of the dimensions of caste, class, religion, rurality and
policy-makers in realizing the objectives of the other disabilities complicate the situation that
national policy on women’s empowerment, 2001 creates cumulative process in exclusions. The
through NREGS when the Act (NREGA) provides Seventy-Third Amendment was passed just after
scope for inclusion of at least 33 per cent of women the Census of 1991, which reflected only 30.62 per
workers as against the national male-female ratio of cent literacy rate for women in rural areas as against
51.6: 48.4 as per census-2011.27 This is possibly the 64.05 per cent in case of urban areas.29 The total
unintended consequences of the Act: inclusion of literacy programme launched by the government in
women workers in some states like Kerala (93 per 1990 converting National Literacy Mission into TLC
cent), Tamil Nadu (74 per cent), Rajasthan (69 per was further strengthened by introducing free mid-
cent) and West Bengal (34 per cent) in NREG day meals for students at the primary level in 1995
Schemes during this period exhibits inter-state in order to increase enrolment of all children,
variations in sensitization of the issue of women’s particularly those from the marginalized groups. The
empowerment. Similarly, the programme of programme helped in building consciousness
mobilization rural women for income generating self- among girls themselves and their families on the
employment schemes of micro-finance and micro- need for girl’s education. After two decades, the
enterprise with a trinity of objectives of building achievement reached 58.75 per cent in rural areas
self-confidence, self-reliance and self-esteem among as against 79.92 in urban sectors in quantum terms.30
women has brought about progressive changes in The progress is the result of concerted attempts at
the upward direction in realizing the objectives in establishing schools at physical proximity, mid-day
four southern states of Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, meals (MMS), free tuition fees, supplyof free school
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, though the progress is dresses, and, in some cases, provisions for other
marginal at the all-India level (32.2 per cent).28 But incentives like supply of books, cycles etc and
there is a serious concern and it relates to a process creation of infrastructural facilities at the campus.
of reverse exclusion: the percentage of dropout of But still there are intra-group and inter-gender
girl students aged 11-14 years is increasing for two differences in terms of GER and quality-level
reasons: (i) they are engaged in household works belonging to different excluded groups and also at
when their mothers are engaged in working in these different levels – primary, middle school level and
programmes, (ii) absence of sanitation and toilet at the levels of graduation and above in rural India.31
facilities at the schools to provide safety and Total sanitation scheme introduced in 2003-04 as
116
Dr. Anil Kumar Jana
an inclusive programme for women has not been justice in 1995 since a sessions court acquitted the
fully successful in reaching the majority of women men on the ground that “upper caste men could
in rural India. According to a WHO report released not have raped a dalit women.” Today Bhanwari
last year, around 48 per cent of India’s population Devi is an icon for struggling women’ and is a symbol
does not have access to sanitation and 65 per cent of women’s empowerment. 34 Women have to
of the villagers relive themselves in the open32 and undertake regularly certain major responsibilities
women defecating in the open is more vulnerable. in family’s sanitation related activities and now it is
Hence, women are still the prisoners of darkness. established from different studies on rural water
The above facts and figures establishes the supply and sanitation programmes that they are
stated premise that t he process of women’s better educators and performers in this sphere.35 A
empowerment is passing through a process of nation-wide survey was conducted by A C Nielson
movement in a forward direction, occasionally – ORG – MARG at the instance of the Ministry of
marked by certain retarding developments which Panchayat Raj to o verview the ext ent of
are on the decline. The stories of Mukesh Sharma’s quantitative and qualitative progress in respect of
wife and Phootwati are things of the past; the participation of elected women representatives
overall situation has changed significantly. A sense (EWR) which reveals that “sizeable portion of
of confidence, the gateway to women’s elected women represent atives perceive
empowerment, now flows continuously to assert enhancement in their self-esteem (79 per cent),
“padhe likhe nahin hain, par dimag to hai na (I may confidence (81 per cent) and decision-making ability
not be a literate, but I do have a brain)?” This is an (74 per cent).36
assertion from Ms Badam Bairwa, a scheduled caste Need for Serious Retrospection
panchayat sarpanch from the district of Tonk in The movement for empowerment of women and, in
Rajasthan, the state to which Mukesh Sharma fact, for the whole of the excluded groups has been
belonged. Women have realized the difference going on in the right direction but still certain
themselves that while their male counterparts can problems loom large. Proxyism, male supremacy,
contest in only 50 per cent of seats, they may stand social const raint s, upper-caste domi nati on,
for election in all the seats of panchayats and primordial relations, patriarchal attitude, low level
municipalities and none even in Rajasthan dare to of awareness and other social constraints in their
dig at women today ‘by saying ghunghatwali kya interacting linkages and mutual effects are standing
kar sakti hai’ (what can you expect from veiled like a rock on the way of total empowerment of
women)? 33 women in India. Lack of ideological commitment
Rather the upper-caste men have to face the and open support on the part of the political parties
challenge now, “only justice can fill my belly, not coupled with dilemmas in government policies
awards”, thundered Bhanwari Devi, a sathin (VLW) sometimes weaken the movement for women’s
worker in Rajasthan who was gang-raped for liberation and empowerment.
opposing child marriages in 1992, but who got no The paradox in women’s empo werment
117
programmes is reflected in the fact that the political In case of violations of serious nature, women are
elites of the country are guided in two opposite made subject to verdicts of Khap Panchayats or
directions: they are reluctant to give adequate Kangaroo Courts still in some parts of the country.
representation to women at the macro level – Women’s empowerment in such a situation
Parliament and State legislatures, while eager to demands prevailing over the patriarchal base on
enhance the percentage of reservation of seats for the one hand, and overcoming the forces creating
them at the micro l evel s – panchayats and new forms of gender discrimination. Basically, there
municipalities. This is because of the fact that is a difference bet ween advanced capital ist
politics continues to be a male dominated affairs, countries and the developing countries like India
both empirically and symbolically and women are having strong linkages with pre-capitalist socio-
always at the receiving end. They may only enjoy economic structures. Indian society is passing
the benefits whatever assigned for them by their through a cultural lag based on an economy of
male counterparts – in family, in community, society ‘lu mpen capital ism’ under t he neo-l iberal
and politics. An empirical study conducted in di spensati on which gives birth to lumpen
Maharashtra reveals the emergence of a new proletariats. The environment is thus becoming
arrangement in the post-amendments period in more congenial for criminal and adventurous
which the husband discharges the responsibilities behavior and activities threatening women’s safety,
of the women-sarpanch ‘particularly in dealing with privacy, rights and empowerment. The recent
the outside world’, while the sarpanch herself incidents of rape and murder taking place in different
attends and chairs the meetings, and signs all parts of West Bengal indicate the growing culture.
papers beside meeting people on official purposes.36 Feminization of agriculture ( 80 per cent of rural
However, in-depth studies may further be necessary women are now engaged while the male members
to find out exclusively the extent of formal and actual of the family have gone outside in search contract
participation of women members in decision-making jobs), sexual prostitution and sex tourism are
position of various political parties from micro to emerging phenomena in our economy. Development
meso and macro levels. Women are indoctrinated of new technology also seeks to narrow the space
and coerced by ideological-societal apparatuses, for women’s autonomy and empowerment which
when necessary; to develop and maintain such needs to be countered through joint and organized
values and behavior-pattern as could keep them in women’s movements. Introduction of highly
subjugated and subordinate positions. The social sophisticated technology is also a general problem
taboos and psychological conditioning restrain for the excluded groups and common people as a
them from taking up new roles. Actually the society whole. This gives rise to a case for appropriate and
always expects women to conform, but not to resent women-sensitive technology to empower them for
and never to think playing in unsolicited terrain taking greater role in mode of production. Thus the
due to the deep-rooted structures of patriarchy struggle for women’s empowerment becomes a part
followed by atrocious practice of female infanticide. of the broader struggle of the working and
118
Dr. Anil Kumar Jana
marginalized groups to transform the existing social pro moti ng gender equali ty and women’s
structure. empowerment has actually registered a decline.”38
However, the scope of improving women’s But in spite of these limitations and shortfalls,
status and increasing the level of their empowerment because of the inclusive policies pursued over the
cannot be ruled out within the existing political years, women have at least been able to move step
framework of Indian society. Hence arises the issue by step through the following stages: (i) coming
of gender sensitization, gender mainstreaming and outside the family to attend public offices and
gender budgeting. In the period following the interact with outsiders; (ii) acquiring symbolic
adoption of the national policy for the empowerment features of power through presiding over meetings
of women (2001), different measures have been or signing official papers; (iii) exercising power in
undertaken to sensitize gender issues in both sharing the benefits of development; (iv) initiating
academic and public policy spheres. Establishment actions for common benefits of the community and
of centres for women’s studies has been dominating society; and (v) having the scope fo r doing
the higher academic landscape for long. Gender something for the whole community through
mainstreaming has also become a part of the policy mobilization.39 In fact, a process of churning has
objectives of the government. In view of the growing started in all spheres of social and political
feminization of agriculture in our country, urgency framework of Indian democracy, which cannot be
in gender mainstreaming is felt in all quarters. stopped right now by one or two retarding incidents
Simultaneously, globalization has brought new taking place here and there.
challenges for women for which there is the
immediate need for their capacity building. Gender
budgeting aims at disaggregating government’s References
mainstream budgets according to their impact on 1. Eleventh Five Year Plan, 2007-2012, Planning
men and women in order to promote capacity Commission 2008, Oxford University Press, New
building in women. The government has also been Delhi, , Vol. I, p. 1.
trying to prepare gender responsive budgets and 2. Twelfth Five Year Plan, 2012-17, Approach Paper,
policies for attaining the objectives of gender Planning Commission, 2011 2013, Vol. I, Sage
equality and human development, but the ‘budget Publications, New Delhi,
for 2013-14 … falls far short of what is required to
3. UNDP 2003, UN Millennium Declaration, 2000,
fulfill some of the commitments made in the Twelfth
New York, USA, pp. 1-3.
Plan – both in terms of effective implementation of
existing programmes / schemes as well as rolling 4. Ajit Bhalla and Frederic Lapeyre 1997, “Social
out the new interventions. … India seems to be Exclusion Towards an Analytical and Operational
trapped in a paradox: while on the one hand it has Framework”, Development and Change, Vol. 28,
taken several steps towards gender responsive No. 3, pp. 413-33.
budgeting, on the other budgetary allocations for 5. Ram Chandra Guha 2014, “The Sick State of India”,
119
Telegraph,Kolkata,8 February, p. 12. 19. Annual Report 2011-12, Government of India,

6. Gayatri Nayar and Menon 2013, “Structure of Ministry of Panchayati Raj, p. 27.
Discrimination – A Response”, Economic and 20. The Hindu 2010, 9 November.
Political Weekly, Vol. XLVIII, No. 15, 13 April, p. 77. 21. Panchayati Raj Update 2007, Vol. XIV, No. 4th April.
7. Vid hu Verma 2011, “Co ncep tualizing Soc ial 22. Panchayati Raj Update 2010, Vol. XVII, No. 12th
Exclusion: New R hetoic o r Trans fo rmative December.
Politics?”, Economic and PoliticalWeekly,Vol. XLVI,
23. Sakuntala Narasimhan, op.cit, p. 45.
No. 50, 10 December, p. 90.
24. Panchayati Raj Update 2001, Vol. VIII, No. 5th
8. The Statesman 2002, Kolkata, 7 April, p. 5.
September.
9. Vidhu Verma 2004, ‘Engendering Development’,
25. Government of India, The National Policy for the
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXXIV, No.
Empowerment of Women, 2001, Ministry of Women
49, 4 December.
and Child Development, ‘Goals and Objectives’,
10. Sakuntala Narsiman 1999, Empowering Women, Sage pp. 1-2.
Publications, New Delhi, p. 1.
26. Ashok Pankaj and Rukmini Tankha 2010, “Empower
11. Government of India, PIB and Election Commission Effects of the NREGS on Women Workers: A Study
of India. in Four States”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.
12. Government of India 2012, Rajya Sabha Secretariat, XLV, No. 30, 24th July.
Information at a glance. 27. Government of India, website and portals of the
13. Ei Samay (Bengali Daily) 2014, Kolkata, 18 May, Ministry of Rural Development, New Delhi. Also,
p. 7. P. Dutta, R. Murgai and others, “Does India’s
14. Government of India 1974, Towards Equality, Employment G uarantee S cheme Guarantee
Department of Social Welfare, New Delhi, p. 372. Employment?”, Policy Research Paper, Washington
DC, World Bank, 2012.
15. Sakuntala Narsimhan, op.cit., p. 44.
28. Government of India, website of the Ministry of
16. Steward Ranson 1997, Quoted in Andy Green,
Rural Development, 2013.
Education, Globalization and the Nation State,
Macmillan, London,p. 186. 29. Government of India, Selected Education Statistics,
Ministry of Human Resource Development, 1997.
17. Tukaram V.The State of Maharashtra,1979 AIR185
SCR1(810),Criminal Appeal No.185. 30. Government of India 2012, Census of India, 2011,
Provisional Population Tables, New Delhi.
18. Indian Institute of Public Administration 2013,
Strengthening of Panchayats in India: Comparing 31. Government of India, NSSO – 2007-08 and Annual
Devolution Across States-2012-13, Table 2.2, Status of Education Report (Rural), Ministry of
‘Representation of Weaker Sections and Women in HRD, New Delhi, 2012.
Panchayats’, New Delhi. 32. Telegraph 2014, Kolkata, 2nd June, p. 4.
120
Dr. Anil Kumar Jana
33. Abha Sharma 2013, “Unveiling the Women power 37. B. S. Baviskar 2009, “Including the Excluded:
in Panchayats”, Panchayati Raj Update, Vol. XX, Empowering the Powerless through Panchayati Raj”
th
No. 7 July, p. 6. in Baviskar and George Mathew eds, Inclusion and
34. Laxmi Murthy 2013, “From Mathura to Bhanwari”, Exclusion in Local Governance, Sage Publications
Economic and Political Review, Vol. XLVIII, No. India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2009, pp. 24-25.
23, 8th June, pp. 16-17. 38. Bhumika Jhamb, Yamini Mishra, Navanita Sinha,
35. Panchayati Raj Update 2013, Vol. XX, No. 8t h “The Paradox of Gender
August, p. 5. 39. Baviskar, op.cit., p. 39. Responsive Budgeting”,
36. Government of India, Annual Report 2011-12, op Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XLVII, No. 20,
cit, p. 27. 18 May, 2013, p. 38.
121
Violence Against Women In India : An Analytical Overview

Rajesh Banerjee
ABSTRACT
According to Constitution of India, women are legal citizens of the country and have equal rights with men (Indian
Parliament). Because of lack of acceptance from the male dominant society, Indian women suffer immensely.
Women are responsible for bearing children, yet they are malnourished and in poor health. Women are also
overworked in the field and complete the all of the domestic work. Most Indian women are uneducated.. There has
been increasing concern about violence against women in general and domestic violence in particular, in both
developed and developing countries. In the Indian patriarchal setup, it became an acceptable practice to abuse
women. There may be many reasons for occurance of domestic violence. It may be said that the occurrence of
domestic violence against women arises out of the patriarchal setup and the distribution of power in society. It is
high time for a healthy society that women of our country and everywhere should get a respectable and dignified
position in the society. Their equal position and equal rights should be effectively implemented. Awareness in the
women as well as the whole society has to be created with respect to the dignified life which she is entitled as of right.
The machinery of implementation of laws should be easily approachable and should not be inefficient, corrupt or
harmful for the victims. It may be conclude from an overall discussion of the Domestic Violence Act,2005, encompasses
women’s experience of violence and address the issue adequately. Nothing can be done by legislation; there has to
be awareness in the community. Moreover, there is a need to bring about the awareness amongst the women so that
they can speak for themselves and get justice in case their rights are violated.
Keywords: Women, domestic ,violence, constitution, people, rights.
Introduction: and they have to complete all of the domestic work.

According to Constitution of India, women are Most Indian women are uneducated. Although the
legal citizens of the country and have equal rights Constitution says women have equal status to men,
with men. Because of lack of acceptance from the women are powerless and are mistreated inside and
male dominant society, Indian women suffer outside the home. There has been increasing
immensely. Women are responsible for bearing concern about violence against women in general
children, yet they are malnourished and in poor and domestic violence in particular, in both
health. Women are also overworked in the field developed and developing countries. In the Indian
Advocate, Uluberia Court, Howrah, West Bengal, India.
122
Rajesh Banerjee
patriarchal setup, it became an acceptable practice commonplace even amongst the socio- economic
to abuse women. There may be many reasons for elite. But what lends this scenario a surreal twist
occurence of domestic violence. It may be said are the shocking findings of the latest National
that the occurrence of domestic violence against Family Health Survey (NFHS), a pan-India survey
women arises out of the patriarchal setup and the conducted by 18 research organisations (including
distribution of power in society. Following such the International Institute for Population Sciences),
ideology, men are believed to be stronger than according to this survey 37.2 per cent of married
women and more powerful. They control women Indi an women regu larly experience spo usal
and their lives as a result of power play, they may violence.
hurt women with impunity. The role of women is to The latest NFHS, the third in a series since
accept her ‘fate’ and the violence employed against 1992, reports that gender discrimination is rampant
her submissively. in Indian society with boys having better access
Objectives of study: to education, food and other amenities and girls
To assess the degree of the spread of the comparatively being given short shrift. The NFHS
domestic violence in various areas of India. database— conducted on a representative sample
To understand the various socio-economic of households throughout India— is designed to
causes behind the domestic violence in India. strengthen India’s demographic and health policies
To ascertain the impact of this unhealthy social and provide national-level information about
evil. infant/ child mortality, maternal/ child health and
To study the domestic violence under The the quality of health and family planning services.
Domestic Violence Act, 2005. The heal th survey— whi ch contai ns
Methodology: disquieting revelations about the iniquitous status
Since the domestic violence against women of Indian women -also highlights that India trails
prevails almost in all parts of our country i.e the in a number of health and development indices,
whole of the Indian Territory has been considered with growth benefits not percolating down to the
fo r study. Informat ion was coll ected fo rm fairer sex even in urban areas. In fact, women’s
secondary sources . The secondary source of data “empowerment” still remains a chimera, with only
had collected from different books, journals, half of Indian women — 61.4% urban and 48.5%
papers, reports, prepared by WHO, NCRB(National rural -participating in household decisions.
Crime Records Bureau)and also from various The survey, for i nst ance, fo und Bihar
websites. (population: about 82 million, literacy rate: 47 per
Situational Analysis: cent, the lowest amongst all Indian states) to be
For a country on a dizzying upward economic the most retrogressive address for its women, with
growth trajectory, India’s treatment of its women a whopping 59 per cent of its women facing regular
is abysmal. Dowry deaths, rapes, molestations and (and often extreme) matrimonial abuse. Intriguingly,
a swathe of other crimes against women are 63 per cent of these cases were reported from urban,
123
well-to-do families rather than backward rural ones. underdog - prevent battered Indian women from
Madhya Pradesh —with an abuse rate of 45.8 per fleeing abusive situations. The consequences are
cent and Rajasthan and Manipur with 46.3 per cent damning as nearly 74.8 per cent of abused women,
and 43.9 per cent respectively - came in a notch report surveys, are propelled towards committing
below Bi har. The su rvey also reveals that suicide. But even if they are not driven to such
uneducated women were far more likely to have extremity, it spousal violence can negatively impact
experienced spousal violence than their educated a woman’s mental and physical health, triggering
counterparts. off a slew of psychosomatic disorders.
Interestingly, the worst affected women in the Unfortunately in India, more national economic
survey are in the age band of between 20 to 40 prosperity has led to a corresponding upward spiral
years, though in some cases even those above 50 of crimes against women. The National Crime
report regular spousal batter. Shockingly, though Records Bureau (NCRB) reports that from an
the figure of 37 per cent spousal violence is itself average of 125 women who faced domestic violence
high, experts reiterat e that the numbers are everyday in India in 2000, the number has ratcheted
underreported and could be higher still, somewhere up to 160 in 2005. Also, more than 19 Indian women
in the realm of 65 per cent. are killed for dowry everyday, 50 are raped and 480
The sobering findings lends itself to the subjected to molestation and abduction. The
question — why does the land of the Mahatma, Bureau stated that 45 per cent of Indian women are
that has traditionally viewed “stree” (women) as slapped, kicked or beaten by their spouses with
the embodiment of “shakti” (power) — ill-treat them India also having the highest rate of violence
thus? Perhaps the answer is embedded deep in the against women during their pregnancies -nearly
national mindset. Indian women, especially the rural 50 per cent women were kicked while expecting
folk, have deep-rooted fears about losing their babies with nearly 74.8 per cent attempting to
economic support and shelter if they rebel against commit suicide. As per NCRB(National Crime
a violent spouse. There is also a lurking fear of Records Bureau) the number of cases registered in
ostracism which makes them put up with abuse as related to crimes against women was 309546 in 2013
their “destiny”. Interestingly, urban women - report. From 50,703 in 2003, the number of reported
educated and economically independent - too, cases has gone up to 118,866 related to Domestic
suffer spousal violence though in their case, it violence in 2013 - an increase of 134% over 10 years,
usually in the interest of progeny that they stay far out-stripping the rise in population over the
married. By extension, in the predominantly same period.
patriarchal Indian society, the stigma of divorce is In a recent study of 3,000 women aged 18-50
still a large cross to bear for battered women, as years conducted by a pan-India NGO - Sangath -
are the responsibilities of single motherhood. in nine villages in Goa, a popular tourist destination
Also, a strong “martyr” image association - in western India, 14.5 percent women complained
and t he pat ho s generat ed by the sufferi ng of having an abnormal vaginal discharge due to
124
Rajesh Banerjee
verbal, physi cal and sexual vi olence and extend psychological counseling to them. This
psychosocial distress. Depression and anxiety were would certainly be a good start as grassroots
commo n complai nts amongst these women. activists and healthcare volunteers - who work
Women who complained of vaginal discharge also closely with India’s victims of spousal violence
reported that due to stress, they had meager interest and hospital personnel handling their cases - report
in their daily lives. that hospital staff, including doctors, often do not
According t o a recent Worl d Heal th perceive domestic violence as a “health issue” but
Organisation (WHO) report, one in six women rather as a “private family matter”. Hence, scarcely,
around the world suffer from domestic violence. if at all, are they willing to go beyond their formulaic
Based on a survey of 24,000 women from rural and role of providing medicine to physically battered
urban areas in 10 countries, the report noted that women.
female victims of domestic assault were twice as However, in a belated but welcome move, the
likely to suffer poor health than other women. This Indian Parliament has, for the first time ever, passed
kind of abuse was also responsible for the spread the path-breaking - Protection of Women from
of HIV amongst women, as abused women were Domestic Violence Act in the year 2005. The Act
not in a position to demand safe sex. defines “domestic violence” as all forms of abuse
A 2005 WHO publication ‘Addressing Violence — physical, sexu al, verbal, emo ti onal and
Against Women and Achieving the Millennium economic. Physical violence is defined as “beating,
Development Goals’ defines violence against pushing, shoving and inflicting pain” while sexual
women along four identifiable acts. These are violence covers a slew of offences such as “forced
physical violence (slapping, pushing, choking, sex, forced exposure to pornographic material or
burning, threatening with a weapon); sexual any sexual act with minors”.
violence (forced sex or degrading sexual acts); The Act also seeks to offer women victims civil
emotional violence and finally, intimate-partner remedies hitherto unavailable to them. Until
violence (specifically, domestic violence). The last, recently. Indian women could only seek recourse
says the study, is the most common and universal in Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) to
form of violence experienced by women. file a complaint against an abusive spouse (which
The WHO recommends that prevention of did not give the woman the right, for instance, to
violence should be integrated into health care stay on in her matrimonial home or to demand
programs. Indeed there is an urgent need for maintenance from the abusive partner), the new
reproductive health programs to acknowledge the law now provides her with a civil panacea. The Act
role of gender-based violence and psychosocial also lays down stringent rules to prosecute men
distress in addressing the reproductive health who harass/ beat/insult their spouses. Partner
needs of women. abuse can now land a man in jail for one year or a
But health professionals themselves need fine up to Rs.20,000 (about US$470) or both.
training to detect victims of such violence and But while the Act, a landmark legislation no
125
doubt, augurs well for human rights, there is domestic viol ence and is hence punishable.
skepticism that it may offer little succor to the rural Physical abuse is said to consist of acts or conduct
poor (70 per cent of India’s populace) who do not of such nature that they cause bodily pain, harm,
place much trust in such laws in any case. In fact, or danger to life, limb or health, or impair the health
to many illiterate Indian women, “human rights” or development of the aggrieved person. Apart from
legislations challenge the well-entrenched notions this, the enactment also includes similar acts of
of individual and community identity. Another fear physical violence and certain acts of physical
is that the Act - despite the current ballyhoo violence as envisaged in the Indian Penal Code,
swirling around it -may well remain a paper tiger as 1860 within the definition of domestic violence. By
India has the most abysmal rate of conviction in adoption of such an expansive definition, the
spite of possessing the world’s most exhaustive Domestic Violence Act, 2005 protects the right of
and complex set of laws. women against violence.
So where really does the solution lie to the Right to Dignity :
malaise of spousal violence lie? In quick punitive In Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation vs.
action against the barbaric male who batters his Nawab Khan Gulab Khan, AIR 1997 SC 152 , the
wife/partner? In enlightening women victims to not Supreme Court emphasized the fact that ‘the right
suffer i n silence and speak up against their to life included in its ambit the right to live with
injustice? Or with the police/courts who ought to human dignity, basing its opinion on a host of
catalyse the delivery o f justice? Indeed, the cases that had been decided in favour of this
solution is multi-dimensional. In the meantime, the proposition. The right to dignity would include
Domestic Violence Act definitely kindles hope by the right against being subjected to humiliating
bringing this important issue from the periphery of sexual acts. It would also include the right against
people’s consciousness to the center of national being insulted. These two facets of the right to life
development discourse. find mention under the definitions of sexual abuse
The right to life has been held to include the and emotional abuse, respectively’. A praiseworthy
fol lowing ri ghts which are refl ected in the aspect of the legislation is the very conception of
enactment and which are given below: emotional abuse as a form of domestic violence.
Right to be Free from Violence: Right to Shelter:
In Francis Coralie vs. union Territory Delhi, In Chameli Singh vs. State of Uttar Pradesh,
Administrator, AIR 1981 SC 746, Supreme Court AIR 1996 SC 1051, it was held that the right to life
stated, ‘any act which damages or injures or would include the right to shelter, distinguishing
interferes with the use of any limb or faculty of a the matter at hand from State of Madhya Pradesh
person, either permanently or even temporarily, vs. Gauri Shankar, 2005(8) SCC 121 where the
would be within the inhibition of Art. 21’. This right question was with regard to eviction of a tenant
is incorporated in the enactment through the under a statute. In the Domestic Violence Act, 2005,
definition of physical abuse, which constitutes Ss. 6 and 17 reinforce this right. Under S. 6, it is a
126
Rajesh Banerjee
duty of the protection officer to provide the rights of women guaranteed under Arts. 14 and 15.
aggrieved party accommodation where the party Domestic violence is one among several factors
has no place of accommodation, on request by that hinder women in their progress, and this
such party or otherwise. Under S. 17, the party’s enactment seeks to protect them from this evil. It
right to continue staying in the shared household indeed effects a classification between women and
is protected. These provisions thereby enable men, protecting only women from domestic
women to use the various protections given to violence, but this classification is founded on an
them without any fear of being left homeless. intelligible differentia, namely, gender, and also has
Article 14 of the Constitution of India contains a rational nexus with the object of the enactment.
the equal protection clause. It affirms equality Further, the enactment is not arbitrary and this
before the law and the equal protection of the laws. legislat ion is a necessary attempt to curtail
‘Art. 14 prohibits class legislation, but permits domestic violence. It is to be remembered that it is
classification for legislative purposes. A law does generally women who are the victims of domestic
not become unconstitutional simply because it violence, and not men. At this stage, it is also
applies to one set of persons and not another. essential to keep in mind Art.15 (3) which empowers
Where a law effects a cl assificatio n and is the state to make legislations like the above
challenged as being violative of this Article, the legislation for the protection of women.
law may be declared valid if it satisfies the following The remedy available to a victim under the
two conditions: Firstly, the classification must be enactment is exclusive for her and hence in case if
based on some intelligible differentia and secondly, she fails to exercise them, and approaches an
there must be a rational nexus between this alternative forum, it depends on the discretion of
differentia and the object sought to be achieved the judge to admit it or dismiss it. In the case of
by the law. As a result of the ruling in cases such Maya Devi vs. State of N.C.T. of Delhi, AIR 2007
as E.P. Royappa vs. State of Tamil Nadu, AIR 1974 Del 117 the petitioner had got an alternative
SC 555, any law that is arbitrary is considered remedy under the Domestic Violence Act, 2005
violative of Art. 14. This provision is significant in which she did not avail and because of that High
putting a stop to arbitrariness in the exercise of Court dismissed her petition.
state power and also in ensuring that no citizen is As the criminal justice system groans under
subjected to any discrimination. At the same time, weight of cases filed, alternative solutions are being
it preserves the state’s power to legislate for a found world over. Compounding of offences, plea
specific category of people. Art. 15 disallows bargaining, etc. are found in the criminal justice
discrimination on the grounds of religion, caste, delivery system in a large number of countries
sex, race, etc, but permits the state to make special including India. ‘Restorative justice’ may be used
provisions for certain classes of persons, including as a synonym for mediation. The object and nature
women and children. of restorative justice aims at restoring the interest
The Domestic Violence Act, 2005 promotes the of the victim. Involvement of the victim in the
127
settlement process is welcome in the process of detrimental to women’s interests due to back seat
restorative justice. It is a process of voluntary taken by women. Families bring up girl child in the
negotiation, directly or indirectly between the most protected environments and the girls never
offender and the victim,(Anupam Sharma vs. NCT will able to develop the courage required to face
of Delhi,2008(146) DLT 497.). the abusers. The same families will not monitor the
Though most of the educated Indians surely boys and allow them to move freely along with
share the concern, we cannot be sure if all those their peers at any age. The boys thus develop not
concerned people knew the root cause of the only the courage to face the society, but many of
problem. Let me first look into the main causes and them even become nau ghty with respect to
then see if there is any solution to the problem. behavior with women. These boys rarely think that
Main Causes it is a mistake or crime to do so. They just believe
Social Conditioning that it is manly to behave in such a manner due to
The social conditioning of how men should the influence passed on from the peers and of
behave and how women should behave made the course seniors. Such conditioning has been passed
society to mould men and women in a different on and on between generations.
manner. While men can behave improperly with Biological Reasons
women while in a group, we rarely see the women Company of girl is important for a boy and vice
behave in the same manner. Has any one heard versa as well. It is not just for marriage. Such a
about a group of women abusing a single man? company is required in every age during the growth
Very rarely such a thing happens and if it happens, of the children as adults. If a man is brought up in
the news coverage about such women will be such circumstances and has been between women
heinous. A similar behavior by men at multiple throughout the life during school and college and
places will not get such coverage. That means finally at work, he will not look at women with awe.
society subconsciously expects only men to abuse Many of the women abusers co me from
women. If girls are also brought up without backgrounds where they have less interaction with
inducing fear in them and they too grow up with women. In spite of the fact that they study in co-
the same naughty behavior as men exhibit, there education schools and colleges, if the schools/
will be manymen who will surely rear and run away colleges have social conditioning in such a manner
when they look at women. that boys sit separately and girls sit separately,
In such a society where gender difference is the actual mix up and understanding of the opposite
minimized, the cases of abuse and violence will be sex does not happen and the people from both the
reported just the way some other crimes are sexes look at the actions of the ones in opposite
reported rather than showcasing as crime against sex with awe.
women. While the above applies to all the countries That creates intense desire to know about the
in the world, India has institutionalized the behavior persons in the opposite sex. This desire will some
of wo men i n such a manner t hat is acti ng day blow up into a wrong doing due to the
128
Rajesh Banerjee
biological need of the individual. Also due to the such thoughts in men, but it is not practical.
risk of unwanted pregnancy for women and with Hence the most practical solution is to mould
no such fear for a man, the woman becomes more women also in such a manner that when in
vulnerable. groups men also fear them and run. That will
Physical Strength slowly bring the equality of sexes.
It is a proven fact that a man is physically Short Term Solution
powerful than a woman. This is the basic reason 1. Create strict laws to counter the menace
why the abuser is the man most of the times and 2. Equip women with self defense techniques
not the woman. Things might have been probably 3. Promote literacy in women
different if a woman was more powerful physically. 4. Respect single women as well and do not create
The society would have achieved gender equality social pressure on their marriage
long back had the nature created the woman 5. Make the women aware of their rights created
powerful than a man. It is always safe to have the through law and make the social organizations
o ne who shou ld bear t he pregnancy more accessible.
powerful. There is nothing for a man to fear even Conclusion
if he is weak as he does not have the fear of It is high time for a healthy society that women
pregnancy. of our country and everywhere should get a
Peer Influence respectable and dignified position in the society.
Peer influence will make women fear the men Their equal position and equal rights should be
and the same peer influence will give courage and effectively implemented. Awareness in the women
sense of satisfaction in men to chase women and as well as the whole society has to be created with
abuse them. respect to the dignified life which she is entitled as
Solution of right. The machinery of implementation of laws
Long Term Solution should be easily approachable and should not be
1. Proper education curriculum should be created inefficient, corrupt or harmful for the victims.
to ensure peer influence is made even in both It is also essential that the media including
the sexes. news, radio and television should devise some
2. Ensure that the boys and girls mix with each programmes to give information and create
other from very young age so that people take awareness among women and the society about
the opposite sex casually than with awe women’s rights. Moreover, it is for all of us and
3. Kill all the social stereo types women folk facing or fighting violence within
4. Men get all their confidence initially due to homes to unite in demand for a comprehensive law
group behavior and during that phase observe on domestic violence.
that the woman fears and runs. The confidence It may be conclude from an overall discussion
will later allow the men to take on the women all of the Domestic Violence Act,2005, that the range
alone as well. The solution will be ideal to curb and details in which various definitions and forms
129
of relief have been drafted, ultimately show a clear there is a need to bring about the awareness
effort on the part of the legislators to provide amongst the women so that they can speak for
adequate redressal and protectio n. This law themselves and get justice in case their rights are
encompasses women’s experience of violence and violated.
address the issue adequately.
Nothing can be done by legislation; there has
to be awareness in the community. The need is to References:
change the patriarchal nature of society through • Tiwari, R. K. 2011, Women and Human Rights.
the changes in socio-economic conditions Neeraj Publishing House, Delhi.
The growth of employment prospects for • Begum, Syed Mehartaj. 2012, Human Rights in
women, the rising age of marriage, rising educational the New Mil lenniu m. APH Pu bli shi ng
levels for women and the breakup of the extended Corporation, New Delhi.
family could deter the family to such heinous crime. • Patel, Dr. (Ms.) Thrity D. 2009, Crimes against
What needs to come first is a system that changes Wo men and P rot ect ion of Wo men from
relations between people, especial ly wit hin Domestic Violence Act, 2005: A Human Rights
families. It should have therefore been the duty of Approach. Journal of the Institute of Human
the state to create awareness amongst rural people Rights. Vol. XII, No.-I, June, 2009, 32-35.
about the laws of the land and also educate them. • Mohsin, Dr. Urusa. 2010, Legal Victimization of
Indeed, it is the bounden duty of every citizen to Women. Compendium of Articles of the Bar
develop scientific temper, humanism and the spirit Association of India, May, 2010, 20-21.
of inquiry and reform. It should be done preferably • http://www.bbc.com (April 30, 2015 at7.42 p.m.)
at the village level through the medium of language • http://www.ncrb.gov.in (April 30, 2015 at7.45
and culture of the villagers themselves. Moreover, p.m.)
130
Urban Local Government In India: Challenges and Prospects
Dr. Annapurna Nanda
ABSTRACT
Democratization and decentralization are the interdependent processes. Dissemination of power from one centre
helps in empowering the people and can also held the government accountable for exercising political power. In
India, as the democratic institutions started maturing, the tendency towards centralization of power is being
increasingly questioned and the efforts of decentralization and participation of the citizen in the management of
their local area, is being encouraged. Paucity of funds, lack of planning, excessive state control, etc. are some of
the intriguing problems which resulted in inefficient and substandard governance. The newly recognized local self-
government (henceforth, the term ‘local government’ would be used) is still in the transitional phase which is
expected to acquire a new shape in the face of technological facilitation and the democratic change.
Key words- Urbanization, Local self Government, Municipality, Census towns, People’s participation.
Urbanization is a movement from traditional to population in India was 28.6 crore in 2001 and then
modernity. It is a transformation from agrarian to increased to 37.7 crore in 2011.For the first time
industrial society. It leads to a change in lifestyle since independence, the absolute increase in
from informal to a formal life, which signifies the population is more in urban areas than in rural areas
material well being in forms of physical comfort. (increase of 9.1 in urban areas compared to 9.0 in
Urbanization creates a change in the human ru ral area).The rural urban di stribu ti on in
relations from intimate and personal to a highly percentage is 68.84% and 31.16% in 2011 census.
segmental and impersonal relation. It also brings The level of urbanization has increased from
about a change in the use of tools of production- 27.81% in 2001 census to 31.16%in 2011census on
from manual to mechanical. Thus, it stands for a the other hand the proportion of rural population
change in opportunity, in employment and cultural declined from 72.19% to 68. 84%.If the number of
settings. urban units in India, is considered, the number of
Urbanization is an exodus process of transfer towns increased from 5161(2001) to 7935 (2011) in
of the population from rural to the urban areas. It is which the number of statutory tows was3799
a natural consequence of changes in the economic (2001) to 4041(2011) and the number of census
processes as the country develops. The urban towns was1362 (2001) to 3894(2011). Thus, it is
Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, Midnapore College, Paschim Medinipur, West Bengal,India.
131
clear that the tendency of urbanization is growing rural works leads to decrease in the income of
at a very fast rate resulting in building pressure the people;
and providi ng inadequate amenit ies t o t he (d) closed village life creates various difficulties
residents. for certain section of the society: they aspire
This paper aims at describing the process of for security of life and property, greater
urbani zation, it s development in the age of employment opportunities, better amenities of
indu strial izatio n of a count ry, the assi gned comfortable life, more independence and
functions of managing the local governance and freedom, educational ,cultural and medical
probl ems which comes in the path o f i ts facilities etc.-in other words better prospects
functioning. The descriptive analytical approach of life;
of this paper seeks to accommodate the views and (e) militant activity in rural areas also causes an
perceptions of various studies made in the direction exodus of population from rural to urban areas.
of understanding the administration of local urban The pull factors are:
government. Though the governance at the local a) attract ive civic amenities in the form of
and regi onal level are referred t o as local educational institutions, roads, water supply,
government instead of local self government, this electricity facilities, recreation centers etc.;
paper tries to explore whether the Seventy Fourth b) better transport facilities in urban areas;
Constitutional Amendment Act has really fulfilled c) religious centers in India is also urban centric;
the aspirations of ‘local self government’. d) arrangement for the rehabilitation of the
1.1 Causes of urbanization: refugees are done near the urban areas:
As mentioned above the agriculture fosters e) consumerist culture attracts the people towards
village, and the industrialization builds up towns. towns and cities;
Thus the agrarian society transforms itself in an f) career advancement opportunities are mostly
industrialist society. The migration of people from urban centric;
rural to urban areas is the result of two phenomena- g) belonging to an urban area adds personal
push factors and pull factors. Though it seems glamour to ones personality;
that these two phenomena are different but they h) a city postulates an open society where, every
cannot be segregated from one another. person can have its own way without being
The push factors are: interfered by others.
a) as the population increases on agricultural land, 1.2 What is an urban area?
many of them find it difficult to survive on that An urban area is one which is formally so
limited land resource, so they look for some declared through the statutory establishment of
other non agricultural alternative for survival; that area of a municipal body, a notified area or a
b) limited employment opportunities available in cantonment by a definite legislation. Thus there
rural areas; are Municipal Acts in different states under which
c) excessive supply of people to be engaged in mu nicipal bodies are set up by the state
132
Dr. Annapurna Nanda
governments in specific areas. There can be other tax collection for the maintenance of police and
areas also that can be declared as ‘urban’ by the maintaining law and order in the society. The
Census authorities. In order to be considered as purpose was not to create local self-government
an urban unit, as per census definition, a specific bodies. Local government in India has not grown
geographical area must fulfill the following three from below. Even after 1858, Queen’s government
conditions simultaneously; showed no effort for organizing local government
a) a population of at least 5000; with people’s participation or accountability
b) a density of population of at least 400per sq. towards them. Lord Rippon’s Resolution of 1882
km; and conceded for the first time local administration by
c) at least 75% of the working population in that an elected body with local functions.
area engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. The urban government could not strike roots
2. Evolution of urban government in India: even after hundred year of existence as the western
The urban government in India emerged out model was imported from a different society. The
of a centralized system of governance. Ancient freedom fighters also did not involve themselves
India was a land of village republics but cities were in developing civic amenities but utilized local
also founded by rulers. Very little information is government to agitate for national freedom.
available about the cities and their administration 2.2 Though the Constitution of India after
in the Vedic period. During the Gupta period the much debate in the Constituent Assembly included
towns were governed by a centrally appointed Art. 40 in the Directive Principles to leave the
person called ‘Purpal’. The Purpal was assisted by provision of organizing panchayats in rural areas
a non official committee, the town committees were did not give any corresponding duty to the states
a common feat ure of the anci ent Indi an with regard to the creation of urban bodies. The
administration. In mediaeval times, the rulers at the only reference to urban self government is to be
centre could not look after the local affairs. They found in two entries: 1) Entry 5of list 11 of the
needed a local agency that could manage the local seventh schedule, viz., the state list says: ‘Local
affairs with local collection of funds. Local government, that is to say, the constitution and
administratio n was carried on by t he powers of Municipal Corporations, Improvement
representatives of the rulers. People were not trust s, Distri ct Boards, mining settl ement
associated with the management. ‘Kotwal’ in the authorities and other local authorities for the
Mughal administration managed local affairs purpose of local self government or village
without the accountability towards the people administration’. Entry 20 of the concurrent list
(Altekar 1949). reads: ‘Economic and Social Planning, Urban
The centralized administration took the turn Planning would fall within the ambit of both entry
during colonial administration at the hand of the 5 of the State List and Entry 20 of the Concurrent
East India Company whose interest was trade and list’. After independence, incomprehensive and
commerce, sanitary services for the British people, inadequate municipal laws, substandard personnel,
133
poor finance and stringent local control suppressed not apply to the Schedule Areas and Tribal Areas
the growth of the urban government. ‘The state go verned by Arti cle 24 4(1 ) and (2 ) o f t he
government followed an ambivalent policy towards Constitution.
municipal rule, while ceding powers on papers, The t raditi onal civi c functio ns of
actually put checks and restraints from exercising municipalities are being performed by municipal
power by the local bodies (Bhattacharya 1976).The bo dies. However, the 7 4 t h Constit ut ional
year 1985 proved to be a land mark year as, during Amendment lays down that municipalities would
that year, the Ministry of Urban Development was go beyond the mere provisions of civic amenities.
set up at the Union level independently. Earlier it Now, they are expected to play a crucial role in the
was shifted from one ministry to another .Despite formulation of plans for local development and
the fast pace of urbanization, there is no well- implementation of development projects and
defined and thorough urbanization policy in India. programs, including those specially designed for
The Constitution 65th Amendment Bill brought by urban poverty alleviation.
the then Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi, sought to 3. Role of urban local government:
ensure muni cipal bo dies bei ng vested wi th The urban local government primarily acts as
necessary powers and removing their financial a service agency. It has been aptly elaborated by
constraints to enable them to function effectively the Encyclopedia of the social sciences where it
as units of local self-government. Though it was read “Municipal Government has risen to a place
passed in Lok Sabha, the bill defeated in the Rajya of high importance in modern political society not
Sabha in October 1989. only because urban dwellers now form so large an
In 1991, the Central government introduced a element in t he population but becau se city
Constitutional Amendment Bill pertaining to administration has developed by its complexity into
municipalities in the Lok Sabha on 16 September. a problem of great inherent difficulty. The rural
With a few modifications, it was essentially based district requires very little government; its people
on the 65th Amendment Bill. The Act introduces a are habituated to do things for themselves. But
new part, namely, Part IXA, in the Constitution. when great bodies of people massed closely
This part deals with issues relating to municipalities to get her t hey i nevitabl y beco me mo re
su ch as their st ructu re and co mpo si tio n, interdependent. To promote their safety, health and
reservat ion of seats, electi ons po wers and co nveni ence t hey gradual ly devol ve mo re
functions, finances, and some miscellaneous responsibility upon the public authorities and
provisions. The Seventy Fourth Amendment Act larger the community the greater is this tendency’
thus accords constitutional status to municipalities. (ESS 1953).
The provisions of the Act apply to the states as Describing the place of local bodies in the
well as the Union territories. However, in relation government structure in India, the Rural-Urban
to the latter, the President can make certain Relationship Committee, 1966 observed that the
reservations and modifications. The provisions do local bodies are important units to help achieve
134
Dr. Annapurna Nanda
the decentrali zatio n of polit ical power and distinguished between two contrasting visions:
promotion of democratic values. This committee growth –centered development vision and people
envisaged the following functions for the urban centered vision. The former vision has its origin in
government: the ideology of neo liberal economics – that has
a) to function as local units of self government; forcefully advanced through institutions such as
b) to provide lo cal publ ic servi ces and the World Bank, the IMF and the GATT. In
conveniences for healthy living, work and play; Kurten’s view, “the prevailing growth centered
c) to ensure planned and regulated development vision of development has not only failed a
of urban areas; substantial majority of the world’s people, but is
d) to mobilize local resources and utilize them to also systematically depriving human misery and
the maximum good of the community; and destroying our planet’s life support system”.
e) to promote social, economic and cultural Contrastingly, the people centered vision is being
development in an integrated manner advanced by citizen organizations working to create
(MHFP,1966). an alternative world order based on economic
According to M.A .Muttalib and Mohd.Akbar justice, environmental sustainability and political
AliKhan, the local government is expected to inclusiveness.
perform fourfold development functions. They are: 5.1 Concept of Local Government:
a) promotion of popular participation, Local government and local self-government
b) spurring of economic development, are used interchangeably. In fact, the term ‘local
c) social transformation, and self-government’ is a product of colonial rule which
d) equit able distribu tio n o f the frui ts of has become inappropriate after achievement of
development(Muttalib et al. 1982). independence and establishment of more or less
4. People’s Participation and Development: autonomous government by local inhabitants
Participation occupies central place in through their elected representatives. Local self
development thinking and practice. Development government is the government at sub regional level.
cannot be sustainable and long lasting unless This government looks after the ‘local’ functions
people’s participation is made central to the like water supply, local street, local market, sanitary
development process. While there is a virtual facilities etc. Though these functions are at the
unanimity about the need for people’s participation small scale but they are important functions for
in development, there is a wide spectrum of views the governance of the local area.
on the concept of participation and the ways of The adjective ‘local ’ stands for a small
achieving it. geographical area. It also means intimate social
The conventional growth oriented, top down relations of the people in a limited geographical
strategy of development did not produce the space. The other word ‘government’ stands for a
desired trickledown effect. David Korten, who has public authority. In a liberal democratic system, a
worked widely among the poverty population, has government may be arranged territorially, where at
135
the central level there can be a national level local bodies has added newer tensions which put
government, at the middle level there can be a state the state and di strict administrat ions u nder
or regional level government and at the sub regional conflicting pressures from above as well as from
level there are many local governmental units which below .Al tho ugh the lo cal urban and rural
exercises authority and discharge a number of go vernment were in pract ice, before t he
important local functions on the basis of statutory Amendment to the Constitution moved in 1992,
decentralization. So it is considered as a means of but they were largely controlled and dependent
enriching and deepening democracy by extending on the central and state governments. Thus the
freedom of action to the local government. As newly conferred constitutional status has not only
‘Government’ lo cal go vernment has three enhanced their dignity and responsibility but also
important features; strengthened the aspiration and expectation as of
 It is elected by the people of the local area; the common people from ‘their’ government.
 It has the power to levy taxes and other fees, The Nagarpalika Bill’ passed by Parliament
like any other government; and in December, 1992, aimed at rectifying the defects,
 Its functions and activities are clearly laid down deficiencies and inadequacies in the structure and
in law so that within the scheme of legislation, organization of urban local bodies and to revitalize
local government enjoys a degree of autonomy. and strengthen them. The main points are:
5.2 Constitutional Amendment and Local Urban i) setting up of three types of nagarpalikas- the
Government: Naga rpanchayats for t ransitional areas,
The innovative idea of adding a third tier to Mu nicipa l Coun cil s and Mu ni ci pa l
the Indi an federal set up was somethi ng Corporation for urban areas. The Nagar
unprecedented in the world history. It is all the Panchayats will be constituted for such an area
mo re significant as it has added an ext ra which is basically rural in character but which
decentralized dimension of governance to a highly over a time, is li kel y t o develo p urban
centralized polity. The introduction of panchayati characteristics. Hence, this urban local body
raj system and urban local bodies along with the would have to perform both rural and urban
district administration headed by the collector is functions;
an unique experiment wherein the administrative ii) Creation of ward co mmitt ees and zo nal
bureaucracy and the popular democracy of elected committees to enable the local bodies to prove
representatives are working out a new model of to be the training ground for democratic
democratic governance, somewhat uniform yet institutions in the country and to provide for
highly diversified in different states of the country the citizens ready access to their elected
.Unlike the USA and Germany ,the federal model of representatives;
Indian polity is engaged in evolving a cooperative iii) giving power to t he people and placing
federalism of centralized variety. The conferring of responsibility on them at various levels so that
a constitutional status to panchayati raj and urban a new leadership emerges;
136
Dr. Annapurna Nanda
iv) empowering Election Commission to conduct running into crores of rupees. As a result, many
local bodies’ elections so that these may be urban bodies are on the brink of bankruptcy.
held periodically in a fair and impartial way; Financial stringency has become the biggest
v) reserving thirty three percent of the seats for hurdle for almost all municipal bodies on
women. The scheduled caste and scheduled account of ever increasing expenditure on
tri bes have been given representation in establishment which has gone up to about 60
proportion to their population in the area percent of the income. Virtually no Money is
concerned; available for development work. Municipal
vi) appointing Finance Commission to look into committees of many small towns find it difficult
the fiscal needs of the local bodies and even to disburse salaries to their employees in
empowering the Comptroller and Auditor time. Many civic bodies have not been able to
General to audit the accounts and provide even the basic civic amenities in the
vii) granting the Constitutional status to the urban areas which have been inclu ded in their
local bodies by amending Article 40 of the jurisdiction during the last couple of decades
Constitution. (Sachdeva 1993).
6. Problem Areas of Municipal Administration in Though the State Finance Commission
India: has been set up by the Seventy F ourth
1) Financial paucity- The first and foremost Amendment (243Y), the urban local government
serious problem facing the urban local bodies heavily depends on the state governments for
is the acute scarcity of finance. Generally, their getting grants-in-aid out of the consolidated
source of income is inadequate as compared to fund. The Constitution says that the state
their functions .Their chief sources of income legislature may authorize the urban government
are the varied types of taxes. However, most of to: (a) levy, collect and appropriate tax and, (b)
the income generating taxes is levied by the assign to urban bodies taxes collected by state
union and state governments and, the taxes government. This shows that the financial
collected by the urban bodies are not sufficient control of the state over the urban local bodies
to cover the expenses of the services provided. negate the idea of a local self government in
Though they can impose certain new taxes, the the urban governments in India.
elected members of these local bodies hesitate 2) Unplanned urbanization -Urbanization is on the
in doi ng so for fear of di spleasing their ascendance. The municipal services have failed
electorate. The administrative machinery, at the to cope with the increasing needs of the
disposal of these local bodies is insufficient po pul ati on, bo th qualit ati vel y and
and ineffective. The staff which is often quantitatively. The situation is worsening
underpaid indulges in corrupt practices which because the rural influx in town and cities has
lead to loss of income. Quite often, failure in increasingly converted them in ghettos. The
collecting taxes leads to accumulation of arrears metro cities are bulging and their administration
137
pertaining t o ci vil ameni ties like wat er, department of local government of every state
sanitation, upkeep of roads, transport, housing have not taken much initiative for devolution
etc., is getting unmanageable with the result of powers or relaxation of control in this regard.
that crime syndicates and vice dens have made This st ate co ntrol which is legislative,
life unsafe and horrifying. Most of these administrative, judicial and financial keeps urban
problems emanate from ill planning but the municipal government quiet subservient units
dynamism of city management itself presents of local administration rather than functioning
unprecedented problem of urban development as institution of self-governance. As creatures
and urban renewal in the context of space, of state laws, the statutes and notifications
ecolo gy, u rbanizati on and science and prescribe their composition and functioning.
technology (Sharma et al. 2009). In absence of The state governments have the power to
proper planning, judicious use of land is not supersede and dissolve municipal bodies under
being made, colonies are setup without proper certain circumstances. The judiciary under the
facilities such as schools, parks and hospitals, Indian Constitution is the guardian of citizen’s
the growth of slums is not checked, there is a rights and various kinds of writs can be issued
shortage of houses, t raffic congestion is to keep the local administration within their
rampant and hardly any effective steps are bo unds. The st ate go vernments appro ve
taken to check u rban povert y and municipal budget (except that of corporation).
unemployment. The growth of unplanned sub– Even the modified local tax structure needs
urban colonies around the city is breeding life go vernment ’s pri or appro val and lat er
patterns which are neither rural nor urban. The ratification. The loans, borrowings and grants-
rich and affluent sections have moved to the in-aid even when monitored and regulated by
suburban with their establishments at the down state finance commission, the procedures
town. The core city is dying and in want of regarding resource mobilization and public
urban renewal the exodus from rural areas has expenditure confer little autonomy on the
rendered the old city into a mass slum without elected bodies. The accounting and audit
amenities. The growth of population and syst em gives enormou s powers to t he
industries present s an unprecedent ed government to exercise control through rules
challenge of ecol ogical degradation and and regulations for audit and maintenance of
pollution of water, air and land. accounts apart from regulation of income and
3) Excessive State Control- Although the Act expenditure.
ensures more autonomy than the pre- 1992 4) Low Effectiveness- In view of inadequate
situation, but the actual relationship-control finances, the local bodies has not been able to
over urban local bodies has not changed fulfill their obligatory functions. As a result,
substantively except in case of corporations. they suffer a constant outcry from the public
The state director of local bodies and the as well as go vernment . The most basic
138
Dr. Annapurna Nanda
necessi ty-water is no t supplied properly, has to approach these organizations (Arora et

drainage facilities do not cover the entire city, al. 1995). Multiplicity of agencies engaged in
unplanned colonies and slums develop fast, urban administ ration invariably leads to
menace of stray cattle on the roads continues, problem of coordination.
traffic is hazardous, roads are not properly 6) Substandard Personnel-Urban government
maintained and unsafe buildings are allowed increasingly needs professional services of
to continue to exist despite the obvious threat experts. The municipal employees and officials
to the inmates and the inhabitants of the area. are an immensely disgruntled lot, undisciplined
In short, poor sanitation, poor hygiene and and untrained to serve the people. Various
shortage of basic necessities make cities types of personnel systems exist in different
unsafe. states. Not to say of different states, even in
5) Multiplicity of Agencies- A lot of criticism has single state, there is a coexistence of a variety
been specially leveled against the formation of of personnel systems, each segment being
single purpose agencies. They are all dominated accountable to different control points within
by bureaucrats, which goes against the basic and outside the organization. At the lower level,
philosophy of local government. The people’s one finds, generally a separate personnel
representatives have a secondary role to play. system but, at the higher level , there are
The i llu st rat ions are- st ate t ranspo rt ‘deputationi sts’ , integrated and unified
corporation, state electricity board, water personnel systems as well as a separate system
supply department etc. have been taken out of of staff of various gradations appointed by
the jurisdiction of the urban local government authorities at different levels. As Abhijit Datta
and they function under the direct supervision co mments: This makes the muni cipal
of the state government and without any organization look like an onion in terms of
accountability towards urban local government. personnel system, each segment rotating in its
The functions that have been assigned to them own path , without enmeshing for a common
belong really to the elected urban bodies. They purpose or motivation (Datta 1984).Ashok
lower the prestige and significance of the local Mukhopadhyay observes: In fact the basic
bo dies. The munici pal bodi es have to issue is not the type of personnel system but
contribute to the budget to these agencies while its quality. For too long, the municipal services
having no control over them. Their functions have been treated as ‘inferior’ service and
are often overlapping. For instance, in some hence, have not attracted ‘superior’ talent.
states, the function of water supply has been Therefore the need is to improve pay scales,
entrusted to the improvement trusts as well as allowances, leave conditions, terminal benefits,
municipal bodies. This system of dual control carrier prospects, scope for self improvement
has diluted the responsibility of each. The and incentives of these personnel in such a
ordinary citizens also get confused, when he manner that compet ent and mo tivat ed
139
personnel enter and stay in the municipality governments are indispensable for managing the
services. One of the devises of effecting these local affairs. Since the beginning of its evolution
improvements is an innovative system of cadre local governments in India cater the needs of the
classification that can rationalize the pay grades central government. In this sense, since the Gupta
and privileges of the municipal personnel in rule till today the local governments are being
terms of their duties and responsibilities treated as the local unit of administration only.
(Mukhopadhyay 1985). ‘Government’ is a political term which in a
7) Low level of People’s Participation- It is very democratic poli tical system needs peopl e’s
ironical to find that, despite a relatively higher parti cipat ion in go vernance. The local
level of literacy and educational standard, city- governments are expected to implement the policies
dwellers do not take adequate interest in the formulated by the central government. In this sense
functioning of the urban government bodies. the local governments can be treat ed as an
The popu latio n of the cities consists of extended hand of the central government. The
heterogeneous groups and they are alienated questions of independence or autonomy are
from one another. Most of the city dwellers were considered irrelevant for the local government. This
once rural and, even now, it looks at the city situation persists even today as the List 2 (state
merely as a place to earn livelihood, and has li st of the seventh schedule of the Indi an
little attachment with it. People’s apathy towards constitution) mentions local government in the
participating in the governance system pushes Entry no.5 in the Constitution. It shows the
such institutions into a state of complacency intension of the Constitution, where the local
and irresponsibility. In India, people experience government are supposed to function exclusively
a lot of disappointment and inconvenience in under the supervision and direction of state
obtaining the civic amenities. As it is, most of government (Goyal et al. 2002).
them are so used to facing water, electricity and Local self government can be interpreted in
sanitation problems, that they feel that it is futile two senses- first, local self government requires
to look up to the urban bodies for any solution. direct popular participation, and second, it may be
Add to that, the multiplicity of special purpose interpreted as an autonomous unit of government
agencies and other urban bodies confuses the functioning as the third tier government in a federal
public about their role boundaries. state.
Local self government in the second sense
7. The de bate on the Autonomy of loc al with a full status of autonomy does not exist so far
government: anywhere in the world. Generally it is the local
Theoretically we can make a distinction government running with people’s participation is
between ‘lo cal government’ and ‘local self regarded as the local self government. The
government’. The centralized political system relationship between the local government and the
co vering a large geographical area, local state government is based on two antithetical
140
Dr. Annapurna Nanda
ideas, first it is paternalistic idea, where the state of the state government over the urban local
would control, supervise guide and even punish governments has not been relaxed. The urban local
occasionally for the good of the urban local government thus still functions under the strict
government. In this sense the local government is supervision and control of the state government.
transformed into a local unit of administration. 8. The road ahead
Local self government, on the other hand, is A big challenge before the State government
based on a populist idea where local government is the management of the ‘census towns’ named
functions on democratic principles, run by the as ‘unacknowledged urbanization’ or ‘denied
popular representatives. There would be no state urbanization’. These terms were used to mean the
int erference in the affai rs o f the local self territories which have been declared as ‘urban’ by
go vernment . Such an i sol at ed local self the Census of India but have not been declared as
government is an illusion and does not exist ‘stat uto ry urban’ by t he State go vernment
anywhere in the world. not ification. In the present day glo balizing
Without amending Entry no.5 of the state list, economy, development activities in India such as
the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act 1992, does mining, industries, real estate and construction are
not appear to have modified the status of the urban mostly taking place either under private capital or
local government. The Constitution mentions in under public- private partnership. These activities
Art 243W- a) the Municipalities with such power prefer to be developed in the peripheral locations
and authority as may be necessary to enable them away from exist ing u rban– indust ri al
to function as institution of self government and agglomerations. Therefore, these are taking place
such law may contain provision for the devolution either in special economic zone (SEZ) where there
of powers and responsibilities upon municipalities are generous subsidies from the government or in
with respect to : locations beyond the urban limit such as suburbs
i. The preparati on of pl ans fo r eco nomic of big cities and ‘non recognized’ (census towns)
development and social justice; urban territories. The preference for non recognized
ii. The performance of fu nctio ns and t he urban territories comes from the lack of control
implementation of schemes as may be entrusted and policing measures under poorly equipped rural
to them in the 12th schedule. local level governments. Because of this lack of
The Constit uti on thu s empo wers t he efficient regulating modules under the existing
Municipalities to function as institution of self governance structure, these non recognized urban
government in respect to preparation of plans for territories are becoming areas of anarchism. The
economic development and performance of places which are experiencing increasing industrial
functions which are eighteen in numbers mentioned activities are being characterized by high level of
in the twelfth schedule of the Constitution. These pollution and consequent degradation of local
two areas of auto nomous functi ons of the economy and environment. The land acquisition
municipalities are subjected to the legislative control and displacement issues are much easier to handle.
141
The absence of proper mechanism of governance Association (MTAs) of Delhi. The RWAs and
is leading to bizarre state of land transformation in MTAs had started taking up collective payments
these new urban areas. In the process of keeping of water bi ll s, observing water l eakages,
urban as rural, the local citizens suffer from distributing water through tankers, taking steps
numerous problems starting from pollution, and for rain water harvesting, replacing old and leaking
land speculation to utter negligence of basic pipelines, planting trees, ensuring colony’s security
services and infrastructures such as roads, water, and running anti plastic and antilittering campaign
sanitation, health and education. However, there in their respecti ve areas(Kataria2 008 ). In
are sections of people who benefit from this system Maharashtra Advanced locality Management
of keeping places beyond the efficient urban (ALM) movement has spread all over the Mumbai
governance mechanism (Samanta 2013). (now numbering more than 1000 registered
Apart from the problems of the census towns, societies) were actively engaged in segregation of
people experience a lot of disappointment and garbage and vermiculture activities across the city
inconvenience in obtaining civic amenities even (Vijaya 2007). Shipra path Police Station and a few
in the statutory urban units. There is an emergence sector wise resident welfare associations in Jaipur
of organized cit izen’s group, t ho ugh at a city are maintaining law and order in their locality
preliminary stage, in some urban areas. The and motivating the society for managing its own
concept of ‘subsidiarity’ as found in some of the security problems. The Ku dumbsri o r
Western countries (USA and Europe), has been neighborhood groups are working effectively as
introduced in a limited way. Subsidiarity means the PIA- Programme Implementing Agency in Kerala
investment of authority at the lowest possible level and other parts of southern India.
of an institutional hierarchy. In fact, subsidiarity is The Seco nd Admini st rat ive Reforms
one of the features of federalism, which implies Commission headed by Veerappa Moily has
that a central authority should have a subsidiary advocated for the popu lar expansi on of
function, performing only those tasks which subsidiarity, in its sixth report on ‘An inspiring
canno t be performed effectively at a mo re journey into the future’. The commission is of the
immediate or local level. Although the concept of considered view that a local government reforms
subsidiarity has not been institutionalized as such package must be inspired by the principle of
in India but various efforts and innovations reveal susidiarity in which democracy will acquire content
its existence and utility throughout the country. and meaning beyond structures and institutions.
Bhagidari the most popular movement of Delhi The commission has proposed three tiers of urban
State Government was initiated in December, 1998 local bodies. These are-
with a philosophy of responsive and participative Municipal Councils\Corporation
governance. Under Bhagidari program a major role Ward Committees
was performed by NGO’s Resi dent Wel fare Area Committees or Sabhas
Associations (RWAs) and Market and Traders To ensure people’s participation in their
142
Dr. Annapurna Nanda
governance one Ward Sabha in each ward or and t echno logical faci li tat ion have st art ed
corporate’s constituency is proposed by the knocking at the doors of the administrative system
commission. The role of Ward Sabha is equivalent at all levels in India. The cities, towns and metros
to that of the Gram Sabha of villages. The basic will experience the travails of technological and
functions or responsibilities i.e. control over street information revolution. The twenty first century is
li ghti ng, sani tati on water supply, drainage, viewed as the century of Asia wherein Japan, China
maintenance of school buildings, hospital, roads, and Indi a will be part ners i n a ventu re of
local markets, parks and playgrounds are proposed unprecedented consequences. A more awakened
to be transferred to these Ward Sabhas. Thus, the and a more affluent people will reproduce at a lower
concept of subsidiarity may be visualized and rate and once the rural population touches the
operationalised. The commission is also of the minimum level of semi urbanization the rural urban
opinion that the concept of neighborhood groups divide may get blurred. The management pattern
looking after their own affairs within a limited of local governance will cease to be rural and urban
mandate needs to be explored (ARC 2007). The anymore. The diarchy at the state level to self
model Nagar Raj Bill drafted by Ministry of Urban government may acquire varied forms and even
Development, Government of India also envisages setbacks that once the take off comes and the speed
the establishment of Area Sabha to institutionalise becomes a little faster the transitional diarchy will
citizen’s participation in municipal functions, i.e. yield place to parliamentary institutions and their
setting priorities and budgeting provisions etc. working will be more than welcome at the lower
The debate of the prevalence of local self levels of district and below. This may bring a
government or the local government cannot be situation when urban centre of local government
settled in a simplistic term. The Seventy Fourth may need manager patter of government. The
Constitution Amendment Act has given way to speed of change in India is so fast that the past is
the decentralization of power but it is seen from no indicator of the future.
the above discussion that the challenges before
the participatory governance is not only limited to
the struct ural i nadequacy and funct ional
inefficiency but the developments in the form of References:
growing numbers of census towns, which are • Altekar, A. S., 1949, State and Government in
demanding the extension of local government Ancient India, Motilal Banarasidass, Banaras.
services to these areas and the growth of the • Bhattacharya, Mohit ,1946, Management of
‘subsidiarity practice’ which are organized mainly Urban Local Government in India, Uppal Book
by the NGOs as self servicing agencies are the Store, New Delhi.
areas beyond the jurisdiction of the functioning of • En cyclop edi a o f S ocial Scien ces,195 3,
the local governments. Mu ni cipal Go vernment .The Macmi ll an
The twin revolutions of democratic change Company, New York.
143
• Ministry of Health and Family Planning, Personnel System, IIPA, New Delhi.
Government of India, June 1966, Report of the • Goyal,S.L., and Dhaliwal, S.S., 2002, Urban
Rural Urban Relationship,Vol. I, Chapter II. Development and Management. Deep and
• Muttalib, M.A., and Ali, Mohd. Akbar, 1982, Deep Publicationl, Kolkata.
Th eory o f L oca l Govern men t, St erli ng • Samanta, Gopa, May 2013, In Between Rural
Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. and Urban; Challenges of Non- Recognized
• Sachdeva, P ardeep, 19 93, Urban Local Urban Territories, unpublished seminar paper.
government and Administration in India, Kitab • Kataria, S.K., Oct-Dec, 2008, Subsidiarity and
Mahal, Allahabad. Urban Local Government, The Indian Journal
• Sharma, P.D., Sharma, B.M., 2009, Indian of Public Administration.
Administration Retrospect and Prospect, • Vijaya,Srinivasan, 2007, Citizen’s Participation
Rawat Publications, Jaipur, p-333. in Local Governance in Institutionalisation
• Ibid., p-330. of Citizens Participation in Civic Governance,
• Arora, Ramesh K., Goyal, Rajni, 1995, Indian Mumbai, Regional Centre for urban and
Public Administration, Wishwa Prakashan, Environmental studies, All India Institute of
New Delhi, p-282. Local Self government.
• Datta,Abhijit,1984, Municipal Finances in • Government of India, 2007, Sixth Report on
India. IIPA, New Delhi. Local Self Governance, Second Administrative
• Mukhopadhyay, Ashok, 1985, Municipal Reforms commission.
144
Liminality in Post-Colonial Theory: A Journey from Arnold van
Gennep to Homi K. Bhabha
Arup Ratan Chakraborty
ABSTRACT
The term ‘liminality’ comes from the Latin limen meaning ‘threshold’. Liminal space is the in-between location of
cultural action, in which according to various cultural theorists, anthropologists and psychologists meaning is
produced. The idea was introduced to the field of anthropology in 1909 by Arnold Van Gennep in Les Rites de
Passage (The Rites of Passage). Van Gennep describes rites of passage as a three-part structure: separation,
transition (liminal period) and incorporation. The terms ‘liminal’ and ‘liminality’ gained popularity through the
writings of Victor Turner in the second half of the twentieth century. This paper analyses the theorization of
liminality by Arnold Van Gennep, Victor Turner and Homi K. Bhabha. Bhabha in particular has stressed the
importance of border locations as the threshold environment. In Location of Culture (1994), he refers to liminality
as a transitory, in-between state or space, which is characterized by indeterminacy, ambiguity, hybridity, potential
for subversion and change. The term ‘liminality’ has particular importance in post-colonial theory, since it
identifies the interstitial environment in which cultural transformation can take place and new discursive forms are
constituted.
Key words: liminality, Gennep, Turner, Bhabha, hybridity, post-colonial
The word ‘liminality’ or ‘liminal’1 is derived from line or border at which a passage can be made from
the Latin limen meaning ‘threshold’. Liminal space one space to another. Such a spatial structure has
is the ‘in-between’ location of cultural action, in an essential influence on social interactions:
which according to various cultural theorists, relationships and social status are negotiated at
anthropologists and psychologists meaning is the threshold; one is either rejected from or
produced. The literal meaning of ‘threshold’ hardly welcomed to the other side. The term ‘threshold’
needs any specification: it is the sill of a doorway, evokes images of entering and leaving, passages,
which has to be crossed when entering a house. It crossings and change. It marks the point at which
indicates the point at which the public outside choices and decisions must be made in order to
world ends and the private, familial inside world move on, and it would be unusual to think of it as
begins. In more general terms it marks the place, a place to stay, a place of permanent existence.
Assistant Professor, Department of English, Santal Bidroha Sardha Satabarshiki Mahavidyalaya, Goaltore, Paschim
Medinipur
145
There are, however, situations in the lives of people “This i nterst iti al passage bet ween fixed
in which transitions from an old situation to a new identifications opens up the possibilities of a
one, one social position to another, are hampered cultural hybridity that entertains difference without
or cannot be completed successfully. Individuals an assumed or imposed hierarchy” (Bhabha, The
who are caught in bet ween two st ages of Location of Culture, 4). Bhabha’s theory focuses
development, who do not hold clearly defined on the signifying practices rather than actual in-
positions within their social system, feel marginal, between spaces; however, liminal discourses can
excluded, without identity or influence. relate to “a range of physical sites including several
Liminality has specific importance in post- which have had particular importance in the post-
colonial theory as it identifies the interstitial colonial experience” (Thieme 144). These include
environment in which cultural transformation takes geo graphical borders, market places, ocean
place. In literary, post-colonial, and cultural studies crossing, seashores and various other kinds of
the concept has been successfully adopted to thresholds. In surrealist thinking, the “liminal has
circumscribe a being on the border, or on the been seen as the threshold stage between waking
threshold, dividing distinct spheres, identities or and dream, or the conscious and subliminal state
discourses. Homi K. Bhabha, in particular, has of awareness” (ibid. 144). In psychology, the term
“stressed the importance of BORDER locations as indicates the “threshold between the sensate and
the threshold environment, where subjectivity the subliminal, the limit below which a certain
finds itself poised between sameness and ‘alterity’ sensation ceases to be perceptible. The sense of
and new discursive forms are constituted” (Thieme the liminal as an interstitial or in-between space, a
144). Ashcroft et al. provide a useful discussion of threshold area distinguishes the term from the more
liminality in Key Concepts in Post-Colonial definite word ‘limit’ to which it is related” (Ashcroft
Studies: et al. 130). I shall attempt in this paper to outline
The importance of the liminal for post- the concept of liminality in post-colonial context. I
colonial theory is precisely its usefulness shall trace the origin of the concept of liminality
for describing an ‘in-between’ space in and its theorization in the twentieth century.
which cultural change may occur: the The Oxford English Dictionary notes that the
transcultural space in which strategies for word ‘liminal’ first appeared in publication in the
personal or communal self-hood may be field of psychology in 1884, but the idea was
elaborated, a region in which there is a introduced to the field of anthropology in 1909 by
co nti nual process o f movement and Arnold van Gennep in his seminal work, Les Rites
interchange between different states. (130) de Passage.2 The expression ‘rites of passage’ was
Homi K. Bhabha refers to liminality as a developed by Van Gennep. Van Gennep described
transitory, in-between state or space, which is rites of passage such as coming-of-age rituals and
characterized by indet erminacy, ambiguit y, marriage as having the following three-part
hybridity, potential for subversion and change: struct ure: rites of separat ion (sépara tion),
146
transition rites (marge) and rites of incorporation illustrate his point he refers to those early times in
(aggrégation) (Gennep 11). The initiate (i.e., the human history when countries did not border
person undergoing the ritual) is first stripped off directly on each other but were divided by a neutral
the social status that he or she possessed before zone. In this zone, travellers found themselves in a
the ritual, inducted into the liminal period of special situation as neither laws of the adjoining
transition, and finally given his or her new status countries applied – they “wavered between two
and reincorporated into society. It was not until worlds”, as it were (Gennep 18). Like this territorial
the second half of the twentieth century, though, passage, non-territorial transitions also consist of
that the terms ‘liminal’ and ‘liminality’ gained a moment or period of uncertainty, a liminal
popularity through the writings of Victor Turner3. period. Such a period is accompanied by, or equal
Turner borrowed and expanded upon Van Gennep’s to, a life-crisis. ‘Crisis’ in this context is an
concept of liminality, ensuring widespread usage interesting choice of vocabulary and could easily
of the concept not only in anthropology but other be misinterpreted. Van Gennep does not refer to
fields as well. the term in a strictly psychological sense. He uses
Van Gennep considered rites of initiation to it to indicate the unstable social or magico-religious
be the most typical ri te. To gain a bett er position of the person who undergoes a change:
understanding of “tripartite structure” of liminal during the transition the state of that person
situations, one can look at a specific rite of remains uncertain as he or she has been separated
initiation: the initiation of “youngsters into from a clearly defined state in the past and has not
adulthood,” which Turner considered the most been incorporated yet into a clearly defined future
typical rite (Turner, The Ritual Process 155). In state.
such rites of passage, the experience is highly Van Gennep’s theories were further elaborated
structured. The first phase (the rites of separation) by the anthropologist Victor Turner. Turner made
requires the child to go through a separation from a lasting contribution to the study of ritual
his family; this involves his/her ‘death’ as a child, symbols. With reference to Van Gennep’s concept
as childhood is effectively left behind. In the of rites of passage, Turner made a significant
second stage, initiate, between childhood and theoreti cal study o f t he fu nct ion of ritu al
adulthood, must pass a ‘test’ to prove that he is transitional phase and its similarity to other cultural
ready for adulthood. If he succeeds, the third stage dramas of change in individual and social life. In
(incorporation) involves a celebration of the ‘new his books The Ritual Process (1969) and Dramas,
birth’ of the adult and a welcoming of that being Fields and Metaphors (1974), Turner developed
back into society. the idea that human social life is characterized by
Van Gennep shows a special interest in the the existence of an alternation between structured
transitional phase: it is the period in which a person social roles and the blurring of social roles (i.e.,
is in-between the former and the future social anti-structure) which occurs in the ritual context.
position or magico-religious state4. In order to He finds anti-structure an essential feature of
147
hu man exist ence because i t i s t hrough t he (Young, Colonial Desire 8). Furthermore, hybridity
operation of anti-structure that human beings gain was a key term in managing and explaining the
an understanding of their humanity and spirituality. ambivalent colonial attraction to and repulsion from
Structure and anti-structure are linked dialectically, racial Others. “Theories of race were thus also
the former providing continuity and the latter covert theories of desire” (ibid), and Young
affirming the significance of discontinuity. identifies “the [sado-masochistic] violence of
Homi K. Bhabha has reconceived concepts of colonial desire” (Young, Colonial Desire 108).
cultural hybridity and social liminality in his work, Robert Young refers to the term hybrid as a cross
The Location of Culture (1994). However, there is between two di fferent species. A hybrid is
also a counter point found while discussing the technically a cross between two different species
term ‘hybridity’ in colonial discourse. Hybridity and that therefore the term hybridization evokes
sometimes, is associated with a sense of abuse for the botanical notion of inter-species grafting and
those who are the products of mixed breeds. Young cautions us to remember that when we
However, since the concept of hybridity occupies invoke the concept of cultural hybridity “we are
a central place in the postcolonial discourses, it is utilizing the vocabulary of the Victorian extreme
no more a term of abuse but it is celebrated and right as much as the notion of an organic process
privileged as a kind of superior cultural intelligence of the grafting of diversity into singularity” (Young,
owing to the advantage of in-betweenness , the Colonial Desire 10). Young has remarked on the
straddling of two cultures and the consequent negativity sometimes associated with the term
ability to negotiate the difference. hybridity. He notes how it was influential in imperial
Robert J. C. Young’s Co loni al Desire: and colonial discourse in giving damaging reports
Hybridity in Theory, Culture, and Race (1995) on the union of different races. Young would argue
pro vides a thorough genealogy of the t erm that at the turn of the century, ‘hybridity’ had
hybridity, tracing its elaboration in various Victorian become part of a colonialist discourse of racism.
discourses of race and miscegenation, including In Jean Rhys Wide Sargasso Sea, to be a Creole or
Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau’s The In- a ‘hybrid’ was essentially negative. They were
equality of Human Races, Matthew Arnold’s reported as lazy and the dangers of such hybrids
Culture and Anarchy, Bryan Edwards’s History, inevitably reverting to their ‘primitive’ traditions
Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies in are highlighted throughout the novel. In reading
the West Indies and S. G. Morto n’s Cra nia Young alongside Rhys, it becomes easy to see the
Aegyptica. The question of the fertility of racial negative connotations that the term once had.
hybrids was crucial to Victorian theories of For Bhabha, hybridity is the process adopted
polygenism and monogenism: “The claim that by the colonial governing authority to translate
humans were one or several species (and thus equal the identity of the colonized (the other) within a
or unequal, same or different) stood or fell over the singular framework; however such exercise is futile
question of hybridity, that is intra-racial fertility” as it fails to produce something either familiar or
148
new. This new hybrid identity emerges from the the other. According to him, Hybridization is an
interweaving of elements of the colonizer and the ongoing process; it, therefore, cannot be ‘still’.
colonized, and challenges the authenticity of any The happenings on the borderline cultures and in-
essentialist cultural identity. Furthermore, Bhabha between cultures have been prime concerns for
introduces us to the ‘third space’ along with the him. For him the Location of Culture is special and
concept of hybridity. This ‘third space’, according sequential and the terms ‘hybridity’ and ‘liminity’
to him, emerges out of a tension between two refer to space as well as time.
cultures. In his essay “Cultures In-Between”, he Homi Bhabha‘s term, ‘hybridity’ in colonial
talks about the ‘partial culture’ which he describes text, answers Spivak‘s question “Can the Subaltern
as “the co ntaminated yet connect ive tissue Speak?” in the affirmative way. It indicates that
between cultures.” He further explains “it is indeed subaltern has spoken. Here the term ‘hybridity’
something like culture’s in-between, baffling both conjures up the notion of ‘in-betweenness’ which
alike and different” (Bhabha “Cultures” 54).This is further elaborated by the accompanying concept
‘third space’ not only seems to be the juncture of of ‘Diaspora’. The term ‘Diaspora’ evokes the
translations and dialogues; it also raises questions specific terms of displacement but it looses its
towards the essentially rooted ideas of identity poignancy due to the effect of ‘hybridity’. It means
and the notional concepts surrounding the original that the term ‘hybridity’ bridges the gap between
culture. Thus this ‘third space’ marks a new the West and the East that is the colonizer and the
beginning of possibility in terms of meaningful colonized. The term ‘hybridity’, thus serves as a
identification and even productivity that the new bridge narrowing down the distance between the
identity carries with it. This newer opening not West and the East, the colonizer and the colonized,
only questions the established notions of culture the Occident and the Orient. The construct of such
and identitybut also provides new forms of cultural a shared culture saw the colonizer and the colonized
meaning; and thereby it significantly suspends the being mutually dependent on each other. Aiming
limits of the bou ndaries. The ‘third space’, at describing the identity of self and others, Bhabha
therefore, is a place of opportunity for the growth says:
of fresh ideas and it rejects anything fixed, so it It becomes crucial to distinguish between
opens up newer scope for fresh thoughts allowing the semblance and si mil it ude of t he
us to go beyond the rigidity and limited focus of symbo ls across diverse cul tural
colonial binary thinking. Instead of exclusion and experiences- literature, art, music, ritual life,
rejection, the new space, thus, has the capacity death… and the social specificity of each
and tendency to include and accept. of these productions of meaning as they
While discussing the ‘third space’, Homi circulate signs within specific contextual
Bhabha justifies his stand substantially as his locations and social systems of value. The
concept of hybridity is based on the idea that no transnatio nal dimension o f cult ural
culture is really pure as it is always in contact with transformation—migration, diaspo ra,
149
displacement, relocatio n…Makes the edge of ‘foreign’ cultures; gathering at

process of cultural translation a complex frontiers; gathering in the ghettos or cafes
form of signification. The natural(ized), of city centres: gathering in the half-life,
unifying discourse of nation, peoples, or half light of foreign tongues, or in the
authentic folk tradition, those embedded uncanny fluency of another’s language:
myths of cultures particularity, cannot be gatheri ng the signs of appro val and
readily referenced. The great, unsettling acceptance, degrees, discou rses,
advantage of this position is that it makes disciplines; gathering the memories of
you increasingly aware of the construction underdevelopment, of other worlds lived
of culture and the invention of tradition. retroactively: gathering the past in a ritual
(Bhabha 247). or revival; gathering the present. Also the
The t erms diaspora, displacement and gatheri ng of peopl e i n the di aspora:
relocation exhibit the dynamic nature of culture. indentured, migrant, interned: the gathering
Since the historical narratives on which culture tries of incriminatory statistics, educational
to define itself are inconsistent, culture must be performance, legal statues, immigration
seen along with the context of its construction. status. (Bhabha 139).
Thus, the term ‘hybridity’ can be viewed as a Bhabha has candidly observed the migrant
liberating power from the domination of colonizers experiences which are full of dualities. He brings
forced upon the colonized by the formers’ bounded out the uncanniness of the migrant experience
definitions of race, language and nation. through a series of ideas like ‘half life’, ‘partial
Another significant aspect while dealing with presence’, ‘gathering the past’, ‘edge of foreign
the diasporic experience is the concept of ‘home’. cultures’ and other such experiences that the
Whether it is forced or voluntary migration, one migrants go through. The migrants live a ‘half life’
leaves one’s own country and settles in a foreign in a foreign land as they are not able to accept the
land. This migratory displacement leaves the new land completely. Their memories of homeland
migrant with the sense of homelessness and haunt them and many times they live reviving their
rootlessness. The migrants miss their own native past. This experience of living a partial life is
land or homeland. This ‘homelessness’ according sometimes very disturbing for the migrants. The
to Bhabha can be real as well as metamorphical. He second generation migrants do not, perhaps, have
uses the word ‘uncanny’ which means ‘unhomely’, the same nostalgic feeling as the first generation
to explain his homelessness: migrants have; however they, too, are linked to
I have lived that moment of the scattering their homeland through the stories they hear from
of the people that in other times and other their parents. The picture of homeland created
places, in the nations of others, becomes a before them is based on what they have heard from
time of gathering. Gathering of exiles and their parents. Salman Rushdie, an Indian by origin,
émigrés and refugees ; gathering on the also talks about this partial identity of the migrants.
150
In his “Imaginary Homelands” he states: opportunity. It does the job of opening up a space
Our identity is at once plural and partial. for us to reconsider how we have come to be and
Sometimes we feel that we straddle two who we are. Bhabha talks about this sense of
cultures; at other times, we fall between two uncanniness of culture in the following manner:
st ool s, but ho wever ambiguou s and Culture is heimlich, with its disciplinary
shifting the ground may be, it is not an generalizations, its mimetic narratives, its
infertile territory for a writer to occupy. homologous empty line, its seriality, its
(Rushdie 15) progress, its customs and coherence. But
This experience of being ‘in-between’ two cultural authority is also unheimlich, for to be
cultures is what the diaspora comes across in the distinctive, significatory, influential and
foreign land. Sigmund Freud, a pioneer of the ident ifi able, it has t o be t ransl ated,
psychoanalysis, offers the definition of uncanny: disseminated, differentiated, interdisciplinary,
“the uncanny is that species of the frightening intertextual, internat ional, interracial.
that goes back to what was once well known and (Bhabha.136-7)
had long been familiar” (Freud 124). Giving this Culture has a dual identity as the notions of it
definiti on, Freud makes the ‘posit ive’ and being homely, on the one hand and unhomely on
‘negative’ definitions equivalent. According to him, the other always keeps it ever changing. The
it is t hro ugh self observatio n and self migrants represent this dual nature of culture, since
objectification only that the uncanny can be they are always looked at as being tossed in
analysed and understood. As per the theory of between both: their ‘original culture’ and the
psychoanalysis, the uncanny is not something that culture of the ‘new land’.
we have control on and nor can we access it In most of his works, Bhabha considers the
directly. This feeling of uncanny as an involuntary interrelations and interdependence between the
recurrence of the old and the familiar is very close colonisers and the colonised. Through the colonial
to what Freud calls ‘repetition compulsion’ which experience, the social categories exerted on the
actually refers to the way in which our mind repeats colonised (the ideas of superior and inferior human
the traumatic experiences in order to deal with them. races and cultures for instance) imprints an
The psychoanalysts believe that the traces of the imaginary, which collides with their own, displacing
past experiences remain present in the mind and or disjuncting it. This encounter eventually creates
they tend to surface in the present life of the human new hybrid expressions of culture which in turn
beings. This uncanniness breeds a feeling of challenge the beliefs and experience of the
alienation in the ‘other land’. However, such a sense colonisers. Bhabha argues that these colonial –
of alienation is not a problem but very much a part and postcolonial –cultural systems and statements
of the diasporic experience. In fact, the sense of are constructed in a “liminal space”: the “Third
alienation proves to be a driving force to re-evaluate Space of Enunciation” (Bhabha 209). The aim of
our identities and it should be considered as an his argument is the deconstruction the colonisers’
151
(and mo re generall y West ern and mo dern) the Colonized and thinks that this image is holistic
essentialist claims of an inherent purity of culture. and pure, i.e., not open to ambivalence. But
Bhabha also describes the process of creating confrontation with the Colonized causes the
culture by debunking the idea of a nation or people Colonizer to see that this stereotype, which Bhabha
as being holistic and pure. He says: says “dramatizes the impossible desire for a pure,
Cultures are never unitary in themselves, undifferentiated origin” is “an impossible object”
nor simply dualistic in the relation of Self (“Other Question,” 103). The Colonized culture’s
to Other. […] The reason a cultural text or difference displaces the Colonizer’s own sense of
system of meaning cannot be sufficient unity and makes the Colonizer aware of its split
unto itself is that the act of cult ural self, which desires the Colonized to validate the
enunciation – the place of utterance – is created stereotype in order that it may see the
crossed by the difference of writing. ….It Colonized as a fixed object.
is this difference in the process of language
that is crucial to the production of meaning
and ensures, at the same time, that meaning Notes
is never simply mimetic and transparent. 1. The meaning of ‘liminal’ is taken from Oxford
(Location 36) English Dictionary, Edited byJ.A. Simpson and
In other words, a national culture can never E.S.C. Weiner; 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
be holistic and pure because its meaning, like other 1989. The OED has an entry for ‘liminal,’ the
products of language, is open to ambivalence, open adjectival form, which it lists as a rare usage:
to interpretations by the audience which is different “Of or pertaining to the threshold or initial stage
from the originator’s intent. So, in the postcolonial of a process.”
discourse, the Colonizer’s culture, far from being 2. Arnold Van Gennep (1873–1957), a noted French
the simple, oppressive force upon the Colonized ethnographer and folklorist, used the term
culture, is open to ambivalence. In explaining liminality in his Rites de Passage, published
Edward Said’s description of Orientalism, Robert in190 9, a work that i s essent ial t o t he
Young states that “Bhabha argues that even for development of the concept of liminality in the
the colonizer the construction of a representation context of rituals in small-scale societies. The
of the Other is by no means straightforward” English translation, The Rites of Passage was
(Young, “Ambivalence,” 143). The Colonizer, in published in 1960. The book was translated by
trying to obj ectify the Colonized, creates a Monika B. Vizedom and Gabrielle L. Caffee, and
stereotype of the Colonized in order to reject it as published by Routledge (London) & Kegan
inferior: “Colonial power produces the colonized Paul. Van Gennep began his bo ok by
as a fixed reality which is at once an ‘other’ and yet identifying the various categories of rites. He
entirely knowable and visible” (Bhabha “Other distinguished between those that result in a
Question,” 93). The Colonizer creates an image of change of status for an individual or social
152
group, and those that signify transitions in the T. Kimbell, introduction, The Rites of Passage,
passage of time. In doing so, he placed a by Arnold van Gennep, viii-ix.
particular emphasis on three-fold sequential
structure rites of passage. Works Cited
3. Victor Witter Turner (1920 –1983) was a British • Bhabha, Homi K. 1996, “Culture’s In-Between.”
cultural anthropologist. He is best known for Questions of Cultural Identity. Stuart Hall &
his work on symbols, rituals and rites of Paul du Gay. Eds. SAGE Publication, London.
pp. 53-60. Print.
passage. Turner is considered to have re-
• —. 1994, The location of Culture, Routledge,
discovered the importance of liminality, first
New York, Print.
came across Arnold van Gennep’s work in 1963 • —.1996, “The Other Question: Difference,
(Thomassen 2006, 322). In 1967 he published Di scriminatio n, and t he Di sco urse of
his boo k The Forest of Symbo ls, whi ch Colonialism.” Black British Cultural Studies:
inclu ded an essay ent it led Betwixt a nd A Reader. Ed. Baker, Houston A. Chicago: U of
Between: the Liminal Period in Rites of Chicago, Print.
Passage. Within the works of Turner, liminality • Freud, Sigmund. 2003, The Uncanny, Penguin,
New York. Print.
began t o wander away from its narrow
• Gennep, Arnold van. 1960, The Rites Of Passage,
application to ritual passages in small-scale
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Print.
societies. In the various works he completed • Rushdie, Salman. 1991, Imaginary Homelands:
while conducting his fieldwork amongst the Essays and Criticism, 1981-1991, London.
Ndembu i n Zambia, he made numero us Print.
connections between tribal and non-tribal • Thieme, John.2003, Post-Colonial Studies: The
societies, “sensing that what he argued for the Essential Glossary, London, Print.
Ndembu had relevance far beyond t he • Thomassen, B.2006, “Liminality”, A. Harrington,
specific ethnographic context” (Thomassen B. Marshall and H.P. Müller (eds) Routledge
Encyclopedia of Social Theory, Routledge,
2009, 14).
London, pp.322-323. Print.
4. By ‘magico-religious’ Van Gennep means • Turner,Victor.19 69, The R itual Pro cess:
‘profane’ and ‘sacred’. However, he does not St ructure and An ti-structure. Al di ne
understand ‘sacred’ as a term that is limited in Pub.Chicago, Print.
its application: “The sacred is not an absolute • Young, Robert. 1990, “The Ambivalence of
value but one relative to the situation. The Bhabha.” White Mythologies: Writing History
person who enters a status at variance with the and the West. Routledge, London, Print.
one previously held becomes ‘sacred’ to the • —.1995, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory,
others who remain in the profane state”. Solon Culture, and Race. Routledge, London, Print.
153
Sri Aurobindo and Integral Yoga: A Review

Dr. Rajarshi Kayal
ABSTRACT
Scientific development may help us in materialistic achievement but it may not be able to achieve the eternal peace.
The ancient yoga may help to get rid of turmoil, hazards, and so. Practicing yoga is very much helpful to maintain
peace, to lead and to uplift the human being. But the so called types of yoga may not help alone in evolution. Sri
Aurobindo integrated all sorts of yoga to achieve the ultimate aim. He believed that the integration of all yogas
mentioned in the Gita helps the human life to be transformed into a celestial one. For the total development of an
individual he stressed on integration among all the areas of yoga, not on any one. He formulated three main stages,
a ‘Triple transformation’, in the progression of the Integral Yoga: the Psychic, the Spiritual, and the Supra- mental.
Therefore, the Integral yoga i.e. the synthesis of physical, vital, mental and spiritual being takes us from lower level
of existence to higher level and to the highest level.
Key words: Yoga, Integral Yoga, Evolution.
Introduction: is the yoga. The Integral Yoga of Sri Aurobindo

We, the human beings, always seek wellbeing and (along with the Mother) teaches such type of
run after happiness. We rush in the direction of integration but also direct the human life to be
one or two aspects to achieve satisfaction in life by transformed into a celestial one.
hook and cook. So we keep away values. We desire A Short Biography of Sri Aurobindo:
more and more. We cross our capacities consciously The 15th August is unforgettable to the Indians
or unconsciously. So some expectations are fulfilled, for achieving independence. Sri Aurobindo was
some are no t. This may be t he cause of also born on that very date but that was before
dissatisfaction which may lead to misery, sorrow seventy five years in 1872 in a very famous family
and unhappiness etc. in Kolkata. He started his early education in a
According to the Bhagwad Gita, if we perform convent school in Darjeeling. Then he left India for
our duty without expectation, loss or gain will not western education. In 1893, he returned India and
affect us. Happiness and sorrow simultaneously joined the st ate servi ce in Baroda. Here he
make us in a state of equilibrium. It helps us to lead performed different types of works like in Survey
life in the most integrated way. This balanced state and Set tlement departments, department of
Assistant Professor in Physical Education, Pingla Thana Mahavidyalayal, Maligram, Paschim Medinipur, West Bengal
154
Dr. Rajarshi Kayal
Revenue, Secretariat, teaching grammar and foreign the play of the universe with its own true self, origin
language etc. Gradually he became interested in and universality’ and ‘the union of the soul with
making India free from the British Rule. He started the immortal being’. The essence of yoga is the
communication with his family in Bengal. In Bengal contact between the human being with the divinity.
with Barin’s help he established contacts with The integral yoga is the way of a complete
revolutionaries, inspiring radicals like Bagha Jatin, God-realisation, a complete Self-realisation, a
Jatin Banerjee, Surendranath Tagore. He helped to complet e fu lfil lment of our bei ng and
establish a series of youth clubs. He helped found consciousness, a complete transformation of our
the Anushilan Samiti of Calcutta in 1902.1 He nature-and this implies a complete perfection of life
strongly believed in Swaraj, Swadesh, Boycott and here and not only a return to an eternal perfection
National Education. He wanted to make it elsewhere.3
established in all the Congress meetings. He It implies realisation of God. It helps to become
travelled various parts of India for nationalist a part of a divine work. The object of this Yoga is
movements. In 1908, he was arrested in a case not to liberate the soul from Nature, but to liberate
connected with bomb. Later he withdrew himself both soul and nature by sublimation into the Divine
from all sorts of political activities and transformed Consciousness from whom they came.4
into spiritualism in Pondicherry. He died on 5t h Transformation of SriAurobindo into spirituality:
December, 1950. We all know that a transformation occurred in
Yoga and The integral Yoga: the life of Aurobindo when he was in Alipore Jail
Literally yoga is the unification of jibatma with custody. He was very much influenced by Swami
paramatma. It integrates our body, mind and Vi vekananda. Vishnu Bhaskar Lele, a
thought process. This in return controls our life Maharashtrian Yogi, instructed Aurobindo to
style, reduces stress and makes one free from depend on an inner guide and any kind of external
diseases. Sri Aorobindo described yoga in different guru or guidance would not be required. 5 Gradually
ways. In The Synthesis of Yoga, he described yoga he became more and more concerned with the
as ‘union’. Yoga is both – a path and the destination spiritualism. In Pondicherry, he established an
to a superior consciousness. This unifying power ashram. He devoted himself to propagate the Hindu
differentiates the human being from an inferior philosophy and turned into Rishi Aurobindo.
animal. Yoga is the exchange of an egoistic for a His mind set “was formed first by the study of
cosmic consciousness lifted towards or informed the Upanishads and the Gita”, as well as knowledge
by the supra-cosmic, transcendent unnamable who that flowed from above when he sat in meditation.
is the source and support of all things. Yoga is the The influence o f the Indian Vedant a o n
passage of the human thinking animal towards the Aurobindo’s thought was enormous. The other
God-consciousness from which he has descended.2 major component was ideas that Aurobindo
In his own writings it is found that ‘yoga is encountered during his education, such as the
the union of that which has become separated in theory of evolution. 6
155
Views of Sri Aurobindo: Transformation of an individual:

The views of Sri Aurobindo might be encircled Man is born as an ignorant, divided, and
on the basis of some facts, experiences and personal conflicted being. Initially he is a product of the
realization of a prophet. These are as per following; original unconsciousness inherent in. He does not
• There is an eternal circle. All things is originated know the nature of Reality, including its source
from the Brahma and go back to Him; and purpose; his own nature, including the parts
• Life and death are the two sides of a single circle and integration of his being; what purpose he
(re-embodiment of the soul); serves, and what his individual and spiritual
• The soul can determine the fate; potential is, amongst others. In addition, man
• Human endeavour is to attain divine life that is experiences life through division and conflict,
melted into the Brahma. including his relationship with others, and his
Sri Aurobindo believed that a divine life in a divided view of spirit and life. 8
divine body is the formula of the ideal that To overcome such limitations, man must follow
we predict. He prescribed that evolution is the a process of self-discovery in which he uncovers
process of liberation. Consciousness is the basic his divine nature. To that end, Sri Aurobindo
element to be transformed into higher and wider suggests a process i.e. Triple Transformation. It
level and at last greater perfection occurs. Life is includes Psychi c Transformation, Spirit ual
the first step of this release of consciousness; mind Transformation and Supramental transformation.
is the second; but the evolution does not finish (1) Psychic Transformation: It is a movement within,
with mind, it awaits a release into something greater, away from the surface of life, to the depths,
a consciousness which is spiritual and supramental. culminating in the discovery of the evolving
The next step of the evolution must be towards the soul. From that experience, he sees the oneness
development of Supermind and Spirit as and unity of creation, and the harmony of all
the dominant power in the conscious being. For experienced in life.
only then will the involved Divinity in things release (2) Spiritual Transformation: As a result of making
itself entirely and it become possible for life to the psychic change, the mind of human being
manifest perfection. 7 expands and he experiences knowledge through
We all are born with ignorance. There is a light, intuition, and revelation of knowledge,
possibility of every human being to attain a divine culminating in supramental perception. Light
manifestation. Sri Aurobindo stated that there is a enters from the heights and begins to transmute
possibility to open oneself to hi gher divine various parts of his being.
consciousness which would reveal one’s true self, (3) Supramental transformation: After making the
remain in constant union of divine and bring down psychic and spiritual change, the human being
a higher force which would transform mind, life and makes the supramental and most radical change.
body. The main objective of Sri Aurobindo’s yoga It is basically a complete transformation of the
is to realize this transformation. mind, the heart, the emotions, and the physical
156
Dr. Rajarshi Kayal
body. 9 the ‘microcosm’ to the ‘macrocosm’; evolution step

Our aim is ‘divine perfection’. He mentioned by step from mind, higher mind, intuitive mind, over
that ‘man is a transitional being’. The life of the mind, and super mind.
human being is not final. The next achievement is The integral yoga plays a vital role in total
evo luti on from man to t he superman. It is transformation among physical, mental and spiritual.
unavoidable as it is the intention of the inner spirit Liberation of the soul from the cycle of birth and
and the logic of nature’s process. death is not enough for the accomplishment of
Conclusion: man’s spirituality, rather ‘synthesis’ of whole
If we analyze the life of Sri Aurobindo, it is found existence to be amalgamated with the divine light
that he revealed some realizations in his own life. disguised within.
 He achieved the first realization while he was
meditating with the Maharashtrian Yogi Vishnu
Bhaskar Lele. It was the realization of the silent, References:
spaceless and timeless Brahman. 1. Heehs, P. 2008, The Lives of Sri Aurobindo, Columbia
 His second realization was of the cosmic University Press, New York, p. 67
conscio usness and o f the Di vine whi ch 2. Collected Works of Sri Aurobindo Vol. 13, p. 119
happened in the Alipore jail. 3. Aurobindo, Sri. 1997, Essays Divine and Human, Sri
 Other two realizations were related to the Aurobindo Ashram Trust, Pandicherry, p. 358
‘Supreme Reality with the static and dynamic 4. Collected Works of Sri Aurobindo Vol. 12, pp. 366-67
Brahman’ and that of the higher planes of 5. Aurobindo, Sri. 2006, Autobiographical Notes and
consciousness leading to the Supermind. other Writings of Historical Interest, Sri Aurobindo
Sri Aurobindo was deeply influenced by Ashram Trust, Pandicherry p. 109
Western thought, most significantly, Charles 6. Heehs, P., 2011, The Kabbalah, the Philosophie
Darwin’s evolu tionary theory and French Cosmique, and the Integral Yoga. A Study in Cross-
intellectual Henri Bergson’s philosophy of cognitive Cultural Influence, Brill.
evolution. The ideas of impending human evolution 7. Collected Works of Sri Aurobindo.
and global futurism became the foundation of his 8. Aurobindo, Sri 2006, Autobiographical Notes and other
spiritual philosophy, sociological theories, political Writings of Historical Interest, Sri Aurobindo Ashram
ideology and educational thought. 10 Trust, Pandicherry, p. 10
According to Sri Aurobindo, the truth of 9. Aurobindo, Sri 2005,The Life Divine, Book-I, Chapter
existence is its ‘becoming’ and evolution gradually 16, Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust, Pandicherry, p. 152
unfolds the truth. Evolution is not the evolution of 10. Singh, Deepshikha, 2012, “The supreme truths
‘matter’ bu t evolut ion of ‘consciou sness’. are neither the rigid conclusions of logical reasoning
Consciousness is the life force, the energy, the nor the affirmations of creedal statement, but fruits of
motion that creates everything in the universe, from the soul’s inner experience.”
157
Caste in Mind: Craving for Endogamy

Reflection from the Bengali Matrimonial Columns of the Higher Castes
Dr. Aparnita Bhattacharjee
ABSTRACT
Marriage is socially considered as one of the most important happenings of one’s life. Like other Indian communities,
Bengali community has been also traditionally hooked up with preference for endogamy. This is evident from the
matrimonial columns published in the dailies across West Bengal in searching suitable brides and grooms. It may
seem that with the spread of education Bengali people have become less inclined to attach much value towards caste-
oriented mindset while negotiating for marriage. A study of matrimonial columns published in the Ananda Bazar
Patrika, the leading daily from Kolkata reveals that people of the two higher castes in Bengal i.e. Brahmanas and
Baidyas still give preference to caste identity and crave for prospective endogamous marital negotiations.
Key Words: Marriage, Matrimonial Columns, Endogamy, Hypergamy, Hypogamy, Caste (Brahmana & Baidya)
Introduction: negotiations for marriages within the same socio-

Negotiated or arranged marriage is still substantially economic background of the negotiating families
considered one of the options for finding suitable concerned. With the expansion of education and
grooms and brides. It is evident from the matrimonial spread of professional horizon for the educated the
columns published in the daily newspapers in the boys and girls traditional ways of matchmaking have
classified sections and profiles of the online taken a backseat in the concerned process.
matrimonial sites that people cutting across different Permanent or semi-permanent shift from the rural
sections with castes, communities, high educational native land to urban areas have put constraints in
qualifications and professional stands prefer to find having the opportunity of arranging marriage
sui tabl e partners t hrou gh matri moni al through traditional family matchmakers. Again,
advertisements. In Bengal, Brahmanas and Baidyas trend of living in nuclear families since the last half
are considered higher castes. Traditionally, boys of the last century has created a roadblock to access
and girls from higher castes aspire for marriage with to the erstwhile family matchmakers. As a result of
partners from same castes. Earlier, matchmakers all these devel opments, the pro fession of
used to play a great role in finding suitable matches matchmaking has become quite obsolete in Bengal,
for suitable brides and grooms and fixing desired particularly in urban and semi-urban areas.
Assistant Professor, Department of History, Midnapore College (Autonomous), Paschim Medinipur, West Bengal,
India.
158
This study zeroes in t he matri moni al (Michaels 2004) shows that the word has been used
advertisements of the columns entitled ‘brides to mean different things from time to time. The
wanted’ (Patri Chai) and ‘grooms wanted’ (Patra discourse on Indian caste has been depicted in
Chai) published in the Anandabazar Patrika for different studies from different perspective. Homo
consecutive 24 weeks roughly from July to Hierarchicus of Dumont (Dumont 1980) is perhaps
December, 2012. A total number of 2226 and 2988 one of the most read and debated works in this
respective samples of ‘grooms wanted’ and ‘brides field. Dumont broadly holds that Indians are socially
wanted’ as published in the classified columns for most represented by caste. Caste is the element
the prospective Brahmana girls and boys are which imparts a uniquely ‘encompassing’ ritual
considered in this study. Similarly, a total of 375 status over all the extant social, economic and
and 462 respective samples of grooms wanted and power disparities. He argues that Brahminas’ ritual
brides wanted as published in the classified status controls the political and economic domain
columns for the prospective Baidya girls and boys in India and their relations with other castes.
are selected for this study. The selection of the Dumont (Dumont 1966) observes that membership
samples is primarily categorized in keeping in mind in a caste depends upon caste status of both
the educational and professional qualifications. The parents and thu s upon marri age. Sekhar
selected samples then considered for the study Bandhyopadhyay (Bandyopadhyay 2004) mainly
from different aspects of caste related references concentrates on different caste related phenomena
as reflected from the contents of the advertisements of colonial Bengal including discourse on caste and
concerned. The total samples of the Baidyas are gender. He observes that dowry replaced the
comparatively less than the Brahmanas because practice of bride-price among the upwardly mobile
as a community they are lesser in number than the peasant and trading cl asses since the early
Brahmanas. Seal (1971) observes this phenomenon. twentieth century. School of Women’s Studies,
Report of the Census (1921) also reflects this trend. Jadavpur University undertook a Project entitled
Contemporary Bengali society is perceived to “Re-negotiating Gender Relations in Marriage:
be progressive as inter-dinning amongst castes Family, Class and Community in Kolkata in an Era
and choice of food going beyond the traditional of Globalisation”. Its area of study covers the
taboos have been breaking the age-old restrictive municipalities of Kolkata and Salt Lake. The Report
world of life-style. Still caste is most evident of this Project published in 2009 observes that in
component of matrimonial advertisements. This the urban context the influence of jati becomes
shows that marriage as social practice is yet to get diluted.
over caste-dominated perception. 3. Higher Castes of Bengal: Brahmanas and
2. Review of Literature Baidyas
The Portuguese is said to have first used the Traditionally, the highest social position is
term casta to refer the social order in India. The attributed to the Brahmanas followed by other three
particular word is believed to have been originated castes of the four varnas of the Indian society i.e.
from the Latin word ‘castus. However, Michaels the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas and the Shudras.
159
Inden (Inden 1976) observes that Brahmanas are professional attributes like the Vaishyas. Both the
also attributed the highest social position in Bengal. Puranas referred above are believed to have been
However, in Bengal, caste pattern i s qu ite compiled between twelfth to fourteenth centuries.
unparalleled. According to a particular reference of Though the Brahmanas of Bengal are allowed to
the Brihaddharma Purana, all the non-Brahmin consume fish and meat as per guidelines of
castes of Bengal are mixed castes or Sankar Varnas Brihaddharma Purana (which is unlikely to be
resultant from unrestrained social mixture among found in any scripture throughout India), they are
the four varnas and all are included in the Shudra attributed highest rank in the society like elsewhere
Varna, refers Ray ( Ray 1414 - B. S.). Tracing back in the country. Both the Brihaddharma Purana
the origin of this peculiar caste pattern in Bengal, and Brahmabaibarta Purana attribute first and
att enti on may be drawn to t he extended second positio ns among the Sa t Sh udras
significance given to the term ‘Shudra’ in the respectively in the social rank to the Karanas (who
Puranas where it is denoted that all those members were given same status as the Kayasthas during
of the three higher castes actually fall to category the Pala period) and Anwashthas (Baidyas). Again
of the Shudras on account of their acceptance of the Brahmabaibarta Purana attributes third
the heretical religions and indulgence in Tantric position to the Baidyas who are separated from the
rites. Ray (Ray1414- B.S.) shows that all the Bengali Anwashthas as caste by virtue of its origin. It is
non-Brahmanas are categorized in two groups i.e. probable that both the Karanas and Kayasthas,
Sat Shudra and Asat Shudra. Davis (Davis 1983) and the Anwashthas and Baidyas were clubbed
also observes that Brahmanas accept drinking together by virtue of their professional similarities.
water from the Sat Shudras (Jalchal), but Asat Seal (Seal 1971) mentions that later these Baidyas
Sudras (Ajalchal) do not have the right to serve began to be treated as second rank holder in social
drinking water to the Brahmanas. Ray (Ray 1414- hierarchy of Bengal since they had started to enjoy
B.S.) explains that generally Brahmanas are the right to wear sacred thread during the eighteenth
debarred from accepting cooked food from the non- century. Ri sley (Ri sley 199 8), the Census
Brahmanas. In the Brahmabaibarta Purana, Commissioner awarded them second position to
Anwashtha (classified as born of Brahmana father the Brahmanas and thus above the Kayasthas.
and Vishya mother) and Baidyas (classified as born Ghosh (Ghosh 2011) refers that these Baidyas are
of Ashwinikumara, the son of Surya and the said to have mastered four Vedas along with the
heavenly physician/vishaka, and a Brahmana Ayurveda and thus are known as Baidyabipra.
woman) are categorized in two different upavarnas They are also called Trija and they are said to have
or subcast es. However, it is said in t he had third birth after completing the study. It may be
Brihaddharma Purana that the Anwashthas are added that the Brahmanas attain their second birth
known as Baidyas by virtue of the profession of after upanayana i.e. ceremony of wearing sacred
medical practice and that they are attributed the thread i.e. upabita for the first time.
status of Shudra in religious rights despite their In the present study, Baidyas are taken as the
160
second highest class o f the Bengali so ciety marries a woman of higher castes, it is called as
following the above-mentioned practice as started pratiloma marriage, which is considered somewhat
by Risley and acquired right of the Baidyas to wear degraded in the social order. Manu, however, is
upabita. At times, the Baidyas are socially treated against pratiloma marriage. Brahmanas can accept
more or less alike the Brahmanas. However, in the wives from two immediate lower castes i.e.
matrimonial classified section, the advertisements Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, and even from the
of the Brahmanas and the Baidyas are arranged in Shudras. Sharma (Sharma 2004) mentions that the
separate columns. practice seems to have been stopped during the
3.1 Marriage: Social Practice tenth century as Alberuni refers that Brahamanas
Marriage is the centre stage of the social were not inclined to take girls from three lower castes
customs and ceremonies. Vyas(1992) traces the in marriage. The writers of fifteenth and sixteenth
reference from the Apastamba Dharma Sutra, centuries mention prohibition of inter-caste
which declares that marriage awards a man the marriages in t he Hindu society. Majumdar
capacity to perform religious rites because an (Majumdar 2009) shows that the radical Brahmos
unmarried man is considered incomplete. From led by Keshab Chandra Sen took different initiatives
Bandyo padhyay’s (Bandyopadhyay 2011) to reform the social practices of nineteenth century
translation of Manu Samhita it is known that Bengal. And they were active supporters of inter-
according to the ancient lawgiver a person protects caste marriages. In Ghosh’s (Ghosh 2007) edited
his offspring, character, vamsa (dynasty), dharma volume of Shibnath Shastri’s Ramtanu Lahiri O
and himself by protecting his wife. Sharma (Sharma Tat kalin Ban gasamaj i t is menti oned that
2011) referring to the Manusmriti and Naradasmriti Devendranath Tagore, one of t he pioneer
mentions that a marriage is valid when the groom propagators of Brahmo Movement in Bengal could
and bri de both belong to the same Va rn a. not tolerate initiative started by young Brahmos
Manusmriti advises the Brahmanas to avail better to wards inter-cast e marriage since 186 4.
option of marrying women of his own caste. It is Markovits(Markovits 2002) refers that the Brahmo
unlikely that this was completely abided by in the Marriage Act of 1872 was a significant move by the
society. The presence of numerous mixed castes or colonial Government towards the demand for
Sankara Varna evidently leads us to believe that legislation of inter-caste marriage as upheld by the
in spite of scriptural preference for endogamy i.e. Brahmos under the leadership of Keshab Chandra
marrying within castes inter-caste marriages were Sen. Gore (Gore 1990) opines that in spite of the
not unknown in India. Manusmriti has a list of such Hindu Marriage Act of 1956 making the inter-caste
mixed castes or Sankara Varnas. This proves that marriages legally valid without any material
inter-caste marriages were considerably practiced di sadvantage t o the persons marryi ng t he
and approved by the society. When a man of higher permissive law has not been able to spread the
caste accepts wife from lower caste, it is called practice of inter-caste marriage far and wide.
anuloma marriage. When a man of lower castes Though Gore’s studies (Gore 1990) reveal that
161
highly educated people tend to accept inter-caste stopped just being matchmakers, a structural
marriage, the present study based on samples change in the Bengali matchmaking scenario was
categorized show different trend among the observed when the female negotiators started to
advertisers seeking marriage negotiations through fill the void. Afterwards, matrimonial advertisements
matrimonial columns in the leading Bengali daily, took the place of matchmaking agents. The first
the Ananda Bazar Patrika. matrimonial advertisement was published in a
3.2 Negotiating Marriage: Agents periodical in the early 1870s and started gaining
Negotiations and negotiating agents are popularity shortly. Since the last decade of the
required for arranged marriage. In simple terms, nineteenth century a number journals ventured in
negotiated marriage is a fixation of marriage by the market of marriage negotiations. Majumdar
parents or guardians of prospective brides and (Majumdar 2009) finds that one of these was
grooms and not the stakeholders of the marriage Anu sand han, edi ted by Durgadas Lahi ri
di rect ly t hemselves. The pro fession of supposedly published a considerable number of
matchmaking is an old one in Bengal. Risley(Risley real incidents of fraudulent practices adopted by
1998) refers that they are generally known as the Ghatakas. Interestingly, proprietors of these
Ghatakas, the term used to identifythe Brahmanas journals employed efficient ghatakas to run their
who are professional matchmakers and service of matchmaking. Use of print media for
genealogists. In fact, each sub-cast e of the marriage negotiations was certainly an evidence of
Brahmanas, Baidyas and Kayasthas in Bengal once engaging new technology in support of traditional
had its own recognized staff of Ghataks who used ideas of fixing marriage. Rochona Majumdar
to arrange suitable marriages and preserve the social (Majumdar 2009 ) argues that matri moni al
and ceremonial purity of each family belonging to advertisements in newspapers came with spread of
it. Majumdar (Majmdar 2009) refers from western education having strong connection with
Vivahakosa by Nagendranath (compiled between monetizing marriage through the practice of dowry.
1888 and 1911) Basu that Ghatakas were expected Certainly, there are some peculiar terms like
to have profound knowledge of Kula (lineage) and ‘sambhranta’ used in the Bengali matrimonial
its various branches, and simple information co lumns. Such terms has latent not ion of
regarding names of the families was not sufficient expectation for negotiations from wealt hy
to prove their efficiency in their profession. With households. Generally, middle class and upper
the urbanization and loosening of joint family middle class families choose matrimonial columns
structure, this profession has gradually become while seeking part ners fo r marriage. If t he
obsolete. Majumdar (Majumdar 2009) traces back advertisements are gone through, it would be
an article entitled “Vivaha Ghatkali” from the evident that most of the aspirants for marriage are
journal “Prachar” published in 1886 and finds an from middle class. Though online matrimony
interesting change in the realm of matchmaking. services have considerably spread their business,
As the gathakas ceased to be genealogists and matrimonial columns in newspapers have kept their
162
market intact. The number of pages covered with to December, 2012. As per the data given in the
classified matrimonial advertisements is evidence website of the Ananda Bazar Patrika it is the largest
of acceptability of these services. One thing is circulated daily in West Bengal. It publishes
very relevant to note that so-called or traditional classified advertisements of matrimony once in a
type of arranged marriage has ceased to be exclusive week o n every Su nday. As per the Nat ional
prerogative of the parents or guardians. Oberoi Readership Survey 2006, total readership of this
(Oberoi 2006) finds that new kind of arranged newspaper is 72, 95,000. In Kolkata alone, it has a
marriage has an element of courtship among the readership of 32, 61, 000. It comes with 1, 55,
future brides and grooms before marriage. Parents 1,577,000 daily copies, the largest circulated single-
gladly approve such arranged courtship between edition regional language newspaper in India.
the boy and the girl before marriage. According to Indian Readership Survey (IRS) 2010,
4. Relevance of the Present Study the newspaper is the eighth most widely read
The present study concentrates on the element newspaper in India with a total readership of
caste in the contents of matrimonial columns of the 15,318,000. With this immense coverage among the
Ananda Bazar Patrika. Though study of the readership community this newspaper commands
School Women’s Studies, Jadavpur University a huge reach among the people. When
observes that the element of caste has been diluted advertisements are published in the matrimonial
in the matrimonial culture of urban areas, it is not columns of this newspaper, there certainly reach a
out of concern at all. Matrimonial columns are wide range of target groups. Similarly, when a match
published exclusively neither by urban people nor for matrimony is being searched, it can be assured
for urban people; stakeholders belong to urban, of maki ng choices from a large pool of
rural and suburban. Again, study of the matrimonial advertisements. This is the reason behind choosing
col umns reveals that of advertisements are the Ananda Bazar Patrika Matrimonial Columns
classified on basis of . While some categorically in this study.
expect negotiations from same caste, some leave 5.1Facilities Derived from the Matrimonial
the choice open. Some specify immediate lower or Classified Section
upper castes as their limit of flexibility. Therefore, These columns provide an opportunity to find
this study offers a great scope to highlight the out suitable match from a large pool of choices,
particular mindset in this regard. which are not presently handy in the absence of
5. Study of Matrimonial Columns Published in the traditional matchmakers or ghatakas having a large
Ananda Bazar P atrika Matrimonial number of prospective brides or grooms in their list
Advertisements of boys and girls particularly classified from the
The Selection of the Newspaper genealogical data kept at their disposal. Matrimonial
Thi s st udy is exclu sively based on the columns thus offer a wide range of choices.
matrimonial columns published in the Ananda Columns again make it easier for the advertisers to
Bazar Patrika for consecutive 24 weeks from July project and highlight their status and expectations
163
or requirements from the prospective matches easily people. Turning towards a different expectation
with the help of different range of facilities from the persons seeking to find suitable girls for
forwarded by the service-provider. Even the readers marriage, complexion of the girls concerned is a
searching for suitable match can be assured of the matter of great consideration. Very few guardians
supply of their particular requirements as the or prospective brides seek for boys with fair
matrimonial classified section comes with different complexion as compulsory or desired requirement
set of highlighters, coloured boxes, bold captions for their future match. This requirement comes with
and even photos of the boys or girls. The system a particular social mindset which believes that boys
acts like the system of modern day departmental need not to be fair or handsome to seek fair or
stores where different products are kept at different beautiful matches for marriage, but girls require to
counters or locations specified in each occasions. be fair and beautiful to expect good matches. This
All these give optimum opportunity to the direct is a serious gender related issue.
stakeholders i.e. the advertisers and the indirect 5.3 Area of the Study and Point of Observation
stakeholders i.e. readers of these columns searching This study concentrates in the caste-related
for suitable matches. requirements or expectations as evident in the
5.2 Expectations from the Future Matches matrimonial advertisements and their variations in
Matrimonial advertisements are published with the choice with the difference in the educational
different coloured highlighters, separate marked and professional qualifications and income. The
boxes, bold captions and other special eye-catching columns give the present writer of the study to
arrangements. These columns have two types of identify the status of the advertisers, understand
stake holders; one, the advertisers and second, the the target area of the advertisers and above all to
readers searching for suitable matrimonial match. feel a mindset of the advertisers.
While searching for suitable match people tend to 5.4 Reasons behind Selecting Caste as the
keep in mind different social parameters, of which Parameter of Study:
some are traditional and some are non-traditional • Caste is still a social concern.
but both are believed to be equally essential. Again • Ma trimonia l Co lumn s are arrang ed
some parameters have predominantly gender- separately for different castes.
centric notion, which is not socially inclined in the • Almost every advertiser mentions his/her
first sense, but are parceled with social mindset. In castes in the first line of advertisement
terms of traditional social parameters, people search highlighting it with bold font.
match within their own castes, sub-castes and 5.5 Questions & Thrust Area of this Study:
communities, and outside the clan or gotra. Some • How does caste identity matter for the so-
people seek for computer literacy or proficiency in called ‘higher castes’ in the matrimonial
Engl ish language as desi red or compul sory advertisements?
requirements for their future match. These things • Does the level of higher education/ professional
are non-traditional parameters set by a section of qualification make any difference in the choices
164
advertised? medical and engineering cou rses and post-

• Does the option of ‘caste no bar’ are substantial graduates degrees awarded in non-professional
in number in the samples observed or studied? general courses are the parameters set for the first
• Is there still a conservative section (among the cat egory. The second catego ry selects t he
advertisers) strictly sticking to the tagline advertisers having only graduate degree in the
seeking negotiations only from the prospective general courses and educational qualifications less
marches of same caste/s and what is the than graduate degrees are parameters set for the
proportion in this study? second category. These two categories are sub-
• What is proportion of choice for hypergamy divided into five sub-groups: first advertisers with
towards immediate higher caste and hypogamy specified desire the prospective matches for their
towards immediate lower caste? own castes, second, advertisers highlighting their
• Overall reflection of craving for endogamy option with specific tagline ‘caste no bar’, third,
5.6 Samples Selected and Classification advertisers seeking match from their own caste and
For consecutive 24 weeks (starting from 1st July, other castes at the same time, fourth, advertisers
2013 to 9th December, 2012) Brides Wanted (Patri seeking negotiations from only immediate two lower
Chai) and Grooms Wanted (Patra Chai) columns castes (in case of the Brahmins expecti ng
of the Brahmin and Baidya boys and girls advertised negotiations from the Baidyas and Kayasthas) or
are studied. A total number of advertisements of both immediate higher and lower castes (in case of
2226 of Brahmin girls, 375 Baidya girls, 2988 the Baidyas seeking negotiations from both the
Brahmin boys and 462 Baidya boys are selected Brahmanas and the Kayasthas) and fifth and last,
for the study. advertisers with no specific mention of caste/s from
Each group of the study is further classified in desired matching but with their own caste/s
two categories. The first category selects the mentioned in the text of the advertisements. In case
advert isers wi th professio nal and higher of the Baidyas it is noticed that some of the
qualifications. Degrees earned in the areas of prospective grooms and brides specially mention
the term ‘Brahmanas to be considered’.
Grooms Wanted (Patra Chai) Samples Studied

Cl assified Samples of the Brahmana G irls Adverti sed for Desi red Match and the Findings
Total Number of Samples Studied: 2226
Samples with Post Graduate/Professional Degrees=1446 (64.96% of total advertisements studied)
Samples with Graduate Degree or Les Qualifications=780 (35.04% of total advertisements studied)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Brahmana Desire for Only ‘Caste No Bar’ Match Match Desired from Others:No Specific
GirlsWith Brahmana Tag DesiredFrom Only Brahmana/Baidya/ ChoiceMentioned but
P.G./ Match Brahmana And Kayastha Caste IdentityDeclared/
Professional Non-Brahmana Highlighted In the
Qualifications Advertisement
Total Number
Of Samples
=1446 32.328% 1.037% 4.357% 5.187%
Rest (57.091%)
165
Table 1: Showing Brahmana Girls with Post-Graduate Degrees of Professional Degrees Seeking Marriage
Negotiations from Prospective Matches and the Percentage of Different Classification as per Declared Specifications of
Caste-Related References in the Advertisements
1 2 3 4 5 6
Brahmana Girls Desire for ‘Caste No Match Desired Match Desired Others:No Specific
With Graduate Only Bar’ Tag From Brahmana from Only Choice Mentioned but
Degree or Less Brahmana And Non- Brahmana /Baidya / Caste Identity Declared /
Qualification Match Brahman Kayastha Highlighted In the
Sought Advertisement
Total Number
of Samples=780 17.692% 1.154% 6.932% 5.385% Rest (68.837%)
Table 2: Showing Brahmana Girls with Graduate Degrees or Less Qualifications Seeking Marriage Negotiations from
Prospective Matches and the Percentage of Different Classification as per Declared Specifications of Caste-Related
References in the Advertisements
Cl assified Samples of the Baidya G irls Advertised for Desired Match and the Fi ndings
Samples with Post Graduate/Professional Degrees=252 (67.2% of total advertisements studied)
Samples with Graduate Degree or Less Qualifications=123(32.8% of total advertisements studied)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Baidya Girls Desire for Only ‘Caste No Bar’ 1.Match Desired Match Desired Others: No Specific
With P.G./ Baidya Match Tag FromBrahman / From Baidya & Choice Mentioned but
Professional Baidya /Kayastha Non-Baidya Caste Identity
Qualifications 2. Brahman to Declared/Highlighted
Be considered In the Advertisement
Total Number
of Samples=252 11.905% 2.38% 1. 33.333% 17.857% Rest (22.62%)
2. 11.905%
Table 3: Showing Baidya Girls with Post-Graduate Degrees of Professional Degrees Seeking Marriage Negotiations from
Prospective Matches and the Percentage of Different Classification as per Declared Specifications of Caste-Related
1 2 3 4 5 6
Baidya Girls Desire for Only ‘Caste No Bar’ 1. Match Match Desired Others:No
Wi th Baidya Match Tag Desired From From Baidya Specific Choice
Graduate or Brahman/ & Non-Baidya Mentioned but
Less Baidya/ Caste Identity
Qualifications Kayastha 2. Declared/
Brahman to Be Highlighted In
considered the
Advertisement
Total Number
of Samples=123 7.317% 4.878% 1. 24.39% 31.707% Rest (30.89499%)
2. Very
Negligible =0.81301
(only 1 Sample out of Total123)
Table 4: Showing Baidya Girls with Graduate Degrees or Less Qualifications Seeking Marriage Negotiations from Prospective
Matches and the Percentage of Different Classification as per Declared Specifications of Caste-Related References in the
Advertisements
166
BRIDES WANTED (PATRI CHAI) SAMPLES STUDIED
Cl assi fied Sampl es of the Brahman Boys Advertised for Desired Match and the Fi ndings
Samples with Post Graduate/Professional Degrees=1389 (46.486 % of total advertisements studied)
Samples with Graduate Degree or Less Qualifications=1599(53.514 % of total advertisements studied)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Brahmana Desire for Only ‘Caste No Match Desired Match Desired Others: No Specific
Boys With P.G. Brahmana Bar’ Tag From Brahman from Only Choice Mentioned but Caste
/Professional Match And Non- Brahmana / Identity Declared /
Degree Brahmana Baidya / High lighted In the
Qualifications Kayastha Advertisement
Total Number
of Samples=1389 32.613 % 2.16 % 4.32 % 4.32 % Rest (56.587%)
Table 5: Showing Brahmana Boys with Post-Graduate Degrees of Professional Degrees Seeking Marriage Negotiations
from Prospective Matches and the Percentage of Different Classification as per Declared Specifications of Caste-
Related References in the Advertisements
1 2 3 4 5 6
B r a h m a n a Desire for Only ‘Caste No Match Match Desired Others: No Specific
Boys With Brahman Match Bar’ Tag Desired from Only Choice Mentioned
Graduate From Brahmana/ but Caste Identity
Degree or Less Brahmana Baidya/ Declared/
Qualification And Non- Kayastha Highlighted In the
Brahmana Advertisement
Sought
Total Number
of Samples=1599 18.011 % 0.75 % 6.754 % 4.503 % Rest (69.983%)
Table 6: Showing Brahmana Boys with Graduate Degrees or Less Qualifications Seeking Marriage Negotiations from
Prospective Matches and the Percentage of DifferentClassification as per Declared Specifications of Caste-Related
Cl assi fied Sampl es of the Baidya Boys Advertised for Desired Match and the Fi ndings
Samples with Post Graduate/Professional Degrees=261(56.494 % of total advertisements studied)
Samples with Graduate Degree or Less Qualifications=201(43.506 % of total advertisements studied)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Baidya Boys Desire for ‘Caste No 1.Match Desired Match Desired Others: No Specific
with P.G./ Only Baidya Bar’ Tag From Brahmana / From Baidya & Choice Mentioned but
Professional Match Baidya /Kayastha Non-Baidya Caste Identity Declared/
Qualifications 2. Brahmana to Highlighted In the
Be considered Advertisement
Total Number
of Samples=261 9.195 % 10.345 % 1. 28.736 % 3.448 % Rest (36.782%)
2. 11.494%
Table 7: Showing Baidya Boys with Post-Graduate Degrees and Professional Degrees Seeking Marriage Negotiations from
Prospective Matches and the Percentage of DifferentClassification as per Declared Specification of Caste-Related
Reference in the Advertisements
167
1 2 3 4 5 6
Baidya Boys Desire for ‘Caste No 1. Match Desired Match Others: No Specific
with Graduate Only Baidya Bar’ Tag From Brahmana/ Desired From Choice Mentioned but
Degree or Less Match Baidya/ Kayastha Baidya & Caste Identity Declared/
Qualification 2. Brahmana to Non-Baidya Highlighted In the
Be considered Advertisement
Total Number
of Samples201 8.955 % 0.995 % 1. 23.88 % 20.896 % Rest (44.31898%)
2. Very Negligible
(2 Sample out
of total 201) =0.99502%
Table 8: Showing Baidya Boys with Graduate Degrees or Less Qualifications Seeking Marriage Negotiations from
Prospective Matches and the Percentage of Different Classification as per Declared Specification of Caste-Related
Reference in the Advertisements
[Source: Table 1 to 8 are based on the Classified Data Collected from Matrimonial Columns Published under the Caption
‘Patra Chai’ & ‘Patri Chai’ for 24 Consecutive Weeks starting from 1st July, 2012 to 9th December, 2012 in the Ananda
Bazar Patrika]
fall short of mentioning their caste in bold fonts in

5.7 Choices Projected by the Brahmana Girls as the first o r second line of the text of the
Evident from the Data Analysis advertisements (Column No. 6 of Table Nos. 1 and 2)
It is evident from the tables shown above that 5.8 Choices Projected by the Baidya Girls from
the Brahmana girls with post graduate degrees and the Data Analysis
professional degrees seeking prospective partners In case of the Baidya girls seeking negotiations
for marriage are keener to have match from their from prospective grooms, desire for ‘only Baidya
own caste than their counterparts having graduate match’ is slightly higher among the highly qualified
degrees or less qualifications (Column No. 2 of Table ones (Column No. 2 of Table Nos. 3 and 4). Baidya
Nos. 1 and 2). There is no marked improvement or girls with graduate degree and less qualification
decline in terms of choice for ‘caste no bar’ with the are little more interested in declaring ‘caste no bar’
increase in educational qualifications (Column No. option (Column No. 3 of Table Nos. 3 and 4). Again,
3 of Table Nos. 1 and 2). Option for non-Brahmana highly qualified Baidya girls are more interested to
match among the highly qualified girls are kept have partners from immediate higher and lower
slightly lower (Column No. 4 of Table Nos. 1 and 2). castes i.e. Brahman and Kayastha respectively
There is no marked improvement or decline in the (Column No. 4 and Sub-Column No. 1 of Table Nos.
option of having match only from prospective 3 and 4). Desire for hypergamy i.e. having
Brahmana or Baidya or Kayastha boys (Column prospective match from Brahman caste (to be
No. 5 of Table Nos. 1 and 2). Girls having graduate considered) is visibly high among the highly
degrees and less educational qualifications have educated Baidya girls (Column No. 4 and Sub-
more trend in avoiding specification of caste for Column No. 2 of Table Nos. 3 and 4). Baidya girls
desired match than their more qualifi ed with graduate degree and less qualification are shown
counterparts, even though both sections do not to have more interest in prospective negotiations
168
from the Baidya and non-Baidya match (Column option for desired partners than the boys having
No. 5 of Table No. 3 and 4). Baidya girls having less graduate degree or less qualification (Column No.
qualification are also shown to have more avoided 3 of Tables Nos. 7 and 8). Choice for negotiation
specification of caste for desired match, though their from both Brahmana and Kayastha brides is higher
caste is mentioned in the text of the advertisements to some extent among the highly qualified Baidya
(Column No. 6 of Table Nos. 3 and 4). boys than the less qualified ones (Column No. 4
5.9 Choices Projected by the Brahmana boys from and Sub-Column No. 1 of Tables Nos. 7 and 8).
the Data Analysis However, boys with higher qualifications are found
Like the Bra hman a gi rls with higher to be far more interested to seek prospective
qualifications, Brahmana boys with post graduate negotiations from the Brahmana caste (Column No.
degrees and professional qualifications are more 4 and Sub-Column No. 2 of Table Nos. 7 and 8).
interested in finding desired match from their own Baidya boys with less qualification are found to
caste (Column No. 2 of Table Nos. 5 and 6). Highly have been more open t o have prospecti ve
qualified Brahmana boys are slightl y more negotiations from both Baidyas and non-Baidya
interested in declaring ‘caste no bar’ option in the match (Column No. 5 of Table Nos. 7 and 8). This
text of the advertisements (Column No. 3 of Table section of the Baidya boys also is slightly higher
Nos. 5 and 6). Desire for negotiations from both in percentage while avoiding any specific mention
Brahman and Non-Brahmana match is slightly for caste from t he prospect ive negoti ations
higher among the Brahmana boys with graduate (Column No. 6 of Table Nos. 7 and 8).
degree and less qualification (Column No. 4 of Table 5.11 Observations
Nos. 5 and 6). There is no marked improvement or Both the highly educated Brahmana girls and
decline among the two sections in the desire for boys are found to be interested in marrying within
prospective match from immediate lower castes i.e. the same caste. Highly educated Baidya girls are
Baidyas and Kayasthas (Column No 5 of Table Nos. more interested in marrying within their caste. In
5 and 6). Less qualified Brahmana boys are found case of the highly educated Baidya boys this trend
to have more avoided mentioni ng caste for is less evident. Both the sections of Brahmana girls
negotiation from desired match, though their caste and boys (i.e. highly educated and less educated)
identity is declared in the text of advertisements are not found to be very interested in choosing
(Column No. 6 of the Table Nos. 5 and 6). partners without considering caste as parameter.
5.10 Choices Projected by the Baidya Boys from Comparatively highly educated Baidya boys are
the Data Analysis found to be somewhat more interested considering
Baidya boys having higher qualifications are negotiations beyond caste consciousness. Both
not found to have much higher desire for having the highly Baidya educated boys and girls are
prospective match from their own caste only found to have been more interested in considering
(Column No. 2 of Table Nos. 7 and 8). However, prospective match from Brahmana girls and boys
they are more inclined to declare ‘caste no bar’ respectively. Baidya girls with graduate degree
169
and less qualification are more open to consider negligible number of samples are found to have
prospective match from the non-Baidya girls, avoided declaring caste identify. Their percentage
whereas Baidya boys of same category are found would come much less than one per cent and much
to be comparatively less interested in finding lower than even the samples of ‘caste no bar’
possible match from the non-Baidyas. Studying the classification (when it comes less than 1 per cent in
classified samples, it is found that except the highly some results), if calculated. That is why those are
educated Baidya boys, others from the Brahman not classified in the study. The samples of ‘caste
and Baidya girls and boys are not much interested no bar’ classified and studied are not adequate to
in considering possible match beyond caste reach any generalization. For Brahmana girls
consciousness. Even those, who declare ‘caste no whether with high or less qualification ‘caste no
bar’ as one of their criteria also mention their caste bar’ option is very low. In case of the less qualified
in the advertisements. and non-employed girls negotiations without caste
6. Conclusion consideration are sought. In case of the highly
After examining the samples and classifying qualified and well-employed ones, a little more than
tho se i n accordance to the text of the 1% samples studied prefer to go beyond any caste
advertisements, it is evident that caste is still an bias. It may be concluded that Baidya girls both
important element in the negotiations for arranged with high or less qualifications seem to be more
marriage. At least, for the sections of the population inclined to go beyo nd caste considerati on.
who choose matrimonial columns in the newspapers Brahmana boys with higher qualifications seem to
for finding suitable match caste identity is a be a little more open to choose beyond caste
compulsory element of the text of advertisements. considerations than those with less qualification.
Brahmana boys and girls are found to be not very However, the study shows that Baidya boys with
keen to find suitable match from non-Brahmana. post-graduate and professional qualifications seem
Boys and girls with post graduation degrees and to be more interested in declaring ‘caste no bar’
professional qualifications do not go beyond caste preference. Going through the contents of the
consciousness; rather the highly qualified boys and particular samples it appears that most of them
girls from the highest caste i.e. Brahmana are found desire to have prospective negotiations from
to be more interested in endogamy. Apparently a professionally qualified or handsomely employed
considerable percentage among the samples from girls. Therefore, it seems that acquiring higher
the advertisements of the Brahmanas studied (more qualification does not bring significant changes in
than 50 per cent in any case) choose to avoid the traditional outlook. But desire for better qualified
mentioning anything regarding caste from potential and employed match sometimes make people
negotiations, but they are not so open minded as apparently more considerate in this respect. The
seem to be; because they invariably mention their study reveals that ‘caste no bar’ option is yet to a
caste identity in bold fonts in the first line of the choice of larger section of the marriage negotiations
text in almost all cases. During the study, a very through matrimonial advertisements. It may be said
170
caste sometimes continues to exist in hiding behind are yet to witness radical change in the social
‘class’, determination of which varies from mindset in this regard. Modern life-style has not
edu cati onal qualifi cati on, inco me, fami ly been able to bring in fundamental shift of age-old
background etc. Desire for endogamy is a preferable social practices. Therefore, it shows a piece of
choice not only for those who categorically declare ambivalent modernism among the Bengalis in the
it in the text of advertisements, but also for those arena of matrimonial columns of newspaper.
who mention that proposals from immediate higher
or lower castes are to be considered. Given ample
scope to choose from their own castes, they would References:
certainly select matches from the same castes. In • Bandyopadhyay, S. 2011 Manusamhita, Ananda
fact, they are just keeping the options open in case Publishers Private Limited, Kolkata.
of better negotiations with better income or • Bandyopadhyay, S. 2004. Caste, Culture and
qualifications. If other criteria regarding looks, Hegemony: Social Dominance in Colonial
income, qualifications and family background are Bengal, Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd., New
fulfilled along with caste criterion too, they would Delhi.
certainly look for endogamy. Consideration for • Davis, M. 1983. Rank and Rivalry: The Politics
hypogamy is not very high (less than 7 per cent in of Inequality in Rural West Bengal, Cambridge
all cases) among Brahmana girls whether highly University Press, London.
educated or not. However, Baidya girls with higher • Dumont, L. 1980. Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste
qualifications and less qualification are more open and its Implications, Chicago University Press,
to consider hypogamy than their Brahman USA.
counterparts. A considerable section highly • Dumont, L. 1966. ‘Marriage in India: The
educated Baidya girls seem to be somewhat keen present state of question’, Contributions to
to have prospective match from the Brahmana Indian Sociology, Part-III, Vol-IX, 90 -114.
boys, a desire for hypergamy is thus evident. Even, • Ghosh, S. 2011. Bangali Jati Parichay,
a section of the highly educated Baidya boys are Sahityalok, Calcutta.
found to be keen to consider proposals from • Ghosh, B. (ed.). 2007. Ramtanu Lahiri O
Brahmana girls. Tatkalin Bangasamaj, New Age Publishers
So caste is still an essential element in marriage Private Limited, Kolkata.
negotiations and endogamy is still preferable for a • Gore, M. S.1990. Urbanization and Family
considerable section of the highest castes. As far Change, Papular Prakashan Private Limited,
the findings of this study are considered, higher Bombay.
education does not bring higher mind among the • Inden, R. B. 1976. Marriage and Rank in
highest caste of Bengal. Overall, a craving for Bengali Culture, University of California Press,
endogamy is noticed. This study has revealed a USA.
piece of social mindset of the higher castes. Bengalis • Machaels, A. 2004. Hinduism: Past and Present,
171
Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Bengal, Vol.-I,: P. Mukherjee, Calcutta.

Jersy. • Seal, A. 1971. The Emergence of Indian
• Majumdar, R. 2009. Marriage and Modernity: Nationalism, Cambridge University Press.
Family Values in Colonial Bengal, Duke • Sharma, R. K. 2004. Indian Society, Institution
University Press, United States of America. and Chan ge, Atl ant ic P ubli shers and
• Markovits, C. (ed.). 2002. A History of Modern Distributers New Delhi.
India 1480-1950, Anthem Press, London. • Sharma, R. S.2011. Prachin Bharater Samajik
• Mukhopadhyay, M. 2012 Matchmakers and O Arthanaitik Itihas, Orient Blackswan,
Intermediation. Economic and Political Weekly, Kolkata.
Vol. XLVII. (No. 43, October, 27), p. 90. • Vyas, R. 1992. Nature of Indian Culture,
• Oberoi, P. 2006. Freedom and Destiny, Gender, Concept Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
Family and Popular Culture in India, Oxford • Re-negotiating Gender Relations in Marriage:
University Press, New Delhi. Family, Class and Community in Kolkata in
• Ray, N. 1414 -B.S.. Bangalir Itihas, Adi Parva, an Era of Globalisation, A Report published
Day’s Publishing, Kolkata. by School of Women Stu dies, Jadavpur
• Risley, H. H. 1998. The Tribes and Caste of University, Kolkata-700032 in December, 2009.
172
The Spirit of Renaissance: Reflections on Derozio’s Mind and Work
Bibhas Chand
Abstract
Historically the Renaissance is the period of fresh growth and enlightenment in the field of art, culture, literature and
ideas in Europe, especially Italy, during the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. The word ‘Renaissance’ generally denotes
the revival of learning, culture and the arts. In the beginning of the nineteenth century, there occurred in Bengal an
enlightenment in education and culture which was similar to the European Renaissance. This phenomenon is widely
known as ‘Bengal Renaissance’. The period from 1825 to 1845 is marked by the historians as the first phase of
Bengal Renaissance. Henry Derozio (1809-1831), the first Indian English poet, contributed significantly to the
growth of Bengal Renaissance through his influential teaching and writings. The present paper aims to study
Derozio’s philosophy of life and his works as a driving force of Bengal Renaissance.
Key Words: Renaissance; Bengal Renaissance; Enlightenment; Reformation; Rationalism; Intellectual liberation;
Indian English Literature; Poetry; Humanism;
The word ‘Renaissance’ generally denotes the period of Michelangelo and Machiavelli), and
revival of learning, culture and the arts and it acts spread to the rest of Europe in the 15th cent, and
as an indicator of new growth of activity and afterwards. Its emphasis was humanist: that is, on
interest in literature and culture, philosophy and regarding the human figure and reason without a
ideas. Historically the Renaissance is the period of necessary relating of it to the superhuman.... The
fresh growth and enlightenment in the field of art, word Renaissance has been applied in the 20th cent,
culture, literature and ideas in Europe, especially to earlier periods which manifested a new interest
Italy, during the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. in and study of the classics....” (Drabble 846) The
According to The Oxford Companion to English same idea has been found in Alfred Von Martin’s
Literature (6th Edition), Renaissance is “the great Sociology of the Renaissance: “the typological
flowering of art, architecture, politics, and the study importance of the Renaissance is that it marks the
of literature, usually seen as the end of the Middle first cultural and social breach between the Middle
Ages and the beginning of the modern world . . . . It Ages and modern times: it is a typical early stage of
began in Italy in the late 14th cent., culminated in modern age” (Martin 3). It is often said that during
the High Renaissance in the early 16th cent, (the the Renaissance, the literary, philosophical and
Assistant Professor, Department of English, Raja N.L. Khan Women’s College, Midnapore, West Bengal, India.
173
artistic works of the ancient Greeks came to be was truly a Renaissance, wider, deeper, and more
rediscovered and studied and taught anew. This revolutionary than that of Europe, after the fall of
Renaissance has been described as the revival of Constantine.” (Sarkar 491) Nemai Sadhan Bose
ancient learning. This is the common view about preferred t he t erm ‘awakeni ng’ inst ead of
European Renaissance. But Prof. Sibnarayan Ray “Renaissance’. According to him, “This historic and
has termed this view as a ‘narrow’ one. To him, “the fascinating phase has variously been described as
main feature of the Renaissance was not revival, the Indian Renaissance, the Indian Reformation,
but creativeness. … The spirit of Renaissance the Indian Resurgence, etc. But none of these terms
affected all aspects of human life and individual is altogether satisfactory…. But that modern India
pursuits in science and philosophy, in religion and evolved out of the awakening of the nineteenth
morals, in social and political thinking, in literature century is a historic truth, and it was Bengal which
and the Arts, in education and institutional life”. was the centre of this awakening.” (Bose Preface)
(Ray 14) The most influential and oft-quoted writing in this
In the beginning of the nineteenth century, field is Prof. Susobhan Sarkar’s Notes on the Bengal
there occurred in Bengal an enlightenment in Renaissance, first published in 1946 under his
education and culture which was similar to the pseudo-name Amit Sen. Prof. Sarkar had given a
European Renaissance, although the context was very clear but brief description of the whole situation
much different. This phenomenon is known as of Bengal Renaissance in his booklet. He wrote:
‘Bengal Renaissance’. This enlightenment in the “The impact of British Rule, bourgeois economy
area of darkness was the result of the establishment and modern Western culture was felt first in Bengal
of the Hindu College (now Presidency University) and produced an awakening known usually as the
in 1817. This college developed Western education, Bengal Renaissance. For about a century, Bengal’s
logical learning and culture in the place of prevalent conscious awareness of the changing modern
Brahminical social system, orthodox rituals and world was more developed than and ahead of that
superstitious beliefs. Bengal Renaissance is the of the rest of India. The role played by Bengal in
result of the encounter between the Bengali elite the modern awakening of India is thus comparable
and Western civilization and culture. David Kopf to the position occupied by Italy in the story of the
called this enlightenment ‘New Intelligentsia’ (Kopf European Renaissance.” (Sarkar 11) In a most recent
253). Although Bengal Renaissance is still a book in this field, Subrata DasGupta has drawn a
controversial subject, eminent historians and very fine conclusion on this debate in an artistic
scholars of nineteenth century Bengal like Sir way: “Was the Bengal Renaissance anything like
Jadunath Sarkar, Binoy Ghose, Susobhan Sarkar, the Italian one? Many eminent Indian (and some
David Kopf, Nimai Sadhan Bose, Ramesh Chandra Western) thinkers have pondered and debated this
Mazu mdar fi rmly believed that t here was a question. But really, the answer does not matter.
Renaissance in Bengal having its birth in the early What matters is that there came into being in Bengal,
th
period of 19 century. Jadunath Sarkar wrote, “It beginning sometime in the waning years of the
174
Bibhas Chand
eighteenth century and flowering to fullness himself like a magnet a group of young pupils in
through the nineteenth century, an awakening of the upper classes who began to adore him and drink
the Indian mind of such a nature that we call it a deep in the stream of free thought’. (Sen 16) These
revolution. The ‘Bengal Renaissance’ was the name followers of Derozio are known as ‘Young Bengal’,
given to this revolutionary awakening of the Indian later ‘Derozians’. Derozio encouraged them to
mind.” (DasGupta 2) debate freely and to doubt everything. He asked
Susobhan Sarkar had divided the whole period them not to accept anything without questioning
of Bengal Renaissance into five sections (Sarkar 12): that subject. Derozio was a competent scholar, gifted
(I) 1815-1833: The earliest starting point is, of writer and radical thinker. Sibnath Sastri wrote,
course, the date 1815, when Rammohun Roy ‘Derozio developed the zeal of free thought among
settled down in Calcutta and took up seriously his pupils.’ This legacy of freedom of thought and
his life’s work. His death in 1833 obviously expression is the soul of Renaissance. Derozio took
ends the period of which he was, indisputably, this lesson of free thinking from his ‘Guru’ David
the central figure. Drummond. David Drummond was a renowned free-
(II) 1833-1857: From the death of Rammohun to the thinker and a scholar. Drummond was a follower of
outbreak of the Indian Mutiny. David Hume’s philosophy of ‘empiricism’ and
(III) 1857-1885: From the Mutiny to the foundation ‘skepticism’. In the eighteenth century, books like
of the Indian National Congress. Essay on Miracles, An Enquiry Concerning the
(IV) 1885- 1905: From the commencement of the Principles of Morals, Dialogues Concerning
Congress to the partition of Bengal. National Religion, An Enquiry Concerning Human
(V) 1905-1919: From the partition and the great Understanding, and Treatise of Human Nature laid
swadesi agitation to the coming of non- a deep impression among the young generation of
cooperatio n and leadership o f Mahatma Europe. Drummond belonged to this generation and
Gandhi. was influenced by these books and Derozio was
Pandit Sibnath Sastri had also marked the initial his perfect disciple.
period of Bengal Renaissance from 1825-1845 Being inspired by Derozio, his students went
(Bagal 63). Derozio belonged to this first phase of on reading the radical thoughtful books like Tom
Bengal Renaissance and his contribution to it is Paine’s Age of Reason, Right of Man etc. Derozio
immense and significant. taught his students to question all authority: the
Dr. R. K. DasGupta called Derozio ‘the morning lesson of rationalism and empiricism. PearyChand
star of the nineteenth century Bengal Renaissance” Mittra, one of the Derozians, wrote the following,
(DasGupta.2007. 222). Derozio’s contribution to the about Derozio’s impact, in his A Biographical
Bengal Renaissance began with the launch of his Sketch of David Hare published in 1878:
remarkable career as a teacher of Hindu College. He “Of all the teachers Mr. H L V Derozio gave
introduced the ‘Advancement of Learning’ in his the greatest impetus to free discussion on all
new way of teaching. Thus, ‘he at once drew to subjects, social, moral and religious. He was
175
himself a free thinker and possessed affable Derozio’s teaching did not go in vain. One of
manners. He encouraged students to come and his pupils, Ramgopal Ghose held up the motto: “He
open their minds to him. The advanced students who will not reason is a bigot; he who cannot is a
of the Hindu college frequently sought for his fool; and he who does not is a slave,” Another,
company during tiffin time, after school hours, Radhanath Sikdar said of him: “He has been the
and at his house. He encouraged everyone to cause and the sole cause of that spirit of inquiry
speak out. This led to free exchange of thought after truth, and that contempt of vice— which
and reading of books which otherwise would cannot but, be beneficial to India.” (Sarkar 100)
not have been read. These books were chiefly PearyChand Mittra wrote the same more clearly:
poetical, metaphysical and religious.” (Mittra “Derozio appears to have made strong impression
16) on his pupils, as they regularly visited him at his
Rev. Lal Behari Dey commented about these house and spent hours in conversation with him.
classes of Derozio at Hindu college: “… it was… He continued to teach at home what he had taught
more like the Academus of Plato, or the Lyceum of at school. He used to impress upon his pupils the
Aristotle.” (Dey 29) Derozio did not keep his sacred duty of thinking for themselves— to live
teaching within the limits of the classroom, but he and die for truth— to cultivate and practise all the
established Academic Association, a debating club virtues, shunning vice in every shape.” (Sarkar 27)
in 1828 with his pupils. Not onlythe Derozians, but One more contemporary record will be very
the notable personality of that time like David Hare, apt to show how Derozio’s ‘New Learning’ brought
private secretary to Lord Bentinck, was regular a great moral revolution among the youth and how
visitor to the Association which used to discuss it stirred the stagnant orthodox Hindu society of
topics like free-will and fate, virtue and vice, nineteenth century Bengal. Baboo Huro Mohun
patriotism, arguments for and against the existence Chatterji recorded the effect produced by Derozio
of God, the shames of idolatryand priesthood. Thus, on his pupils and on the higher Hindu Society of
Derozio cast a magical influence on his pupils who his day in a manuscript history of the Hindu College:
not only joined the progressive discussions of their “The students of the first, second and third
master, but also exercised new thoughts in their classes had the advantage of attending a
practical life. Derozio’s biographer Thomas Conversazione established in the schools by
Edwards aptly wrote: “No teacher ever taught with Mr. Derozio where readings in poetry,
greater zeal, with more enthusiasm, with more loving literature, and moral philosophy were carried
intercourse between master and pupil than marked on. The meetings were held almost daily after
the short term of Derozio’s connection with the or before school hours. Though they were
Hindoo College. Neither before, nor since his day, without the knowledge or sanction of the
has any teacher within the walls of any native authorities, yet Mr. Derozio’s disinterested
educational establishment in India, ever exercised zeal and devotion in bringing up the students
such an influence over his pupils.” (Edwards 23) in thes e subjects was unb ound ed, and
176
Bibhas Chand
characterized by a love and philanthropy tolerance, and the idea of universal human rights.’
which, up to this day, has not been equalled Dr. R. K. DasGupta also remarked, “What made
by any teacher either in or out of the service. Derozio a unique figure in the new educational
The students in their turn loved him most system was that he brought into it the finest ideals
tenderly; and were ever ready to be guided by of the European Enlightenment, the most important
his counsels and imitate him in all their daily of which was the spirit of enquiry, a rationalist and
actions in life. In fact, Mr. Derozio acquired skeptical approach to the vital concerns of social
such an ascendancy over the minds of his and individual life.” (Edwards Foreword) The
pupils that they would not move even in their Derozians, the close followers of Derozio, who came
private concerns without his counsel and to be known as ‘Young Bengal’ o r ‘Yo ung
advice. On the other hand, he fostered their Calcutta’(Mittra 28), were ‘aflame with love for the
taste in literature, taught the evil effects of twin gods of liberty and rationalism’. (Bose 47)
idolatry and superstition; and so far formed Derozio promoted the three essential traits of
their moral conceptions and feelings as to make Renaissance: ‘Freedom of Thought’, “Freedom of
them completely above the antiquated ideas Expression’, ‘Freedom of Association’. The young
and aspirations of the age. Such was the force pupils of Derozio were ‘the makers of Modern
of his instructions that the conduct of the Bengal and of our Nineteenth Century Renaissance.’
students o ut o f the co llege was mo st Dr. R. K. DasGupta had firmly placed Derozio in the
exemplary, and gained them the applause of first position in the History of Bengal Renaissance:
the outside world, not only in a literary and ‘Derozio was the first to contemplate an intellectual
scientific point of view, but what was of still Renaissance for an ancient civilization through ‘new
greater importance; they were all considered percepti ons’, the first to exalt reason as an
men of ‘truth’! Indeed, the ‘College boy’ was instrument of progress.” (Bradley-Birt Foreword)
a synonym for truth, and it was a general belief The result of Bengal Renaissance and spread
and saying among our countrymen, which of English education system also gave birth to a
tho se that remember the time must new discipline of Indian literature which is now
acknowledge, that ‘such a boy is incapable of called Indian English Literature where again credit
falsehood because he is a ‘College boy”. goes to Derozio as the first Indian poet to write in
(Edwards 51) original English. Derozio’s Renaissance mind has
We can easily detect the spirit of eighteenth found its reflections in his teaching as well as in his
century Enlightenment of West in the mind and poetical works. Derozio had sown the seed of
works of Derozio. The Enlightenment is the intellectual revolution in young Bengal. That he
movement of intellectual liberation. Enlightenment wanted to see the seed to germinate and develop
is defined by Kant as man’s emancipation from his later into a majestic tree with goodly fruit was
self-incurred immaturity. ‘Enlightenment thinking brilliantly articulated in one of his famous sonnets—
encouraged rational scientific inquiry, humanitarian ‘To the Pupils of Hindu College’:
177
Expanding like the petals of young flowers is very sympathetic towards the ‘neglected, mute,
I watch the gentle opening of your minds. and desolate’ condition of mother India, perhaps in
And the sweet loosening of the spell the binds, the hand of the British rulers, and very energetic to
Your intellectual energies and powers, arouse its lost spirit by striking its strain:
That stretch (Like young birds in soft summer Why hang’st thou lonely on yon withered
hours) bough?
Their wings, to try their strength, O, how the Unstrung forever, must thou there remain;
winds Thy music once was sweet — who hears it
Of circumstances and freshening April showers now?
Of early knowledge and unnumbered kinds Why doth the breeze sigh over thee in vain?
Of new perceptions shed their influence; Silence hath bound thee with her fatal chain;
And how you worship truth’s omnipotence. Neglected, mute, and desolate art thou,
What joyance rains upon me, when I see Like ruined monument on desert plain:
Fame in the mirror of futurity, O! many a hand more worthy far than mine
Weaving the chaplets you have yet to gain Once thy harmonious chords to sweetness
Ah then, I feel I have not lived in vain. gave,
(Chaudhuri 291) And many a wreath for them did Fame entwine
Dr. R K. DasGupta remarked, ‘the history of Of flowers still blooming on the minstrel’s
our Renaissance is the history of ‘the gentle grave:
opening of minds’ (Dasgupta 2 007, 233 ). Those hands are cold — but if thy notes divine
Interestingly the same spirit of Derozio was also May be by mortal wakened once again,
reflect ed i n one of his pro se piece tit led Harp of my country, let me strike the strain!
“Conclusion of My Address to My Students Before (Chaudhuri 97)
the Grand Vacat ion in 1 829”, pu blished In To My Native Land, Derozio shows his love
posthumously: for his native land recalling the glorious past of
“As your knowledge increases, your moral her:
principles will be fortified; and rectitude of conduct My country! In thy days of glory past
will ensure happiness. My advice to you is, that A beauteous halo circled round thy brow
you go forth into the world strong in wisdom and and worshipped as a deity thou wast—
in worth; scatter the seeds of love among mankind; Where is thy glory, where the reverence now?
seek the peace of your fellow-creatures, for in their Thy eagle pinion is chained down at last,
peace you will have peace yourselves.” (Chaudhuri And grovelling in the lowly dust art thou,
386) A very important fact was noticed by Stephen Thy minstrel hath no wreath to weave for thee
Hay that “His (Derozio’s) poems to India are Save the sad story of thy misery!
virtually the first expressions of Indian nationalist Well—let me dive into the depths of time
thought”. (Hay 566) In The Harp of India, Derozio And bring from out the ages, that have rolled
178
Bibhas Chand
A few small fragments of these wrecks sublime moral duty? Do you think the intermarriage of
Which human eye may never more behold brothers and sisters innocent and allowable?’
And let the guerdon of my labour be, (Chaudhuri 319) Derozio had not stopped sending
My fallen country! One kind wish for thee! only the letter of resignation. On the next day, he
(Bradley-Birt 2) replied all questions from his indomitable position.
Derozio’s long poetical work The Fakir of For the first question, Derozio wrote, ‘I have never
Jungheera (published in 1828) is a fine expression denied the existence of a God in the hearing of any
of Renaissance Humanism. It is a metrical tale on human being. If it be wrong to speak at all upon
Sati Burning system. The tale revolves round such a subject, I am guilty; but I am neither afraid,
Nulinee, a Brahmin widow who was rescued by her nor ashamed to confess having stated the doubts
former lover, a Muslim youth, at the time of of philosophers upon this head, because I have
ascending upon the pyres. After being rescued she also stated the solution of these doubts. Is it
eloped with her lover to live a happy life upon the fo rbidden anywhere to argue u pon such a
rocks of Jungheera. Accordingly the royal forces question? If so, it must be equally wrong to adduce
began to search the culprit. The narrative ends with an argument upon either side.’ (Chaudhuri 322) Prof.
the death of two lovers in the battlefield. The poet’s Susobhan Sarkar commented ‘his answer to the
focus on the value of love and humanity against question whether he had undermined his pupils’
the cruel social custom, prejudice and orthodoxy is faith in god is deservedly famous in the annals of
noteworthy. The union between Hindu Brahmin the Bengal Renaissance’. (Sarkar 103) Derozio
and Muslim, as shown in the poem, is a brave voice dismissed the other charges scornfully. His brave
of Humanistic secularism, progressive harmony and spirit came out at the end of the letter to describe
passion for liberty. the Native Managers who were the main causes for
Derozio’s new radicalism was not understood such an injustice to him: ‘Excuse my saying it, but
in his own time; that is why he was removed from I believe there was a determination on their part to
the job of Hindu College without giving him ‘even get rid of me, not to satisfy popular clamour, but
a mockery of trial’. But Derozio’s ever enquiring their own bigotry. Had my religion and morals been
spirit, his Renaissance intellect, found its best investigated by them, they could have had no
expression in the reply which he wrote to H .H. grounds to proceed against me. They therefore
Wilson, ‘his firm friend throughout his career’, in thought it most expedient to make no enquiry, but
defense of the charges brought against him by the with anger and precipitation to remove me from the
authorities of the Hindu College. It was from H. H. institution. The slovenly manner in which they have
Wilson’s letter, dated 25th April 1831, Derozio came done so, is a sufficient indication of the spirit by
to know the ridiculous, superstitious charges which which they were moved; for in their rage they have
the authorities of Hindu College had brought forgotten what was due even to common decency.’
against him: ‘Do you believe in a God? Do you (Chaudhuri 325)
think respect and obedience to parents no part of The last line of Subir Roy Chaudhury’s book
179
on Derozio runs like this: ‘Without him (Derozio) Dey, L. B. 1879, Recollections of Alexander Duff. London:
the history of Indian Renaissance is incomplete’. T. Nelson and Sons. Print
(Roy Chaudhury 103) The freedom of expression Drabble, M. (Ed.) 2000, The Oxford Companion to
of opinion, even against the state, which is the English Literature (6th Edn). New York: Oxford
essence of modern civil society and Human Rights University Press. Print
movement finds its seed in the radical thought of Edwards, T. 2002, Henry Derozio(1884). New Delhi:
Derozio. If we ignore it, it will be a gross injustice to Rupa & Co. Print
Derozio and a serious mistake in modern Indian Hay, S. N. 1958, ‘Modern India and Pakisthan’. In T. D.
history. Bary, Sources of Indian Tradition (pp. 566-571). New
York: Columbia University Press. Print
Kopf, D. 1969, British Orientalism and the Bengal
Works Cited Renaissance. California: University of California
Bagal, J. C. 1370 (Bengali), Banglar Nabajagoroner Press. Print
Kotha . Calcutta: Basudhara Prakasani. Print Martin, A. V. 1944, Sociology of the Renaissance. London:
Bose, N. K. 1959, Modern Bengal. Calcutta: Vidyo Daya. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. Print
Print Mittra, P. C. 1979, A Biographical Sketch of David Hare.
Bose, N. S. 1990, Indian Awakening and Bengal (3rd Calcutta: Jijnasa Publishers. Print
Ed). Calcutta: Firma K L M Pvt. Ltd. Print Ray, S. 1999, The Spirit of the Renaissance. Calcutta:
Bradley-Birt, F. B. 1980, Poems of henry Louis Vivian Renaissance Publishers. Print
Derozio(1923). Calcutta: Oxford University Press. Roy Chaudhury, S. 2005, Henry Derozio: Tar Jibon O
Print Somoy (Bengali) . New Delhi: National Book Trust.
Chaudhuri, R. (Ed.) 2008, Derozio, Poet of India: the Print
Definitive Edition. New Delhi: Oxford University Sarkar, J. 1948, The History of Bengal, Vol.II . Dacca:
Press. Print The University of Dacca. Print
DasGupta, R. K. 2007, Prabandha Sangraha. Calcutta: Sarkar, S. 2002, On the Bengal Renaissance (3rd Edn).
Ebong Musayera. Print Calcutta: Papyrus. Print
Dasgupta, S. 2011, Awakening: The Story of the Bengal Sen, A. 1946, Notes on the Bengal Renaissance. Bombay:
Renaissance. Noida: Random House India. Print People’s Publishing House. Print
180
Status of Tribal Women in India :Some Observations
Dr. Papia Gupta
ABSTRACT
It is portrayed generally that the socio-economic status of women in tribal society comparatively better than non-
tribal but what the real scenario is, like other social group they are oppressed, sexually harassed and dominated
some way or other. This theoretical paper tries to focus the challenges and situation meted by them in urban society
as well as in their own so called free liberal society. In this connection the article also attempts to highlight the issue
of witchcraft, the most painful brutal form of violence against women in tribal society.
Key Words: Status of tribal women, tribal marriage, ghotul, gender inequality, witchcraft.
The mentality of the people of urban Indian society of the marginalized section of society. The tribal
regarding t he tribal people is very low and women are prone to sexual harassment in their
demeaning that does not require a huge knowledge society as well as in the urban areas where they
to understand this. It should be mentioned here venture for work. The tribal women are considered
that they are considered as primitive, barbarian, as sex symbol, black beauty, who could be used in
savage, wild, silly etc. The Santhal Rebellion during any possible way, could be mocked and ridiculed
1855- 1856 gave rise to a separate Santhal regime and could be stripped of her pride in public.
and this was the threshold from where a difference Basically the sexual freedom in the tribal society
was created between the tribal and the urban can never be granted by the urban society. The
society. This has given the tribal population a sense tribal women are thought to be chaotic and
of incompetence and unworthiness. The oppressed, accustomed to free sexual intercourse. Therefore,
exploited and deprived poor tribals believe that the when they travel to far off places for the need of
urban population would never consider them as employment, they are prone to sexual harassment
humans with equal rights. Their culture is depleting and sexual exploitation. The biggest surprise is that
day by day due to poverty even their identity is in this problem of sexual exploitation and harassment
danger. of the powerless and defenseless tribal women goes
If this is the scenario and the tribal society is unnoti ced by t he society and no adequate
treated in this manner , it is very hard to distinguish measures are taken to protect them. One of the
the situation meted to the tribal women, the marginal reason for this type of dealing could be the timid
Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy and the Life-world, Vidyasagar University, Midnapore, West Bengal,
India.
181
nature of the tribal women who are always fearful was one of the method which was used to suppress
about their social defamation and not filing a this movement. This is very demeaning because rape
complain of such types to the eminent authority or is not used to suppress a particular person or a
the police. Though there is no assurance that she community or a group but is used against a particular
would not face similar kind of harassment when gender. Here it has to be noted that women are not
she goes to lodge a complaint to the police station. directly involved in any kind of violence or movement.
I would like to quote a statement given by a tribal She is used as a bait out here to take revenge upon
woman here - a particular community or a group and to insult the
"All of us live in fear of rape. In cities and men of that particular group or community.
villages girls are told not to go out after drinks, Another incident took place in the month of
never to go into deserted areas, always to be under March in the year 1979. In the village named
the protection of men. Many of us are not raped Pakadiya, the police continued the treachery for
because we have bartered o ur freedom for three consecutive days wherein killing Santhal men
protection..... For most of non-tribals in the area, and raping and molesting the Santhal women took
tribals are sub-human creatures, whose land is to place. Similar incidents took place in villages of
be usurped, whose possessions are to be looted, Kerowar, Bakhada, Phulowadiya, Gangarampur,
who can with impurity be laughed at and pushed Digghi, Vishaha and Rajau to stop the movement
aside. As for tribal women, they are prostituted, of " Dhan Katai". Many villages were burnt. The
raped, beaten and discarded: objectified in every tribal men fled from their areas but the tribal women
way."1 were looted of their jewellery, injured by lathicharge
Some evidential documents of such types of and each one of them was raped by the police. The
torture made by non-tribal people can be produced description of the helplessness of the tribal women
here. Traditionally, though all the lands of the faced during that time could be found in the women
Santhal Parganas belonged to the tribals of those movements documents.
areas, they did not have any official papers to prove " Item by items their jewellery was stripped
it. Therefore, the bordering areas of Bengal, Bihar off. Their houses were broken into, their vessels
and Orissa got prone to infiltrations and outsiders stolen and their grain stores plundered. What the
not belonging to the tribal class took possession CRP did not want to steal they smashed. Almost all
of the lands, because the tribal people did not have the women were raped – sometimes by two,
official documents regarding the same. To protest sometimes by three and a few by five men.”2
this type of forceful acquisition of land in the year Two of the incidents of rape that took place in
1977 Jharkhand Mukti Morcha was established and the village of Phu lbani in Odisha coul d be
the peasant movement of ‘dhan katai’ started. But mentioned here. In the Sevashram Vidyalaya a tribal
to maintain the law and order in those areas the girl student of standard three was raped by her
Central Reserve Police did lathicharge and firings teacher who was a non tribal. Though the school
and killed innocent tribal men and women. Rape authority and the child's parents complained this
182
Dr. Papia Gupta
case promptly but the case was registered only on the girl and her famil y before the marriage
11th January 1989. The second incident is that of a ceremonies take place. At a glance we could say
tribal women, who was a daily wager, being raped that this custom helps in women’s independency
by two drunk tribal men, who were her neighbors, and saves them from all the ill treatment meted due
on 27th June 1984 at 1.30 am. She reported this to the dowry system of the Indian society. But at
matter to the police immediately who first refused the same time this gives rise to a bad custom –
to take the case. Later the police did lodge the female infanticide. Here we could give an example
complain but instructed the tribal lady not to do of the customs followed in a village called Khond
any medical checkup to prove the rape. Lastly she in Orissa. The khond tribal of this region kills their
was given Rs 100 as compensation against the rape female child after birth. This is due to the khond
case and was denied the justice that she deserved. custom where women of this tribe enjoys the freewill
The rapists were thus allowed to live a prestigious of leaving their existing husband and getting married
society life and was not punished for the crime they for the second or the third time. In this type of
had committed. In the criminal law of every country cases the husband is liable to get his dowry amount
rape and molestation against women by the police back and the father of the bride is bound to pay him
or the armed forces fetches the highest amount of the amount. Sometimes by doing so the father of
punishment but its implementation faces difficulty. the bride turns bankrupt, and thus this type of bad
This is due to the reason that the people in power custom is followed. This is why the tribal of the
commits the crimes and thus it becomes next to khond society killed their female born after birth,
impossible to go against them. Other than this, though this custom has reduced in recent times.
illiteracy of the tribal women, their ignorance of their This could not be denied that the tribal women
rights and law are the factors which causes enjoy freedom regarding marriage as well as
hindrance in implementing the punishments. economic status compared to other women of the
Another reason is poverty. The cost incurred to society. For example, in West Bengal the tribal
carry on the legal case is beyond the capacity of women are sharing equal ecomomic position with
the tribal victim. The corrupt legal system is also the men folks, So it is difficult to differentiate them
responsible because some officials take bribe and in this ground. Thus, economic differences could
even conceal the evidence . not be counted as a specialized area. They are
Now the question arises whether the tribal equally involved in jhum farming, permanent
women are really secured within their own society. agriculture, cattle rearing, handcrafts and gathering
Do they lead a respectable and dignified life? forest resources. They not only work professionally,
According to the general consensus, the tribal but the whole responsibility of running a household
women enjoy a lot more freedom than the non tribal is also upon them. Cleanling the house, taking care
women in India. We get an example of this freedom of their children, seniors and pets, all belong to
in respect of the dowry system prevalent in the them and they fulfill them with great expertise, which
tribal society. The tribal boy has to pay dowry to is due to the influence of the patriarchal society.
183
Basically capitalism and patriarchy use the labour unsatisfied with his wife, he could keep a parallel
of tribal women sometimes without pay and relationship with another woman, by marrying her
sometimes with nominal wages. or by staying in a live-in-relationshi p. Men
Generally in the tribal society marriage takes belonging to the Ho tribal community has the right
place in two ways. Either they are arranged with to keep two wives. The first wife takes care of the
the consent of the tribal women or the tribal couple permanent agriculture where as the second wife
elopes and later gets the consent from the adults of looks after the household chores. Therefore in both
the family and society. In both the cases, the the cases women are exploited for labor.
consent of the woman is mandatory, but other than Similar to the non tribal society, the tribal
this, marriage also can takes place in exchange of societies also impose some rules and regulations
money, by capturing women forcefully or by buying for their women which deneam them socially as well
them from their parents. Since in tribal society as emotionally. They are not allowed to plough, to
having sex before marriage is not illigial, the so called hunt, to construct a tent or barrack just to maintain
virginity of women doesn't carry much value or the economic hold of men in the society over the
importance. It could be mentioned here that sexual women. Ironically though they are prohibited from
proximity before marriage is one of the customs in the above mentioned work, they are intermittently
the tribal society which is called Ghotul or the involved in them. For example the field has to be
dormitory club. The Onrao tribals calls it Dhumkuria ready to be ploughed and the women take care to
whereas the Munda tribals calls it Gitiora. Other that and then only the men could plough. The
than this , the festivals of Sohrai and Sarhul of the patriarchal tribal societ y imposes a lot of
Santhal tribes allow free sex before marriage. During instructions on their women, but the matriarchal
these festivals tribal women can have sex proximity tribal society ignores it. In the case of Santhal,
even when she is not married and if she gets Onrao and Kharia tribes there is no such rules that
pregnant the man is responsible to marry her. Now the women cannot plough. Actually there is no
if the man refuses to marry her, she is married off scientific reason behind these types of rules. The
with some other men and the dowry is not claimed only reason is to maintain a hold over women by
by the girl's family. the men in the society. Now if a family does not
But in spite of these facts, there is no doubt have a male member, all these jobs are done by the
that the tribal woman’s life and sexuality is women naturally and therefore these so called rules
dominated by the patriarchal society. When a tribal are baseless there.
woman has an extramarital affair, it is said that the The worst form of oppression towards women
husband's right is violated. In the Onrao tribal in the tribal society is denoting them as witches
society , if a woman leaves her husband and goes and hunting them down and then burning them
on to marry another man, the woman’s parents have alive. This too is an example of the patriarchal hold
to return the dowry amount to the exiting husband. and its violence prone attitude. It is not the mere
On the contrary if the man of this tribe is sexually influence of tribal religion alone, but more the
184
Dr. Papia Gupta
fulfillment of the interests of male society to upon a time all the men of the village gathered and
dominate women in all respect, give rise to such stated that their wives abuses them. They wanted
custom. Out here it is very important to understand a solution for the same. So they went to the lord of
who could be called a witch? A witch is a person the jungle Maran Buru and prayed for relief. The
who does black magic and has some supernatural jungle god promised them that he would teach them
powers with which she could harm others. The to tackle the women and asked the men folk to visit
existence of witches is found in the poverty stricken him on a particular night. The women of the village
backward tribal society of India. The tribals came to know this, and on that particular night all
belonging to the Bhil tribe, Dubla tribe, Nayak tribe, the men were made to drink alcohol and they fell
Kankona tribe, Chodhar Tribe, Dhodiya tribe, asleep. The women disguised as men went into the
Ghamit tribe, Dhanka tribe etc has a strong belief in jungle and the jungle god taught them the wizardry
witchcraft. Other than these tribes of Muriya, Ho and even gave them the power to destroy the men.
etc believes in the wizadry. Some years back, the The day after all the men of the village went to
Indian government declared that every year there Maran Buru and narrated to him what had happened
are around 202 cases of witch hunt being registered the previous night. The jungle god realized his
in India where the witches are killed. This has two mistake and taught the men how to distinguish
significance- firstly, there are laws but not being those ladies who knew the art of witchcraft.5
implemented properly and secondly, in each of the The significance of this type of folklore is–
state the witch killing is much higher than what is Firstly, women had learnt the wizardry by falsehood
reported because only one or two out of six that was not their right and Secondly, even the God
hundred cases gets registered. helped the men to dominate the women in what so
Basically in the tribal societies of India the ever way possible. This is depicted in the tale by
witchcraft is a gender biased custom which is stating that the men were given the powers to hunt
prevalent because of the patriarchal hold and it is the women who knew witchcraft. These men were
inculcated into the tribal religion. Wizardry or later called as Ojha, Dewra, Janaguru or Jaanguru.
witchcraft was a revolt against the prevalent Therefore in the tribal society, the hierchy of
customs of the society and so it had to be the men was est abli shed by the repressi ve
dominated to maintain peace and discipline in the governance in which the division was such that
tribal society. Since the religion of the tribals were the women was stated as a witch and the men as
once influenced by women and later both men and witch hunters. Basically this system is very fruitful
women were the part of it, the patriarchal tribal social method to control women in the society. In
society inflicted witchcraft as a fierce tool against the Santhal society, the wizardry or witch craft
the women to dominate them. flourished because women were not allowed to take
In the Santhal society , the witchcraft is found part actively in the religious rituals of their family
in some folklores where it is intermittently twined and as well as the community rituals and idol
with their religion. The folklore states that once worships. The family rituals are performed by the
185
father and then followed by his sons. Whenever patriarchal society which means the hold of women
the santhal women try to worship secretly or follow in that society has drastically gone down. Due to
religious ways secretly they are noted as witches this we find there very few cases where the women
and killed. Therefore the tribal women are deprived has been denoted as a witch. But the custom of
from following their religious ways by the men of having witch is still prevalent in men and women
their society. This states that one class of people here.
(men) clearly deprives and dominates the other In some patriarchal tribal society the women
class (women) just to fulfill their egocentric ways have the right to possess land in some cases. In
and turns the other class into a vegetative state exceptional cases unmarried daughter, wife and a
where she is not allowed to do anything by her widow could hold property. In the case of widow, if
own wish without the consent of the other class. she has a son , who would grow up and become the
The second issue which is prevalent along the head of the family, she is allowed to own the land,
witchcraft is the right to own land. Previously men take care of it, do farming and earn from it. But if
and women together did the jhum farming and she dose not have any children, then she is prone
possessed equal land rights. Gradually by the to be tortured by the relatives who would try to get
advent of the patriarchal society, the men became her land by force. She would be ripped of her right
the sole owners of the land. This became prevalent to hold the property in her name. It becomes very
from those times, the time of plough farming when easy to deprive her of her rights on the property
the son became the heir to the fathers property. which belonged to her husband. Research shows
Those societies where women had a hold over the that women who are convicted as witches are
ownership of l and, huge cl ashes happened generally old and unprotected. Therefore it could
between the two classes and we could find the rise be stated here that the custom of wizardry or witch
in witch hunt in these areas through which the craft is found in the tribal uneducated society not
dignity of women is injured badly. By doing so they only due to superstition, but also to fulfill the selfish
consistently hit the woman's conscience to make wishes of some male members of the society who
her weak and unstable. But in those tribal societies conspires against the old uneducated female
where patriarchy prevailed, the witch hunt was members of the society. For example, near by
minimum because women out there was already a Kolkata in Kakinada Jute mill, a man who was
second class citizen. This may be the reason why suffering from schizophrenia had chopped off his
witches are not found in a Hindu society as because male sex organs and genitals. His young wife took
it is a strong patriarchal society. In tribal societies him to the hospital for medication and after returning
women still enjoys a lot of authority and hence from the hospital, men and women from the
they have been inflicted with black magic, wherein neighborhood denoted her as a witch and tried to
they are deprived of the law of land by the men. In kill her with daggers and choppers. This type of
reference to the above fact, it could be stated that action could be due to two reasons. Firstly, because
Munda tribal society has rapidly changed into a she was a young women and her husband was not
186
Dr. Papia Gupta
in a state to fulfill her sexual desires, so she might imprisonment of six months and a fine of a couple
be interested on the neighborhood men. Secondly, of thousand rupees. Though these laws prevail, it
the neighborhood men may be inclined to her is not implemented properly. To get rid of this
sexually since all knew that her husband was witchcraft from the tribal society, it is required to
incapable now. The situation was so severe that educate them and to inculcate scientific way of
she fled with her husband and took refuge in the reasoning amongst them . It is also required for the
hospital where he was treated.6 police to be alert and whenever such type of cases
In the year 2012, two such cases were reported are reported prompt actions should be taken as well
in Assam where two witches were hunted and killed. as convicts should be punished so that such crimes
The first one took place in at Sagaria in Sibsagar are reduced in number.
where there were some wet lands. In the slums near We cannot deny the fact that the patriarchal
this wet land a youth died and his death was said society has a very important role to play in these
to be inflicted by a witch. Some villagers insisted circumstances. A tribal woman can easily be
an old lady called Phuleswari Salwa to announce convicted of being a witch. The prominent male
herself as a witch and take the responsibility for members of the tribal society convict the tribal lady
the death of the youth. When she denied the to be a witch and give judgment against her.
allegation she was bitten up badly the whole day Therefore it could be stated without doubt that
and was then burnt alive. The second incident took witch hunt is nothing more than gender violence
place in Shontipur in the Misamari area. Laxmi Gaur against tribal women. Similar to the non tribal
a resident of Milanpur area was similarly convicted society, if gender equality is not maintained in the
of being a witch and was tortured inhumanely. Later tribal society and not practiced , the bad customs
on she was buried alive by the villagers.7 There are like witch hunt against the tribal women would be
many organizations working against this witch hunt very hard to eradicate.
in the tribal areas. For example, the Janarth Adibashi
Vikas Sanstha in Maharashtra, Andha Sraddha
Nirmulan Samiti in Raipur etc. We are surprised to Bibligraphy
state that in some states there are laws against this 1. Alam, Jayanti, 2000, Tribal Women Workers: A
witch-hunt too. In 2005 a law called Tonhi Satna Study of Young Migrants, Raj Publications, New
Virodhi Adhiniyama was passed in Chattishgarh Delhi.
which was against this witch hunt custom. Similar 2. Archer, W. G, 1974, The Hill of Flutes: Love, Life
laws were passed in Bihar around 1999 and in and Poetry in Tribal India, George Allen and
Jharkhand around 2001. According to this law, Unwin, London.
anybody who is convicting a lady as a witch would 3. Bandyopadhyaya, Kalyani, 2000, Nari, Shreni o
have to face imprisonment for three months and a Barna: Nimnabarger Narir Aartha-Samajik
fine of Rs 1000. Anybody torturing a women by Abasthan, Manuscript India, Howrah.
stating her a witch wou ld have to face an 4. Baskey, Dhirendra Nath, 1987, Paschimbanger
187
Adibasi Samaj, Vol-1, Subarnarekha, Kolkata. Reclaim Land' ; A study by Stri Sangharshin
5. De, Debasree, 2012, Purba Bharater Adibasi Nari Radha Kumar's The History Of Doing, Appendix
Brittanta: 1947-2010, Setu. :A, Kali for Women, New Delhi, 1993.
6. Kumar, Radha, 1993, The History of Doing : An 3. S.Mohanty and N. Mishra, 1996, “Violence
Illustrated Account of Movements for Women's against Tribal Women : A Sociological Analysis
Rights and Feminism in India 1800-1900, Kali of Some Selected Cases in Phulbani District,
for Women, New Delhi. Orisha”, Contemporary Indian Women :
7. Sarkar, Lakshmindra,1991, Puriliar Daaini Virodhi Collected Works by Dharam Vir and Kamalesh
Andolon, Pioneer Publishers, Kolkata. Mahajan, 6 vols( this essay is in vol-2), New
Academy Publishing Co., Delhi.
References 4. P.G.Shah, 1964, Tribal life in Gujarat, Bombay,
1. Radha Kumar,1993, The History of Doing : An Gujarat Research Society, PP-66-77
Illustrated Account of Movements for Women's 5. W.G.Archer, 1974, The Hills of Flutes: love, life
Rights and Feminism in India 1800-1900, Kali and Poetry in tribal India,George Allen and
for Women, New Delhi. Unwin, London, PP-292-293.
2. Mass rape in Santhal parganas in 'Police 6. Ananda Bazar Patrika, 12th June 2011.
Repression Against a Tribal Movement to 7. Ananda Bazar Patrika, 13th February 2012.
188
The Thaat-Ragas of North Indian Classical Music:
The Basic Atempt to Perform
Dr. Sujata Roy Manna
ABSTRACT
Indian classical music is divided into two streams, Hindustani music and Carnatic music. Though the rules and
regulations of the Indian Shastras provide both bindings and liberties for the musicians, one can use one’s
innovations while performing. As the Indian music requires to be learnt under the guidance of Master or Guru,
scriptural guidelines are never sufficient for a learner.
Keywords: Raga, Thaat, Music, Performing, Alapa.
There are two streams of Classical music of India – the Ragas are to be performed with the basic help
the North Indian i.e., Hindustani music and the of their Thaats. Hence, we may compare the Thaats
South Indian i.e., Carnatic music. The vast area of with the skeleton of creature, whereas the body
Indian Classical music consists upon the foremost can be compared with the Raga. The names of the
criterion – the origin of the Ragas, named the 10 (ten) Thaats of North Indian Classical Music
Thaats. In the Carnatic system, there are 10 system i.e., Hindustani music are as follows:
Thaats. Let us look upon the origin of the 10 Thaats Sl. Thaats Ragas
as well as their Thaat-ragas (i.e., the Ragas named 01. Vilabal Vilabal, Alhaiya– Vilaval, Bihag,
according to their origin). The Indian Shastras Durga, Deshkar, Shankara etc.
02. Kalyan Yaman, Bhupali, Hameer, Kedar,
throw light on the rules and regulations, the nature
Kamod etc.
of Ragas, process of performing these, and the 03. Khamaj Khamaj, Desh, Tilakkamod, Tilang,
li bert y and bi ndings of t he Ragas whi le Jayjayanti / Jayjayvanti etc.
performances are going on both in Vocal or 04. Bhairav Bhairav, Kalingara etc.
Instrumental ways, though the musician can 05. Purvi Purvi, Shree etc.
perform with his/her instant imaginative skills and 06. Marwa Marwa, Lalit, Sohni etc.
07. Kafi Kafi, Bageshri, Vrindavani–Sarang,
thoughts. During the performance, the Ragas are
Bhimpalashri, Peelu, Bahar, Patdeep
only shown to us, from which, the audience can etc.
detect the origin (i.e., Thaats). Hopefully, it is now 08. Asavari Asavari, Jounpuri etc.
clear that Thaats are not for performance but only 09. Bhairavi Bhairavi, Malkauns etc.
Assistant Professor, Department of Music, Raja Narendra Lal Khan Womens’ College, Medinipur-721102, W.B., India
189
10. Todi Todi, Multani etc. 2. Rama Yaman:

These aforesai d Thaats are det ected, Thaat: Kalyan; Jati: Sampuraa - Sampurna; Time
announced and supported (scientifically and - 1st Segment of night; Vadi; g, Sama-Vadi: n. I is
logically) with the continuous effort and lifelong- sharp (Teevra) and other Swaras are ‘Suddha’
I .
research by the eminent learned expert (Sangeet- Aroho- Srg, mp , d, ns
Shastri), Dr. Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande. .
Avaroho- snd , p m g, rs
The structure of these Thatas is: Pakar- n r g r s, p m g r s
1. Vilaval Thaat Srg m pd n Raga Alapa: a) n r g r g m g, p m g, p r,, n r, g r,,
2. Kalyan Thaat
Ι n rs
Srg m pd n . .
b) pg, pdp s , nr s , nrg r s , nr g m , p m g r n r s
3. Khamaj Thaat S r gmp d n
3. Raga Khamaj
4. Kafi Thaat S r g m p dn
Thata: Khamaj; Jati-Sharav-Sampurna; Time- 2nd
5. Asavari Thaat S r g m p dn
segment of night; Vadi: g, Sama-Vadi; n; Two forms
6. Bhairavi Thaat S rg m p dn
of n are used and r is not applicable during Aroho
7. BhairavThaat S rgmpdn
(ascending).
Ι
8. Purvi Thaat S r g mp d n Aroho- s, g m, p, d n s
Ι Avaroho: s n d p, m g, r s
9. Todi Thaat S r g mpd n
Pakar- nd, mp, d, mg
Ι
10. Marwa Thaat S r g mp d n Main touchy- combination is gmpn.
Raga Alapa: a) n s g m p g , m, n d, m p d, mg, p, m
Thaats are not eligible for performance and
g r s b) g m d n s , n s , n s , n s r s, n d n s , g m g r s
they have only the ascending order – Aroho /
n s.
Arohon; there are no descending orders i.e.,
4. Raga Kafi
Avaroho / Avarohon available for them. Thatas are
Thaat: Kafi; Jadi: Sampurna - Sampurna, Time:
not ornamented or illustrated, they have only the
2nd segment of might; Vadi: P, Sama-Vadi; S, The
basic structure, organized with the 7 notes (Swaras)
of music – S r g m p d n. gn = minor/soft/ (Komal)
The Thaat – Ragas are as following: Aroho- s r g , m p d, n s
1. Raga Vilaval: Avaroho- s n d, p m g r s
Thaat: Vilaval; Jati: Sampurna-Sampurna; Time- Pakar- ss, rr, g g , mm p
1st segment of day-time; Vadi Swara-d; Samavadi Raga Alapa: a) s r g , r s, n d p , s r g r m g r s r p,
Swara-G; All the notes (Swaras) are Suddha mpd p g r n d p m r s
(major); Anga : Uttaranga. 5. Raga Asavari:
 Thaat: Asavari; Jati; Ourav - Sampurna; Time :
Aroho- Srgmpdns Avaroho - Srgmpdns
Avaroho-grgpdns 2nd Segment of day-time; Vadi: d, Sama Vadi: g ,
Raga Alapa: a) s, g, r, s, - n d s g m p m g, m r s. The Komal Swaras-gdn.
b) p p, n s, s r s, g m r s - s r g m p g m r s Aroho= s, r, m p d s
190
Dr. Sujata Roy Manna
Avaroho- s n d p, m g r s Aroho- s, r g, m p d, n s .
Pakar- r, m, p, nd p. Avaroho- s , n d p, m g m g r s
Raga- Alapa: a) S, s r g r m g r s, r n d p m p d s , Paker- n s r g, m g, mg, rg, rs
r m p n d p, d m p d, m p g r s, r d s. Raga Alapa:
b) M p d d s , s r g r s , r m p m g r s , r ds r n d p , a) n n s r g, mg , rg, m p d p, mg, n d p, mg , mg, r
m p d s. gr s
6. Raga Bhairavi b) mg , md md s , n r s, n r g , m g r g r s
Thata-Bhairavi; Jati - Sampurna - Sampurna; 9. Raga Todi
Time: 2nd Segment of day-time; Vadi-m, Sama- Thata: Todi; Jati-Sampurna-Sampurna, time-2nd
Vadi-s; Komal Swaras= r g d n. segment of day-time, Vadi: g, Sama-Vadi-d; Komal
Aroho- s r g m, , d n s Swaras = r, g ,d, and n is Teevra. In this Raga, P is
Avaroho- s , n d, p, m g, r s not directly played during Aroho.
Pakar- g s r s d n s, r ns Aroho: S, r g , md P,, d n s
The Raga is allowed and supported to peroform at Avaroho: s , n d p, m g r s
any time of day or night. Pakar: d n s, r g r s, m g , r g r s
Raga- Alapa: Raga Alapa:
a) S r s, n s d, m p d n s, s n s, r g m p d p, a) s n s r g r s, r g m g, m d p, m g r g r s
g m r s , r n s d , d n s r n s. b) m g, m d n, n s , s d n s r r , r g r s , m g r g r s ,
7. Raga Bhairav ndpmds
Thaat- Bhairav, Jati- Sampura - Sampurna, Time: 10. Raga Marwa:
Early morning: Vadi- d, Sama-Vadi; r, Komal Thaat- Marwa, Jati: Sharab-Sharab; Time: 4th
Swaras= r, d. Segment of day-time; Vadi: r, Sama-Vadi: d; Komal-
Aroho- s r g m p d n s Swaras= only r; n is Teevra; P is not applicable
Avaroho- s n d p m g r s note here. This Raga can easily makes the
Pakar- s g m p d p performances to shift the another Thata/ Mela,
Raga-Alapa: named Kalyan. So, Marwa is called as “Para-
a) srr s, s d , n d , p m p d, n s, g r m g r, r s. Mela-Prabeshaka Raga”. Here ‘S’ is very feeble.
b) p p, d, n s , n s , s d n s r , s s g m p m g r, r s . This Raga is also a ‘Sandhi-Prakash-Ragha’.
8. Raga Purvi Aroho- s r, g, m d, n d s
Thaat: Purvi; Jati: Sampurna-Sampurna; Time 4th Avaroho- s n d, m g r s
Segment of daytime; Vadi-g, Sama-vadi-d, Komal-
Pakar- d m g r, g m g r s
Swaras= r, d and also applicable 2 forms of m, A
Raga- Alapa:
too much soft-type Raga, performing time is very
a) s, n r n d , m d s, r g r m g r, d m g r, g m g r, n r
remarkable- the end of day and starting of evening
n d, r s
i.e., in the junction of day and evening, (“Sandhi-
b) m g, m d m d s , n r s , n r n d, m d rn d n r , s
Prakash-Raga”).
Practical aspects of the Ragas, their key-note
191
and, fundamental and minimum requirements for and my effort has been directed in this track. Finally,
performance must be emphasized keeping the we conclude with the wise saying about music, that
perspective of their Thaats i.e. the origins intact. is – to sing daily for at least ten minutes reduces
We have to be well-acquainted with the basic terms, stress, clears sinuses, improves posture and can
signs or symbols which are now exhibited with even help us live longer.
examples.
Sl. Name of Swaras Signs Symbols for Position
(Notes) or placement References and Sources
1 Sadaja (Saa) s Middle Octave • Swami P rajanananda, 1402 , Bh ara ti ya
2 Sadaja (Saa) s Upper Octave Sangeeter Itihas (1st part), Sri Ramkrishna
3 Rishava (Re) r Middle Octave Vedanta Math, Kolkata.
4 Rishava (Re) r Upper Octave • Baral Nemai Chand, 1993, Sangeet Nayak ,
5 Rishava (Re) r Lower Octave Pharma KLM P.Ltd, Kolkata.
6 Komal Rishava (Re) r Soft/Komal • Bandyo padhyay Khi tish Chandra and
7 Teevra Madhyam (Ma) m Sharp Maa etc. Bandyopadhyay Nanigopal, 2010), Sangeet
Above all, it is to be noted that in Indian Darshika, Sri Ramkrishna Ashram, Kolkata.
tradition all the performing arts are needed to be • Ghosh Shambhunath, 2011, Sangeeter Itibritto,
learnt from Teachers / Trainers, and this is especially Sangeet Prakashan, Kolkata.
true for music. Music is recognised as ‘Gurumukhi • Bhattacharjee-Shaktipada, 2003, Taan-Alaap,
Vidya’, which means it is to be learnt by a disciple Sangeet Prakashan, Kolkata.
under the guidance of a Master (Guru): it has to • Dutta Debabrata, 1995, Sangeet Tatwa, Brati
come from the Guru’s mouth. So, the guidelines in Prakashani, Kolkata.
writing are not obviously sufficient to perform, • Bhatkhande Pt. Vishnu Narayan, Kramik Pustak
rather to learn. But, the attempt of noting down the Malika :
basics or fundamental steps of Indian Ragas in order • Tagore Rabindranath, 1411 Sangeet Chinta:
to make one familiar to it is also crucially important, Vishwabharati Granthan Bibhag, Kolkata.
192
^Çåü âXïí¼[ *@üá¥ý : âTüïí[ íPAá
Ký. âUSå] @åüXá[ X~ü]
#RåâýEýÿw‚ÿR
^Çåü âX¼ GãURWý[ #aÛAó RáýIý@ü [ýEýRá, #RåUáP, âRïíPÞ^Rá < #âWýRZ @üïí[ïíýFýRñ ^Çåü âXïí¼[ *@üáâQ@ü SæMáÞ§ÿ RáýIý@ü aXáïí]áýEýïí@ü[ PçâtËý #á@ü_ÞR @ü[ïí]<
^Çåü âXïí¼[ *@üá¥ý |üâ] #áG< #Ráïí]áâýEýNýñ ^Çåü âXïí¼[ GlŠ ^NýUïí_Þ NÜýáï[ *@üá¥ý|üâ] #áí]áâýEýNý b<Zá KÙýâýEýNýñ âNýâR íXáýIý På'âýIý *@üá¥ý [ýEýRá @üïí[ïíýFýRñ
NÜýá[ På'âýIý *@üáâ¥ý@üáïíNý XáRU - XáRUã GãUïíR[ a¥ýýIý âWýl… WýáïíU Q[á SïíKòýïíýFýñ NÜýáï[ ýEýâ[¼aXæb Uóâºýô bïíZ< îRUÞóâºýô@ü y‚ÿïí[ KÙýl…ãNý bïíNý íSïíZïíýFýñ XáRåïí_[
íýEýtËýá < Sâ[RáïíX[ XïíQó âUy‚ÿ[ Tüá[á@ü [ïíZïíýFý, â@üÿwŸ @üá] âR[ïíS¤ü XáRåïí_[ íýEýtËýá âR[ÿw‚ÿ[ BâNýïíNý S÷UbXáRñ XáRåïí_[ *bÙ ÿíýEýtËýá ^ÇåüâXïí¼[ âR@üýIý `@çüz×
í@üðNåý@üãZ' Uïí] #RåâXNýñ @çüz× GBÖ aÛaáïí[[ aá[áÛaá[, aU aïíNýó[ aNýóÿPtù Ëýáñ XáRåïí_[ íýEýtËýá < Sâ[RáX NýábÙÿ S[XSå[ë_ @çüïíz×[ âR@üýIý S[X í@üðNåýïí@ü[
âU_Z [ìïíS S÷âNýWýáNýñ
aæýEý@ü ôP: @çüz×-í@üðNåý@üãZ RáâýIý@üá, GãUR-a¥ýýIý, GãUïíR[ #ÿw‚ÿÚaá[^æRóNýá, [áGRãâNý[#ÿw‚ÿÚaá[^æRóNýá, GãUR-y‡[ìSñ
^NýáoPã S÷áýEýãRaºýá ^Çåü âX¼ñ #RâNý #Nýãïí Ný NÜýá[ GlŠ ^NýU_Þ Sá<Zá YáZñ #U^ó #áXáïíP[ aXáG - aÛy€çýâNýïíNý |üMXáïíR[ S÷a§ÿ
(22/08/2015) #âNý¼ôáÿw‚ÿ bïí]áñ GãUR RáïíýIýó[ [ìS@üá[ ^Çåü KÙý»áâSNý bïíZ Oáïí@ü Sâ[XáïíR[ #Rå_ïí§ÿñ Sâ[XáïíR[ S÷áýEåýïíYÞ ^Çåü
âX¼ ^NýUïí_Þ[ #áí]áïí@ü @üNýýIýá #áïí]áâ@üNý íabÙÿ âUyŠZ âG¬áaá âX¼ #U^ó S÷OX aáâ[[ yöÿtËýá RZ, NýïíU NÜýá[ *@üá¥ýÿ|üâ] SáJýïí@ü[
#áXáïíP[ SãâKòýNý @üïí[ XáïíHü XáïíHüñ UáÛ]á âOïíZýIýá[ NýOá RáýIý@üýEýYÞá[ PçâtËý #á@ü_ÞR @üïí[ Oáïí@üñ ^Çåü âX¼ íY *@üá¥ý RáýIý@ü [ýEýRá @üïí[ïíýFýR
Sâ[X~üïí] ^Çåü âXïí¼[ KÙýSâyƒÿ âNý #QåRá S÷áZ^bÙÿ RGïí[ SïíKòý Ráñ Nýá íUâ^[WýáB SáJýïí@ü[bÙÿ âR@üýIý #¬áNý âU_Zñ `SÜáýEý PåbÙÿ'1 RáX@ü
âR[áaºýô ^Çåü âX¼ í@üáR âPRbÙÿ í@üáR â@üýFåý[ GRó #ïíS¤üá @üïí[RâR, B÷ï íÿwƒ ÿ ^Çåü âXïí¼[ På 'âýIý *@üáâ¥ý@üá *UÛ SÜáýEýâýIý íýFýáýIýBq† S÷@ üá^
U[Û âRâUÞUáïíP #íR@ü â@üýFåýïí@ü KÙýíS¤üá @üïí[ïíýFýR aá[áGãURñ NÜýá[ íSïíZïíýFýñ ^Çåü âX¼ âRïíGbÙÿ *bÙÿ På'âýIý *@üáâ¥ý@üáïí@ü `@çüz× - í@üðNåý@üãZ
âRG@çüNý `bÙÿfFýáS¼'bÙÿ NÜýá[ UóâºýôNÿšÿïíUáïíQ[ yŠá[@üñ aá[áGãUR âNýâR RáâýIý@üá' 2 âbïíaïí U âUïí ^_áâZNý @üïí[ïíýFýRñ `RáâýIý@üá' U]ïíNý
¤üXNýá URáX #áPïí^Þ[ k‡ïímk‡ #áP^Þïí@übÙÿ #á^÷Z @üïí[ïíýFýRñ ^Çåü aáQá[MWýáïíU ¤åüÿPùáZNýR RáýIýïï@üïí@ü âýEýâbôNý @ü[á bïíZ Oáïí@üñ *âP@ü
âXïí¼[ RáâýIýó@ü - S÷âNýWýá[ Sá^áSáâ^ aáâbâNýó@ü S÷âNýWýá[ S÷@üá^< íOïí@ü *bÙ ÿ På' âýIý RáâýIý@üá S÷á OâX@üWýáïí U *@üá¥ýQXãÞñ `@çü z×-
CïíýIýâýFý] aXáÿw‚ÿ[á]WýáïíU, â@üÿwŸ aáâbâNýó@ü ^Çåü âXïí¼[ S÷ýEýá[ Sâ[a[ í@üðNåý@üãZ' ôPUl„ýâýIý âUïí^_WýáïíU Uó³RáaXçk„ý Uïí] #áXáïíP[ XïíR
AåU PãCÞ RZñ RáâýIýó@ü Sâ[X~üïí][ XáRå_GR NÜýáïí@ü RáRáR WýáïíU bZñ @çü z× #áXáïíP[ ]Åý #âWý¬NýáZ S[XSå[ë_ Uïí] #RåâXNý,
#Uïí]á@üR @ü[Uá[, KÙ ýS]âÅý @ü[Uá[ aå ï íYáB íSïíZâýFýïí ]Rñ @çüz× #áXáïíP[ aXæb aºýá[ aá[áÖaá[ [ìïíS @üâq†Nýñ *bÙÿ S[XSå[ë_
Ù{[ìSã'[ @üMÞQá[ Uá `ýEÜýáP UâRïí@ü[ Sá]á'[ yöÿtýË á[ìïíS âNýâR aXâQ@ü @çüïíz×[ âR@üýIý #áXáïíP[ XïíNýá XáRåïí_[ íýEýtËýá < íýEýtËýá[ Sâ[RáX *@ü
Sâ[âýEýNýñ NÜýá[ [âýEýNý S÷Ul„ý, íýFýáýIýBq† Uá *@üáâ¥ý@üá[ @üOá aáQá[M S[X í@üðNåýïí@ü[ âU_Z Uïí] BMó bïíNý Sáïí[, #OÞáÖ #áXáïíP[ aXy‚ÿ
SáJý@ü@åüïí][ âR@üýIý #GáRá S÷á Zñ NÜ ýá[ [âýEýNý *@üáâ¥ý@üá|üâ] íýEýtËýá[ XïíQó íY *@ü [@üïíX[ Uá]âAq‰Nýá UNÞýXáR [ïíZïíýFý Yáïí@ü
#RåQáUR @ü[Uá[ S÷Záa íOïí@übÙÿ *bÙÿ S÷Uïíl„ý[ #UNýá[Máñ âRïíXáÞb WýáïíU í@üðNåý@üáUb Uïí ] BMó@ü[á íYïíNý Sáïí [ñ ^Çåü âX¼
^Çåü âXïí¼[ *@üáâ¥ý@üá[ aÛAóá Xá¼ PåbÙÿñ *bÙÿ På'âýIý *@üáâ¥ý@üá[ GãURP[Pã yöÿtËýáñ í@üáïíRá #áïí[áâSNý P^ÞïíR ^Çåü âX¼ #áUk„ý âýFýïí]R
XQó âPïíZ ^Çåü âXïí¼[ GãURïíUáQ < GãURïíUáQã[ #áâiŠ@ü Sâ[ýEýZ Rá, Tü]NýÚ XáRåïí_[ GãUR Uá[ÛUá[ RáRá Uó³RáZ NÜýá[ [ýEýRáZ
ab@üá[ã-#QóáS@ü, UáÛ]á âUWýáB, [áGá Rïí[ú]á] AáR Xâb]á XbáâUPóá]Z, íXâPRãSå[, SâsEýXU§ÿ , Wýá[Nýñ
193
#áWýáâaNý bZñ På'âýIý *@üáïí¥ý[ XQó âPïíZ íY GãURâýEýïí¼[ #Rå_§ÿ Tü]NýÚ *bÙÿ Rá[ã-Så[ë_ Uóâºýô íOïí@ü îRUÞóâºýô@ü #áâDüRáZ KÙýSâyƒÿNýñ
¼ôïíXáïílŠáâýEýNý bïí ZïíýFý Nýá ^Çåü âXïí¼[ âR@üýIý XáRå ïí_[ GãUïíR[ GãUR-a¥ýýIý íY BWýã[ *UÛ Uóâºýô âR[ïíS¤ü RáýIýó@üá[ íaýIýábÙÿ
#ÿw‚ÿÚaá[^æRóNýáïí@ü Uóâ³Ný @üïí[ïíýFýñ *bÙÿ #ÿw‚ÿÚaá[^æRóNýáïí@ü âNýâR KÙýïílŠáâýEýNý @üïí[ïíýFýR *bÙÿ *@üáïí¥ýñ a@üá] íU]á[ ýEýáïíZ[ íýIýâUïí]
S[X í@üðNåý@ü@ü[ Uá `@çüz×-í@üðNå ý@üãZ' ôPUïíl„ý[ k‡á[á íPóáâNýNý YåU@ü - YåUNýã[ AåRaåâýIý âPïíZ *@üáïí¥ý[ aæýEýRá â@üÿwŸ S[¤üïíMbÙÿ NýáïíP[
@ü[Uá[ S÷Záa íSïíZïíýFýRñ #áí]áýEýRá KÙýl…ãNý bZ âUUáïíb[ ]áWý¤üâNý[ GâýIý] âbïíaïíUñ “YábÙÿ
`BWÞýUNýã UNÞýXáR' *UÛ `#Nåý]RãZ ax‡áP' *bÙÿ På'âýIý *@üá¥ý Uïí]á Kýâ], íNýáXáïí@ü âUïíZ @ü'ïí[ #áâX â@üÿwŸ WýZáR@ü âGïíNý íBâýFýñ
^Çåü âXïí¼[ [ýEýRáñ På'âýIý *@üáïí¥ý[ [ýEýRá@üáïí][ XïíQó aXZBNý NåýâX *@üýIýá a@ü]ïí@ü íPAáUá[ XïíNýá âGâRa ”3ñ XáRåïí_[ RãýEýNýá
UóUQáR Xá¼ På'UýFý[ñ S÷OXâýIý [âýEýNý- 1963; âk‡NýãZâýIý [âýEýNý- *UÛ PãRNýá[ y‡[ ìS Sâ[XáS @ü[á íYïí Ný Sáïí[ *bÙÿ Xÿw‚ ÿï íUó[
1965 aáïí]ñ *bÙÿ *@üá¥ý På'âýIý[ [ýEýRá@üáïí] ^Çåü âXïí¼[ UZa S÷áZ #áí]áïí@üñ “WýZáR@ü âGïíNý íBâýFý” *UÛ “NåýâX *@üýIýá a@ü]ïí@ü
S°×á^ñ bÙÿâNýXïíQó âNýâR BMRáïíýIýó[ Ul„ýRã âýFýl… @üïí[ïíýFýR *UÛ NÜýá[ íPAáUá[ XïíNýá âGâRa” *bÙÿ Uá@üóáÛïí^ âUUáb RáX@ü SåNýÚSâU¼
Ù{[ìSã' RáX@ü `#áiŠG' S÷âNýÌýáRâýIý S÷áZ SïíR[ UýFý[ aáUÞíWýðX â¼ôZáâýIý[ SâU¼Nýá *AáïíR Såïí[áXá¼áZ #ÿw‚ÿâbÞNý bïíZïíýFý *UÛ Rá[ãïí@ü
aáTüïí]ó[ XQó âPïíZ SO ýEýïí]ïíýFýñ *bÙÿ aXZ@üáïí][ íP^-GáâNý[ íPAáUá[ XïíNýá “âGâRa” Uá SPáïíOÞ KÙýSâXNý @ü[á[ XáQóïíX XáRUáiŠá[
[áGïîRâNý@ü #UyƒÿáR SáJý@üXáïí¼[bÙ ÿ #RåWæý âNý aáïíS¤üñ Tü]NýÚ SæMÞ #URXR CýIýáïíRá bïíZïíýFýñ *bÙÿ aXy‚ÿ YåU@ü-YåUNýã[á #áaïí] “
aXïíZ[ aåïíYáBó aÿw‚ÿáR ^Çåü âX¼ïí@ü *bÙÿ På'âýIý *@üáâ¥ý@üáïíNý Sá<Zá Solid WýÿPùïí]á@ü”ñ *[á S[yS[ïí@ü BWýã[ Wýáïí]áUáaá[ WýáR @üïí[,
YáZ RUNý[ Uó³RáZ, íYAáïíR XáRå_ bïíZ KÙýíJýïíýFý `@çüz×-í@üðNåý@üãZ'[ âRïíGïíP[ïí@ü aåAã PxSâNý WýáïíU, âRïíGïíP[ UáayƒÿáRïí@ü WýáïíU ^áâÿw‚ÿ[
KÙýSáPáRñ Uóâºýô XáRå_, XáRåïí_[ [áGïîRâNý@ü -GãURP^ÞR, PáxSNýó- RãKòý, #RóïíP[ Nåý]RáZ âRïíGïíP[ïí@ü aåAã S÷XáM @ü[Uá[ #áS÷áM
GãUR, Sáâ[Uáâ[@ü GãURS÷Uáïíb aÿw‚ÿáïíR[ #áýEý[M S÷WçýâNý GãUR- íýEýtËýá @üïí[; â@üÿwŸ S[¤üïíMbÙÿ íU#áUõë bïíY YáZ NýáïíP[ GãURñ NýábÙÿ
a¥ýïíýIý[ RáRáR âP@ü KÙ ý ílŠáâýEýNý bïíZïíýFý `BWÞ ý UNýã UNÞ ý XáR' íNýá YåUNýãïí@ü yžÿã bïíZ U]ïíNý í^áRá YáZ, “GãUïíR í@üáR< @üáUó
*@üáâ¥ý@üáïíNýñ `BWýÞU Nýã UNÞýXáR' *bÙÿ â^ïí [áRáX BWýã[WýáïíU [áAïíN Pá< Rá NåýâXñ”4 bÙÿâNýXïíQó #U^ó Kýâ] @åüâÿw‚ÿ ïíNý Sâ[MNý
Uó³RáQXãÞñ SçâOUã[ GãURS÷Uáïíb GlŠ-XçNåýó âR[ÿw‚ÿ[ âR[UâfFýl…WýáïíU bïíZïíýFýñ Sá<RáPáïí[[ ýEýáïíS YAR YåUïí@ü[ GãUR âUSl… NýARbÙÿ
CïíýIý ýEýïí]ïíýFýñ XçNåýó[ #Råaïí§ÿ GïílŠ[ #áBXR, GïílŠ[ S÷ïíZáGïíR @åüâÿw‚ÿïí@ü U]ïíNý í^áRá YáZ, “aÛaá[ýIýábÙÿ YâP ýEýá]áïíNý Rá Sáïí[á,
BWÞý Qá[Mñ Rá[ãaºýá #Rÿw‚ ÿ@üá] Qïí[ aÿw ‚ÿáRQá[M @üïí [ *íaïí ýFýñ íNýá âUïíZ @üïí[âýFýïí]R í@üR?”5 *bÙÿWýáïíU ¼ôïíX ¼ôïíX RáýIýó@üá[ ^Çåü
*bÙÿ aáUÞGRãR aïíNýó[ KÙýSXáZ RáýIýó@üá[ íYR #áXáïíP[ GãUR - âX¼ Sâ[MâNý[ âPïí@ü *@üá¥ýâýIýïí @ü S÷QáâUNý @üïí[ïíýFýRñ GãUïíR[
aXaóáïí@ü Wýá_áPáR @üïí[ïí ýFýRñ BWÞý Qá[M íYXR S÷ áMS÷ Uáïí b[ íAá]a KÙýílŠáýEýR @üïí[ïíýFýR ¼ôâX@ü y‚ÿïí[ñ âUUáb Ul„ýRã - íUtËýRãWåýºýô
#áUâ^ó@ü ^NÞý íNýXâR GãUR - aXaóá íYR GãUïíR[ aïí§ÿ CâRÌýaæïí¼ GãUïíR[ y‡[ìS #áí[á âRXÞXWýáïíU S÷Pâ^ÞNý bïíZïíýFý 1X í]á@üâýIý[
#âl‡Nýñ *bÙÿ aXaóá[ [@üXïíTü[ [ïíZïíýFý Nýá @üAïíRá XáRâU@ü, @üAïíRá @üOáZ, “NåýâX íNýá GáRïíNý UáUá, Cïí[ íBá[ë Rá- Såïí_bÙÿ UáGáïí[ïíNý
[áGïîRâNý@ü, @üAïíRá Uá îGâU@ü [ìS âRïíZ #áâUWæÞýNý bïíZ Oáïí@üñ PåQ â@üïíR Aá<Zá #íR@ü ay‚ÿá”6 #OUá 2Z í]á@üâýIý[ @üOáZ XåbæïíNÞý
â^ïí[áRáïíX[ XáQóïíX RáýIýó@üá[ NÜýá[ GãURïíUáïíQ[ UóáâÂ < BWýã[Nýáïí@ü @ü]åâ_Ný bïíZ YáZ #áXáïíP[ #áGxŠ ]áâ]Ný PáxSïíNýó[ íXábXZ
Uó³RáPáR @üïí[ïíýFýRñ aÛy€ýá[ñ ía YAR Uïí], “NýïíU í@üR AáïíXáAáïíNý, y‡áQàUã [XRã b'ïíNý
`BWÞ ý UNýã UNÞ ý XáR' *@üáâ¥ý@üá[ @üáâbRãWýáB #áXáïí P[ íPbýIýáïí@ü @ü[ïíýFýá íBá *[@üX Uy‚ÿáñ”7 âUUáb-SæUÞ GãUïíR Rá[ã-
Sâ[âýEýNýñ Sâ[MNý UZïía[ YåU@ü-YåU Nýã[ Sá[ySâ[@ü GãUR- Så[ëïí_[ XïíR #áBáXã PáxSïíNýó[ y‡n… [âýEýNý bïíZ Oáïí@ü #âNý aáQá[M
SYÞáïí]áýEýRáïíNý GãUïíR[ y‡[ìS, GãUR - aXaóá[ y‡[ìS KÙýílŠáâýEýNý âRZïíX â@üÿwŸ âUUáïíb[ S[ #WýáïíU[ XåïíAáXåâA bïí]bÙÿ aXy‚ÿ y‡n… -
bïíZïíýFýñ *@übÙÿ aïí§ÿ [áGRãâNý < Såïí¼[ S÷Nýãïí@ü #áBáXã S÷GïílŠ[ @üq†Rá[ TüáRåa íTüïíýIý YáZñ y‡áXã NýábÙÿ yžÿãïí@ü KÙýí½^ó @üïí[ Uïí] “<
GãURáRåWæýâNý S÷@üá^ íSïíZïíýFý *bÙÿ *@üáâ¥ý@üá[ aãXáâZNý Sâ[aïí[ñ yžÿã RZ, yž ÿã[ Xåï íAá^ S'ïí[ *íaïíýFý, KýábÙÿ Rã”8, #OUá yžÿã YAR
RáýIýó@üá[ *bÙÿ *@üáâ¥ý@üá[ S÷QáR Rá[ã - Så[ë_ ýEýâ[¼ Uá #RóáRó y‡áXãïí@ü KÙýí½^ó @üïí[ Uïí] “#áXá[ âXtËýïíNÿšÿ[ í@üáïíRá PáX íPZ Ráñ
ýEýâ[¼ aXæïíb[ í@üáR[@üX RáXá¥ýR @üïí[R âRñ ýEýâ[¼|üâ] YåU@ü- #áâX íYR <[ aÛaáïí [[ ¼ôãNýPáaã, #áâX íYR <[ âUýFýáRá[
YåUNýã, y‡áXã-yžÿã, UáUá-Xá –*bÙÿ [@üX WýáïíU S÷âNýâUâx‡Ný bïíZïíýFýñ íU^óá”9ñ RáýIýó@üá[ ^Çåü âX¼ GãURïí@ü íPïíAïíýFýR GãUïíR[ S[ïíNý
194
S[ïíNý, #Råal„ýáR @ü[Uá[ íýEýtËýá @üïí[ïíýFýR aXaóá[ í^@üïíKòý[ y‡[ìSñ *@üáâ¥ý@üá[ aæýEýRá CïíýIýïíýFý På'GR YåUïí@ü[ aÛ]áS-S÷âNýaÛ]áïíS[
Rá[ã-Så[ë_, YåU@ü-YåUNýã, y‡á Xã-yžÿã [ GãUR #áïí[á #âQ@üNý[ XáQóïíXñ *@üáâ¥ý@üá[ #B÷BâNý[ aïí§ÿ aïí§ÿ #áí[á *@üáâQ@ü ýEýâ[ïí¼[
#abRãZ bïíY <íJý NýáïíP[ *@üXá¼ aÿw‚ÿáïíR[ #áýEý[ïíMñ Nýá[á NýáïíP[ #áBXR *UÛ S÷NýóáBXR CïíýIýïíýFý â@üÿwŸ *bÙÿaU ýEýâ[¼|üâ] í@üKÙýbÙÿ
îPRâmPR aXaóáïí @ü âSýFýïíR íTüïí ] y‡ n…- aÿw‚ ÿá ïí R[ @üOá Wýáïí U, UóâºýôRáïíX[ #á^÷Z B÷bM @üïí[ âR; aUábÙÿ îRUÞóâºýô@üWýáïíU âRïíG[
WýâU_óïíNý[ @üOá WýáïíU, NýAR NýáïíP[ @üáâ¦Ný aÿw‚ÿáR #áâUWæÞýNý bZ GãUR-aÛ@üïíýIý[ #âWý¬Nýáïí@ü S÷yŒåüâýIýNý @üïí[ïí ýFýñ #áaïí ] ^Çåü
SáOÞ Uá #GåÞïíR[ #âWýUó³RáZñ RáýIýó@üá[ SáOÞ Uá #GåÞRïí@ü Så[áM âX¼ *bÙÿ *@üáâ¥ý@üáïíNý UóâºýôBNý aXaóáïí@ü #áí]á@üSáNý @üïí[RâR,
íOïí@ü #áQå âRïí @ü[ @üâtËý SáOïí[ PÜ áKòý @üâ[ïíZïí ýFýR #U]ã]áZñ aáXâB÷@üWýáïíU R[Rá[ã[ GãURaÛ@üýIýïí@ü KÙýSyƒÿáâSNý @ü[ïíNý aïíýEýtËý
âU^^Nýïí@ü[ #áQåâR@ü SáOÞ[á íS÷âX@üá[ BWÞýSáNý @ü[áïíRá[ GRó âSNýá- bïí ZïíýFýRñ ýEýâ[¼|üâ][ aÛ]áS-S÷âNýaÛ]áïíS Bál„ ýãGã[ S÷a §ÿ,
XáNýá[ âR@üýIý ýIýá@üá PáâU @ü[ïíNý âk‡Qá @üïí[ Rá; BUÞ @üïí[ñ *AáïíRbÙÿ @üXåóâRuË S÷a§ÿ, *BàâGaïíýIýRàâ^Záâ]GX *[ S÷a§ÿ, @üáïí]áýIýá@üá[
í^_ RZ, âRG @çüNý@üïí XÞ[ @çüâNýNÿšÿ PáâU @üïí [ âSNýáXáNýáïí@ü @üOá S÷a§ÿ, Cåïí_[ S÷a§ÿ, Rá[ã[ S÷aáQR-aáGïíSá_áïí@ü[ S÷a§ÿ S÷WçýâNý
í^áRáïíNý< NýáïíP[ âUïíUïí@ü UáïíQ Ráñ NýábÙÿ íýFýïí]ïí@ü U]ïíNý í^áRá YáZ #âNý aæ¤üWýáïíU #áí]á@üS÷áÂ bïíZïíýFýñ “*AáïíR íNýá íRNýá[ÿ ýIøýóáâKý^R
“#á'X RýIý #á Sá[WýáýIÞý ]ábÙÿ@üý bÙÿKÙý ýIåýñ *AR <ýIýá RtËý @ü[Uá[ íbá] bÜáýIå ý #UâQ í@üðSãR, #á[ @üóáU]á[ XïíNýá WýábÙÿï íZÜáñ âOÛ@ü
*£ïíSâ~üýEýá[ íNýá #áXáïí@ü âPïíNý bïíU, íabÙÿýIýábÙÿ í@üáKý, âRZXñ' 10 #Tü âP ]óáÛ|üïíZG, WýábÙÿïíZÜ á ! #Tåü ]!”11 S÷O X UóâºýôâýIý[ *bÙÿ
`BWÞýUNýã UNÞýXáR' *@üáâ¥ý@üáïíNý RáýIýó@üá[ Sâ[Uá[Uk„ý GãUïíR[ aÛ]áSâýIý íY Bál„ýãGã[ KÙýïí½ïí^ó UóâZNý bïíZïíýFý Nýá UåHüïíNý SáJýïí@ü[
#S÷á âÂ[ #Rå_ ïí§ÿ GãUïíR[ #l„ ý@üá[XZ âP@ü |üâ] KÙý ílŠáâýEýNý #aåâUïíQ bZ Rá *UÛ Bál„ýãGã[ S÷âNý @üã[ìS #áýEý[M S÷Pâ^ÞNý bïíZïíýFý
@üïí[ïíýFýR XRR^ã]Nýá[ y‚ÿïí[ y‚ÿïí[, íýEýtËýá @üïí[ïíýFýR XáRU-XáRUã[ Nýá< SáJýïí@ü[ âR@üýIý Pæ[âQBXó RZñ `@üXåóâRuË âTü]GâTüýIýá #óáKàýâXýIý
psychological approch |üâ]ïí@ü KÙ ý Syƒ ÿ áâSNý @ü[Uá[ñ @ü[âýFýñ'12 âU^ ^Nýïí@ü[ YåUïí@ü[á *@üýIýá aXïí Z íY @üXå óâRuË
*@üá¥ýâýIýïíNý Ráïý Iýó@üá[ íPAáïíNý íýEýïíZïíýFýR, íWýáýIý íY NýáXá^á Xá¼ âTü]GâTüýIýá #áKàýâXýIý @ü[ïíNý }ü[ë @üïí[âýFý] Nýá abïíGbÙÿ #RåXáR @ü[á
*UÛ På'âýIý Pïí][ íWýáýIý@üXãÞïíP[ S[yS[ïí@ü íPá_áïí[áS @ü[á *UÛ YáZñ #áUá[ #Ua[S÷áÂ @üXÞýEýá[ã Uá Xâb]áïíP[ #áýEý[ïíM< GãUR-
âRïíGïí P[ïí@ü í^÷Ìý S÷âNýSl… @ü[Uá[ íýEýtËýá' Yá abïíGbÙÿ #áXáïíP[ aÛ@üýIý S÷âNýTüâ]Ný bïíZïíýFý âWýl… âWýl… WýáïíU, “aU UóáýIýá íýEýá[ñ aU”,
[áGRãâNý[ #ÿw‚ÿ Úaá[^æM óNýáïí @ü KÙýílŠáâýEýNý @üïí[ñ UóUaáPáïí [[ “aUábÙÿ í@üU] âRïíG[ y‡áOÞýIýá íPAïíýFýñ íP^ýIýá[ âPïí@ü íNýá í@üKÙý
#áýEý[M < #WýáâUNý XïíR bZ #áXáïíP[ñ #áaïí] `@çüz× í@üðNåý@üãZ' íPAïíýFý Ráñ” #áSáNýWýáïíU *bÙÿ XáRå_|üâ]ïí@ü #áP^ÞUáPã XïíR bïíNý
*bÙÿ `BWÞýUNýã UNÞýXáR' *@üáâ¥ý@üáïíNý RáýIýó@üá[ XáRU - XáRUã GãUïíR[ Sáïí[ â@üÿwŸ *[ábÙÿ aUïíýEýïíZ íUâ^ y‡áOÞS[, aUïíýEýïíZ Cå_ PáNýáñ *[ábÙÿ
#ÿw‚ÿâRÞâbNý y‚ÿ[|üâ] KÙýílŠáýEýR @ü[ïíNý S÷Záaã bïíZïíýFý XRy‚ÿáâºýš@üNýá[ @üáïí]áýIýá@üáïí@ü aáPáïíNý [ìSáÿwÿâ‚ [Ný@ü[ïíM aUïíýEýïíZ íUâ^ aïíýEýtËýñ På'GR
#áUïíbñ *@üáâ¥ý@üá[ y‡q† Sâ[aïí[ GãUïíR[ A~üáÛï^ KÙýSyƒÿáSïíR GãUR Rá[ã *bÙÿ *@üáâ¥ý@üáïíNý íYWýáïíU #S[ Rá[ã[ aáGïíSá_á@ü âRïíZ âUUçâNý
- âRYÞáa KÙýSyƒÿáâSNý bïíZïíýFý Uïí] #áXáïíP[ XïíR bZñ R[- Rá[ã[ âPïíZïíýFý Nýá #áXáïíP[ Rá[ãNÿšÿ axSâ@ÞüNý Qá[Máïí@ü @ü]åâ_Ný @üïí[ñ
Xæ]óïíUáïíQ[ Ný]áâR -y‚ÿ[ RáRáR PçâtËýïí@üáM íOïí@ü KÙý»áâSNý bïíZïíýFý í@üU] Nýá-bÙÿ RZ, *@üP] GRNýá YAR *@ü@ü *@ü@ü WýáïíU Xïí°×[
báïíNý íBáRá @üïíZ@üâýIý ýEýâ[ïí¼[ ¤üâM@ü #âWýUóáâºýôïíNýñ *bÙ ÿ KÙýSïí[ Uïí] YáZ, “aUábÙÿ SáâG, *@ü #áâX ýFýáKòýá”,13 NýAR SáJý@ü
*@üáâ¥ý@üá[ S÷â NýâýIý ýEýâ[¼ Uóâºýô Sâ[ýEýïíZ[ íUKòý áGá] íSâ[ïíZ UåHüïíNý Sáïí[ #áa] aXaóá[ y‡[ìSñ
îRUÞóâºýô@ü y‚ÿïí [ SYÞUâaNý bïíZïíýFý Yá aáXâB÷@üWýáïíU XáRUáiŠá[ ^Çåü âX¼ í@üU] XáRU-XáRUã[ UâbÞGãUR âRïíZ WýáâUNý RR,
#URXïí R[ GãUÿw‚ ÿ âRYÞá añ RáýIýó@üá[ ^Çåü âX¼ UóâºýôGãUïí R[ Nýáïí P[ #ÿw‚ÿGãÞUïíR[ y‡[ ìS âNýâR #íR@ü íUâ^ abìPZNýá[ aïí§ÿ
#âWý¬NýáZ R[-Rá[ã[ y‡@ üãZ-y‡[ ìS KÙý S]âÅý @ü[ïí Ný a¤üX SYÞïíU¤üM @ü[Uá[ íýEýtËýá @üïí[ïíýFýRñ í@üU] aÛ]áS-S÷âNýaÛ]áS
bïíZâýFýïí]R Yá[ UáâýEý@ü S÷@üá^ *bÙÿ `BWÞýUNýã UNÞýXáR' *@üáâ¥ý@üá RZ, RáýIýó@üá[ ^Çåü âX¼ X°× UMÞRáZ Rá[ã-Så[ë_, YåU@ü-YåUNýã[
Sâ[aïí[[ aÛâ¤üÂNýáZ, ýEýâ[ïí¼[ y‡q†NýáZ *UÛ #RåWýïíU[ BWýã[NýáZ #ÿw‚ ÿ[§ÿ y‡ [ìS KÙý ïílŠáâýEýNý @üïí[ïíýFýRñ *@üâýIý íýFýïí] *@üâýIý íXïíZ
AáâR@üýIýá í@üðNåý@ü ab@üáïí[ * *@üáâ¥ý@üáïíNý RáýIýó@üá[ aáOÞ@üWýáïíU *UÛ *@üGR íS÷ðýLòý < íS÷ðýLòýá[ Xïí°×[ KÙýSïí[[ #áýEý[M SáJý@üïí@ü
GãUR-XåïíAáïí^[ #áKòýáïí] GãURïí@ü S÷yŒåüâýIýNý @ü[ïíNý a¤üX bïíZïíýFýRñ WýáURá[ BWýãïí[ âRïíZ YáZñ #aXUZaã Rá[ã-Så[ëïí_[ S÷âNý #á@ü_ÞM
^Çåü âXïí¼[ âk‡NýãZ NýOá í^_ *@üáâ¥ý@üá `#Nåý]RãZ ax‡áP'ñ < âU@ü_ÞïíM[ íY âýEý¼ #â¥ýNý bïíZïíýFý Nýá #WåýNýSæUÞñ #áXáïíP[ RãýEýNýá
195
Uá PãRNýá âJý@ü í@üáR y‚ ÿï í[ âRXâªNý bïíZïíýFý Nýá Xïí°×-Pç ïí ^ó RáýIýó@üá[ ^Çåü âX¼ `#Nåý]RãZ ax‡áP', *@üáâ¥ý@üá[ aUÞïí^_
aåyStËýWýáïíU Q[á SïíKòýïíýFýñ #RóâPïí@ü íPAá YáZ @üïí ]G Sg.èýZá[ #âWýWýá_ïíM[ í^_ Uá@üóâýIý #Nýóÿw‚ÿ NýáÖSYÞSæMñÞ “íYXR aXy‚ÿ #áiŠ-
aXUZaã YåU@ü-YåUNýã[ íS÷XáïíUB < Nýá[ Sâ[RáXñ @üïí]G Sg.èýZá aáTüábÙÿ aïíºýš< SPÞá ïíRïíX #áaïíUbÙÿñ”16 #áXáïíP[ XïíR bZ *bÙÿ SPÞá
íýFýïí] íXïíZ[á íS÷ïíX[ RáïíX @üã[ìS âRx…XáïíR[ ]áWýá]áïíWý[ âbïíaU- íRïíX #áaáýIýábÙÿ XáRU-XáRUã GãUïíR[ #âRUáYÞ Sâ[MáXñ *bÙÿ Sâ[MáX
âRïí@ü^ @üïí[ Nýá ^Çåü âXïí¼[ PçâtËý *âKòýïíZ YáZ âRñ “*bÙÿ *@üâýIý Xá¼ Sâ[UNÞýïíR XáRïíU[ WæýâX@üá #Nýóÿwÿ‚ ¤üãMñ XáRå_ GãURYåïík„ý GZ]áïíWý[
íýFýïí]bÙ ÿ *@üýIåý aãâ[Záaàâ ] íS÷ X @üïí[, Uáâ@ü aUábÙ ÿ *í@üUáïí[ GRó @üNý[@üX ýFý]á@ü]á, âRmPá-#SXáR, íS÷XáâWýRZ, ]áWý-¤üâNý[
íXðXáâýFýñ”14 íXðXáâýFý #áXáïíP[ íýEýRá SNý§ÿñ Tåüïí][ XQå -âRYÞáa âbïíaU @üïí[ Oáïí@ü â@üÿwŸ aUýIýábÙÿ íYR `@çüz×-í@üðNåý@üãZ'ñ GãUïíR[
SáR @ü[ábÙÿ íXðXáâýFý[ Uçâºýñ íS÷âX@üá Rá[ã[ *[ìS #âWýUóâºýô íS÷ïíX[ #ÿw‚ÿÚaá[^æRó UóOÞNýá íY S[X báaó@ü[ Nýá S÷âNýâUâx‡Ný bïíZïíýFý `@çüz×-
aá[áÖaá[ïí@ü ýEæýKòýáÿw‚ÿWýáïíU #SXáâRNý @üïí[ñ #áUá[ íS÷âX@ü Så[ëïí_[ í@üðNåý@üãZ' ôPUïíl„ýñ #Nåý *UÛ #Nåý]RãZá[ GãUïíR[ *@ü AÀýáÛ^
y‡ã@üáïí[áâºýô, “*bÙÿ *@üâýIý Xá¼ íXïíZbÙ ÿ *@üýIåý Wýáïí]á @ü'ïí [ íS÷X *AáïíR #áWýáâaNý bïíZïíýFýñ ¤üâM@ü P^ÞïíR XáRU - ýEýâ[ïí¼[ #Ný]áÿw‚ÿ
@ü[ïíNý PóáZ, Uáâ@ü aUábÙÿ í@üU] A[ýEý @ü[áZ”ñ15 *bÙÿ Så[ë_ Så[ëïí_[ BWýã[Nýá[ #áWýáa S÷PáïíR *bÙÿ *@üáâ¥ý@üá aáOÞ@üNýá PáâU @üïí[ñ
RUNýX aÛy€ý[M, @üáSå[ë_ Xá¼ñ íS÷X axSâ@ÞüNý YåBSÖ Qá[Má *bÙÿ ^Çåü âX¼ *bÙÿ På'âýIý *@üáâ¥ý@üáïí@ü `@çüz×-í@üðNåý@üãZ RáâýIý@üá'
íS÷âXïí@ü[ #âWýUóâºýôïíNý @üPYÞNýáZ SYÞUâaNý bïíZïíýFýñ *WýáïíUbÙÿ Uïí] #âWýâbNý @üïí[ïíýFýRñ #áXáïíP[ XïíR bïíZïíýFý ýEýâ[ïí¼[ y‡q†Nýá,
RáýIýó@üá[ ^Çåü âX¼ NÜý á[ í]AâR[ XQó âPïí Z GãUR-aÛ@üýIýïí @ü @üáâbRã[ aÛâ¤üÂNýá *UÛ [ýEýâZNýá[ #âWýïíS÷Ný XïíRáWýâ§ÿ S÷@üáïí^
KÙýílŠáâýEýNý @üïí[ïíýFýR ¤åü[Qá[ Wýâ§ÿïíNýñ *WýáïíUbÙÿ RáýIýó@üá[ SáJýïí@ü[ *bÙÿ På'âýIý RáâýIý@üá aáOÞ@ü *@üá¥ý SPUáýEýóñ På'âýIý *@üáâ¥ý@üá[ âRXÞáïíM
aáXïíR báâG[ @üïí[ïíýFýR *bÙÿ íS÷âX@ü-S÷âX@üá[ âSNýáïíP[ïí@ü<ñ *bÙÿ RáýIýó@üáïí[[ âRXÞáMïî^]ã @çüâNýïíNÿšÿ[ PáâU [áïíAñ XRy€ý SáJý@ü Xáïí¼bÙÿ
ýEýá[GR XáNýá âSNýá[ GUáRãïíNý aXáG aÛaáïí[[ #á[ *@üâýIý âP@ü GáïíRR RáýIýó@üáïí[[ S÷ïíU^áâQ@üá[ íRbÙÿ RáýIýïí@üñ RáýIýó@üáïí[[ UºýôUóbÙÿ
KÙýílŠáâýEýNý bïíZ YáZñ UáXåR #á[ }ü½èïí[[ âUïíZïíNý NýáïíP[ #áSâºý ýEýâ[¼|üâ][ XåA âRÚaçNý aÛ]áïíS[ XáQóïíX S÷@üá^ íSïíZ Oáïí@üñ
[ïíZïíýFý, NýáïíP[ XïíR bZ, `SR âPïíZ Nýºýš âPïíZ NýïíU bZ UáDüáâ][ âUïí^_WýáïíU *bÙÿ PåâýIý *@üáâ¥ý@üáïíNý RáýIýó@üáïí[[ âUâWýl… âRïíPÞ^Rá
âUïíZ'ñ âUUáb âU_ïíZ GáNý-SáïíNý[ aÛy€ýá[ *UÛ SM ax‡ïíl„ý NÜýáïíP[ #Nýóÿw‚ÿ NýáÖSYÞSæMÞ WæýâX@üá B÷bM @üïí[ïíýFýñ På'âýIý *@üáâ¥ý@üá[ aæýEýRáïíNý
BUÞïíUáQ #áXáïíP[ #áQåâR@ü-XRy€ý SáJýïí@ü[ [ëâýEýïíUáQïí@ü SãâKòýNý âRïíPÞ^Rá [ïíZïíýFý â@üÿwŸ *@üáâ¥ý@üá[ XáïíHü XáïíHü *bÙÿ âRïíPÞ^Rá|üâ]
@üïí[ñ íýFýïí][ âSNýá S[yS[ïí@ü íPá_áïí[áS @üïí[, í@üKÙý íPá_ íPZ ýEýâ[¼ aXæïíb[ #áýEý[M Uá@àüWýâ§ÿXáïí@ü âUïí^_WýáïíU âRZwžÿM @üïí[ïíýFý,
íXïíZâýIýïí @ü, í@üKÙ ý íPá_ íPZ íýFýïí]âýIýïí@üñ YâP< Påb Ùÿ âSNýá[ Yá[ Tüïí] *bÙÿ *@üáâ¥ý@üá|üâ] #íR@ü íUâ^ aåïíUáQó bïíZ KÙýïíJýïíýFýñ
íPá_áïí[áïíS[ XïíQóbÙÿ íýFýïí]âýIý - íXïíZâýIý âUïíZ @üïí[ñ aáXáRó UóUQáïíR RáýIýó-aÛ]áïí S[ í¤üïí ¼ ¤åüÿPù áZNýR aÛ]áS y‡WýáUNýbÙÿ @üáXó â@üÿwŸ
NýáïíP[ UZa íUýïíKòý YáZñ íýFýïí]âýIý íXïíZâýIý[ @ÜüáïíQ báNý í[ïíA ýEý]ïíNý ^Çåü âX¼ ¤åüÿPùáZNýR < PãCÞáZNýR KÙýWýZ [ãâNý[ aÛ]áS S÷Yåºýô @üïí[ïíýFýR
Oáïí@ü #á[ aåaâªNýá #Ró íXïíZïí @ü íPïíA Nýá[ âPïí@ü ]á]aá[ *bÙÿ På'âýIý *@üáâ¥ý@üáïíNýñ #áUá[ @üAïíRá @üAïíRá aåPãCÞ âRïíPÞ^Rá
âPïí@ü Nýá@üáZñ íýFýïí]âýIý[ ]á]áaáNåý[ #âWýUóâºýô â@üÿwŸ #Nåý]RãZá[ UóâZNý bïíZïíýFý, Yá[ @üá[ïíM ýEýâ[¼|üâ][ #áýEý[M âRZâwžÿNý bïíZïíýFýý
RGïí[ #áïía Rá, #Nåý]Rá S[S[ âNýRâýIý SåNåý] Nåýïí] íPïíZ íýFýïí]âýIý[ âJý@übÙÿ â@üÿwŸ Nýá[á âRUÞá@üñ *bÙÿ âRUÞá@ü #áýEý[ïíM Nýá[á RáýIýó@üáïí[[
báïíNý Yá âRïíZ íýFýïí]âýIý @ÜüáïíPá @ÜüáïíPá XåïíA #Nåý]Rá[ íSýFýïíR íSýFýïíR #âWýïíS÷Ný #RåWæýâNý[ aPOÞ@ü S÷@üá^ CýIýáïíNý a¤üX bïíZïíýFýñ
íYïíNý Oáïí@üñ SåNåý] âNýRâýIý ïí@üU] SåNåý] RZ, Nýá[á XáRU aÿw‚ÿáïíR[ `BWÞýUNýã UNÞýXáR' *UÛ `#Nåý]RãZ ax‡áP' På'âýIý *@üáâ¥ý@üáïíNý
XNý `<ÜZá' `<ÜZá' @üïí[ @ÜüáPïíNý Oáïí@üñ aÿw‚ÿáïíR[ PáâZNÿšÿ âRïíNý âBïíZ Wýá_á UóUbáïí[[ í¤üïí¼ RáýIýó@üáïí[[ Wýá_á¬áR S÷r…áNýãNý aáTü]ó
íýFýïí]âýIý[ @ÜüáïíPá @ÜüáïíPá #Uyƒÿáñ *@üâPïí@ü íS÷X-âUUáb-aÿw‚ÿáïíR[ íSïíZïíýFýñ @üAïíRá bÙÿÛí[Gã ôP Uá Uá@üó - Uá@üóáÛ^ UáÛ]á b[ïíTü,
GR@ü bïíZ <Jýá[ #áRmP-PáâZNÿšÿWýá[ #RóâPïí@ü aåaâªNýá S[yžÿã[ @üAïí Rá Uá bÙ ÿÛ í[âG b[ïíTü S÷Y åº ýô bïí ZïíýFýñ ‘Really, such
S÷â Ný ]á]aáNå ý[ Pçâ tËýïí ¤üS *UÛ íabÙÿ [XRãZ S÷âNý @üýIýá¤üSáNý, advantages in Marriage- #áfFýá , by the way’, `NýábÙÿ #áXá[
ýIýá@üá S÷P^ÞR ýEýâ[¼âýIýïí@ü *@üáâQ@ü KýábÙÿïíXRà^ïíR SáJýïí@ü[ âR@üýIý <S[ íNýá í@üáR< effectbÙÿ bZ Rá', `#áX[á b]åX solid WýÿPùïí]á@ü',
KÙýSâyƒÿNý @üïí[ïïíýFýñ RáýIýó@üá[ ^Çåü âX¼ *@üáïí¥ý[ @üáJýáïíXáZ â^q†ã[ ‘Environment makes the Man’, `âKýZá[ïíRa #óá]áKÙýïíÁ[
PçâtËý âRïí¤üïíS XáRïíU[ #ÿw‚ÿ[ < Uáâb[ KÙýïílŠáâýEýNý @üïí[ïíýFýRñ GRó #áímPá]R @ü[ïíU', S÷WçýâNý UóUbìNý bïíZïíýFýñ Wýá_á UóUbáïí[[
196
í¤üïí¼ ýEýâ[¼|üâ]ïí@ü S÷ áMUáR *UÛ XáRâU@ü @üïí[ íNýá]á[ S÷ ïír… NýOóaæ¼ :

^Çåü âX¼ í@üáïíRá[ìS UáýFýâUýEýá[ @üïí[RâRñ @üAïíRá @üAïíRá B÷áXãR 1ñ âX¼ ^Çåü / SÜáýEý PåbÙÿ /#áRmP SáUâ]^áaÞ / îU^áA - 1400
íP^G ýEýâ]Ný NýOá í]ðâ@ü@ü ôP UóUbá[ @üïí[ïíýFýR y‡fFýmPWýáïíUñ 2ñ SæïíUáÞºýô, Sç. 111
`Påïíºýâ[', `XábÙÿâ[ý', `@åüýEýâ@ü', `íSýIýïíXáýIýá', `TÜüóáýEý: TÜüóáýEý', ÙåïíKòýá[ 3ñ SæïíUáÞºýô, Sç. 94
X½', `QâKòýUáG', `@üóáU]á', `HüKòýâNý SKòýâNý', `íGáfEåýâ[', `íRKòýã', 4ñ SæïíUáÞºýô, Sç. 116
`@ÜåüýEýâ@üïíY', `}ü½èïí[' S÷WçýâNý ^ïíoP[ UóUbá[ [ïíZïíýFýñ 5ñ SæïíUáÞºýô, Sç. 120
^Çåü âXïí¼[ `BWÞýUNýã UNÞýXáR' *UÛ `#Nåý]RãZ ax‡áP' *bÙÿ 6ñ SæïíUáÞºýô, Sç.122
På 'âýIý @çü z×ïí@üðNå ý@üãZ *@üáâ¥ý@üá[ XïíQó *@üáâ¥ýï@üá[ aáXáRóQXÞ 7ñ NýïíPUñ
UNýÞXáRñ SæMÞá§ÿ XáRU GãUR RZ, GãUïíR[ A~üáÛïí^[ #RåWýæ âNý *@üá¥ý 8ñ âX¼ ^Çåü / SÜáýEýPåbÙÿ / #áRmP SáUâ]^áaÞ / îU^áA - 1400/ Sç- 123
På'âýIýïíNý S÷@üá^ íSïíZïíýFýñ *@üá¥ý På'âýIý #á@üâtŠ@üWýáïíU }ü[ë bïíZïíýFý 9ñ NýïíPUñ
*UÛ aXáÂ bïíZïíýFýñ y‡áWýáâU@üWýáïíU *bÙÿ På'âýIý *@üá¥ý UáÛ]á 10ñ SæïíUáÞºýô, Sç. 127
*@üáïí¥ý[ Qá[áïí@ü aXçk „ý @üïí[ïí ýFýñ bÙÿ âNýXïíQó #áX[á ^Çåü âX¼ 11ñ âX¼ ^Çåü / #Nåý]RãZ aÛUáP / SÜáýEý PåbÙÿ / #áRmP SáUâ]^áaÞ / îU^áA -
GlŠ^NýU_Þ #âNý¼ôX @üïí[âýFý â@üÿwŸ ^Çåü âXïí¼[ *@üá¥ý|üâ][ S÷âNý 1403 / Sç. 129
SáJý@ü@åüïí][ KÙýPáaãRNýá [ïíZbÙÿ âBïíZïíýFýñ ^Çåü âXïí¼[ @üïíZ@üâýIý 12ñ NýïíPU ñ
SæMáÞ§ÿ RáýIý@ü axSïí@Þü @üïíZ@üGR #áïí]áýEýRá @üïí[ïíýFýR NýïíU NÜýá[ 13ñ SæïíUáÞºýô, Sç. 133
*@üá¥ý På'âýIý ax‡ïíl„ý âUïí^_ @üáKÙýïí@ü #áïí]áýEýRá @ü[ïíNý íPAá YáZâRñ 14ñ SæïíUáÞºýô, Sç. 135
^Çåü âXïí¼[ GlŠ ^NýUïí_Þ NÜýá[ *@üá¥ý På'âýIý[ S÷âNý #áïí]á@üSáïíNý[ 15ñ NýïíPUüñ
KÙýïí½^ó *bÙÿ S÷Ul„ý [ýEýRá[ S÷Záañ 16ñ SæïíUáÞºýô, Sç. 137
197
âRx…UïíBÞ[ #UyƒÿáR < Nýá[á^¥ýïí[[ `RáâBRã@üRóá[ @üáâbRã'

Ký. aåGZ@åüXá[ XábÙÿâNý
aXáG-XáRåïí_[ GãURQá[ïíM[ S÷ïíZáGïíRbÙÿ aXáïíG[ açâtËýñ *bÙÿ aXáG-âUUNýÞï íR[ XïíQóbÙÿ ]åâ@üïíZ #áïí ýFý âRx…UBÞâyƒÿNý XáRåïí_[ bÙÿâNýbáañ YåïíB YåïíB âUâWýl…
â^q†ã-aáâbâNýó@üïíP[ [ýEýRá, KÙýSáPáïíR âUïí^_WýáïíU yƒÿáR @üïí[ âRïíZïíýFý *bÙÿ âRx…ïUïíBÞ[ XáRå_GRñ #¤üZ@åüXá[ Pºý, Uâ¥ýXýEýú, [UãúRáïíO[ [ýEýRáZ íYXR
NýáïíP[ Sâ[ýEýZ íXïí], íNýXâR Nýá[á^¥ýïí[[ âUâWýl… [ýEýRáZ *[ aXâQ@ü Sâ[ýEýZ Sá<Zá YáZñ âUïí^_ @üïí[ NÜýá[ `RáâBRã@üRóá[ @üáâbRã' KÙýSRóáïía âRx…UïíBÞ[
aXáG, NýáïíP[ GãURáýEý[M, aÛy€ýá[, âUr‡áa, í]á@üáýEýá[, GãURYá¼á S÷WçýâNý[ íY Sâ[ýEýZ Sá<Zá YáZ, Nýá[bÙÿ #áïí]áýEýRá @ü[á bïíZïíýFý *AáïíRñ í]Aïí@ü[
#âWý¬Nýá, SYÞïíU¤üM < GãURaçâtËý[ Sâ[ýEýZ *[ XQó âPïíZ #áX[á #áâUÿt€ýá[ @ü[ïíNý Sáâ[ñ
aæýEý@ü ôP: íBáÌýäïí@üâú@ü aXáGUóUyƒÿá, âRx…UBÞâyƒÿNý, í^÷MãïîU_Xó, y‚ÿ[âURóáïa, aXáGâýEý¼, aXáG-aÛy€çýâNý, UMÞïîU_ïXó, @åüaÛy€ýá[áfFýl…, aâ°×Ný U°×Rá,
XáRUïíBáÌýä. #ÿw‚ÿóG í^÷Mãñ
1 #áâX íPïí^[ @üZGR? #á[ *bÙÿ @çü â_GãUã @üZGR?

âRx…UïíBÞ[ aÛ¬á âR[ìSïíM @üNý@ü|üâ] WýáURá #áXáïíP[ yS^ÞGáB[ Nýábáïí P[ NýóáB @üâ[ïí] íPïí^ @üZGR Oáïí@üñ âbaáU
WýáUáRåWæýâNýïí@ü yS^Þ @üïí[ñ íYXR, [UãúRáO Uïí]ïíýFýR: @üâ[ïí] Nýábá[ábÙÿ íP^ - íPïí^[ #âQ@üáÛ^ í]á@übÙ ÿ
^Ný ^Ný aáxöÿáïíGó[ Wýd…ïí^_'Sïí[ @çüâ_GãUãñ íNýáXá bbÙÿïíNý #áXá bbÙÿïíNý í@üR @üáYÞó bbÙÿïíNý
<[á @üáG @üïí[ñ 1 Sáïí[? â@üÿw Ÿ a@ü] @ç üâ_GãUã í¤üâSïí] í@ü í@üáOáZ
#¤üZ@åüXá[ Pºý NÜýá[ `Sq‰ãB÷áXyƒÿ S÷GáïíP[ På[UyƒÿáUMÞR' S÷Uïíl„ý Oáâ@üïí U? â@üÿwŸ a@ü] @çüâ_GãUã í¤üâSïí] í@ü í@üáOáZ
Uïí]ïíýFýR: Oáâ@üïíU? â@ü Rá bbÙÿïíU?”
“Yábá[á *XR âbïíNýbã, aÛaáïí[[ *XR aåA - a°×á[@ü, [UãúRáíO[ `<[á', #¤üZ@å ü Xá[ Pïíºý[ `Nýábá[á',
NýábáïíP[ Pá[ëM På½Þ^á íPâAZá bìPZ Uóá@åü] bZ ! Nýábá[á Uâ¥ýXýEýïíú[ `@çüâ_GãUã' *íP[ <S[ âRWÞý[ @üïí[ *âBïíZ ýEýïí]ïíýFý
WåýUR S÷âNýSá]@ü bbÙÿZá< #áSRá[ïíP[ KÙýP[ál… #áb[ïíM íBáýIýá aXáGñ *[ábÙÿ ^÷ïíX[ k‡á[á XáRåïí_[ S÷áOâX@ü ýEýáâbPá, AáPó <
aXOÞ bZ Rá, .......Yábá[á YáUNýãZ í]áïí@ü[ íWýáGó UyŸ Uyžÿ íYáBáR âPïífFý, íXýIýáïífFý XáRåïí_[ âRNýó S÷ïíZáGRñ *[ábÙÿ #áXáïíP[
S÷ y Ÿ N ý @üïí[, Yábá[ïíP[ Så â tË ý @üá[@ü, U]Qá[@ü, `âbïîNý_ã', *[ábÙÿ `WåýUR S÷âNýSá]@ü'ñ aXáG - âUUNÞýïíR[ Qá[áZ
^÷ïíXáSïíYáBã ÿPùUó Wý¤üM @ü[á âRNýáÿw‚ÿ #áU^ó@ü, Nýábá[á *bÙÿ `<[á', `Nýábá[á', `@çüâ_GãUã', `RãýEý' *UÛ #áïí[á #íR@ü RáïíX
aS÷Nåý] [ìïíS â@üx‡á aáXáRó [ìïíS< GJý[áR] âRUÞáM @üâ[ïíNý Kýá@üá XáRå_|üâ]bÙÿ bïíZïíýFý `âRx…UïíBÞ[ XáRå_'ñ
SáZ Ráñ” RçNýºýš, bÙÿâNýbáa < aXáGâU¬áïíR[ aábáïíYó âRx…UïíBÞ[ aÛ¬á
Uâ¥ýXýEýú NÜýá[ Ù§ÿïíPïí^[ @çü_@ü' âRUïíl„ý S÷r… Nåýïí ]ïíýFýR âR[ìSM @ü[á YáZ *bÙÿWýáïíU :
*bÙÿWýáïíU : @ü) âRx…UïíBÞ[ KÙýÖa-XåA al„ýáïíR
“íPïí^[ X§ÿ]? íPïí^[ X§ÿ], @üábá[ X§ÿ]? íNýáXá[ A) aXáïíG í^÷MãâURóáa
#áXá[ X§ÿ] íPâAïíNýâýFý, â@üÿwŸ NåýâX #áâX â@ü íP^? NåýâX B) í^÷MãâUWýºýô aXáïíG âRx…UïíBÞ[ KÙýSâyƒÿâNý
ab@üá[ã-#QóáS@ü, UáÛ]á âUWýáB, [áGá Rïí[ú]á] AáR Xâb]á XbáâUPóá]Z, íXâPRãSå[, SâsEýXU§ÿ , Wýá[Nýñ
198
C) âRx…UBÞ ax‡ïíl„ý íýEýNýRá #áBXïíR[ Sïí[, îUâP@ü Yå ïí B UMÞ á ^÷ Zã aXáGâýEý¼, aXáïíG[

Dü) âRx…UBÞ axSïí@Þü íýEýNýRá[ Sâ[UNÞýR y‚ÿ[âURóáïía #á[< yStËý[ìS Sâ[B÷b @üïí[ñ #áYÞ[á #RáYÞïíP[ *@üâýIý
ýEý) âRx…UïíBÞ[ Sâ[ýEýZ PáRñ í^÷Mãïí@ü Páa Uïí] #âWýâbNý @ü[Nýñ
@ü) âRx…UïíBÞ[ KÙýÖa-XåA al„ýáïíR : S÷áýEýãR UMÞá^÷X S÷Oá[ <S[ âWýâºý @üïí[ Wýá[NýãZ aXáG-âURóáa
XáRå_ aáXáâG@ü GãUñ Nýá[ GãURQá[ïíM[ S÷ïíZáGïíRbÙÿ aXáïíG[ PÜ áâKò ý ïíZ #áíýFýñ “UMÞ á ^÷ X S÷O á Uá #Wýóáa Yå âºýôSk„ ý âNýUk„ ý
açâtËýñ *bÙÿ aXáGbÙÿ BïíKòý KÙýíJýâýFý] íýFýáýIý íýFýáýIý íBáÌýä íOïí@üñ íBáÌýä @üâ[ZáâýFýïí]R S÷á ýEýãR QXÞaæ¼ < yŠçâNýB÷ïíwƒÿ[ í]Aïí@ü[áñ Uõ áÎM-
íOïí@ü axS÷PáZ, axS÷PáZ íOïí@ü UMÞñ S[UNýãÞ@üáïí] íBáÌýäïí@üâú@ü ¤üâ¼Z-îU^ó-^æ ÿPù *bÙÿ ýEýNåý UïíMÞ[ @üáJýáïíXá[ XïíQó NÜýábá[á aXy‚ÿ
aXáGUóUyƒÿá[ WýáDüR Qïí[ïíýFýñ QRNýwžÿ < #áX]áNýïíwžÿ[ S÷WýáïíU aXáG Wýá[NýãZ aXáGUóUyƒÿáïí@ü UÜáâQïíNý íýEýtËýá @üâ[ZáâýFýïí]Rñ”5 *bÙÿ
âUUâNÞý Ný bïí ZïíýFýñ *bÙÿ aXáG aç âtËý [ S÷ Nå ýóïí _ S÷ áïîBâNýbáâa@ü ýEýNåýUïíMÞ[ UábÙÿïí[< #aÛAó UMÞ, GR < í@üáX âýFý]ñ *íP[< #áUá[
@üá]S÷Uáïíb[ XïíQó ]åâ@üïíZ #áíýFý âRx…UBÞâyƒÿNý XáRåïí_[ bÙÿâNýbáañ RáRá y‚ÿ[-KÙýSy‚ÿ[ âýFý]ñ
“íSð[áâM@ü < îUâP@ü YåB< Zá[ Nåý]RáZ UNÞýXáïíR[ SYÞáïíZ SâKòýZá #áYÞ aÛy€çýâNý[ S÷aáïí[[ Tüïí] @çüâ_, @üáâ[B[ã, S}üSá]R-
YáZñ” #OýEý *bÙÿ #Uïíbâ]Ný XáRå_|üâ] bÙ ÿâNýbáïía KÙýíSâ¤üNýñ
2
*bÙÿaU ^÷XaáQó @üXÞ ^æÿPïíù P[ XïíQó aãXáUk„ý bïíZ âBïíZâýFý]ñ #RóâPïí@ü
YâP< *íP[ `#â]âANý bÙ ÿâ Nýbáa' í]Aá Oáïí @ü NýáïíP[ `#âyƒ ÿ #áïíYÞNý[ aÛy€çýâNý[ KÙýºý[áâQ@üá[ã P]|üâ] @üáâZ@ü ^÷XaáQó íS^á[
@ü¥ýáïí][ #¤üïí['ñ NýábÙÿ RçNýïíºýš[ aábáïíYó NýáïíP[ KÙýÖa-XåïíA[ aïí§ÿ GâKòýïíZ SïíKòýâýFý]ñ *íP[ íS^á|üâ] âRýEåý < #SâU¼ Uïí]
bÙÿâNýbáaâýIý AÜåïíG âRïíNý bZñ âýEýâbôNý bïíZâýFý]ñ UMÞBNý, GáâNý BNý < íS^áBNý âP@ü íOïí @ü,
S÷áïîBâNýbáâa@ü @üá]S÷Uáb UïíZ *íRâýFý] S÷áBáYÞ GáâNýaXæïíb[ aXáG âURóáïía âRx…UïíBÞ[ KÙýSâyƒÿâNý[ *@üâýIý bâP^ Sá<Zá YáZñ
GãURQá[áïí @üñ *bÙÿ a@ü] #RáYÞ GáâNý[ #âQ@üáÛ^bÙÿ S[UNýãÞ B) í^÷MãâUWýºýô aXáïíG âRx…UïíBÞ[ KÙýSâyƒÿâNý :
aXáGUóUyƒÿáZ aXáïíG[ *í@üUáïí [ âRx…y‚ÿ ïí[[ #ÿw‚ ÿWåÞ ýºýôñ *[ábÙÿ #áâP #íyËøý]ãZ[á âýFý] Xæ]Ný @çüâ_GãUãñ Nýá[á QRýEýáïí_[ aïí§ÿ
Wýá[NýUïí_Þ[ S÷áýEýãRNýX #âQUáaãñ “âRx…UïíMÞ[ UáDüá]ã[ *UÛ UáÛ]á[ aïí§ÿ @ü]á, ]áKÙ ý, í]Uå, Ráâ[ïí@ü], Kåý Xå[ , SáR, aåS áâ[, b]åP
#áâPX #âQUáaãïí P[ âWýNýïí[ íY GïíR[ S÷WýáU aUïíýEýïí Z íUâ^, S÷Wç ýâNý[ ýEýá_ @ü[Nýñ *íP[ XïíQó #íRïí@übÙ ÿ âýFý] #[MóýEýá[ã <
R[NýºýšâUïíP[á NýábáïíP[ RáX@ü[M @üâ[ZáâýFý] #áâP-#ítË øý]ãZ, â^@üá[GãUãñ *íP[ XïíQó âR_áP, Wýã], í@üá] í^÷Mã[ Û[, Xå~üá,
(Proto-Aus troloid)” 3ñ RçN ýºýš â UPïíP[ Qá[Má, Wýá[NýãZ íbá, aÜá<Nýá][á S}ü â^@üá[ @ü[ïíNý Nýã[ QRå@ü UóUbá[ @ü[Nýñ
GRXáRïíU[ S÷OX y‚ÿ[ b] âRâB÷ïíýIýá Uá âRïíB÷áUýIåý axS÷PáZñ [áGXb] ÿPù áâUKòý Wýá_ãïí P[ RB[ïí@üâú@ü aWýóNýá, #áâP #íyË øý ]ãZ
SábáïíKòý[ UáBàPã axS÷PáZ, aåmP[UïíR[ XÖaâ^@üá[ã âRx…UïíMÞ[ XáRå_, B÷áXïí@üâú@ü aWýóNýá[ íOïí@ü KÙý l…NýNý[ âýFý]ñ *[á íaáRá, [ìSá,
Yïí^áb[ íG]á[ UÜá^ïíTüÜá[ïíP[ XïíQó *UÛ îXXRâaÛb < âRx…Uïí§ÿ[ aãaá, âýIýR, SáO[, báKò ý, íSáKòý áXáâýIý S÷W çý âNý[ aábáïí Yó âRNýó
í@üáR í@üáR yƒÿ áïíR aXáïíG[ âRx… y‚ÿïí[[ í]áïí@üïí P[ íýEýbá[áZ *[ S÷ïíZáGRãZ ýEýáâbPá íXýIýáïíRá, Bçbaªá, #§ÿaªá @ü[ïíNýáñ @çüâ_GáNý
S÷ XáM íXïí]ñ UNÞ ýXáR UáÛ]áïí Pïí ^[, âUïí ^_ @üïí[ [áýLò ý Uïí§ÿ[ ÿPùïíUó[ XïíQó YU < NýïíX[ ýEýá_ *UÛ *bÙÿ âýFý] NýáïíP[ S÷QáR AáPóñ
aÜá<Nýá], WæýâXG, Xå~üá, UÜá^ïíTüÜá[, Xá]SábáKòýãïíP[ XïíQó #áâP- *ýFýáKòýá Nýá[á XÖa < XáÛaábá[ã âýFý]ñ Uç_, B[ë, Xâb_, íXC, báâNý,
#íyËøý]ãZ GRïíBáÌýä[ aáPç^ó UNÞýXáRñ *bÙÿ #áâP #íyËøý]ãZïíP[ aïí§ÿ KÙýýIý, ^æ@ü[, ýFýáB], @åü@åü[, Xå[Bã âýFý] *íP[ BçbSáâ]Ný S÷áMãñ
SæUNýR âRïíB÷áUýIåýïíP[ í@üáOáZ í@üáOáZ @üNýAáâR [ºýôâX^÷M CâýIýZáâýFý] *bÙÿ a@ü] GRïíBáÌýä[ aXl‡ïíZ UáÛ]áïíPïí^[ UáDüáâ][ GãURQá[á
Nýábá U]á @üâJýR, NýïíU í@üáOá< í@üáOá< â@üýFåý â@üýFåý íY CâýIýZáâýFý] BïíKòý KÙýíJýâýFý] Uïí] #RåXáR @ü[á bZñ #áYÞ aWýóNýá[ #Wåýó»áïíR[
Nýábá #Ry‡ã@üáYÞ”ñ 4
SæïíUÞ #áâP - #ítËøý]ãZ < ÿPùáâUKòýWýá_ã GRïíBáÌýä[ XáRåïí_[ábÙÿ KÙýl…Ný
A) aXáïíG í^÷MãâURóáa: aWýóNýá < aÛy€çý âNý[ yö ÿtËý á Uïí] #RåX áR @ü[á YáZñ *bÙÿ #RáYÞ
Wýá[NýUïí_Þ[ bÙÿâNýbáïía S÷áýEýãR âal„åý aWýóNýá[ aXïíZbÙÿ UMÞá^÷Zã GRïíBáÌýä[ â@üýFåý #Û^ S[UNýãÞ aXáGâURóáïía âRx…UïíMÞ[ #ÿw‚ÿWåÞýºýô
aXáG-@üáJýáïíXá[ S÷áOâX@ü íýEýbá[áâýIý íýEýáïíA SïíKò ýñ Wýá[NýUïí_Þ[ bZñ
#áYÞ #áBXïíR[ Sæï íUÞ UaUáa@üá[ã #RáYÞï íP[ Xïí Qó< aXáïíG aWýóNýá[ #B÷B âNý[ aáïí O aáïíO Wýá[NýUïí _Þ U{âUïíP^ã[
í^÷MãïîU_Xó ]¤üMãZñ NýAR aXáïíG PáaS÷Oá S÷ýEýâ]Ný âýFý]ñ #áYÞïíP[ #áBXïíR aXáG-aÛy€ýç âNý[ âUUNÞýR CïíýIýïíýFý, bÙÿâNýbáïía SýIý - Sâ[UNÞýR
199
CïíýIýïíýFý, #áOÞ - aáXáâG@ü Sâ[UNÞýïíR[ aáïíO aáïíO [áGïîRâNý@ü aXáïí ]áýEý@ü [MâGÖ |üb `*¤üM' Sâ¼@üáZ `âRx…UïíBÞ[ bÙÿâNýbáa'
Sá]áUP]< CïíýIýïíýFýñ #NýãïíNý[ UMÞBNý îU_ïíXó[ aïí§ÿ aÛYåºýô bïíZ ^ã_Þ@ü âRUïíl„ý `Subaltern' *[ UáÛ]á S÷âNýôP âbïíaïíU `âRx…UBÞ'
íBïíýFý S[UNýãÞ@üáïí][ âUºýBNý îU_Xóñ *bÙÿ RáRá îU_ïíXó[ Tüïí] ôPâýIý UóUbá[ @üïí[ïíýFýRñ “Xá@ÞüaUáPã #áí]áýEýRáZ *bÙÿ ôPâýIý[
aXáGâURóáïía[ *í@üUáïí[ âRýEåýy‚ÿïí[[ #ÿw‚ÿWåÞýºýô bïíZïíýFý â@üýFåý XáRå_ñ UóUbá[ Sá<Zá YáZ bÙÿNýáâ][ @üâXKÙýâRýtËýý íRNýá < Pá^ÞâR@ü #áíÿw‚ÿâR<
#á[ íaAáïíRbÙÿ íPAá íBïíýFý aXáïíG[ âRx…UïíBÞ[ KÙýSâyƒÿâNýñ B÷áXâ^[ (1891-1937) âUAóáNý @üá[áBáïí[[ íRáýIý UbÙÿïíNýñ .......
C) âRx…UBÞ ax‡ïíl„ý íýEýNýRá : aáU]ýIýáRÞ (bÙÿNýá]ãZïíNý aåU]ïíNýïíMáÞ) ôPâýIý B÷áXâ^ UóUbá[ @üïí[ïíýFýR
#áâPX YåïíB[ íBáÌýäSâNý íOïí@ü #á[Çü @üïí[, UõáÎM aXS÷PáZ, #ÿw‚ÿNý PåâýIý #ïíOÞñ *@üâýIý #ïíOÞ *âýIý a[áaâ[WýáïíU `S÷ïí]ýIýáâ[ZáýIý'
[áGRóUBÞ , UâM@ü axS÷PáZ -*íP[ SPNýïí] âStËý bïíZ *íaïí ýFý *[ S÷âNýôPñ SåâÜ GUáPã aXáGUóUyƒÿáZ àáU]áýIýáRÞ í^÷Mã' b] ^÷âX@ü
aXáïíG[ *í@üUáïí[ âRýEåýy‚ÿïí[[ XáRå_ñ QRNýáâwžÿ@ü aXáGUóUyƒÿáZ QïíR[ í^÷Mãñ aáXáâG@ü ¤üXNýá[ *@ü âUïí^_ Q[ïíR[ âURóáa < S÷â¼ôZá[
`#aáXó' QïíXÞ[ Uâ] bïíZïíýFý *[ábÙÿñ aXáïíG[ SáïíZ[ Ný]áZ íOïí@ü, XïíQó ^÷âX@ü í^÷Mã í^áâ_Ný < ^áâaNý bZñ *bÙÿ âURóáïía àáU]ýIýáRÞ'
aXy‚ÿ [@üïíX[ U°×Rá[ â^@üá[ bïíZ, YåïíB[ S[ YåB *[á @üáâýIýïíZ ^÷âX@ü í^÷Mã[ âUS[ãNý íX[ëïíNý #UâyƒÿNý `íbïíBXâR@ü' í^÷Mã #OÞáÖ
YáïífFýñ *[ábÙÿ UMÞïîU_ïíXó[ @üá[ïíM, #áOÞ - aáXáâG@ü @üá[ïíM, â^¤üá- SåÜâGXáâ]@ü, ÙåïíGáÞZáâa'ñ ^÷âX@ü í^÷Mã / UåïíGáÞZá í^÷Mã, *bÙÿ âUïí^_
aÛy€çýâNýBNý âP@ü íOïí@ü aXáïíG âSâýFýïíZ SïíKòýïíýFýñ *bÙÿ âSâýFýïíZ SKòýá, #íOÞ aáU]ýIýáRÞ /íbïíBXâR@ü í^÷Mã[ aáXáâG@ü axSïí@Þ ü[ âU_ïíZ
(Backward) #RålN… ý, Pâ]Ný, í^áâ_Ný, âRSãâKòýNý, â^¤üá < aWýóNýá[ B÷ áXâ^[ âUïír‰ _M #áQåâR@ü Xá@ÞüaUáPã #áïí]áýEýRáZ *bÙÿ âUâ^tËý
#áí]á@ü íOïí@ü âRUÞáâaNý, @åüaÛy€ýá[áfFýl… Bçbyƒÿ *UÛ NýOá@üâONý #UPáR”ñ7 *@üOá aNýó íY, í^÷MãâUWýºýô aXáGUóUyƒÿá[ *@ü íX[ëïíNý
#fFåýÖ Uá #ySç^ó XáRUïíBáÌýäïí@ü *@ü@üOáZ #áX[á âRx…Uïí BÞ[ #áíýFý KýâXRóá¶ý í^÷Mã, #á[ #S[ íX[ëïíNý #áïíýFý aáU]ýIýáRÞ í^÷Mãñ
#ÿw‚ÿWåÞýºýô @ü[ïíNý Sáâ[ñ ýEý) âRx…UïíBÞ[ Sâ[ýEýZ PáR :
Dü) âRx…UBÞ ax‡ïíl„ý íýEýNýRá[ Sâ[UNÞýR : QRNýáâwžÿ @ü aXáGUóUyƒ ÿá Z aXáïí G í^÷M ãâURóáa @ü[á bZ
“íPâAïí Ný SábÙ ÿ ]áX-YáYáU[ #áYÞB M KÙ ý ºý[-SâsEýX #OÞïîRâNý@ü âP@ü íOïí@üñ *bÙÿ UóUyƒÿáZ @üá[AáRá[ S÷aáïí[[ Tüïí]
âBâ[UiŠÞ #âNý¼ôX @üâ[Zá íyö ÿ áïíNý[ XïíNýá #RáYÞ - aXáïíG ^÷âX@ü í^÷Mã[ KÙý¿ýU CïíýIýïíýFýñ Wýá[NýUïí_Þ[ y‡áQãRNýá[ aïí§ÿ
#áâPXGáâNý-^áâaNý S÷áýEýãR Wýá[ïíNý S÷ïíU^ @üâ[ïíNýïíýFýR aïí§ÿ, íP^ âUWýáïíB[ Tüïí] íY KÙýk‡áyŸ aXaóá íPZ, íabÙÿ âýFýl…Xæ]
..... Wýá[ïíNý[ S[UNýãÞ Yá â@üýFåý bÙÿâNýbáa *bÙÿ #áYÞaWýóNýá[ XáRå_|üâ][ XïíQó #íRïí@übÙÿ âRx…UïíBÞ[ #ÿw‚ÿWåÞýºýô bïíZ íBïíýFýñ
bÙÿâNýbáa-âUâGNý #RáYÞ GáâNýïíP[ bÙÿâNýbáa í@üáOá< í]Aá GãURQá[ïíM[ S÷âNýâýIý í¤üïí¼ âRx…UïíBÞ[ XáRåïí_[á #SXáâRNý,
RábÙÿ -â@üÛUá ía í]Aá #áíýFý *bÙ ÿaU |üÂ âBâ[|übáZ, í^áâ_Nýñ *bÙ ÿ *@üâýIý Yå ïí B í^á_ïí@ü[ íýEýbá[á < ¤üXNýá *@ü
#[MóáRã[ #l„ý@üáïí[, ýEæýMÞáZXáR #âyƒÿ-@ü¥ýáïí][ í[AáZ, *@ü[@üX, í^á_ïíM[ âýEý¼< âUâýEý¼ñ NýïíU axS÷âNý âRx…UïíBÞ[ aUïíýEýïíZ
ía â]âS[ SáïíJýák„ýá[ @üâ[ïíNý âUGZã #áYÞGáâNý @üAR< UKòý aXaóá b] Páâ[ÿPùóñ “âRýEåý GáâNýïíNý GlŠáïíRáýIýá âRÚaïímPïíb U°×Rá[
Uóy‚ÿ bZ RábÙÿñ #áG< âUâGNý bNýWýáBó #áâPX GáâNýBM *@üýIýá @üá[Mñ â@üÿwŸ âRýEåý GáâNý[ í]áïí@ü[á YâP Pâ[ÿPù bZ, GáâNýBNý
íNýXâR #Uïíbâ]Ný, #SXáâRNý, KÙýíSâ¤üNýñ aWýóNýáPSãÞ U°×Rá U{|üM Uçâk„ ý SáZñ Pâ]Ný Uá âRx…UïíMÞ[ í]áïí@ü[á #OUá
#áYÞ BM Nýábáïí P[ âPïí @ü @üAR< âTüâ[Zá ýEýáïí b RábÙ ÿ, NýTüâa]Wåýºýô #áâPUáaã[á íY U°×Rá < îU_ïíXó íWýáïíBR, Nýá
NýábáïíP[ aWýóNýá UåâHüUá[ íýEýtËýá @üïí[ RábÙÿ, #áG< @üïí[ #ïíR@üïíU^ã [@üX bïíZ PÜáKòýáZ YAR Nýá Páâ[ïíÿPùó[ aïí§ÿ Yåºýô bZ”ñ8
Ráñ” 6
2
`bÙ ÿâ Nýbáïí a[ *bÙÿ âU[áýIý ýIøý óáïíGâKý' âRïí Z íWýïí UâýFýïí]R QXÞïí @ü #á^÷Z @üïí [ UáÛ]á aáâbïí Nýó[ KÙý ílŠ_ CýIýïí ]< íaAáïíR
âUWæýâNýWæý_M UïímPóáSáQóáZ NÜýá[ `#[Mó@ü' KÙýSRóáïíañ bÙÿâNýbáïía[ âRx…UïíBÞ[ XáRå_ KÙýíSâ¤üNý RZñ ýEýYÞáSïíP[ [ìS@ü < âýEý¼@üq†|üâ][
*bÙÿ âUyŠ[MbÙÿ `bÙ ÿâNýbáïía[ ýIøý óáïí GâKý' açâtË ý @üïí[ïíýFýñ NýábÙ ÿ íNýá XïíQó XáRUGãUïíR[ íY A~ü A~ü âýEý¼ Q[á SïíKòý NýáïíNý íKýáX, UáBPã,
#áGïí@ü[ âPïíR âRx…UïíBÞ[ bÙÿâNýbáa ýEýýEÞýá @üïí[ïíýFýR bÙÿâNýbáaïíUºýá[áñ Û[ S÷WçýâNý âRx…UïíBÞ[ XáRåïí_[ al„ýáR Sá<Zá YáZñ XQóYåïíB[ UáÛ]á
`Subaltern' @üOáâýIý[ UáÛ] S÷âNýôP `âRx…UBÞ'ñ aáQá[MWýáïíU aáâbïíNýó QïíXÞ[ #á^÷ïíZ XáRUGãUïíR[ @üOá UâMÞNý bïíZïíýFý #á[ íabÙÿ
Subaltern @üOáâýIý[ UáÛ]á S÷âNýôP âRx…âyƒÿNý Uá #Qy‚ ÿR #ïíOÞñ XáRå_|üâ] íUâ^[WýáB í¤üïí¼bÙÿ aXáïíG[ âRx…UBÞâyƒÿNý âýEý[ #Uïíbâ]Ný
200
XáRU axS÷PáZñ XQóYåïíB[ âU[áýIý UóáâÂ[ XïíQó - X§ÿ]@üáUó, #RåUáP í]Aïí@ü[ *bÙÿ KÙýSRóáa açâtËý[ íS÷[Máñ “[áïíýLòý[ âU]ãZXáR í]á@ü
aáâbNýó, í]á@üBáOá < BãâNý@üá, îUz×U aáâbNýó, Xåa]XáâR aáâbNýó aÛy€çýâNý < í]ðâ@ü@ü @üáâbRã *UÛ bÙÿâNýbáa #Nýóÿw‚ÿ P¤üNýá[ aïí§ÿ
AÜåGïí] *bÙÿ Q[ïíR[ U{ýEýâ[ïí¼[ al„ýáR âX]ïíU, Yá[ XïíQó #íRïí@übÙÿ Nýá[á^¥ý[ *bÙÿ KÙýSRóáïía #â¥ýNý @üïí[ïíýFýRñ Xá-âU_bâ[ Uá Xá -
aXáïíG[ âRx…UBÞâyƒÿNý XáRå_ñ íYXR, ýEý~üãX§ÿïí][ @üá]ïí@üNåý, Tåüq‰[á; XRaá[ @üáâbRã #OUá ýEÜýáP aPáB[ < íU{]á - ]AãmPïí[[ KÙýSAóáR
QXÞX§ÿïí][ ]áKÙýïíaïíR[ íaRáSâNý @üá]å íKýáX < Nýá[ Si…ã ]AábÙÿ UáDüáâ][ *@üáÿw‚ÿ #áSR âGâRañ U{^NýáoPã Qïí[ íU{]á < ]âAmPïí[[
íKýáXRã S÷WçýâNýñ KÙýSáAóáR *UÛ Xá] íUïíP, aáSåïíKòýïíP[ âUâýEý¼ @üáâbRã< UáDüáâ][
#áQåâR@ü YåïíB[ UáÛ]á aáâbNýó BïíKòý KÙýíJýâýFý] @ü]@üáNýá[ XXÞXæïí] íS÷áâONýñ Nýá[á^¥ý[ âUÛ^ ^NýáoPã[ XQóáïíbô aáSåïíKòý <
RB[ GãURïí@ü í@üú @üïí[ñ * YåïíB[ aáâbïíNýó[ XïíQó BïíPó S÷OX íUïíPïíP[ @üáâbRã RU[ìïíS SáJýïí@ü[ aáXïíR KÙýSyƒÿáâSNý @üïí[ïíýFýRñ”9
Sá<Zá íB] âRx…UïíBÞ[ KÙýSâyƒÿâNýñ Yá[ S÷XáM #¤üZ@åüXá[ Pïíºý[ 4
`Sq‰ãB÷áXyƒÿ S÷GáïíP[ På[Uyƒÿá UMÞR' S÷Ul„ýñ #á[ Uâ¥ýXýEýú açtËý `báâaX RáâBRã@üRóáïíP[ GBÖ
íÂ', [áXáïî@üUNÞý', `S[áM X~ü]' [á íNýá Sq‰ãB÷áïíX[ #NýóáýEýáâ[Ný Nýá[á^¥ýïí[[ açâtËý aÇüáïí[ âRx…UïíBÞ[ #ÿw‚ÿWåÞýºýô íUïíP GáNýâýIý[
@çü_@ü axS÷PáïíZ[ S÷âNýâRâQñ [UãúRáïíO[ `^áây‚ÿ' Bïíq†[ ýEýmP[á, S÷âNý #áB÷ïíb[ @üOá Uáïí[ Uáïí[ íPAá íBïíýFýñ *bÙÿ íUïíP axS÷PáZïí@ü
âýFýPáX; ^[ÖýEýïí ú[ #áâXRá, BTåü [, @üáDüá]ã bïí ZïíýFý âRx…Uïí BÞ[ âRïíZ âNýâR *@üáâQ@ü @üáâbRã â]ïíAïíýFýRñ aáSåïíKòý, íUïíPRã UáâG@ü[ã[á
XáRå ïí _[ S÷âNýâRâQñ XáâR@ü Uïí mPóáSáQóáïí Z[ Bq† - KÙ ýSRóáïía NÜýá[ [ýEýRáZ âWýKòý @üïí[ *íaïíýFý *@üáâQ@üUá[ñ âNýâR NÜýá[ `íUïíPRã'
âRx…UïíBÞ[ XáRåïí_[ âRXÞ X Uáy‚ÿUNýá[ âP@üâýIý Q[á SïíKò ýïíýFýñ NÜ ýá[ Bïíq†[ *@ü GáZBáZ Uïí]ïíýFýR :
`S÷áïîBâNýbáâa@ü' -*[ âWýAå, `S¾áRPã[ XáâHü'[ @åüïíU[ S÷WçýâNý bïíZïíýFý “âUâýEý¼ GáNý íUïíP[áñ GáâNý âG¬áaá @üâ[ïí] Uïí ],
âRx…UïíBÞ[ XáRå_ñ #á[ Nýá[á^¥ý[ UïímPóáSáQóáïíZ[ Bq† - KÙýSRóáa íUïíPñ NýïíU QXÞ bÙÿa]áXñ #áýEýáïí[ Så[á âbmPå, XRaá SæGá
íPAá YáZ âRx…UïíBÞ[ ýEýâ[ïí¼[ ýFýKòýáýFýâKòýñ #áX[á *AáïíR NÜýá[ `RáâBRã @üïí[, X§ÿ]-ýEý~üã-_Ìýä[ UõNý @üïí[, @üá]ã - PåBÞáïí@ü WæýâXÌý
@üRóá[ @üáâbRã' KÙý SRóáïí a[ #áïí]áïí@ü Nå ýïí] Q[U âRx…U ïí BÞ [ S÷M áX @üïí[, RáX [áïíA ^Çåü, âÛ, @çü z×, bâ[, @üá]ã,
#UyƒÿáRBNý Sâ[ýEýZñ PåBÞá, [áQá, ]Ïãñ âbmPå Så[áM BáR @üïí[, Nýábá[á âRïíG[á
3 Uïí] SýIåýZá âýEý¼@üïí[[ GáâNýñ âUUáb - #áPáR - S÷PáR
Nýá[á^¥ýïí[[ `RáâBRã@üRóá[ @üáâbRã' (1951) *@üâýIý âWýl… y‡áïíP[ aXB÷WýáïíU bÙÿa]áX axS÷PáïíZ[ aïí§ÿ bZ Rá, âRïíGïíP[
KÙ ýSRóáañ RáâBRã @üRóá[ GBÖ aWýóaXáG íOïí@ü #íR@üPæï í[ *bÙÿ âUâ^tËý axS÷PáïíZ[ XïíQó #áUk„ýñ âUUáb bZ íXáq‰á[
#UâyƒÿNý, * *@ü y‡ Nýwžÿ GBÖñ *[á íY GBïíNý Uáa @üïí[ aWýó âR@üýIý bÙÿa ]áXã Sk„ýâNýïíNý, Xâ[ïí ] íSáKò ýáZ Rá, @üU[
aXáïíG[ aïí§ÿ Nýá[ í@üáR axS@Þ ü íRbÙÿñ XáïíHü XáïíHü íS^áBNý íPZñ” 10
@üá[ïíM aWýóaXáïíG Nýá[ âUýEý[M bïí]< aXáG-âUUNÞý ïíR[ í@üáR `RáâBRã@üRóá[ @üáâbRã'ïíNý #U^ó Nýá[á^¥ý[ íUïíP axS÷PáïíZ[
CáNýS÷âNýCáNý NýáïíP[ GãURïí@ü yS^Þ @üïí[âRñ í]A@ü Nýá[á^¥ý[ *@üâýIý y‡Nýwžÿ GBÖ BïíKòý Nåýïí]ïíýFýRñ íSð[áâM@ü Bá]Bq† < GR^÷ëâNý
íabÙÿâPïí@ü #áB÷b S÷@üá^ @üïí[R âRñ *UÛ XQóYå ï íB[ XRaáX§ÿïí][ @üáâbRãïí@ü #á^÷ Z @üïí[ *bÙ ÿ
RáâBRã@üRóáïíP[ UóâºýôBNý < aXâtËýBNý GãURYá¼á íY âRZïíX[ #áâQïïîPâU@ü GBÖ BïíKòý KÙýíJýïíýFýñ *bÙÿ íUïíP axS÷PáZ b], aÜá<Nýá]ã
ýFýïí@ü UÜáQá - Nýá[ aïí§ÿ aWýóaXáïíG[ âRZXRãâNý[ í@üáR âX] íRbÙÿñ âU_ïíUïíP “aÜáNýá]ã *íP[ B÷áïíX[ RáXñ âbG] âUïí][ Qáïí[ WýáBã[Oã[
NýábÙÿ BNýáRåBâNý@üNýá[ ýFýÜáïíP íTüïí] *íP[ #áïí]áýEýRá @ü[á YáZ Ráñ ýEý[MWæýâX[ CáaUR, HüáKÙýUR, íPUPá[ë BáïíýFý[ aáâ[[ #áKòýáïí], <bÙÿ
*[á< âRx…UïíBÞ[ XáRå_ñ *íP[ UóâºýôBNý #á^á - #á@üáe¤üá, #á@ü_ÞM báDü[XåAã Rá]á[ CáýIý íOïí@ü ýEýïí] íBïíýFý *@üTüáâ] X[ëSO, PåâPïí@ü
- âU@ü_ÞM, âUr‡áa - aÛy€ýá[, k‡mk‡ - aÛCáNý âRïíZ *íP[ *@ü âUâýEý¼ CáaUR, XáHüAáïíR SáïíZ SáïíZ URSO, *Üí@üïíUÜïí@ü ýEýïí] âBïíZïíýFý
GãURâýEý¼ *AáïíR #Üáá@üá bïíZïíýFýñ *bÙÿ íUïíP axS÷PáZ y‡NýwžÿWýáïíU <bÙÿ âU_-íUïíPïíP[ aÜáNýá]ã B÷áïíX[ XáHüAáïíR, âU_bâ[ XáïíZ[ ÒáR'
UaUáa @ü[ïí]< XáïíHü XáïíHü *[á aWýóaXáïíG #áâUWæýÞ Ný bZ GãâU@üá[ #OÞáÖ yƒÿáR SYÞÿw‚ÿñ”
al„ ýáïíRñ âUâWýl… íA]á íPAáïíRá, aáïí S[ âU_ HüáKòýá Uá GâKòýUâýIý *bÙÿ aÜáNýá]ã B÷áïíX[ CáaUïíR[ XïíQó, íYAáïíR @üá]RáâBRãïíP[
âUâ¼ô @üïí[ *[áñ *íP[ axSïí@Þ ü y‡áWýáâU@ü í@üðNæý b] íUáQbZ UáaWæýâX, íaAáïíRbÙÿ âU_ïíUïíP[á Oá@üïíNý Wýáïí]áUáïíañ URóá[ Tüïí]
201
íaAáR@üá[ SÜá@üá] XáâýIý, CáaSýEýá WýóáSaá Bl„ý, X^á-XáâýFý, KýáDüáZ [ºýôXáïíZ[ GáNý âRïí Z GlŠáZ,Xá @üá]RáâBRã[ [ìïíS[ aïí§ÿ
UáC, Gïí] @åüXã[, @üáXýIý, báDü[ #á[ #aÛAó aáS âU_ïí UïíP[ RáB@üRóáïíP[ *@üýIýá #¿åýNý aáPç^ó #áïíýFýñ *bÙÿ RáâBRã@üRóá[á YAR
@üáïíýFý *ýIýábÙÿ y‡BÞñ @üá[M *AáïíRbÙÿ #áïíýFý Xá-XRaá[ #áýIýRñ #á[ [ìS@üOá[ GBÖ íOïí@ü aWýóGBïíNý #áâUWæÞ ý Ný bZ, NýAR-
URóá[ Tüïí] íWýïía #áaá #aÛAó RáX -Rá-GáRá aáïíS[ #áUáayƒÿ]ñ aWýóGBïí Ný[ #áí]áZ NýáïíP[ í@üXR íPAáZ ía UMÞR á< í]A@ü
í]A@ü âbG]âUïí] Xá XRaá[ #áýIýïíR[ aåmP[ UMÞRá âPïíZïíýFýRñ âPïíZïíýFýR, “íUïíP[á @üáïí]ábÙÿ bZ, â@üÿwŸ *XR XaçM KÙýÐ] @üáïí]á [Dü
Xá XRaá[ [ìïíS[ UMÞRá[ aïí§ÿ *AáR@üá[ S÷@çüâNý íYR âXïí]âXïí^ @üAR< íPïíARâR âÛ[áXñ íNýXâR Qá[áïí]á BKòýRñ íXïíZâýIý[ UZa
*@üá@üá[ bïíZ íBïíýFýñ “*bÙÿ [ìSbÙÿ íYR NåýâX íPAïíNý SáïíU BáïíýFý[ #U^ó #q†ñ â@üÿwŸ íU^ã UZa bïí]< *í@ü Pæ[ íOïí@ü XïíR bïíU â@üïí^á[ã
âPïí@ü Nýá@üáïí] íPAïíU bZïíNýá aUïíýEýïíZ KÙÜýýEåý Kýá]âýIý GâKòýïíZ TüMá íXïíZñ âýFýSâýFýïíS SáNý]á BKòýR, PãCÞá§ÿã XáOáZ *@ü[áâ^ ýEåý], [ë¤ü
Nå ýïí] TåÜ üaïí ýFý, âU^á] TüMá *@ü Påïí Q íBáAïí [áñ ^@åü âR BçâQRã[ @üáïí]á @ü[@üïí[ í@üÜá@üKòýá ýEåý] Aåïí] âPïí] âSïíJý[ #áQAáRá íýLýïí@ü
#á¼ôXMïí@ü S÷âNýbNý @ü[Uá[ GRó ía #b[b S÷yŸNý bïíZ #áïíýFýñ ýEýáXïí[[ XïíNýá TÜüáSá bïíZ UáNýáa íPáïí]; í@üÜá@üKòýá ýEåý] íýIýïíR íaáGá
Nýá[Sïí [ Nýá@üá< Kýáïí] Kýáïí]ñ íPAïíU Sáïí@ü Sáïí@ü GâKòý ïíZ â@ü @ü[ïí] *ía SïíKòý GáRå[ KÙýS[ñ @üáïí]á [ïíDü[ <S[ âJý@ü âýEý@ü âýEý@ü
íYR aU RKòýïíýFý, På]ïíýFý *AR< Uá XáOá Nåýïí] PÜáKòýáïífFýñ aáS, aU @ü[ïíýFý âNýâR #í§ÿ ýEýá[AáâR Nåýâ][ í[AáZ ýIýáRá aáPá í[Aáñ @üáïí]á
aáSñ URóáZ KåýUïíýFý âbGïí][ CáaUR, aáïíS[á KÙýíJýïíýFý BáïíýFý[ Kýáïí] ýEåýïí][ âJý@ü XáHüAáïíR îSïíNý[ aåïíNýá[ XïíNýá ]x‡á âaÜâOâýIýñ Qá[áïí]á
Kýáïí], @üNý RNå ýR @üá]ãRáB @üNý íP^ íOïí@ü B§ÿá[ Gïí] íWýïía Rá@üâýIý[ PåSáïí^ R[ëR âPïíZ íýEý[á #á[ a[ë #OýEý ]x‡áýIýáRá Sïí¾[
#áaïíNý #áaïíNý âbGïí][ HüáKÙýNýá] íPUPá[ë Kýá] GâKòýïíZ Qãïí[ *í@üUáïí[ âWýNýïí[[ SáSâKòý[ XïíNýá PåâýIý íýEýáïíA[ aáPá íyöÿáNý, #á[
Qãïí[ KÙýSïí[ KÙýJýïíýFýñ AåU aáUQáRñ ýEýáâ[Sáïí^[ Gïí][ íyöÿáïíNý aNý@Þü íJýÜáïíýEý[ TÜüáïí@ü íýFýáýIý aáPá PÜáïíNý[ aáâ[ñ S[ïíR ]á][ïíDü íýFýáSáïíRá
PçâtËý í[ïíAá, bZïíNýá HüS @üïí[ íRð@üá[ â@üRá[á GâKòýïíZ Q[ïíU íyöÿáïíNý NÜýáïíNý íUáRá AáïíýIýá íXáýIýá [áDüá ^áâKòý, B]áZ S¾UãïíG[ Xá]á, Nýá[
íWýïía ýEý]á aáS! BáïíýFý[ Ný]á|üïí]á *âKòýïíZ ýEýïí]á; bZïíNýá KÙýS[ aïí§ÿ ]á]aåïíNýá âPïíZ Håü]ïíýFý XáPåâ], SáO[ #á[< #ïíR@üâ@üýFåýñ
íOïí@ü HüS @üïí[ Aïía SKòýïíU aáS!” * GâX Xá âU_bâ[[ aRP báïíNý[ XâMUl„ý Aáâ], KÙýS[ báNý ]á]aåïíNýá[ NýáBá ýIýáR @üïí[ UÜáQá,
íP<Zá GâXñ í@üáR< âU_ïíUïíP[ @üáïíýFý * GâX[ AáGRá #áPáZ R[X@üáïí]á báïíNý[ UábÙÿïí[ íYR í@üïíýIý Uïía íBïíýFýñ”
@ü[ïíNý Sáïí[ Ráñ âbG] UïíR Xá XRaá[ #áýIýïíR[ UMÞRá, @üá]RáâBRã[ [ìïíS[
*bÙÿ Qá[Má, #áâPYåB íOïí@ü ýEýxSábÙÿ RBïí[[ aÜáNýá]ã SábáïíKòý UMÞRáZ `XRaáX§ÿ]'-* UâMÞNý XRaáïíPUã[ [ìS UMÞRá; í@üáOáZ íYR
Uáa @üïí[ #áaïí ýFý <íP[ â^[ïíUïíPñ *[á NýAR âýFý] âU_ïîUPóñ âXïí] âXïí^ *@üá@üá[ bïíZ YáZ
S[UNýãÞ@ üáïí] *íP[ ía Uáa< KÙýíJýïíýFý, GáNý< íBïíýFýñ Xá ]Ïã “íaU@ü [â¤üïíNý íPUã bbÙÿ]á aåïíU^
*íP[ íýFýïíKòýïíýFýRñ NýïíU âU_bâ[[ @çüSáZ *[á RáâBRã@üRóá íSïíZïíýFýñ âýEý[âRZá RáB î]Zá @åü[ëâ]]á í@ü^ñ
“[áâ¼[ Xïí Nýá @üáïí]á @üá]RáâBRã@üRóá, aåmP[ã, aåïí@ü^ã íXïíZ[ RábÙÿâKòýZá RáïíB î@ü]á @ü[Uã S÷Nåý]
aåâýEýc€ýR îNý]XaçM ýEåýïí] [ýEýRá @ü[á íUMã[ BJýR #á[ íNýXâR Nýá[ KÙýPZ@üá] RáïíBïíNý íAáSá[ S°×Tåü]....
@üáïí]á[ïíDü[ PãâÂ! @üáïí]á í@üKÙýïíýIý #íR@ü GáïíNý[ #áïíýFýñ @üáïí]á[ âamPåâ[Zá RáB bbÙÿ]á aãXáïíÿw‚ÿ âamPå[
<S[ ír‡Ný a[ïí_[ XïíNýá aáPá âýFýýIý #áïíýFý íY í@üKÙýïíýIý[ @üáïí]á KÙýPZâBâ[ aæYÞ íGR @üâ[ïíýFý íXPå'[ñ....
BáïíZ, ía í@üKÙýïíýIý íGïíRá ^áXå@ü-WýáDüá í@üKÙýïíýIýñ íY í@üKÙýïíýIý[ B]áZ aUÞRáïíX RáïíBïíNý XáOá[ âaâNý-SáâNý
@ümýŽýãXá]á[ XNý, Yá[ BáïíZ[ [Dü @üáïí]á [ïíDü[ íýEýïíZ< CR @üáïí]á, Rã] íXBNýïíýIý íGR âUGâ]-âPS<ñ.....
@üáïí]á [ïí Dü[ Påâ ýIý PáïíB[ íUKòý #áïí ýFý, ía íGïí Rá @üá]ãPïí b[ @üá] - RáâBRã îb] RZïíR @üÐ]
@üá]ãRáïíB[ GáNý @üá]RáâBRã }üQå @üáïí]á, Nýá[ í]G-AáâR@üýIýá @üU][ Pïí] íGR A³R YåB]” 11 bÙÿNýóáâP
íXáýIýá, íU{]á GÜáâNý âPïíZ í@üïíýIý âRïíZâýFý] Nýá[ í]ïíG[ AáâR@üýIýáñ NýábÙÿ RáâBRã @üRóá[ GBÖ; #áXáïíP[ Sâ[âýEýNý aWýó GBïíNý[
@üá]RáâBRã[ âRïíG[ @üáG RábÙÿñ #Ró RáïíB[ GáïíNý[ aÿw‚ÿáR S÷aU UábÙÿïí[ #RáYÞ aå]Wý #áâPX WýáURá GâKòýNý, #í]ðâ@ü@ü [baóXâ~üNý
@üïí[ @üá]RáâBRáñ NýábÙÿ íOïí@ü bïíZïíýFý Ráâ@ü RáRá GáïíNý[ í@üKÙýïíýIý[ *@ü #Ró GBÖñ *bÙÿ GBÖ Oïí@übÙÿ KÙýíJý *íaïíýFý Nýá[á^¥ýïí[[ RáâBRã
açâtËý! Xá âU_bâ[[ bÙÿfFýáZ <[bÙÿ XïíQó PåbÙÿ-ýEýáâ[âýIý @üRóá *í@üUáïí[ @üRóá[áñ
202
5 axS÷PáïíZ[ #QóáiŠGãUR Nýábá[bÙÿ #§åÿâ] íb]ïíR a°×áâ]Nýñ S÷áýEýãR

PåbÙÿ RáâBRã @üRóá : Û]á < âSDü]á aXáGGãUïíR[ âPUóPçâtËý axSl…á, QóáRXbãZaã Rá[ã[ (prophets)
*bÙ ÿ KÙýSRóáïía RáâBRã@üRóá På'GR - Û]á #á[ âSDü]áñ RóáZ UáÛ]áïíPïí^ &RâUÛ^ ^Nýïí@ü *@ü @åüaÛy€ýá[áfFýl…, XçNåýóPæïíNý[
RáâBRã@üRóá[ KÙ ýÖSâºý[ #ïí]áâ@ü@ü #áU[ïíM *ïíP[ XáRå_ã aºýá âRâUKòý aÛïír‰_áUk„ ý; #ySç^ó axS÷PáïíZ[ Xïí Qó *bÙÿ RáâBRã@üRóá
ýEýáSá Oáïí @üñ íUïí P aXáïí G[ aXáGSâNýïí@ü U]á bZ â^[ïíUïíPñ íYR #U]åÂ áNýãïíNý[ í^_ âUyŠZ@ü[ âRP^ÞR[ìïíS UNÞýXáRñ”12
*AáïíR Û]á[ â^[ïíUïíP XbáïíPU #á[ âSDü]á[ â^[ïíUïíP B§ÿá[áXñ Nýá[á^¥ýïí[[ PåbÙÿ RáâBRã@üRóá Û]á < âSDü]á â@üÿwŸ NýáïíP[
*bÙÿ â^[ïíUïíP[á íYïíbNåý NýáïíP[ aXáïíG[ P~üXåïí~ü[ @üNÞýá, íaïíbNåý @åüaÛy€ýá[áfFýl… aXáïíG[ âRBKòý íWýïíDü, íPUãïíiŠ[ #áU[M âýFýl… @üïí[,
*íP[ í¤üïí¼ í@üáïíRá UáQáâRïí_Q íRbÙÿñ *[á aXáïíG[ XáOá[ <S[ NýáïíP[ XáRå_ã aºýá âRïíZ íUâ[ïíZ SïíKòýïíýFý S÷@çüâNý[ âRZïíXñ í_á]
Sá âPïí] ýEýïí] #á[ íY í@üáR< UóâWýýEýá[ *[á @ü[ïíNý Sáïí[ñ @üá[M UýFý[ UZa íOïí@ü íY @üáXRá UáaRá NýáïíP[ #U[ëk„ý, @üïíJýá[ aÛYïíX[
Nýáïí P[ SáSXå âºýô[ GRó RáâBRã @üRóá[á #áïíýFýñ `RáâBRã @üRóá[ ^áaïíR íabÙÿ #U[ëk„ý XáRUáiŠá íUâ[ïíZ *íaïíýFý, Nýá[ [ºýôXáÛïía[
SåïíMó NýáïíP[ SáSyƒÿ]R CïíýIýñ NýábÙÿ RáâBRã @üRóá[ QXÞ YáïíNý #ýIåýýIý Rá[ãaºýá âRïíZñ RáâBRã@üRóá[ ^[ã[ íOïí@ü ýEÜýáSá Tåüïí][ íað[Wý
Oáïí@ü íaâPïí@ü NýáïíP[ #Nýú PçâtËýñ NýïíU RáâBRã@üRóá[á íYïíbNåý íUâ[ïíZïíýFý, íY íað[Wý ýFýâKòýïíZ SïíKòýïíýFý ýEýáâ[âPïí@ü â^[ïíUïíP aNý@Þü
íPUãy‡[ìâSMã íabÙÿïíbNåý Xá - âU_bâ[[ WýïíZ Nýá[á *íP[ @üáïíýFý íCÜ_ïíNý bïíZ KÙýíJýïíýFýñ
Sáïí[ Ráñ RáâBRã @üRóá[ QXÞ UõÎýEýáâ[Mã[ QXÞñ Xá XRaá[ XáRa@üRóá #@üáýIýó Yåâºýô Nýáïí P[ aXáGSâNý[ñ âRïí G[á SáS @ü[ïí],
*[á *íP[ <S[ Xá XRaá[ `Wý[' bZñ íabÙÿ `Wý[' #UyƒÿáZ NýáïíP[ NýáïíP[ SáSXåâºýô[ GRó #áïíýFý RáâBRã@üRóáñ NýábÙÿ RáâBRã@üRóá[
XåA íOïí@ü âRÚaçNý UáMã b] îPU UáMã Uá íPUã[ S÷NýóáïíP^, íaAáïíR UõNýWý§ÿ bïí] ýEý]ïíU Ráñ Nýá[á^¥ýïí[[ S÷O X RáâBRã@üRóá Û]á
aXáGSâNý â^[ïíUïíP[< í@üáïíRá @üOá ýEý]ïíU Ráñ íaïí¤üïí¼ aXáïíG #á@ç ütËý bïíZâýFý] *@ü Ný[ëM íUïíP[ S÷â Nýñ íaïí ¤üïí¼ ía Nýá[
RáâBRã@üRóá[ yƒÿ áR aUá[ KÙýSïí[ñ â^[ïíUïíP aUÞ Pá aNý@Þü Oáïí@ü UõN ýýEýáâ[Mã[ QXÞ-[¤üáïí OÞ íabÙÿ Ný[ëMïí @ü bNýóá @üïí[ñ àPó Q[á
RáâBRã@üRóá[ QXÞ[¤üá[ GRó YáïíNý í@üáïíRá Så[ë_ Rá RáâBRã@üRóáïí@ü [áGïíBáAïí[á[ PÛ^ïíR XçNåýó CïíýIý Û]á[ íS÷âXïí@ü[ñ RáâBRã@üRóá
yS^Þ @ü[ïíNý Sáïí[ñ Nýábïí]bÙÿ ía aXáïíG SâNýNý bïíU aXáïíG[ < Û]á @üá]RáâBRã[ XïíNýábÙÿ S÷âNýâbÛaá S[áZMáñ NýábÙÿ, â^[ïíUïíP
SNýR CýIýïíUñ âUïí^_ @üïí[ aXáïíG[< SNýR CýIýïíUñ âUïí^_ @üïí[ XbáïíPU Nýá[ báNý íOïí@ü âRÿt€çýâNý SáZâRñ RáâBRã@üRóá[ âU_RïíA[
aXáïíG[ aXy‚ÿ SáS Rã]@üïímýŽý[ XïíNýá Qá[M @üïí[ RáâBRã@üRóá Nýá[ #ÜáýEýïíKòý XçNåýóU[M @üïí[ XbáïíPU â^[ïíUïíPñ íS÷ï íX[ GRó Û]á
SåMó @üXÞTüïí]ñ RáâBRã@üRóá[ UõNýWý§ÿ @üïí[ñ Sïí[ *@ü Xåa]XáR íUïíP[ aïí§ÿ aÛaá[
“S÷áýEýãR < XQóYåïíB [áG^âºýô < YáG@ü^âºýô[ k‡ïímk‡[ XïíNýá SáïíNýñ
â^[ïíUïíP < RáâBRã@üRóá[ ^âºýô[ S÷âNýk‡âmk‡Nýá íUïíP GáâNý[ bÙÿâNýbáïía S[UNýãÞ RáâBRã@üRóá âSD ]á[ íPïíb YAR ýEÜýáSá Tåüïí][ íað[Wý
*ýIýá âýEý[-#áUçNý CýIýRá¼ôXñ Nýá[á^¥ýïí[[ KÙýSRóáïía *@üUá[ XbáïíPU íU[ bZ NýAR Rá|üJýá@åüïí[[ S÷âNý #á@çütËý bZ íañ *bÙÿ Wýáïí]áUáaá[
< Û]á #á[ *@üUá[ B§ÿá[áX < âS§ÿ] á[ XáQóïíX *bÙÿ k‡ï ímk‡[ NýSaóá @ü[ïíNý âBïíZ, í^_SYÞÿw‚ÿ Nýáïí@ü S÷áM âPïíNý bZ Rá|üJýá@åüïí[[
âRPá[ëM Sâ[MâNý < âRXÞX CáNý-S÷ âNýCáNý íPAáïí Rá bbÙÿZ áïíýFýñ íTüïí] íTüïí] Yá<Zá ^¦ýEæýïíKòý[ báïíNýñ âSDü]á[ XçNåýó[ S[ aÜáNýá]ã[
â^[ïíUïíP[ aXáGïíRNýá, â@üÿwŸ Nýábá[ í@üáR< #ïí]ðâ@ü@ü ^âºýô íRbÙÿñ íUïíP aXáG ýFý¼Wý§ÿ bïíZ YáZñ Rá|üJýá@åü[ â^[ïíUPïí@ü bNýóá @üïí[
RáâBRã@üRóá Xá âU_bâ[[ íaUáZ KÙýÖaBãÞ@ç üNýá, âUïí^_ #UZU aÜáNýá]ã B÷áïíX[ íUïíP aXáGïí@ü NýýFýRýFý @üïí[ íPZñ
âýEýbôâ¥ýNýá, GãUR aÛCýIýïíR[ *@üâýIý âUïí^_ Sâ[MâNý-Sâ[âýEýNýñ RáâBRã@üRóáïíP[ âUïíÿPùáb < aXáG ÆtËýáýEýá[:
YåU Nýã Rá[ã íabÙ ÿ íUïíP GáâNý[ QXÞï íUáïí Q[ S÷ N ýã@ü, KÙý báïíP[ `RáâBRã@üRóá[ @üáâbRã' KÙýSRóáïía aWýó aXáG UâbWæÞýNý #ÿw‚ÿóG
#S[áQáÍá]R@üáâ[Mã < ýEýáâ[¼âU}üâk„ ý [ ¤üâZ¼ã Så M ó^âºýô, íUïíP axS÷P áïí Z[ GãURâýEý¼ *Üí @üïíýFýR Nýá[á^¥ý[ñ âýEý¼@ü[
íPUXáRïía[ S÷Nýó¤ü aÛyS^ÞGáNý âPUóPçâtËý[ #âQ@üáâ[Mãñ #Nýwžÿ, Nýá[á^¥ýïí[[ Nåýâ][ ýIýáïíR ía âýEý¼ #aáQá[M bïíZ KÙýíJýïíýFýñ íSð[áâM@ü
âRâRÞïíX_, #ÿw‚ÿ[[baóáUBábã âUUáb íýEýNýRá YNýbÙÿ ¤üãM bKÙý@ü Nýábá[ íS÷¤üáSïíýIý, #[MóS÷@çüâNý[ *@ü WýZá] Sâ¥ý] Sâ[ïíUïí^, #áâPX
Xïí Qó aâ¼ôZÛ íPUNýá[ bÙÿ fFýá Nýábá[bÙ ÿ Xïí Qó #l„ ý@üá[ [áâ¼[ aÛy€ýá[áUk„ý UUÞ[ GáâNý[ GãUR bÙÿâNýbáa â]ïíAïíýFýR âNýâRñ *[bÙÿ
AïíPóáÖPãâÂ[ RóáZ ¤üâM@ü #áïí]á@üâUmPå ïí Ný KÙ ý¿ýáâaNýñ aXy‚ÿ XïíQó [ïíZïíýFý *[ UóâºýôBNý@üáXRá-UáaRá, aáXáâG@ü, RóáZ-RãâNý-
203
#RóáZ-SáSáýEýá[-@åüaÛy€ýá[ñ â@üÿwŸ RáâBRã@üRóáïí@ü *XR *@üýIýá U{YåïíB[ aâ°×Ný U°×Rá[ bÙÿâNýbáa #á[ *bÙÿ aXáGâUâQ[ [á^ íýIýïíR
GáZBáZ yƒÿáSR @ü[á bïíZïíýFý íYAáïíR í@üáïíRá @üáXRáUáaRá, SáS- í[ïíAïíýFý íY â^[ïíUïíP[á Nýá[á NýáïíP[ S÷Uçâºý[ NýáKòýRáZ RáRá #@üáG-
ÆtËýáýEýá[ S÷ïíU^ @ü[ïíNý Sá[ïíU Ráñ @üá[M * aUá[ &íQÞ íañ *XR @åü@üáG @ü[ïíNý Sáïí[, YïíOfFýáýEýá[ @ü[ïíNý Sáïí[ñ â@üÿwŸ RáâBRã@üRóáïí@ü
*@üýIýá #ïí]ðâ@ü@ü Sâ[X~üïí][ XïíQó Nýáïí@ü [áAá bïíZïíýFý íYAáïíR Nýá[ UõNýQïíXÞ #ýIý] Oá@üïíNý bïíUñ Rá bïí] NýáïíP[ SáSïí@ü Qïí[
XáRåïí_[ y‡áWýáâU@ü S÷Uçâºý|üâ][ í@üáïíRá yƒÿáR íRbÙÿñ [áAïíU @üá[á! SáSyƒÿá]ïíR[ íU^ aåmP[ UóUyƒÿá *íP[ aXáïíG[ !
Nýá[á^¥ý[ïí [[ açt Ëý Påb Ùÿ RáâBRã@üRóá Û]á #á[ âSDü]á, Û]á *[ S÷âNýUáP @üïí[ïíýFýñ Nýá[ Wýáïí]áUáaá[ SïíO UáQáaçâtËý@üá[ã
XáRåïí_[ îGâU@ü S÷U çâºý[ &íQÞ KÙýJýïíNý Sáïí[âRñ í_á]UýFý[ UZa â^[ïíUïíP[-S÷âNý Nýá[ í¼ôáQ aâ°×Ný bïíZïí ýFý *UÛ Wýáïí ]áUáaá[
íOïí@ü YáïíP[ bìPïíZ[ y‡áWýáâU@ü BâNýâUâQïí@ü íPUã XábáïíiŠó[ S÷ïí]S XáRå ïí_[ bNýóá@üá[ã â^[ïíUïí P[ S÷â Ný S÷â Uïí^áQ B÷bM @üïí[ íYR,
]áâBïíZ #á[ #tËýS÷b[ aXáGSâNý[ [ºýôýEý¤åü[ Sábá[áZ #U[ëk„ý aXáïíG[ *bÙÿ XåïíAá^ýIýá âýFÜýïíýFý âPïíNý íýEýïíZïíýFýñ *[ GRó Nýá[ QXÞ
@üïí[ [áAá bïíZïíýFý NýáïíP[ íabÙÿ #U[ëk„ý XáRUáiŠá[ ¼ômPR í@üKÙý íBïíýFý, íY Nýáïí P[ aXáïíG[ @åüaÛy€ ýáïí [[ âU[ëïík„ ý âUïíÿPùáb @üïí[
}üRïíNý SáZâRñ âUÛ^ ^NýáoPã[ í]A@ü Nýá[á^¥ý[ }üïíRâýFýïí]R íabÙÿ XáRUNýá[ GZ íCá_Má @üïí[ïíýFýñ #áâPX aXáGUóUyƒÿáZ *bÙÿ âUïíÿPùáâbRã
¼ômPR, NýábÙÿ aá[áGãUR âRïíGïíP[ âýEýºýUçâºýïí@ü #UPâXNý í[ïíA Yá[á Rá[ã Û]áñ
UõÎýEýáâ[Mã[ UõNý Sá]R @üïí[ïíBïíýFý, NýáïíP[ aÛy€ýá[ í@üïíýIý íUâ[ïíZ âSDü]á[ âUïíÿPù áb íaâP@ü âPïíZ S÷ Nýó¤ü RZñ âSDü]á<
#áaïíNý íU^ã aXZ ]áïíBâRñ Nýá[á^¥ýïí[[ RáâBRã@üRóá[ @üáâbRã, Wýá]Uáaá[ @üáïíýFý RâNýy‡ã@üá[ @üïí[ïíýFý, Wýá]Uáaá[ Sâ[MáX y‡[ìS
RáâBRã @üRóá[ XáRå_ã aºýá[ âU@üáïí^[ @üáâbRãñ í@üáR aÛy€ý á[bÙÿ XçNåýóïí@ü U[M @üïí[ âRïíZïíýFý #á[ âSDü]á[ XçNåýó[ S[ íUïíP aXáG
XáRUNýá[ âU@üáïí^[ SïíO UáQá bïíNý Sáïí[ Rá- b<Zá KÙýâýEýNý RZñ íWýïíDü SïíKòýïíýFýñ
âUÛ^ ^NýáoPã[ aWýóaXáïíG Uïí a íUïí P GãUïíR[ íY âýEý¼ “Nýá[á^¥ýïí[[ ]¤üó âýFý] RáâBRã@üRóáïíP[ aâNýó@üá[ bÙÿâNýbáa
Nýá[á^¥ýïí[[ *Üí@üïíýFýR Nýá #WýáURãZñ â@üÿwŸ RáâBRã@üRóá[ #í]ðâ@ü@ü í]á@üýEý¤åü[ aáXïíR Nåýïí] Q[á *UÛ í@üáR< #áí]á@üU]Z ýFýáKòýábÙÿñ
GãURYá¼á Nåýïí] Q[ábÙÿ }üQå í]Aïí@ü[ #âWýïí S÷Ný RZñ NýábÙÿ }üQå Û]á *UÛ Nýá[S[ âSDü]á RáïíX #á[ *@üâýIý íUïíP[ íXïí Z[
Û]á RZ, âk‡NýãZ RáâBRã @üRóá âSDü]á< - #ïí]ðâ@ü@üNýá[ RáBSá^ GãURUçºýáïíÿw‚ÿ íPAá YáZ íY Nýá[á S÷@üNýSïí¤ü aáQá[M XáRUã ýFýáKòýá
âýFýl… @üïí[ íUâ[ïíZ *íaïíýFý NýáïíP[ y‡áWýáâU@ü bìPZUçâºý âRïíZñ “Så[áïíM #á[ â@üýFåýbÙÿ RZ-#OýEý íUïíPïíP[ aXáïíG[ ýEýáïíS < #l„ýaÛy€ýáïí[[
@üq†Rá < #l„ýQXÞaÛy€ýá[ íY Uáy‚ÿU GBïíNý [ºýôXáÛïía[ S÷áMã[ìïíS #áfFýl… bïíZ Nýá[á KÙýS@üOáZ UâMÞNý RáâBRã@üRóá[ WæýâX@üáZ #âWýRZ
XæNÞý bbÙÿïíNý Sáïí[ RáâBRã@üRóá Nýábá[bÙÿ íUáQ bZ *@üXá¼ #áQåâR@ü @ü[á[ âUKò ýx‡ Rá íWýáB @üïí[ïí ýFýñ #áaïí ] Nýá[á Uâ°×Ný Rá[ãñ
PçtËýáÿw‚ÿñ”13 Så[ë_^áâaNý íUïíP aXáïíG[ ýFý]Rá[ â^@üá[ñ *í¤üïí¼ âSDü]á #áíB
RáâBRã@üRóá[á #áaïí] íUïíPRãñ íUïíPRã[ KÙýS[ íPUãXábáiŠó < Û]á Sïí[ *í] SóáýIýáMÞâýIý XïíR bZ #á[< Wýá] @üïí[ TåüýIýNý,
#áïí[áS @üïí[ *[á RáâBRã@üRóá [ìïíS Sâ[âýEýNýáñ Nýá[á^¥ýïí[[ @üá[M Û]á #áQåâR@ü Rá[ã[ XïíNýá íU^ã UyŸNýáâwžÿ@ü #á[ âSDü]á
`íUïíPRã' Bïíq†, íUïíPRã[ y‡áWýáâU@ü ýEýâ[¼ îUâ^tËýó GãUÿw‚ÿWýáïíU Q[á *@üýIåý íUâ^ #áP^ÞUáPã< @üáUóQXãÞñ í@üXR @üïí[ #l„ýaÛy€ýá[ #á[
Sïí Kòýñ íUïíPRã[á aáïíS[ Xïí NýábÙ ÿ âbÛyöÿñ NýábÙ ÿ íUbÙÿXáRã @ü[ïí] í^á_ïíM[ íOïí@ü íUïíPRã[á Xåâºýô íSïíZ Sâ[ÿt€ýá[ #áí]áZ XáRâU@üNýá[
Wýáïí]áUáaá[ XáRå_ïí@ü íXïí[ íTü]ïíNý NýáïíP[ í@üáïíRá aÛïí@üáýEý bZ aNýó XáâýIýïíNý Sá âPïíZ PÜáKòýá] *UÛ îGUQXÞïí@ü, íYðUïíR[ NýáâBPïí@ü
Ráñ `íUïíPRã' Bïíq†[ [áâQ@üá *@üâPR ^ÇåüUáGã@üïí[[ íA]á íPïíA, YOáïíYáBó XYÞáPá âPïíNý âÂïí]á -* âýEý¼âýIý âSDü]á #áíB < Û]á
Nýá[ íýEýbá[á íPïíA #á@çütËý bïíZ, Nýá[ Wýá]XáRå_ y‡áXã âÛSPïí@ü Sïí[ *í] #áí[á aå_X íýEýbá[á íSNýñ
íýFýïíKòý *íaâýFý]ñ #áUá[ @ü¥ýá]ã[ íX]á[ â@üïítËýá UáâG@üïí[[ íGáZáR Û]á íPbG @üXRá[ @üáïíýFý RâNýy‡ã@üá[ @üïí[ïíýFý U]ïí] Wåý]
íýEýbá[á < Nýá[ a[³áX íPïíA, ^Çåü[ NÜýáUåïíNý #á|üR ]áâBïíZ â@üïítËýá[ U]á bZñ ía *@üâýIý Ný[ëM íUPïí@ü Wýá]ïíUïíaâýFýï] *UÛ * Wýá]Uáaá
aïí§ÿ Sáâ]ïíZ íYïíNý Nýá[ XåbæNÞý aXZ ]áïíBâRñ Nýá[ #¥åýïí[bÙÿ âURtËý bïíZïíýFý â^[ïíUïíP[ ýEý¼ôáïíÿw‚ÿñ Nýá[ XR KÙýíSáabÙÿ
aWýóaXáGB~üã[ UábÙÿïí[ #[ïíMó[ #áâPX GãURYá¼áZ #Wýóy‚ÿ [bÙÿ], â@üÿwŸ GãUÿw‚ÿ XáRåïí_[ @üáïíýFý íPb< íNýá íTü]Rá RZñ íPbïí@ü
R[Rá[ã[ y‡áWýáâU@ü S÷Uçâºýïí@ü #U[ëk„ý @üïí[ïíýFý *íP[bÙÿ açtËý @åüaÛy€ýá[ KÙ ýíSáaã [áAá íNýá #áí[á U°×Ráñ NýábÙ ÿ Û]á *[S[ îPâb@ü
*UÛ íabÙÿ @åüaÛy€ýá[ íOïí@ü açtËý aXáGâUâQ - Yá[ XïíQó âRâbNý #áíýFý Sâ[Nçý âÂ[ @üOábÙ ÿ íWýïí UïíýFý *UÛ íUïíPïíP[ *bÙÿ aU í^á_M <
204
@åüaÛy€ýáïí[[ âU[ëïík„ý ía âUïíÿPùáb @üïí[ïíýFýñ âSDü]á Û]á[ XïíNýá NýáïíP[ âRïíZ Bq† [ýEýRá @ü[Uá[ íS÷[MábÙÿ íbá@ü Uá #âWýS÷áZbÙÿ
#Ný Uáy‚ÿUUáâPRã RZ, ía âS÷ZGRïí@ü Rá íSïíZ XçNåýóU[M @ü[ábÙÿ í^÷Z íbá@ü #áXá[ XïíQó *íaâýFý], íUáQ@üâ[ *íP[ @üOá #Ró
Xïí R @üïí[ïíýFýñ NýábÙÿ Nýáïí@ü #ïíR@üýIýá &RâUÛ^ ^NýáoPã[ aáQàUã í@üKÙý âUïí^_ @üïí[ #áíB í]ïíARâR Uá í]ïíAR Rá Uïí]ñ” 16
íS÷â X@üá XïíR bZñ ía #áíB *í] Û]á[ XïíNýá Uáy‚ÿUUáâPRã[ #á[ *@ü GáZBáZ Uïí]ïíýFýR,
Xïí Nýá #áaá[ SO aåB X bNýñ Û]á âUÛ^ ^NýáoPã[ GãURXå Aã “KýábÙÿR Kýáâ@üRã WæýNý íS÷Ný aXá@åü] #áXá[ ía@üá] ñ
íXïíZñ” 14
íUïíP aáSåïíKòý SýIåýZá P[ïíU^ NýAR íPïí^ S÷ýEåý[ñ S÷âNýâPRbÙÿ
RáâBRã@üRóá[ S÷âNý í]Aïí@ü[ aÛïíUPR^ã] XïíR[ Sâ[ýEýZ- *íP[ @üá[ë[ Rá @üá[ë[ Uá í@üáR< Pïí ][ Rá í@üáR<
âÛ[áX @üâU[áïíG[ XáRâa@üNýá[ XïíQó âPïíZ S÷ @üáâ^Nýñ âNýâR Pïí][ aïí§ÿ íPAá b'NýbÙÿñ #áXá[ aáâbâNýó@ü GãUïíR *[á
íPïíAïíýFýR, âRx…UïíBÞ[ #ÿw‚ÿBÞNý íUïíP aXáïíG[ aXáGSâNý â^[ïíUïíP[á P] íUÜïíQ âWýKòý @üïí[ *íaïíýFý âJý@ü *bÙÿ @üá[ïíMbÙÿñ”17
â@üWýáïíU íSð[áâM@ü GR^÷ëâNý < aáQá[M íUïíP axS÷PáïíZ[ #¬Nýáïí@ü KÙýSïí[áºýô PåâýIý Xÿw‚ÿUó íOïí@ü íUáHüá YáZ, Nýá[á^¥ý[ *bÙÿ #ÿw‚ÿóG
@üáïíG ]áâBïíZ â^[ïíUïíP bïíZ UïíaïíýFýñ YåB YåB Qïí[ ýEýïí] #áaá *bÙÿ í^÷Mã[ XáRå_|üâ]ïí@ü BWýã[WýáïíU S÷Nýó¤ü @üïí[âýFýïí]Rñ *íP[ ax‡ïíl„ý
í^á_M < U°×Rá[ íOïí@ü Xåâºýô *íR âPïíZïíýFý-*bÙÿ PåbÙÿ XáRUãñ NýábÙÿ GáRá[ #áB÷b íOïí@ü, *íP[ *ØâNýbó< í]á@üaÛy€çýâNý ax‡ïíl„ý íGïíRïíýFýR
RáâBRã@üRóá[ @üáâbRã RáâBRã@üRóá[ ^áSXåºýô[ @üáâbRã, #áâPX *íP[ @üáýFý íOïí@übÙÿ *UÛ #Nýóÿw‚ÿ abáRåWæýâNý[ aïí§ÿ *bÙÿ âU]ãZXáR
aÛy€ýá[ #áfFýl…, #âWý^Â íUïíP aXáïíG[ ^ç¦] íWýïíDü Xæ]ïíyöÿáïíNý aÛy€çýâNý[ âP@üâýIýïí@ü Nåýïí] Qïí[âýFýïí]R íabÙÿ aïí§ÿ *íP[ XáRUNýá[
âXïí^ Yá<Zá[ @üáâbRãñ GZBáïíR XåAâ[Ný bïïíZâýFýïí]Rñ “íUïíPïíP[ âNýâR íX]áZ AåU @üáýFý
í]Aïí@ü[ GãUR-#âWý¬Nýá: íOïí@ü ]¤üó @üïí[ïíýFýRñ ]áWýSåïí[[ UáâKòýïíNý< íUïíP[á #áaNý aáïíS[
RáâBRã@üRóá[ @üáâbRã 1951 Aõ ãtËýáïíoP S÷@üáâ^Ný bZñ âUÛ^ í]Aá íPAáïíNý, âNýâR Nýábá[ aïí§ÿ #á]áS GåKòýïíNýR *@üOá NÜýá[
^NýáoPã[ aX@üá]ãR *bÙÿ Sâ[ïíU^ #U^óbÙÿ *bÙÿ Q[ïíR[ KÙýSRóáa í]Aá[ @üRóá B§ÿá[ @üáýFý íOïí@ü í^áRá ñ âNýâR â^q† ã âbaáïíU Nýá[S[ Yá
KÙýSYåºýô UáNýáU[M RZñ Nýá[á^¥ýïí[[ XïíNýá Uâ]Ìý í]Aïí@ü[ Sïí¤übÙÿ @üïí[ïíýFýR Nýá b] *bÙÿ íUïíPïíP[ GãUïíR[ âUâWýl… NýOóáâP[ ýFýâU|üâ]
íUáQ bZ aÇüU bïíZâýFý], *bÙÿ YåB Sâ[ïíUïí^[ XïíQó íOïí@ü, íabÙÿ GãUÿw‚ÿ @üïí[ íTüïí]ïíýFýRñ”18
a@ü] âSâýFýïíZ SKòýá XáRåïí_[ GãUR@üáâbRã [ýEýRá @ü[áñ â@üÿwŸ aUâ@üýFåý[ “RáâBRã@üRóá[ @üáâbRã” KÙýSRóáïía[ #ÿw‚ÿNý 14 UýFý[ #áíB
Xæïí] [ïíZïíýFý âýEý[@üáïí][ íabÙÿ í^á_ïíM[ bÙÿâNýbáañ í]A@ü íUïíPaXáïíG[ S÷@üáâ^Ný `#á|üR' KÙýSRóáaâýIý[ @üïíZ@üâýIý #Û^ *AáïíR KÙýk„ýá[ @ü[á
íabÙÿ axSæMÞ íýEýbá[áâýIý Nåýïí] Q[ïíNý íSïí[ïíýFýR aUÞaXïí¤üñ YáZ:
“RáâBRã@üRóá[ Sâ[@üq† RáâýIý #ásEýYÞ [@üïí X[ íXðâ]@ü; “#áâX Xåd„ ý bbÙÿZ á íPâAïí NýâýFý]áX UáGã@ü[ïíP[ ñ *bÙÿ
UáÛ]áïíPïí^[ #aÛAó #RáYÞ XáRUïíBáÌýä[ XïíQó *@üâýIý[ íBáSRNýX GáNýâýIý #áXá[ âýEý[âPïíR[ âUyŠZñ Så[ ëïí_[á íPAáZ
GãUR[aâRYÞáa íYR bÙÿbá[bÙÿ XïíQó âRâbNýñ aSÞâUïí_[ Xwžÿ < <Ø_âQ[ íWýâq€ýUáâG, Rá[ã[á aáS, UÜáP[ ]bÙÿZá RáýEýáZ, âRïíG[á<
XïíNýá KÙýbá[ #ây‚ÿ Nÿš < PåïíUáÞQó B~üã #âNý¼ôX @üâ[Zá *bÙÿ |übóNýïíºýš RáïíýEý RáâBRãRç Nýóñ #Sæ UÞ ía RçN ýó â^b[ýEý[ïí M íPb
GáâRïíNý Sáâ[ZáâýFýïí]R Nýábá *@üýIýá S[X #ásEýïíYÞ[ âU_Zñ”15 âb]ïíâq‰Ný @üâ[Záñ ....... #¿åýNý âXtËýWýá_ã *bÙÿ YáYáU[
#áaïí] *bÙÿ íUïíP GáNýýIýá[ S÷âNý í]Aïí@ü[ í@üðNæýb] U[áU[ GáâNýâýIýñ *XR âXtË ý @üOá #áâX GãUïíR í@üáR< GáâNý[
âýFý]ñ âNýâR *íP[ @üOá U]ïíNý íýEýïíZâýFýïí]R #Nýóÿw‚ÿ #áÿw‚ÿâ[@üNýá[ Xåï í@ü }üâR RábÙÿñ #á[ íXábXZ *@üýIýá [baó íYR *bÙÿ
aïí§ÿñ NÜýá[ #áiŠGãURyŠçâNý |üâ][ XïíQó *bÙÿ UºýôUó Q[á SïíKòý, #RáUç Ný íPb GáâNýâýIý[ aUÞá§ÿ íCâ[Zá XáAáïíRá #áïíýFýñ
“#áXá[ aáâbNýó@üïíXÞ[ XïíQó @üáïí][ âUUNÞýïíR aáXáâG@ü UUÞ[á YáYáU[ã[á íXábXZã, aUÞáïí§ÿ íYR íXáb GKòýáïíRá .....
Sâ[UNÞýïíR[ XïíQó âU]ãZXáR íBáÌýä, axS÷PáZ, âUïí^_ YáYáU[ã #áXáïí@ü íXábB÷y‚ÿbÙÿ @üâ[ZáâýFý]ñ”19
Qá[á[ UóâºýôNÿšÿ *@üâýIý âUâ^tËý yƒÿáR #âQ@üá[ @üïí[ #áïíýFýñ `íUïíPRã' Bïíq† [áâQ@üá[ [ìSUMÞRá[ í¤üïí¼ Nýá[á^¥ý[ Uïí]ïíýFýR
*aU #áXá[ âRïíG[ íýEýáïíA íPAáñ ..... GâXPá[ í^÷Mã “X{Zá Tåüïí][ Bl„ý íYXR âRÚr‡áïía Wýâ[Zá íPZ XáP@üNýá, íUïíPRã[
ýFýáKòýá< íUïíP, SýIåýZá, Xá]á@üá[, ]áâJýZá], íýEýðâ@üPá[, @üáïí]á [ìS< íNýXRbÙ ÿ íýEýáïíA Q[ábÙ ÿ] íPZ íR^á”ñ íUïíPRãïíP[
Kýá@üb[@ü[á S÷WçýâNý Yá[á aXáïíG[ âUïí^_ #Û^ GåïíKòý âýFý], ax‡ïíl„ý *bÙÿ íXábáâUtËýNýá, *bÙÿ íR^á GáBáïíRá #RåWæýâNý *íP[, @üáýFý
205
íOïí@ü Rá íPAïí] aÇüU RZñ @üáýFý ïíOïí@übÙÿ íPïíAâýFýïí]R âNýâR *íP[- XáRå_ aWýó aXáïíG[ k‡á[á #Uïíbâ]Ný, Yá[á CçMá < #âUr‡áïía[ Sá¼ñ
“íUâPZá[á #áaïíNýáñ íP^ã íUâPZá aáSåïíKòý, *[á aáQá[MNý NýábÙÿ *bÙÿ KÙýSRóáa ax‡ïíl„ý *@üOá âRÚaïímPïíb íXïíR íR<Zá YáZ
#áaïíNýá U_Þá[ aXZ, XáïíJý #á]-í@üKÙýïíýIý Q[ïíNýá-B÷áïíX “Xïíbïí³áPáïí[á, b[n†á[ #áâUÿt€ýá[ íYXR XáâýIý[ Ný]á íOïí@ü
aáS íPâAïíZ BáR íBïíZ âWý¤üá @ü[ïíNýá, UÜáP[ RáýEýáïíNýá, S÷áýEýãR QUàÛaáUïí^_ Nåýïí] *íR âUr‡GRïí@ü }üQå aýEýâ@üNý @üïí[ íPZâR,
#á[ ýEý]ïíNýáñ <[á íYNý íXâPRãSå[ SYÞÿw‚ÿñ NýáïíP[ XåïíAbÙÿ âUr‡ aWýóNýá[ bÙÿâNýbáïía[ S÷OX âPïí@ü Wýá[ïíNý[ #áaR aåâRâPÞtËý @üïí[
}üïíRâýFý]áX íXâPRãSå[ #°×ïí] @üâU[á @üâU[áG âýFýïí]R âPïíZâýFý], UNÞý XáR B÷wƒÿAáâR íNýXâR *@ü #âWýRU #áâUÿt€ýá[ñ *bÙÿ
#íR@ü, Nýá[á @üáïí]á í@üKÙýïíýIý[ âU_ â@üRïíNýR *UÛ Nýá [áýLòý UáÛ]á[ Qæ]áXáâýIýïíNý *AïíRá íUÜïíýEý #áïíýFý *XR aU S÷áZ âU]åÂ
âPïíZ <Ø_åQ îNýâ[ @ü[ïíNýRñ @üáïí]á @üâtËý SáOïí[[ XïíNýá #áâPXUUÞ[ GáâNý, Yá[á UýFýïí[ Xá¼ @üïíZ@üâýIý âPR íPAá íPZ aWýó
*íP[ BáïíZ[ [Dü, íNýXâR â@ü âýFý] ýEåý] Så[ë_ïíP[ PÜáâKòý aXáïíG, Nýá[S[ ýEýïí] YáZ í@üáOáZ í]á@üýEý¤åü[ #ÿw‚ÿ[ áïí]; í@üáR
íBÜ áïíTü[ *XR S÷áýEåýYÞ íY Wýá[NýUïí _Þ[ íY í@üáR< rŠ^÷ë #¬áNý #AóáNý #°×ïí][ #áâPUáaã Nýá[á í@üKÙý GáïíR Rá, íAÜáG
|üxŒüB[UãïíP[ aïí§ÿ Sáq‰á âPïíNý Sáïí[ñ íXïíZïíP[ ýEåý]< [áïíA Rá, Nýá[á^¥ý[ NýáïíP[bÙÿ @üOá U]ïíNý âBïíZ âUQáNýá[ S÷âNýk‡mk‡ã
âýFý] íNýXâR, [ë¤ü @üáïí]á CR *@ü [á^ ýEåý], îU^áïíA[ bïíZïíýFýR, RNåýR XáRå_, RNåýR GBÖ açâtËý @üïí[ïíýFýRñ âUQáNýá[ PæNý
bá<ZáZ Tåü]ïíNý Oá@üïíNýá ÿPùëNý QáUXáR @üáïí]á íXïíC[ *@üâPR UáqŠãâ@üïí@ü Uïí]âýFýïí]R, `@üâU NýU XïíRáWæýâX [áïíX[ GlŠyƒÿáR
XïíNýáñ íNýXâR âýIý@üáïí]á Rá@ü #á[ Nýã¤˜ü íýEýáAñ ..... #íYáQóá[ íýEýïíZ aNýó íGïíRáñ íabÙÿ aNýó Yá [âýEýïíU NåýâX, CïíýIý Yá Nýá
íPïíAâýFý, íUïíP[ íXïíZ U_Þá[ QáRWý[á í¤üïíNý[ XïíQó ýFåýïíýIý aU aNýó Rïíb'ñ YOáOÞ aáâbâNýó@ü < @üâU YÜá[á NÜýá[á< aNýó yöÿtËýá
ýEýïí]ïíýFýñ #ásEýYÞ bïíZïíýFý â@ü UóáSá[ñ Nýá[S[bÙÿ íPAâýFý >â_ñ Nýá[á^¥ý[< íabÙÿ aåPå]ÞWý ^âºýôïíNý aNýó < @üq†RáZ âXâ]ïíZ
S÷@üá~ü *@üýIýá í@üKÙýïíýIý[ XåA XåâJýïíNý Qïí[ #Ró báïíNý í]GýIýá *XR *@üGBÖ açâtËý @üïí[ïíýFýR Yá aïíNýó[ íýEýïíZ< aNýó, Uáy‚ÿïíU[
íýIýïíR Qïí[ #áí¼ôá^Wýïí[ aáSýIýáïí@ü Uïí]ïíýFý `#áXá[ báNý íýEýïíZ< Uáy‚ÿUñ”21
íOïí @ü, YïíX[ báNý íOïí@ü Nåý Sá]áâU?” .... SýIåý Zá[á
*UÛ íUâPZá[á QïíXÞ Xåa]XáRñ U{@üá] SYÞÿw‚ ÿ * NýOó NýOóaæ¼ :
GáRNýáX Ráñ âk‡GSP SýIåýZá, [áâQ@üá íUïíPRã[ aïí§ÿ #áXá[ 1ñ Jýá@åü[ [UãúRáO, `#áïí[áBó', `<[á @üáG @üïí['
bìPó *@üâýIý axS@Þü GïílŠâýFý]ñ âk‡GSïíP[ aåmP[ íýEýbá[á 2ñ UïímPóáSáQóáZ, âUWæýâNýWæý_M, `#á[Mó@ü'
*UÛ [áâQ@üá[ *@üâSJý CR @üáïí]á ýEåý] #á[ Nýã¤˜ü íýEýáA 3ñ [áZ Rãbá[[³R, UáDüá]ã[ bÙÿâNýbáa, íP'G SáUâ]â^Û, 1X aÛy€ý[M:
íYR #á@ü_ÞM @ü[Ný #áXáïí@üñ”20 1400, Sç.31
*bÙÿ [@üX #áí[á aWýó-#aWýó íUïí PïíP[ @üOá âNýâR NÜý á[ 4ñ *Ø, Sç. 22
#áiŠGãURãïíNý KÙýíq‰A @üïí[ïíýFýRñ *bÙÿaU XáRå_ïíP[ }üQå íPAá RZ
5ñ *Ø, Sç. 209
#Nýóÿw‚ÿ #áÿw‚ÿâ[@üNýá[ aïí§ÿ íPïíAâýFýïí]Rñ *íP[ @üáïí[á @üáïí[á aïí§ÿ
6ñ UïímPóáSáQóáZ, âUWæýâNýWæý_M, `#á[Mó@ü'
NÜýá[ báâPÞ@ü axS@Þü< BïíKòý KÙýïíJýâýFýïí]á íabÙÿ @üá[ïíMbÙÿñ #á[ íabÙÿ
7ñ ýEýïíµýáSáQóáZ SáOÞ, `âRx…UïíBÞ[ bÙÿâNýbáa ýEýýEÞýá[ bÙÿâNýbáa, âRx…UïíBÞ[
GRóbÙÿ *íP[ GãURYá¼á[ aXy‚ÿ [@üX S÷Oá aÛy€ýáïí[[ XïíQó íOïí@ü
bÙÿ âNýbáa, axSáPRá - íBðNýX WýÿPù, SáOÞ ýEýïíµýáSáQóáZ, #áRmP
NÜ ýá[ Wýá]Uáaá[ XáRå _ |üâ]ïí@ü Nå ý ïí] #áRïí Ný íSïí[ïíýFýR ñ
SáUâ]^áaÞ, S÷OX aÛy€ý[M, *âS÷] - 1998, Sç. 3
RáâBRã@üRóá[ #áKòýáïí] íY aáQá[M íUïíPRã[ Uáa íabÙÿ íUïíPRãïíP[
8ñ íaR #XNÞýó, `Wýá[ïíNý[ í^÷Mã âUWýáïíB[ NýáÖSYÞ', `íP^' aáÂáâb@ü
@üáâbRãbÙÿ âNýâR â]AïíNý ïíSïí[ïíýFýR *bÙÿ #aáQá[M KÙýSRóáïíañ
aXáïíG[ *í@üUáïí[ #ÿw‚ÿóG í^÷Mã[ XáRUïíBáÌýä, aWýóaXáïíG Sâ¼@üá 18bÙÿ GáRåZáâ[ 2003, 70 U_Þ 6 aÛAóá, Sç. 40
YáïíP[ KÙ ýSâyƒÿâNý[ bá[ #âNý RBMó, íabÙÿ íBáÌýä[ XáRå_ïí@ü @üáýFý 9ñ [ýEýRáU]ã, Nýá[á^¥ý[ 8X A~ü, âX¼ < íCá_, B÷wƒÿ Sâ[ýEýZ #Û^, Sç.
íOïí@ü íPAá, NýáïíP[ GãURYá¼á[ NýOó aÛB÷b @ü[á AåU abG UóáSá[ 415
RZñ Nýá[Sïí[ Oá@ü Rá âýEý¼@üïí[[ Nåýâ][ ýIýáR #á[ @üâU[ @üq†Ráñ 10ñ UïímPóáSáQóáZ, Nýá[á^¥ý[, í^÷Ìý Bq†, `íUïíPRã', GBPã^ WýµýáýEýáYÞ
âNýâR íNýá S÷Oá aÛy€ýáïí[[ &ïíQUÞ XáRåïí_[ @üOá U]ïíNý íýEýïíZïíýFýR, íY axSáâPNý, íU§ÿ] SáUâ]^áaÞ S÷á.â]., *@üP^ XåÿPùM, Sç. 2
206
11ñ Sen Sukumar, 'Vipradasas Manasa-Vijaya', The Asiatic 16ñ UïímPóáSáQóáZ Nýá[á^¥ý[, `#áXá[ aáâbNýóGãUR', 2Z SUÞ, Sç. 152
Society, XRaá âUGZ, S÷OX Sá]á, Sç. 2 17ñ UïímPóáSáQóáZ, Nýá[á^¥ý[, `#áXá[ @üáïí][ @üOá', Sç. 49-90
12ñ UïímPóáSáQóáZ, Ê@åüXá[, U§ÿaáâbïíNýó KÙýSRóáïía[ Qá[á, Sç. 578- 579 18ñ WýµýáýEýáYÞ, ^@åüÿw‚ÿ]á, `[ë¤üXáâýIý[ @üâUZá]', Nýá[á^¥ý[ Sâ[_P @üNÞçý@ü S÷@üáâ^Ný, Gå]ábÙÿ
13ñ *Ø, Sç. 580 1998, Sç. 220
14ñ WýµýáýEýáYÞ ^@åüÿw‚ÿ]á, `[ë¤üXáâýIý[ @üâUZá], Nýá[á^¥ý[ Sâ[_P @üNÞçý@ü 19ñ UïímPóáSáQóáZ Nýá[á^¥ý[, #á|üR
S÷@üáâ^Ný, Gå]ábÙÿ 1998, Sç. 226 20ñ UïímPóáSáQóáZ Nýá[á^¥ý[, `#áXá[ @üáïí][ @üOá', Sç. 42-44
15ñ UïímPóáSáQóáZ Ê@åüXá[, Ù§ÿaáâbïíNýó KÙýSRóáïía[ Qá[á', Sç. 579 21ñ [ýEýRáU]ã Nýá[á^¥ý[, #tËýX SUÞ, âX¼ < íCá_, WæýâX@üá - 2
207
KÙýíSâ¤üNý GãUïíR[ @üOá : âUWæýâNýWæý_ïíM[ âRUÞáâýEýNý Bïíq†[ #áïí]áïí@ü

Ký. #âRNýá aábá
*bÙÿ S÷ïUïíl„ý[ KÙýSGãUó âU_Z– âUWæýâNýWæý_M NýÜá[ aXZ@üá[ #áOÞaáXáâG@ü SýIýWæýâïïXïíNýý aÛaáïí[[ XáRå_GR, Uçk„ý âSNýá-XáNýá, #áâ^÷Ný Uçk„ý-Uçk„ýáïíP[ #Uyƒÿá
< aXaóáïí@ü @üNýAáâR P[ïíP[ aïí§ÿ, XáRâU@ü PçâtËý âPïíZ #RåWýU @üïí[ïíýFýR, NýáïíP[ WýâU_óÖ âRïíZ WýáURá-âýEýÿwÿá‚ @üïí[ïíýFýR– Nýá[bÙÿ âRAÜåNý UáMãâýEý¼ñ #abáZ,
KÙýíSâ¤üNý Uçk„ý-Uçk„ýáïíP[ @ü[ëM, XXÞáâÿw‚ÿ@ü, #SXáR@ü[ GãURïí@ü âUWæýâNýWæý_M #ïNýóÿw‚ÿ @üáýFý íOï í@ü S÷Nýó¤ü @üïí[ïíýFýRñ âUïïí^_ @üïí[ B÷áX-GãUR âRWýÞ[ *bÙÿ
aU Bq†|üâ]ïíNý (‘Wý~åü]XáXá[ UáýKòýã’, ‘KýáRâSïíýIý’, ‘ÿPùUXZã[ @üá^ãUáa’, ‘GlŠ < XçNåýó’, ‘aÛaá[ bÙÿNýóáâP’) B÷áXGãUïíR[ *bÙÿ @ü[ëM, âRÌåý[ Sâ[MáXïí@ü
íYXR âýEýâ¼Ný @üïí[ïíýFýR, íabÙÿ aïí§ÿ S÷âNýïíU^ã XáRå_GïíR[ abïíYáâBNýá, abXâXÞNýáïí@ü< Nåýïí] Qïí[ïíýFýR âRSåMWýáïíUñ UNýÞXáR #áQåâR@ü GãUR aÛâ¤üÂ
Sâ[Uáïí[ âSNýá-XáNýá-Uçk„ýá^÷ïíX #á^÷Z âRïífFýR UáQó bïíZ, YáïíP[ a§ÿâNý íRbÙÿ Nýá[á #abáZ GãUR YáSR @üïí[ýFýR âRÚa§ÿ #UyƒÿáZ âWýïíýIýUáKòýãïíNýñ ^bïí[-
B÷áïíX aUÞ¼bÙÿ *@übÙÿ XXÞáâÿw‚ÿ@ü ýFýâUñ âUWæýâNýWæý_ïíM[ *bÙÿaU Bq†|üâ]ïíNý íabÙÿ aXZ@üá[ âPR|üïí]áïíNý Uçk„ýUçk„ýá[ *@übÙÿ [@üX XXÞÿwŸP ýFýâU âýEýâ¼Ný íPAïíNý SábÙÿñ
aÿw‚ÿáR-aÿw‚ÿâNýïíP[ @üNý #áP[ Yïíi… UKòý @üïí[, GãUïíR[ aUÞy‡ NýáïíP[ âPïíZ Uçk„ý UZïía âRÚy‡ bïíZ *@üâPR #RáPïí[ #Uïíb]áZ âRÚa§ÿ GãUR @üáýIýáïíNý bZ
NýáïíP[ñ @üNýGR íUïíCáïí[< Xá[á YáRñ #áâOÞ@ü abáZNýá, íaUá-Yi… íNýá Pæïí[[ @üOá, GãUïíR[ í^_âPïíR< *bÙÿ aU RáýKòýã-ïïíFÜýKòýá QïRïíP[ íPAá íXïí] Rá, #OýEý
^÷ák„ý Uáaïí[ ýEÜýáïíP[ báýIý UâaïíZ B÷áXUáaãïíP[ GáRáR íPZ NýáïíP[ #OÞ-S÷âNýSâºý[ Ub[ B÷áXGãUïíR[ *bÙÿ Uáy‚ÿUâýEý¼, íabÙÿ aïí§ÿ S÷GlŠ âUïífFýïíP[ @üá[M,
B÷áXGãUïíR[ XáRå_ïíP[ ýEýâ[ï¼âýEý¼M, #á[ aïíUáÞSâ[ B÷áXGãURïí@ü Wýáïí]áïíUïía Cïí[ íTü[á[ #áv›áR GáâRïíZïíýFýR âUWæýâNýWæý_M NýÜá[ *bÙÿaU Bïíq†[ XáQóïíXñ
#AóáNý, NåýfFý #âNý aáQá[M XáRåï í_[ GãUR @üOá[ SÜáýEýá]ã@üá[ S÷O X âUr‡Y å k„ ý S[UNýãÞý *UÛ âk‡ NýãZ âUr‡ Y åk „ ý @üá]ãR < Nýá[
âUWæýâNýWæý_Mñ B÷áXó, #â^â¤üNý, íAïíýIý-Aá<Zá âPRXGå[ íOïí@ü }ü[ë S[UNýãÞ@üáïí][ Sq‰ãB÷áïíX[ #áOÞaáXáâG@ü íS÷â¤üïíNý Uçk„ý Uçk„ýáïíP[
@üïí[ ýEýá_ã, [áQåRã, Såïí[áâbNý, í@ü[áRã, Yá¼áPïí][ #âWýïíRNýá, KÙýíSâ¤üNý GãUïíR[ @üOá, âUWæýâNýWæý_M íabÙÿ aXZ@üá[ aÛaáïí[[
BáýFýBáýFýKòýá[ UóUaáZã, íbáâX<SóáOã Kýáºýôá[, #óáïí]áSóáâO Kýáºýôá[, XáRå_GR, Uçk„ý âSNýá-XáNýá *UÛ #áâ^÷Ný GïíR[ #abáZ @ü[ëM #Uyƒÿá,
S÷ábÙÿïíWýýIý âýIýKÙýýIý[, SáJý^á]á[ Sâ~üNý, â^¤ü@ü, íU@üá[ YåU@ü S÷WçýâN NýáïíP[ Uáy‚ÿU aXaóáïí@ü #ÿw‚ÿ[ âPïíZ #RåWýU @üïí[ïíýFýR, *UÛ #Nýóÿw‚ÿ
âUâWýl… íS^á[ XáRå_ ïí@ü AåU @üáýFý íOïí @ü, #Nýóÿw‚ÿ #áÿw‚ÿâ [@üNýá[ XáRâU@ü Pç âtËý Wýâ§ÿïíNý, P[ïí P[ aïí§ÿ Bq† |üâ]ïíNý NýáïíP[ âýEýâ¼Ný
aïí§ÿ âUWæýâNýWæý_M SáJýïí@ü[ aáXïíR báâG[ @üïí[Rñ NÜýá[ [ýEýRáZ @üïí[ïíýFýRñ âUWæýâNýWæý_ïíM[ aX@üáïí] Uá Nýá[ S[UNýãÞ@üáïí] Uçk„ý-
â^}ü, â@üïí^á[-â@üïí^á[ã, YåU@ü-YåUNýã, Uçk„ý-Uçk„ýá a@üïí][ ýFýâUbÙÿ Uçk„ýáïíP[ GãUR@üOá KÙýíJý *ïíaïíýFý, NýïíU íaAáïíR aXáGGãURâýIý y‡Nýwžÿñ
íYR *@ü âRSåM â^q†ã[ #RáZáa Nåýâ][ ýIýáïíR GãUÿw‚ÿñ âUWæýâNýWæý_ïíM[ âUWæýâNýWæý_ïíM[ Uçk„ý-Uçk„ýá[á y‡B÷áïíX Oá@üïíNý ýEýáR, âWýïíýIý UáKòýã #áBïí]
í]AáZ S÷Nýó¤ü #âWý¬NýábÙÿ â^q†[ìS íSïíZïíýFýñ NÜýá[ U{Bïíq† NýAR@üá[ #á[ aÿw‚ÿáR-aÿw‚ÿâNýïíP[ @üáïíýFý íSïíNý ýEýáR, í^@üïíKòý íTü[áïíNý ýEýáRñ
aXïíZ[ Uçk„ý Uçk„ýáïíP[ @ü[ëM Sâ[MáX âýEýâ¼Ný bïíNý íPâAñ ýEýâ[¼|üâ][ íaAáïíR S÷âNýïíU^ã B÷áXó XáRå_|üïí]á UZy€ý XáRå_|üïí]á[ aåA-PåÚA
íU^ã[WýáBbÙÿ âUWæýâNýWæý_ïíM[ Sâ[âýEýNý Sâ[âýEýNýá, NÜýá[ y‡B÷áX KÙýºý[ íUPRá[ ^[ã@ü bZñ â@üÿwŸ UNýÞX áïí R[ âRKÙý âýc‰ ýZá[ TüóáâXâ]ïí Ný
ýEýâ U^ S[BMá[ URBÜá Xb@åüXá[ #ÿw‚ÿBÞNý ýEýá]@üã Uá Nýá[ âR@üýIýUNýãÞ aXaóá|üïí]á #á[< GâýIý] bïíZ *ïíaïíýFýñ íy…b-XáZá-XXNýábãR *@ü
B÷áïíX[ UáâamPáñ ýEý[X âRÌåý[Nýá íYR UNýÞXáR S÷GïílŠ[ #ÿw‚ÿïí[ Uáaá íUÜïíQïíýFýñ Nýá[á
*bÙÿ S÷Uïíl„ý[ KÙýSGãUó âU_Z í]Aïí@ü[ aXZ@üáïí][ #OÞáÖ yžÿã-@üRóá-Så¼ âRïíZ aÛaá[ïí@ü aãXáUk„ý [áAïíNý ýEýáZñ Xá-UáUá KÙýk‡ºç ý,
ab@üá[ã-#QóáâS@üá, UáÛ]á âUWýá B, [áGá Rïí[ú]á] Aá R Xâb]á XbáâUPóá]Z, íXâPRãSå[, SâsEýXU§ÿ , Wýá[Nýñ
208
#Uáâ²üNýñ âUWæýâNýWæý_ïíM[ bÙÿâmP[áJýá@ü[ëM-*[ XNý Pæ[-aïxSïí@Þü[ âRïíZ YáRñ KÙýíSâ¤üNý - #Uïíbâ]Ný - ]áâ²üNý UZy€ý - UZy€ýáïíP[
#áâ^÷Nýá[á íNýá NýáïíP[ WýáURá[ XïíQóbÙÿ #áïíaRáñ *AR@üá[ Bïíq†[ âRïíZ [âýEýNý Bq†|üâ][ XïíQó KÙýïíq‰AïíYáBó Bq†|üâ] #áïí]áýEýRá S÷aïí§ÿ
KÙýSGãUó Uçk„ýá^÷X âRWýÞ[ XáRåïí_[ GãUR@üOá, ^b[ Uá B÷áïíX âRÚa§ÿ SáJý@ü Uïí BÞ[ #Råa l„ ý áïíR[ y‡á ïíOÞ S¼Sâ¼@üáZ *UÛ Bq†B ÷ ïí wƒ ÿ
Uçk„ý âSNýá-XáNýá[ GãUR@üOá YáïíP[ aÿw‚ÿáR âUïíPïí^bÙÿ GãUR @üáýIýáZñ S÷@üá^@üá] ab @üá]áRå¼ôâX@ü WýáïíU KÙýïíq‰A @ü[á b]ñ
âSNýá XáNýá[ XçNåýó[ S[ íPïí^[ UáKòýãïí Ný #áïía í@üU] GâXUáKòýã aá] Xáa Sâ¼@üá Bïíq†[ RáX Bq†B÷wƒÿ
1339 íSð_ S÷Uáaã Wý~åü]XáXá[ Yá¼áUP]
âUâ¼ôUáýIýá[ GRó, í@üáR [@üX #áiŠãZNýá íy… b-Wýá]Uáaá[ Ul„ýR
UáKòýã (3Z Bq† aÛ.
íRbÙÿ @üáïí[á S÷âNý, âUWæýâNýWæý_ïíM[ Bïíq† #áX[á B÷áXGãUïíR[ aåyƒÿ 1341)
aáXáâG@ü PáZ-PáâZNÿšÿ S[áZM XáRåïí_[ al„ýáR SábÙÿñ íýFýáýIý íýFýáýIý 1341 #áâr‡R KÙý PZR KýáRâSïíýIý Yá¼áUP]
(3Z Bq† aÛ.
íýFýïí]ïíXïíZ[á SYÞÿw‚ÿ S÷âNýïíU^ã PáPå, Jýá@åüXá, GóáJýá, íGóâJýXá[ AU[
1341)
[áïíAñ Bq†|üâ] SïíKòý XïíR bZ âUWæâNýWæýï_ïíM[ aXZ@üáïí] Sáâ[Uáâ[@ü 1342 íaïín ýx‡[ íP^ GlŠ < XçNåýó GlŠ < XçNåýó
aáXáâG@ü âýEý¼âýIý íYR GãUÿw‚ÿ[ìïíS #áXáïíP[ aáXïíR KÙýSâyƒÿNý bïíZïíýFýñ (4OÞ Bq† aÛ.
bZïíNýá aU Bq† â^q†QïíXÞ XYÞáPá [áAïíNý Sáïí[âR, â@üÿwŸ GãUïíR[ *@üáÿw‚ÿ 1344)
1350 ^á[PãZá Xåâºýô RUáBNý
aNýó CýIýRá âRUá[M âR[áWý[M [ìïíS SáJýïí@ü[ aáXïíR báâG[ bïíZïíýFýñ
(_Ìý Bq† aÛ.
UNÞýXáïíR SïíO - CáïíýIý, íýIøýïíR -Uáïía Uá ^b[ - B÷áïíX Uçk„ý - 1944)
Uçk„ýáïíP[ #abáZ GãUR YáSïíR[ ýFýâU #áX[á íPïíA Oáâ@üñ a@üïí][ 1350 íPá]aÛAóá #áRmPUáGá[ #áv›áR KÙýS]A~ü
(RUX Bq† aÛ,
Cïí[bÙÿ íY *bÙÿaU Jýá@åü[PáPá Jýá@åü[Xá Uá PáPå-âPâPXá[ UZaã S÷UãR
1945)
S÷UãM[á #RáP[ - #Uïíb]áZ âPR YáSR @üïí[R Nýá RZ, NýïíU S÷áZ^ÚbÙÿ 1355 #áâr‡R âPBÿw‚ÿ aÛaá[ íGóáâNýâ[§ÿM
íPAá YáZ Uç k„ýUZïía âRïíG[ íýFýïí ] íXïíZïíP[ @üáýFý íOïí@übÙÿ @üNý (S°×P^ Bq†
B³Rá-]á²üRá íWýáB @üïí[ïíýFýR Nýá[áñ YáïíP[ *@üáâQ@ü aÿw‚ÿáR, Nýá[á aÛ.1949)
1356 @üáâºÞý@ü @üOáaáâbNýó UKòýâPâPXá @åü^]SábáKòýã
UáUá-Xáïí@ü WýáBáWýáâB @ü[ïíýFýñ aáXáRó &âR^ -âU^ bïí] UáUá - (í_áKòý ^,
Xáïí@ü âRïíZ NåýXå] HüBKòýá[ açâtËý bïífFýñ #áUá[ y‡fFý] Sâ[Uáïí[ Uá 1950)
âRx…âUºý Sâ[Uáïí[ YáïíP[ *@ü aÿw‚ÿáR, NýáïíP[< RáRá aXaóáñ í@üKÙý 1357 #áâr‡R ^á[PãZá HüBKòýá @åü^]SábáKòýã
(í_áKòý ^,
^b[ #°×ïí] ýEýá@ü[ã Uá íS^á[ @üá[ïíM âUïíPïí^ âBïíZ #á[ UáKòýã
1950)
âTü[ïíýFý Ráñ Uçk„ý Uçk„ýá[ AU[ í@ü [áïíA? @üNýGR íUïíCáïí[ S÷áM 1357 îU^áA Bq†Wýá[Nýã YáýEýábÙÿ #Råal„ýáR
âPïífFýñ #áUá[ íýFýïí]ïíXïíZïíP[ âUyŸ[ #OÞ axSP Oá@üá aïíºýš< B÷áïíX (#tËýáP^, 1960)
SïíKòý Oá@üá Xá - UáUáïí@ü #ïíRïí@übÙÿ íPïíARá, íAÜáG íRZRá; *XR `Yá¼áUP]' Bq†B÷ïíwƒÿ[ #RóNýX í^÷Ìý Bq† `Wý~åü]XXá[ UáKòýã'
RâG[< báïí X^ábÙ ÿ íPAá YáZñ UNÞý XáïíR AUïí[[ @üáBG #á[ Bïíq† âUWæýâNýWæý_M B÷áX < ^bïí[[ k‡ïímk‡ PãMÞ Wý~åü]XáXá[ GãUR @üOáïí@ü
På[P^ÞïíR[ XáQóïíXÿ #áX[á *XR U{ - XXÞâUPá[ã CýIýRá[ aá¤üãñ Nåýïí] Qïí[ïíýFýRñ Bïíq† #áX[á ía@üá] #á[ *@üáïí][ Uçk„ý - Uçk„ýá[
âUWæýâNýWæý_M Xæ]Ný UáÛ]áïíPïí^[ B÷áXGãUïíR[ PãR - Pâ[ÿPù S÷áâÿw‚ÿ@ü GãUïíR[ íUPRáNÞý Sâ[RáXïí@ü íPâAñ Bïíq† Wý~åü]XáXá #Ua[ B÷bïíM[
XáRåïí_[ @üOá@üïá[ñ *íP[ #á^á-#á@üáe¤üá, Wýá] ]áBá-XmP ]áBá S[ âRïíG[ B÷áïíX *ía UaUáa @ü[ïíNý ýEýáRñ NýábÙÿ aÛaá[ - A[ïíýEý[
âRïíZ íY #Tåü[áR SOýEý]á Nýá[bÙÿ bÙÿâNýbáa â]ïíA ïíBïíýFýR âNýâRñ ýIýá@üá UÜáâýEýïíZ U{ -UýFý[ Qïí[ *@üýIåý *@üýIåý @üïí[ íBÜïíO Sá@üá UáâKòý
*bÙÿaU ýEýâ[¼|üâ][ aåA - PåÚA #áRmP - íUPRá[ aïí§ÿ *@üá@üá[ UáâRïíZïíýFýR, YâP< Såïí[áSåâ[ bZâRñ Wý~åü]XáXá XáïíHü XáïíHübÙÿ B÷áïíX
bïíNý ïíSïí[ïíýFýR âNýâRñ NýábÙÿ íNýá *íP[ XïíR[ BbãR BWýãïí[ íY - #áíaR, *ýIýá <ýIýá ]áBáR, íUKòýá UÜáïíQR, #áUá[ ^bïí[ YáR; â@üÿwŸ
@üOáâýIý íUïíGïíýFý Nýá[ S÷ïíNýó@üâýIý #RåWæýâNýïí@ü âUWæýâNýWæý_M SáJý@üïíP[ Nýá[ yžÿã Så ¼[á í@üKÙýbÙÿ B÷áïíX âTü[ïíNý ýEýáZRá, *bÙÿ âRïíZ aÛaáïí[
Xïí R[ XâM í@üáJýáZ íSðÜï íýFý íPRñ #áX[á YwžÿM á SábÙÿ, @ütË ý-SábÙÿ #^áâÿw‚ÿñ â@üÿwŸ Wý~åü]XáXá[ íY UKòý #áPïí[[ GáZBá *ýIýáñ íýFýïí][á
#ábNý bbÙÿñ Uáy‚ÿïíU íY âR[áU[M aNýó #áïíýFý, âUWæýâNýWæý_M #U^óbÙÿ Nýá â@üýFåýïíNýbÙÿ íUáïíHüRáñ Nýá[S[ *@üâPR Wý~åü]XáXá *@üábÙÿ B÷áïíX
íaAáïíRbÙÿ íOïíX Oáïí@üR Rá, ýEýâ[¼|üïí]áïí@ü *@ü Ùó³RáXZ Uáy‚ÿïíU' UaUáa }ü[ë @üïí[Rñ S÷OXâPïí@ü XåâP[ íPá@üáR @üïí[âýFýïí]Rñ Qá[
209
Uá@üãïíNý Nýá KÙýíJý YáZñ í^ïí_ â@üýFå ýâPR íýEýïí Z âýEýïíÿw‚ ÿ âPR @üáïíýIýñ íY WýáïíU Páâ[ÿPùó-âýc‰ýtËý #abáïZ Uçk„ý-Uçk„ýá[ Sáïí^ *ía PÜáâKòýïíZïíýFý,
Nýá[S[ *@üâPR í^áRá íB] Wý~åü]XáXá #á[ íRbÙÿñ Cïí[[ XïíQóbÙÿ NýáïíNý ía@üáïí][ B÷ áX GãUïí R[ abìPZ ýFýâU Q[á SïíKòý SáJýïí@ü[
Xïí[ SïíKòý âýFýïí]Rñ På-âNýRâPR Sïí[ SáKòýá[ í]áïí@ü íýIý[ SáZñ @üáïíýFýñ #WýáïíU[ aÛaáïí[ SáKòýá[ íXïíZ #ál…á@üá]ã *ýIýá <ýIýá âPïíZ
Bïíq† âUWæýâNýWæý_M íPAáR BÜá-B³ íOïí@ü GãâU@üá[ NýáâBïíP YáZ Nýá[ aNýã^ GóáJýáïí@üñ #ÜááýEýïí] UÜáQá ÿPùUó|üïí]á íPïíA Uçk„ý Uïí]
Yá[á ^b[Uáaã bR, NýáïíP[ XïíQó Wý~åü]XáXá[ XNý XáRåïí_[á #áUá[ <íJýR, `â@ü í[ <ïíNý? XýIý[ Kýáïí][ UâKòýñ UáÚ UáÚ íP, [áA, *AáïíR
í^@üïíKòý âTü[ïíNý ýEýáRñ #á[ NýARbÙÿ CïíýIý #^áâÿw‚ÿñ @üá[M NýNýâPïíR Xá'ñ #ál…á@üá]ã - Uçïík„ý[ axŠáR í[ïíA Så[ïíRá âPïíR[ @üOá yŠ[M
aÿw‚ÿáR aÿw‚ÿâNý[ XïíQó CïíýIý YáZ S÷GïílŠ[ âUïífFýPñ aÿw‚ÿá ïíR[á #á[ @üâ[ïíZ íPZ, Yáïí Ný Uçk„ý *ýIýáïí@ü PZá Rá WýáïíUñ #ál…á@üá]ã íbïía
âSNýá XáNýá[ XRy‚ÿºýš UåHüïíNý ýEýáZ Rá, íP^BÜáïíZ[ S÷âNý í@üáR ýIýáR GáRáZ– `#áSRá[ báïíNý[ íabÙÿ @ü]áïíZ[ Kýá] [ál…á @üAïíRá Wåý]ïíUáRá
Nýá[á #RåWýU @üïí[ Ráñ Tüïí] Wý~å ü]XáXá[á y‡ï ín…[ UáKòýã BÜáOïíNý GóáJýáUáUåñ íXïíZ XáRå_ #XR [áQïíNý Sáïí[ Ráñ aNýã^ Aåâ^ bbÙÿZá
Oáïí@üR, BÜáOá bZ Rá í^_ SYÞÿ w‚ÿñ #áUá[ y‡n… âPïíZ BÜáOá íabÙÿ Uâ]] – @üïíU íAâ]ïí[, #ál…á? #ál…á@üá]ã CáKòý På]ábÙÿZá Uâ]]–
UáâKòýïíNý Sâ[Uá[ âRïíZ Uáa @üïí[< @üSáïí] íGáïí ýIý Ráñ ýEý[XNýX Uá í[, *bÙÿ íNýá WýáÿPùXáïía[ #[l„ýïíR[ âPR'ñ *@üýIýá íNý[-íýEýá½
#ïï Uïíb]áZ âRïíG[ Wýá]Uáaá[ #QÞaXáÂ UáKòýãïíNý Wý~åü]XáXá Nýá[ UýFýïí[[ â@üïí^á[ã íXïíZ[< S÷âNýïíU^ã GóáJýá[ GRó @ütËý bZ, XáZá bZ;
y‡n… âRïíZ âýEý[@üáïí][ XNý âUPáZ íRR, #á[ SáJýïí@ü[ XïíR[ P[Uáïí[ #OýEý KÙýSYåºýô PåâýIý íýFýïí] Oá@üïíNý í^_ SYÞÿw‚ÿ SáB] yžÿãïí@ü UáïíS[
âUWæýâNýWæý_M í[ïíA YáR Wý~åü]XáXá[ WýâU_óïíNý[ #á^á #á@üá¦á #á[ UáKòýãïíNý í[ïíA #abáZ Uçk„ý @üá^ã Yá¼á @üïí[Rñ
y‡n… - @üq†Rá – `íY< Rá íb *@üâPR, UáâKòýýIýá íPïíA *a #áXá[ Aáaá `GlŠ < XçNåýó' Bïíq† S÷áZ *@übÙÿ UZaã *@üGR Uçïík„ý[ GãUïíR[
@üïí [âýFý – í@üU] SÜáâýEý]ýIýá *AR< Yá Uáâ@üñ â@ü @üâ[, #áXá[ aåA - #áRïímP[ Sá^áSáâ^ *@üGR Uçk„ýá[ #abRãZ PåÚA@üïí tËý[
báïí Ný #áG@üá] #á[ íNýá â@üýFåý íRbÙÿ, íýFýïí][á âRïíGïíP[ Uáaá[ îUS[ãNýóïí@ü Nåýïí] Qïí[R í]A@üñ WýUáRãSåïí[ UáKòýãWýáKòýá íPAïíNý
A[ýEý ýEýáâ]ïíZ KÙýJýïíNý Sáïí[Rá - #âUâ^ó <íP[ GïíRóbÙÿ íNýá aUñ âBïíZ í]A@ü íY UáKòýãïíNý âBïíZ <íJýR, íaýIýá Uçk„ý - âUr‡RáOUáUå[
íPâA, íýEýtËýáïZ #áâýFý – aáXïí R[ UýFýïí[ YâP .......ñ' Bq†âýIýïíNý UáKòýãñ íaðWýáBó¼ôïíX íaâPRbÙÿ âýFý] Nýá[ GlŠâPRñ @üNý #áRmP
Xbá@üáïí][ bÙÿâ§ÿNýïí@ü íYXR TåüâýIýïíZ íNýáïí]R âUWæýâNýWæý_M, íNýXâR KÙýÖaïíU CýIýá @üïí[ Nýá[ RáâNý - RáNýRã, íPðâb¼- íPðâb¼ã, Så¼ -
âRÿt€ý[ëM Uáy‚ÿUïí@ü< YOáYOWýáïíU Nåýïí] Qïí[Rñ @üRóá, íXïíZ - GáXábÙÿ a@üïí] Bq† |üGïíU Tåüïí] Xá]áZ GlŠâPïíR[
`Yá¼áUP]' – *[ âUAóáNý Bq† `KýáRâSïíýIý'ñ Bq†âýIýïíNý íYR #âWýRmPR GáRáïífFýñ Aá<Zá - Pá<Zá *]áâb UóáSá[ñ GãâUNý @üáïí]
S÷Gïí lŠ[ S[ S÷ GlŠ Qïí[ SÜáýEýá]ã [ýEýRá @üïí[ïíýFýR âUWæýâNýWæý_Mñ *@üGR Uçïík„ý[ *Ný XbáaXáP[ UKòý *@üýIýá íýEýáïíA SïíKòýRáñ
@üáâbRã #Ûí^ aNýã^ Kýáºýôáïí[[ GãUïíR[ Uá]ó, î@üïí^á[, íYðUR < *[S[ aÂáb PåbÙÿ UáïíP í]A@ü B÷áïíX âTüïí[ í^áïíRR, B÷áïíX[
UáQÞóïí@üó[ @üáâbRã Nåýïí] Q[á bïíZïíýFýñ íabÙÿ aáïíO *@üGR ]Kòýá@åü, Uçk„ýá ^â^ Jýá@ü[ëM Xá[á íBïíýFýRñ UZa bïíZâýFý] *@üïí^á[ @üáýFýá@üáâýFýñ
Sâ[^÷Xã KÙýSáGÞR^ã] XáRåïí_[ Uçk„ýUZïía[ ýIøýóáïíGâKý UMÞRá @üïí[ïíýFýR UKòý íýFýïí]bÙÿ NýÜá[ Wý[MïíSá_M @ü[ïíNýá UïíýIý â@üÿw‚ÿå íNýXR #áB÷bWýïí[
í]A@üñ aáGáïíRá aÛaá[ S]ïí@ü íWýïíDü YáZ, @üAïíRá âRZâNý[ @üá[ïíM, RZñ Nýá[ XïíR[ XïíQó * WýáUýIýá íGïíB [bÙÿNý íY Xá íNýá Nýá[ *@üá[
@üAïíRá S[UNýãÞ S÷GïílŠ[ âUSOBáXãNýábÙÿ ýEý[X Páâ[ÿPùóïí@ü íýIýïíR #áíRñ RZñ a@üïí][bÙÿ íNýá â@üýFåý aábáYó @ü[á KÙýâýEýNý Xáïí@üñ aNýóbÙÿ íNýáñ
*YåïíB< aNýã^ Kýáºýôáïí[[ GãUïíR NýábÙÿ CïíýIýïíýFýñ Uçk„ý UZïía SáB] ^â^ Jýá@ü[ëïíM[ ýEýá[ íýFýïí][ XïíQó UKòý íýFýïí]bÙÿ B÷áïíX SïíKòý #áíýFýñ
yžÿãïí@ü âRïíZ ýEý[X PåâUÞSáïí@ü bNýá^áB÷y‚ÿ bïíZ SïíKòýR âNýâRñ UKòý íýFýïí] íabÙÿ a@üïí][ íýEýïíZ Pâ[ÿPùñ í@üáR[@üïíX aÛaá[ ýEýïí]ñ Uáâ@ü âNýRGR
Kýáºýôá[ bïíZ< SáRïíPá_ < @åüa§ÿïíPáïí_ #áG Saá[bãR, aÛaá[ ýEýïí]Rá a@ü]bÙÿ âUïíPïí^ ýEýá@ü[ã @üïí[ñ â@üÿwŸ Nýá[á í@üKÙý XáïíZ[ AU[ â@üÛUá
Nýá[ñ íýFýáýIý íýFýïí] r‡}ü[ UáKòýãïíNý Oáïí@üñ Xá UáUá[ AU[ í@ü [áïíA? íPïí^[ UáKòýã[ AU[ [áïíA Ráñ X[M@üáïí] UKòý íýFýïí] Xáïí@ü AåUbÙÿ
*@üXá¼á RáâNý âPïíUómPå XáïíHü XáïíHü B÷áïíX *ía Jýá@åü[Pá-Jýá@åüXá[ íaUá Yi… @üïí[ïíýFýñ í]Aïí@ü[ XïíR SïíKòý ^â^Jýá@ü[ëïíM[ @üOáñ bÙÿPáRãÛ
AU[ âRïíZ YáZ, aáw¡ÿRá íPZ íY ía UKòý bïíZ *@üâPR PåÚA íCáýEýáïíUñ Nýá[ íýFýïí]XáRåïí_[ XNý AáUá[ í]áWý bïíZâýFý]ñ âUïí^_ @üïí[ âXâtËý
SáKòýá S÷âNýïíU^ã[ábÙÿ AU[áâP íRZñ AáUá[ñ ]åâ@üïíZ í]Aïí@ü[ @üáïíýFý *@üâPR #áRá ýEýáïí[@ü SZaá ýEýábÙÿïí]
B÷áX GãUïíR[ #áÿw‚ÿâ[@üNýá *UÛ SáKòýáS÷âNýïíU^ã[ AU[áâP < âNýâR *@üâýIý ýIýá@üá âPïíZâýFýïí]R ñ #áí[á Uïí]âýFýïí]R, `*AR [áAåR
íaUá Yïíi…[ ýFýâU Sá<Zá YáZ *bÙÿ Bïíq†ñ âUïí^_ @üïí[ Rá[ã ýEýâ[¼|üâ] Jýá@åüXáñ YAR Yá P[@üá[ bZ– #áâX YNýâPR UáKòýã Oáâ@ü âPïíZ YáU
210
#áSRáïí@ü'ñ UåKòýã UgýüKý Aåâ^ bïíZâýFýïí]Rñ *bÙÿ UZïía< íýFýïí] âaQå báâ[ïíZïíýFýRñ â@üÿwŸ â¤üïíP - íNýtËý á íOïí@ü íNýá Xåâºýô íRbÙÿñ S÷áMýIýá
*UÛ RáâNý-RáNýïRãïíP[ GRó âýEýÿw‚ÿá @ü[ïíNýRñ X[Uá[ aXZ Bá íOïí@ü íYR #ïíUáQ Uáâ]@üá[ XNý í@üU] AábÙÿ AábÙÿ @üïí[ñ ïí@üKÙý Nýáïí@ü
í]SýIýá aâ[ïíZ âRïíNý Uïí]R íUðXáïí@üñ @üá[M Xïí[ íBïí] íY í]SýIýá íaUá Yi… @üïí [ Ráñ Nýá[ Så¼ UQæâ ýIý íNýá aá[áâPR Nýáïí@ü #@üOó
ïíTüïí] âPïíNý bïíUñ íýFýïí]ïí@ü íKýïí@ü Uïí]R, `íPóA âaQå, *@üýIýá @üOá Báâ]Bá]áG @üïí[, Yá #Nýóÿw‚ÿ XXÞyS^ãÞñ íýFýáýIý RáâNýâýIýïí@ü SYÞÿw‚ÿ
Uâ], í^áRñ #áXá[ ^÷áïík„ý íUâ^ â@üýFåý A[ýEýS¼ @ü[ïíNý Yáa íR @üáïíýFý #áaïíNý íPZRáñ Så¼UQæ[ Báâ]Bá]áG #áG< SáJýïí@ü[ @üáïíýFý
íYRñ......., NåýbÙÿ *@üá SáâU í@üáOáZ íY A[ýEý @ü[âU? UåKòýã ýEýïí] B÷áX UáÛ]á[ âRÌåý[ Uáy‚ÿU ýFýâUâýIýïí@ü Nåýïí] Q[ïíUñ *AáïíR âUïí^_
íB] âýEý[Nýïí[, @üNý @ütËý - íUPRá Uåïí@ü âRïíZñ â@üÿwŸ Nýá[ WýáURá @üïí [ âUQUáïíP[ *XR Bá]XmP âPïíZ Oáïí@ü, Nýá[bÙÿ S[X #áSR
âýEýÿw‚ÿá RaóáÖ @üïí[ âU[áýIý CýIýá @üïí[ ^÷ák„ý ^áâÿw‚ÿ b] B÷áïíX[ UáKòýãñ GïíR[áñ y‡áXã Så¼ Xá[á íBïí], UáKòýã[ #RóáRó KÙýSáZã í@üKÙý Xá[á
^â^Jýá@ü[ëïíM[ âUïíP^ã âNýR íýFýïí], íýFýïí][ UKÙý[á, RáâNý - RáNýRã íBïí] Uçk„ý Uçk„ýáïíP[bÙÿ XXÞCáNýã UáMã abó @ü[ïíNý bZñ #áâPUáaãíP[
aUábÙÿ *]ñ íYR ýEÜýáïíP[ báýIýñ Uçïí_áÖaBÞ ^÷ák„ý b], B÷áX}ük„ý í]áïí@ü[ XïíQó íNýá #áUá[ íýFýïí] íXïíZ[á â@üÛUá UáKòýã[ #RóáRó Sâ[GïíR[
âRXwžÿMñ í]Aïí@ü[ XNý SáJýïí@ü[ XïíR bZ, í@üáOáZ âýFý] *NýâPR *bÙÿ aU Uç k„ý -Uçk„ ýáïíP[ KýábÙ ÿRã #áAóá âPïíZ íXïí[ íTüïí]ñ [ëd…á
*[á? í@üR *[á a@üïí] Oá@üïíNý UåKòýãïí@ü Rá íAïíZ X[ïí Ný b]? âRy‚ÿáâ[Mãïí@ü *@üXá¼ Wýá]Uáïía Nýá[ Gá âRXÞ]áñ íabÙÿ *@üýIåý Sáïí^
íýEýáïíA[ Gïí] Nýá[ Uå@ü íWýïíaïíýFýñ #OýEý *bÙÿ Uçk„ýábÙÿ WýUáRãSåïí[[ *ía Uïíañ BáïíZ XáOáZ báNý Uåâ]ïíZ íPZñ Så¼UQæ[ Qá[Má– `SáïíS[
Uçk„ý âUr‡RáO UáUå[ XNýbÙÿ íbïía íAïí] #áRmP KÙýÖaïíU âPR @üáýIýáïíNý íPb NýábÙÿ *Ný @ütËý SáïífFý, – RbÙÿïí] Xïí[ íYNý í@üáRà@üáïí]'ñ NýAR
Sá[ïíNýR, íýFýïí] UKÙý, RáâNý - RáNýRã[ B[ïíU B[âURã bïíNý Sá[ïíNýR, âRXÞ ]á QX@ü âPïí Z Nýáïí @ü GáRáZ– `#XR Uâ]a íR íUðXá, XåïíA
XáGá UÜá@üá, íNýáUKòýáïíRá Bá] Uçk„ýá ^â^Jýá@ü[ëM íUÜïíýEý Oá@üïíNý PåïíýIýá íSá@üá SKò ýïíUñ aNýã Râ¤ü íXïíZ[ RáïíX â@üýFåý íUáïí]á Ráñ íNýá[
AáUá[ GRó @üáaá[ UáâýIý báïíNý @üïí[ âU¼ôZ @ü[ïíNý âBïíZ âR[á^ bïíZ #áSR ^á}üKòýã Rá? NåýbÙÿ < aU @üOá XåïíA íU[ @üâ[a â@ü @üïí[? –
âTü[ïíNý íPAá íBïíýFýñ íabÙÿ Uçk„ýá[ X[ïíM[ S[ Uçïí_áÖaBÞ ^÷ák„ý bïífFý *bÙÿ aÛaáïí[[ Yá â@üýFåý Hüâc€ýü âýEý[Kýá@üá] < SåbÙÿïíZïíýFýñ íP<[ïíP[
íPïíA @üOïí@ü[ XNý SáJýïí@ü[ #Nýóÿw‚ÿ í¤üáWý - PåÚA < ]ªá íUáQ XáRå_ @ü[á, âUïíZ íP<Zá– < Rá Oá@üïí] aÛaá[ âýIý@üïíNýá Rá?' â@üÿwŸ
bZñ *@üâPR @üNý Yïíi… #áPïí[ *bÙÿ íýFýïí]ïíP[ ^â^Jýá@ü[ëM UKòý Så¼UQæ[ XXÞâUPá[ã KÙýâºýô NýáïíNý OáïíX Ráñ ía GáRáZ– `< âRïíG[
@üïí[âýFýïí]R, #áG YAR âRïíG Nýá[á afFý], a¤üX NýAR NýáïíP[ íýFýïí] íAïíZïíýFý– <[ <S[ #áXá[ *NýýIåý@åü íýFý½á íRbÙÿñ ' âRXÞ]á
BWÞýQáâ[Mã Xáïí@ü UõáNýó Sâ[Nýóºýô GãUR YáSR @ü[ïíNý bZñ Uçk„ý@üáïí] abó @ü[ïíNý Rá íSïí[ NýAR íU^ @üïí [ Påï íýIýá @üKòýá @üOá }üâRïíZ
#abáZ âPR|üïí]áïíNý aáXáRóNýX íPAáïí^áRáýIåý@åü SYÞÿw‚ÿ @üïí[âRñ #á[ âPïíZïíýFý– `< íýFýïí] íAïíZïíýEý ! YáUá[ #íPïítËý YáZ ýEýïí]ñ @üá[ íPá_
aâNýó @üOá U]ïíNý â@ü *[ GRó NýáïíP[ aáXáRóNýX ]áG - ]ªáýIåý@åü< íPïíUáñ Nýábïí] íNýá íNýáïí@ü< U]ïíNý Sáâ[ – NåýbÙÿ íaáZáXã íAïíZâýFýa'ñ
íRbÙÿñ ^÷áïík„ý[ CýIýáýIåý@åü }üQå B÷áïíX[ í]á@üïíP[ @üáïíýFý âRïíGïíP[ #OÞ- –âUWæýâNýWæý_M B÷áXUáÛ]á[ âRÌåý[ Uáy‚ÿUNýáïí@ü *WýáïíUbÙÿ GãUÿw‚ÿ [ìS
S÷âNýSâºý[ #bÛ@üá[ íPAáïíRá ýFýáKòýá #á[ â@üýFåýbÙÿ RZñ *XR âRÌåý[NýX íPRñ NýïíU âNýâR Bq†ïí@ü *AáïíRbÙÿ í^_ @üïí[R Ráñ âRy‚ÿáâ[Mã YAR
CýIýRá #áG< CïíýIý #áXáïíP[ B÷áX UáÛ]áZñ #aåïíA[ íCáïí[ XçNåý óïíPïí^ SáâKò ý âPïífFýR NýAR í@üáR âUyŠçNý SO
`íY aU GãUR #AóáâNý[ #áKòýáïí] #áiŠïíBáSR @üïí[ #áíýFý – íUïíZ #NýãïíNý[ íYðUR âPïíR[ íPïí^ âTüïí[ YáR, YáïíP[ âNýâR PáRQóáR
NýáïíP[ @üOábÙÿ' U]ïíNý íýEýïíZïíýFýR âUWæýâNýWæý_Mñ B÷áXãM GãUïíR[ @üïí[ïíýFýR, aUábÙÿ âWýKòý @üïí[ #áía, Yá[á @üNý@üá] #áíB ýEýïí] íBïíýFý
NåýfFýNýá, RBMóNýá[ XïíQó< Yá[á #SæUÞ #áRmPXZ #RåWæýâNý[ al„ýáR #áG aUábÙÿ Nýá[ âUýFýáRá[ ýEýá[Sáïí^ GïíKòýá bïíZïíýFýñ y‡áXãïí@ü íPAïíýFýRñ
@üïí[, ýEý[XNýX, PåÚA]á²üRá[ XïíQó Så [ïíRá âPïíR[ aåA yŠçâ Nýïí @ü âNýâR báýIý âTüïí [ íOïí@ü @ü]á âUâ¼ô[ ýIýá@üá |üïí ]á #á[ *@üýIýá
GáB[ì@ü @üïí[ âPRYáSR @üïí[ *@üaXZ ýFå ýâýIý âRïíZ ýEýïí] YáZ bÙÿâ]^XáýFý âRy‚ÿáâ[Mã[ báïíNý âPïífFýRñ âRy‚ÿáâ[Mã[ UKòý #áRmP bZñ
âýEý[@üáïí][ GRó, NýáïíP[ @üOábÙÿ Uïí ]ïíýFýR âUWæý âNýWæ ý_M NÜýá[ - *Ný@üáïí][ aU #áRáP[, #SXáïíR[ UåâHü í^_ b]ñ WýáUïíNý WýáUïíNý
âP^NýáâQ@ü íýFýáýIýBïíq†ñ *XRbÙÿ *@üâýIý Bq† `RUáBNý' (_Ìý Bq† B÷wƒÿ) íýEýáA íUáïíGR âNýâRñ âRXÞ]á íýEýáA XåïíýFý aNýã R¤üã âPâP[ SáïíZ báNý
–*[ `Xåâºýô'ñ YåBã SáKòýá[ UKÙý âRy‚ÿáâ[Mãñ y‡áXã Så ¼ bãRá íïS÷ðýLòýá íJý@üáRñ Bq†âýIý #XáïíP[ #ÿw‚ÿïí[ íXáýEýKòý íPZ, âUïíU@üïí@ü ýEýáDüá @üïí[
âUQUá [XMãñ #áG íabÙÿ afFý] #Uyƒÿá #á[ íRbÙÿñ SáÀåý[ í[áïíB #á[ *@ü #SæUÞ GãURïíUáïíQ SáýJý@üïí@ü âRïíZ YáZñ âUWæýâNýWæý_M
GãMÞ ^ãMÞ âRy‚ÿáâ[Rã âUýFýáRáZ }üïíZ Oáïí@üR aá[áâPRñ KÙýJýUá[ ^âºýôýIåý@åü ýEýâ[ïí¼[ XåïíAbÙÿ Yá U]á[ Uïí] íPRñ âRïíG í@üáR aXáG aXaóá Uá
211
#OÞïîRâNý@ü aXaóá aXáQáïíR[ bÙÿâ§ÿNý íPR Ráñ SáJý@ü NýáïíNýbÙÿ UåïíHü #áíýFýñ íaAáïíR Nýá[á @üá^ã âUr‡RáïíO[ SáïíZ S[X âRâsEýïíÿw‚ÿ CåïíXáïíNý
íRR Sâ[ïíU^ Sâ[âyƒÿâNý YábÙÿ -bÙ ÿ Oá@ü Rá í@üR, XáRåïí_[ RãâNý- ýEýáRñ â@üÿwŸ Uáy‚ÿïíU aÛaáïí[ ýEý[X #Uïíb]á - #RáP[ - KÙýíS¤üá[
îRâNý@üNýá, PáZ @üNÞýUó, QXÞíUáQ íOïí@ü âUýEåýóNý bïí] ía GãUR #OÞbãR, Sâ[Máïí X Nýá[á *bÙ ÿ GãURïí @ü íUïí ýFý íRZñ aÛaá[ Sâ[Nýóºýô
âUýEåýóNý GKòý *UÛ XçNåýó[ íýEýïíZ< WýZ¥ý[ñ UõáNýóGãURñ *AR íNýá #áUá[ ^b[ #°×ïí] U{ aÛAó@ü Uçk„ýá^÷X
U]á Uá{]ó âUWæýâNýWæýï_ïíM[ Bïíq†[ ýEýâ[¼|üïí]á aUbÙÿ Uáy‚ÿU îNý[ã bïíZïíýFýñ #íRïí@übÙÿ íaAáïíR GãUR YáSR @üïí[R aåA -^áâÿw‚ÿ
#âWý¬Nýá S÷aæNýñ `ÿPùUXZã[ @üá^ãUáa' Bïíq†[ ÿPùUXZã< NÜýá[ y‡B÷áX AåÜïíG íRR, âRïíGïíP[ XNý @üïí[ â@üÿwŸ aNýóbÙÿ YâP NýáïíP[ GáZBá bNý
Uá[á@üSåïí[[ *@ü Uçk„ýáñ âPRâ]âSïíNý âUâWýl… aXïíZ KÙýâq‰âANý R - aÛaáïí[ñ NýïíU *XR GãUR Nýá[á, íUïíýFý âRïíNýR Ráñ aÿw‚ÿáïíR[á #íR@ü
âPïí@ü âRïíZ í]Aá âUWæýâNýWæý_ïíM[ #RóNýX í^÷Ì ý Bq† ÿ`Pù UXZã[ í¤üïí ¼ Xá UáUáïí@ü íUáHüá Xïí R @üïí[ñ íýFýáýIý aÛaáïí [ Så¼ @üRóá[
@üá^ãUáa'ñ B÷áX UáÛ]á[ Jýá@åüXá-Jýá@åü[PáPá, PáPå-âPâPXá[á NÜýáïíP[ #áP[ Yi… â^¤üá[ CáýIýâNý bïíU íWýïíU Xá UáUáïí@ü Uçk„ý á^÷ïíX í[ïíA
í^_ GãURýIåý@åü #áSR BÜáïíZ-Cïí[bÙÿ, @üáýIýáïíNý ýEýáR, @üá^ãïíNý RZñ #áïíañ @üáïí[á Uá Så¼ @üRóá íRbÙÿ Uá íRbáNý @üáïíýFý[ í@üKÙý íRbÙÿ, Nýá[á
Nýá[á NýãOÞ QXÞ @ü[ïíNý Wýá]UáïíaR â@üÿwŸ í^_ SYÞÿw‚ÿ âRïíG[ âWýïíýIýïíNýbÙÿ UáQó bR Uçk„ýá^÷ïíX Oá@üïíNý; #U^ó âNýâR YâP #áâOÞ@ü âP@ü íOïí@ü
X[ïíNý ýEýáR S[X ^áâÿw‚ÿïíNýñ ÿPùUJýá@ü[ëM G§ÿ]áUçNý âWýïíýIýXáâýIýïíNý, a¤üX bRñ RbÙÿïí] B÷áïíX Bïí³ *XR U{ Uçk„ý Uçk„ýáïí@ü Pæ[ axSïí@Þü[
X^á[ @üáXïKòý íAïíZ *@ü]á SïíKòý Oáïí@üRñ y‡áXã Xá[á íBïíýFýR @üNý #áiŠãZ UáKòýãïíNý íOïí@ü #Uáâ²üNý GãUR YáSR @ü[ïíNý bZñ SïíO[
@üá] b]ñ RáâNý[á aU UábÙÿïí[ Oáïí@üñ RáNýïíUð[á *bÙÿ Xóáïí]â[Zá[ SÜáýEýá]ã[ bÙÿâmP[ Jýá@ü[ëMïí@ü í@ü Wåý]ïíNý Sá[ïíU? *XR PãR - bãR
íPïí^ #áaïíNý ýEýáZRáñ NýïíU RáâNý[á íAÜáG AU[ íRZ, #aåyƒÿ ^[ãïí[ XçNåýó íYR @üáïí[á Rá bZñ YábÙÿ íbá@ü, ÿPùUJýá@ü[ëïíM[ @üSá] Wýáïí]áñ
Tü]Tü]áâPï[ BáýFýSá]á #á[ XåÛ]ã BábÙÿâýIýïí@ü âRïíZ ÿPùU ýJýá@ü[ëïíM[ Nýá[ #áPïí[[ RáâNý Nýáïí@ü âWýïíýIý UáKòýãïíNý âTüâ[ïíZ *íRïíýFýñ
âPR ýEýïí]ñ NýïíU S÷âNýïíUâ^Rã[á íAÜáG AU[ [áïíAñ bÙÿâNýXïíQó íaG `#ábUáR' Bïíq† GâX[ @ü[áâNý[ UKÙý aÿw‚ÿáRbãRá [XMãñ y‡áXã<
RáâNý @üáRå *ía *@üâPR Jýá@åüXáïí@ü @üá^ãQáïíX âRïíZ YáZ NýãOÞQXÞ íUÜïíýEý íRbÙÿñ abáZ - ax‡]bãR #UyƒÿáZ Uçk„ýá #Nýóÿw‚ÿ Páâ[ïíÿPù[ XïíQó
@ü[áïíNýñ ÿP ùUJýá@ü[ìM< S[X #áRïímP aÛaáïí[[ *ýIýá <ýIýá aU âPR @üáýIýáRñ *@üXá¼ aÿw ‚ÿáRïí@ü báâ[ïí Z í]Aïí@ü[ XïíQó #áSR
S÷â NýïíUâ^Rã R-íUðïí@ü âPïí Z YáR, íabÙÿ aïí§ÿ XåÛ]ã[ PáâZNÿšÿýIýá< aÿw‚ÿáRïí@ü íYR âNýâR S÷Nýó¤ü @üïí[ïíýFýRñ âWýl… QXãÞ bïí]< ïí]Aïí@ü[
aïíS ýEýïí] YáR NýãOÞ QáïíX Uáâ@ü GãURýIýá @üáýIýáïíNýñ bÙÿífFý âUr‡RáïíO[ XïíQó ¼ôïíX ¼ôïíX *@üýIýá XáNçý ýIýáR #RåWæýNý bïíZïí ýFýñ íPAá íBïíýFý
ýEý[ïíM GãURýIýá aÜïíS íPïíURñ í^ïí_[ ía âPïíR Uçk„ýá[ *@üáÿw‚ÿ UáaRá XNý @üáTüïíR[ @üáSKòý í]A@ü
â@üÿwŸ @üá^ãïíNý ÿPùU XZã[ XR íýIýïí @ü Ráñ <aU PáR -QóáR, â@üïíR âPïíZïíýFýR, íabÙÿ aïí§ÿ @üUïí[ *@ü í@üáPá] XáâýIý< âNýâR íPRñ
|ü[ëWýâºýô, íaUá QXÞ, Nýºýš@üOáZ ÿP ùUJýá@ü[ëïíM[ XR *NýýIåý@åü aáKòýá Bq†âýIýïíNý aÿw‚ÿáR < XáïíZ[ âýEý[áýEýâ[Ný axSïí@Þü[ @üOá, XáïíZ[ a@üáNý[
íPZ Ráñ U[Û @üá^ãïíNý âBïíZ #á[< íU^ã @üïí[ íBáSãRáOSåïí[[ #ábUáR UâMÞNý bïíZïíýFýñ GáâNý QXÞ - UMÞ âRâUÞïí^ïí_ XáïíZ[á aÿw‚ÿáRïíP[
âWýïíýIý[ @üOá XïíR SïíKòý, XïíR SïíKòý XåÛâ] BábÙÿïíZ[ @üOá, Nýá[ AïíZ[ *XâRbÙÿ Wý]Uáïíañ í]A@ü YAR @üUïí[ XáâýIý íPR NýAR Nýá[ XïíR
AáBã @üáJýá]BáýFýâýIý[ @üOáñ y‡áXã[ @üOá XïíR SKòýïí] S[X #áRïímP bZ íY íUÜïí ýEý Oá@üïí] UåKòýã U]ïíNýá, `# íXá[ íBáSá]'ñ *@üGR
bìPZ Wýïí[ YáZñ *[ @üáïíýFý í@üáR |ü[ëPã¤üá Uá QXÞ @üOá Nýá[ @üáïíýFý âWýl…QXãÞ íýFýïí] bïíZ< GáNý - SáïíNý[ & UÞ XáNçýaXá UåKòýãïí@ü S[X
UKòý Uïí] XïíR bZ Ráñ UáKòýã YáUá[ GRó SO íýEýïíZ Uïía Oáïí@üRñ XXNýáZ âRZâXNý íAÜáG AU[ [áAá *UÛ íaðWýáBó ¼ôïíX Nýá[ XçNåýó[
*[S[ RáâNý YAR Nýá[ íAÜáïíG @üá^ãïíNý YáZ, NýAR #á[ @üá]âU]x‡ âPïíR báâG[ Oá@üáýIýá íYR XáïíZ[ âýEý[ âSSáaáïí@ü ýEýâ[NýáOÞ @üïí[ñ
Rá @üïí[ âNýâR íPïí^ âTüïí[ #áíaRñ íPïí^ âTüïí[bÙÿ íYR Xåâºýô íSïí]R àÛaá[' Bïíq†[ Uçk„ý KÙýíSR WýµýáýEýáYÞïí@ü Uçk„ý UZïía XGåXPá[
ÿPùUJýá@ü[ëM, S÷âNýïíU^ã[á @üáïíýFý ýFåýïíýIý *]ñ XåÛâ] Nýá[ GRó Aá<Zá UáKòýãïíNý âRNýóSæGá @üïí[ âPRYáSR @ü[ïíNý bZñ íaAáïíRbÙÿ #ábá[áâP
Pá<Zá NýóáB @üïí[ïíýFýñ ÿPùUXZã *bÙÿ KÙýíJýáïíRbÙÿ, íYAáïíR Nýá[ y‡áXã @üïí[Rñ XáïíHü XáïíHü [áïíNý íTüïí[R âRïíG[ báïíNý [ál…á @üïí[ #ábá[áâP
Xá[á íBïíýFý íaAáïí R X[ïíNý ýEýáRñ *AáïíRbÙ ÿ Nýá[ BZá - B§ÿá - aáïí[Rñ *@üXá¼ íýFýïí] WýUNýá[M aáXáRó XábÙÿïíR[ @üáG @üïí[, XP
Uá[áRaãñ Gà§ÿ] íOïí@ü íWýïía #áaïíýFý íCýIýïí@üá] Tåüïí][ KÙýB÷ @üýIåý BÜáGá íAïíZ axSâºý KÙýâKòýïíZ âPïíZïíýFýñ UKÙý íýFýïí]ïí@ü< âJý@üXNý íAïíNý
Bl„ýñ NýáïíNý ÿPùUXZã[ XR ^áâÿw‚ÿïíNý #áRïímP, KÙýÖaáïíb SæMÞ bïíZ YáZñ âPïí Ný Sáïí[ Ráñ Nýá[ <S[ S÷áZbÙÿ [áïíNý UáKòýã âTüïí[ yžÿã[ aïí§ÿ
Uçk „ý Uçk„ýáïíP[ GRó @üá^ãUáa }üQå ía@üáïí] RZ, *@üáïí]< HüBKòýá, íýEÜýýEýáïíXâýEýñ *XRbÙÿ âRNýóâPïíR[ SÜáýEýá]ã }üïíR KÙýíSR WýµýáýEýáYÞ
212
#Wýóy‚ÿñ â@üÿwŸ Nýá[ XïíQó *XR *@ü *@üâPR #áía, Yá *í@üUáïí[bÙÿ báýIýá - ýEý]á @üáG@üXÞ @ü[á[ ^âºýô Oáïí@ü Rá, #OýEý ¤åüQá[ NýáKòýRá
#Ró[@üXñ *@üâPR [áïíNý Så¼UQæ r‡}üí[[ âUïí^_WýáïíU íAÜáGAU[ NýãUõNý[ bZñ NýAR íY íaUáYïíi…[ S÷ïíZáGR bZ, Nýá aUá[ WýáïíBó
âRïí]Rñ Uçk„ý *@üýIåý #Uá@übÙÿ bïí]Rñ XRýIýá R[X b]ñ XGåXPá[ íGáïíýIý Rá. Uçk„ý NýUå í^_@üáïí] RáâNý[ íaUáYi…ýIåý@åü íSïíZâýFý]ñ
UáKòýã íOïí@ü #áRá âXâtËý ]åâýEý Yá *íRâýFýïí]R, RáâNýïí@ü Nýá[ íOïí@ü Sq‰ ãUáÛ]á[ S÷â Ný P[P KÙýOïí] SïíKòý ïíýFý ÙKòý âPâPXá' Bïí q†,
â@üýFåýýIýá íAïíNý âPïí]Rñ [áïíNý íýFýïí] UáKòýã âTüïí[ UKÙýXáïí@ü Bá]XmP âUWæýâNýWæý_ïíM[ *@ü Pæ[ axSïí@Þü[ íXR@üá âSâaXáïí@ü #U]x‡R @üïí[
}ü[ë @ü[ïí] r‡}ü[X^ábÙÿ Nýá[ NýãUõ S÷âNýUáP @ü[ïí]Rñ íýFýïí] íNýá *bÙÿ Bq†ñ *bÙÿ ýEýâ[ïí¼[ ýFýáZá #U]x‡ïíR SïíO[ SÜáýEýá]ã'[ bÙÿâmP[
í[ïíBïíXïíB NýAåâR RáâNýïí@ü âRïíZ @ü]@üáNýáZ ýEýïí] íYïíNý ýEýáZñ â@üÿwŸ Jýá@ü[ëïíM[ açâtËýñ ÙKòýâPâPXá' Bïíq† UKòý âPâPXá B÷áïíX[ âWýïíýIýUáKòýã
íýFýïí] Nýá[ Xáïí@ü íýFýïíKòý YáïíU Ráñ #Uïí^ïí_ UKÙýXá aUýIýá aáXá] íPZñ #áBïí ] Sïí Kòý Oáïí @üR *@üáñ âWýïí ýIýZ S÷ P ãS «á]áUá[ GRóñ
Yi… @üïí[ y‡áXãïí@ü íAïíNý íPZñ íýFýïí]< UáUá[ íAÜáG AU[ @üïí[ñ Uçk„ý UKò ýâPâPXá[ #áSR U]ïí Ný í@üKÙ ý íRbÙ ÿñ aNýãïíR[ íýFýïí ] UKò ý
íNýá #âWýWæýNýñ Sïí[[ âPR íUðXá r‡}ü[ïí@ü íAïíNý Uïí]ñ #Nýóÿw‚ÿ Yi… Wýá]UáaïíNýá Nýáïí@üñ íýFýáýIýXáïí@ü axŠáR ^÷k„ýá @ü[ïíNýáñ ía< Xá[á
@üïí[ r‡}ü[ïí@ü íAïíNý íPZñ íUðXá[ báïíNý[ Yi… íSïíZ Uçk„ý r‡}üïí[[ XïíR íBïíýFýñ Nýá[ íýFýïí] SâsEýïíX í@üáOáZ ýEýá@ü[ã @üïí[, í@üáR AU[ íRZRáñ
bZ *XR àåmP[ a@üá]' @üNýâPR #áía âRñ Uçk„ýá aUbÙÿ XáâRïíZ âRïíZïíýFýñ UZa @üNý b] U]ïíNý Sáïí[ Ráñ í@üáR
â@üÿwŸ *XRâPRbÙÿ bÙÿfFýá @ü[ïí] âRNýóâPR bïíNý Sáïí[ aÛaáâ[@ü [@üïíX Så[ïíRá yŠçâNý #áBïí] G§ÿïí] íC[á âWýïíýIý UáKòýãïíNý SïíKòý Oáïí@üR
GãUïíRñ aÛaáïí[ ýEýábÙÿ Sá[ySâ[@ü Ul„ýR, *í@ü #Sïí[[ S÷âNý PáZ âNýâRñ @üO@ü XáïíHü XáïíHü íPAïíNý YáR UKòýâPâPXáïí@üñ #íR@ü@üá]
PáâZNÿšÿ, @üNÞýUóïíUáQñ íýFýïí] íUð íYXR UáUá XáïíZ[ íAÜáG [áAïíU, Sïí[ *@üGR í^÷áNýá íSïíZ S÷áMAåïí] aNýãRïíSá[ @üOá Uïí] íYïíNý
íNýXâR UáUá Xá< NýáïíP[ S÷âNý íy…b - Wýá]Uáaá KÙýGáKòý @üïí[ íPïíUñ Oáïí@üR âNýâRñ *@üaXZ UKòýâPâPXáïí@ü S÷MáX GáâRïíZ @üO@üïí@ü
Uçk„ý UZïía aU UáUá - Xá UZy€ý[á ýEýáZ Sâ[Uáïí[[ a@üïí][ íaUáYïíi… UáKòýã[ KÙýí½ïí^ó [<Rá bïíNý bZñ #â^â¤üNýá B÷áXó Uçk„ýá UKòýâPâPXáñ
#áRïímP KÙýÐ]NýáZ Uá@üã âPR |üïí]á @üáýIýáïíNýñ â@üÿwŸ @üZGïíR[ Så[ïíRá B÷áXGãUïíR[ *ØâNýbó UbR @üïí[ ýEýïí]ïíýFýñ *ïíP[ @üáïíýFýbÙÿ
WýáïíBó Nýá CïíýIý? [ïíZïíýFý y‚ÿâÇüNý #NýãNýñ @üNý Så[ïíRá âPïíR[ @üOá *íP[ @üáïíýFý GáRá
`PáPå' Bïíq† PáPå -[ GãUR UKòýbÙÿ íUPRáPáZ@üñ Uçïík„ý[ UZa YáZñ aáXáâG@ü #OÞïîRâNý@ü bÙÿâNýbáïía[ Pâ]] *[áñ }üQå *@üýIåýAáâR
*@ü^ UýFý[ bïíZ íBïíýFýñ íýFýïí]bÙÿ Nýáïí@ü ^÷k„ýáWýâºýô íaUá Yi… @üïí[ñ Wýá]Uáaá, íaUá[ #WýáïíU @üNý PåÚïí A íUPRáZ *íP[ âPR|üïí]á
â@üÿwŸ íUðXá ïíXáïíýIýbÙÿ íPAïíNý Sáïí[ Ráñ RáâNý< AåU *@üýIýá PáPåïí@ü #âNýUáâbNý bZ, í@üáR Yåk„ý, âUn‰U, [áGïîRâNý@ü #áïímPá]R, âUïíP^ã
^÷k „ýáWýâºýô @ü[Ný Ráñ íýFýïí] UáUáïí@ü S[XWýâºýô @ü[ïí NýRñ Nýá[ ^áaR – *aU UóáSáïí[ í@üáR [@üX âýEýÿw‚ÿá Uá XïíR[ XïíQó í@üáR íýLýKÙý
â^}ü[ XNý báUWýáU aUbÙÿ íýFýïí] aáXá] âPNýñ â@üÿwŸ *@üâPR Uçïík„ý[ <íJýRá *íP[ XïíRñ UKòýâPâPXá, ÿP ùUJýá@ü[ëM, —S÷WçýâNý ýEýâ[ïí¼[
GãUïíR íRïíX #áía ýEý[X ýIøýóáïíGâKý, *bÙÿ íýFýïí]í@ü< âNýâR Uçk„ý UZïía XQó âPïíZ í]A@ü B÷áXUáÛ]á[ aáïíU@ü *ØâNýbóïí@ü UÜáâýEýïíZ [áAïíNý
bá[áïí]Rñ íýFýïí][ *@üXá¼ S÷áOÞRá âýFý] íY Nýá[ XçNåýó íYR UáUá[ ýEýáR, í^@üïíKòý íTü[á[ Kýá@ü íPR B÷áïíX[ íýFýïí]ïíP[ñ
XçNåý ó[ Sïí[ bZ, Rá bïí] Nýá[ Uçk „ý UáUáïí @ü íPAáïí^áRá[ í@üKÙýbÙÿ HüBKòýá (@åü^]SábáKòýã) Bïíq† í@üÛ Bá§åÿ]ã[ #Ua[ GãUïíR[
Oá@üïíU Ráñ â@üÿwŸ Xç Nåýó UáQ aáQ] #abáZ Uçk„ ýïí@ü íTüïí] Nýáïí@ü ýEý[X ýIøýáïí GâKýïí@ü íPAáïí]R âUWæýâNýWæý_Mñ í[ïí][ ýEýá@ü[ã íOïí@ü
ýEýïí] íYïíNý b]ñ â@üÿwŸ Uçïík„ý[ S[X íaðWýáBó âýFý] íY RáâNý Nýáïí@ü #Uaïí[[ S[ aXy‚ ÿ ýIýá@üá SZaá âNýâR yž ÿã < @üRóá[ RáïíX
í^_ GãUïíR #áP[ Yi… @üïí[ïíýFýñ Uçïík„ý[ íýFýïí][ XçNåýó[ Sïí[ RáâNý[ í[ïí AâýFýïí]Rñ #áG NýáïíP[ *@üýIåý< P[P íRbÙÿ Nýá[ S÷ âNý, *bÙÿ
XïíR bJýáÖbÙÿ PáPå[ S÷âNý #Nýóÿw‚ÿ @ü[ëMá GïílŠñ S[X XXNýáZ bìPZ âNýZáºý[ UýFý[ UZïía< UáGá[ @ü[á, í[^R íNýá]á - aXy‚ÿ @üáG
âUBâ]Ný bZ, Yá *NýâPR âýFý] Ráñ Uá[ Uá[ NýAR Nýá[ UáUá[ @üOá âNýâR @üïí[Rñ #OýEý yžÿã [ í@üáR P[P Uá XáZá íRbÙÿ; íXïíZ[ íNýá
XïíR SïíKòý, UáUá YâP íUÜïíýEý Oá@üïíNý íPïíA íYïíNý Sá[ïíNýR íY Nýá[ *NýýIåý@åü Wýâºýô íRbÙÿ — ía Xá[ïí Ný #áía SYÞÿw‚ÿñ *Ný UKòý íbRyƒÿá
íýFýïí] PáPåïí@ü í@üXR íaUáYi… @ü[ïíýFý, Nýábïí] *@üýIåý y‡ây‚ÿïíNý X[ïíNý #SXáR abó @ü[ïíNý Rá íSïí[ NåýXå] HüBKòýá @üïí[R âNýâRñ íaâPR Rá
Sá[ïíNýRñ íAïíZ Oá@üïí]< í@üKÙý Nýá[ íAÜáG âR] Rá, íAïíNý< Kýá@ü] Ráñ PåÚïíA
Yá[á *@üýIåý íU^ã UZa SYÞÿw‚ÿ íUÜïíýEý Oáïí@üR, í[áB «á]á, yŠçâNý í¤üáïíWý, íUPRáZ UáKòýã íOïí@ü íUâ[ïíZ íBïí]R í@üÛ Bá§åÿ]ãñ På -
- âUyŠçâNý âRïíZ; NýáïíP[ GãUïíR #á[< ýEý[X PåïíWýáÞB íRïíX #áíañ *@ü GáZBáZ Cåïí[, S÷OX íYðUïíR[ y‡ïíMáÞÐ] âPR|üïí]á íYAáïíR
213
í@üïíýIýâýFý], íYAáïíR Nýá[ yžÿã â^}üSå¼ aámý åýïí@ü âRïíZ GáR]á Aåïí] Páïía[ í^_ aá¤üã, [áX@åüXá[ XåïíAáSáQóáïíZ[ Sâ[¼ôXá, b_Þ Pïíºý[
SO íýEýïí Z Nýá[ GRó Uïía Oá@üNý, íabÙÿ âNýRSábáïíKòý[ n‰óáýIýTüïíXÞ aÜáHüâWý¤üá S÷WçýâNý Bq†ñ â@üÿwŸ *aU Bïíq† [ïíZïíýFý Xæ]NýÚ Uçk„ý Uçk„ýá[
íCáKòýáâRX BáïíýFý[ Ný]áZ PåâPR âU@üá[B÷y‚ÿ #UyƒÿáZ @üáâýIýïíZ XçNåýóU[M XRy‚ÿºýš â@üÛUá aÿw‚ÿáïíR[ XRy‚ÿºýš #áUá[ í@üáOá< Uá y‡áXã aÿw‚ÿáRbá[á
@üïí[Rñ X[Uá[ #áíB S÷OX GãUïíR[ yžÿã[ Wýá]Uáaá[ XåAAáâR yŠ[M âUQUá[ íUÜïíýEý Oá@üá[ @üâJýR aÛB÷áïíX[ @üOáñ â@üÿwŸ âUWæýâNýWæýï_ïíM[
@üïí[, #@üáïí] XçNý â^}üSå¼ïí@ü yŠ[M @üïí[ í@üÛ Bá§åÿ]ã âUPáZ Bïíq† íBáýIýá Sq‰ãB÷áXâýIý íYR Uçk„ý-Uçk„ýá[ @ü[ëM GãUïíR[ #Û^ãPá[
âRïí]Rñ bïíZïíýFýñ íaAáïíR S÷âNýïíU^ã-S÷âNýïíUâ^Rã, aïíUÞáS[ã S÷@üç âNý íYR *ïíP[
#áSR GïíR[ @üáïíýFý XáRå_ Wýá]Uáaá ýEýáZ, ^÷k„ýá ýEýáZ; âRÌåý[Nýá, ýEý[XNýX PåÚAïíUPRá[ <S[ íy…b Wýáïí]áUáaá[ X]X ]áâBïíZ âPïífFýñ
bìPZbãRNýá RZñ GãUïíR[ í^_ âPR|üïí]áïíNý *@üýIåýAáâR #á[áX, âUWæýâNýWæý_M XáRå_ïí@ü S÷@çüâNý íOïí@ü @üAïíRá #á]áPá @üïí[ íPAáR
aåA Yá[ @üSáïí] íGáïíýIýRá, Sâ[UïíNÞý í@üU] #SXáR #á[ ]á²üRá – âR NýáïíP[ *@üãWæýNý @üïí[ íPïíAïíýFýRñ NýábÙÿ *aU bNýWýáBó R[Rá[ã
Nýá[ XNý #WýáBá #á[ í@ü #áíýFý? âUWæýâNýWæý_M *bÙÿ aU ýEýâ[ïí¼[ ýEý[XNýX âRÌåý[ âPR|üïí]áïíNý< yŠçâNý[ a[âM íUïíZ ýEýïí] íYïíNý Sáïí[R
S÷âNý SáJýïí@ü[ abáRåWæýâNý #á@ü_ÞM @üïí[Rñ #áRmPCR âPR|üïí ]áïí Nýñ âUWæý âNýWæ ýï_ïíM[ Bïí q† [ Uçk „ý #abáZ
Uá[á@üSå[ B÷áïíX S÷âNýïíU^ã Sâ[Uáïí[ @üáâbRã #U]x‡R @üïí[ âSNýáXáNýá *@üáÿw‚ÿ PåÚïíA[ âPïíR< NýábÙÿ aÿw‚ÿáRaÿw‚ÿâNý[ S÷âNý í@üáR
`YáýEýábÙÿ' Bq†âýIý [âýEýNýñ *bÙÿ Bïíq†[ `ýEýáýIåýïíGó AåïíKòýá' âUWæýâNýWæý_ïíM[ CçMá âUïík‡_ íSá_M @üïí[Rá, NýáïíP[ #âWýaxSáNý @üïí[Ráñ UNýÞXáïíR
*@ü CâRÌý Uá]óUl„åý[ âSNýáñ GãUïíR[ í^_ âPR SYÞÿw‚ÿ *XRbÙÿ @üïítËý Uçk„ý âSNýáXáNýáïí@ü aÿw‚ÿáïíR[á íYXR ^á[ãâ[@ü-XáRâa@ü ]á²üRá âPïíZ
*@üá #Uïíbâ]Ný GãUR YáSR @üïí[âýFýïí]Rñ C[ íOïí@ü âUNýáâKòýNý @ü[ïíýFý, íNýXâR Uçk„ý âSNýáXáNýáïí@ü< íPAá YáïífFý
*bÙÿ Bïíq†< KÙýSYåºýô âNýRïíýFýïí] Oá@üïíNý Uçk„ý UáUá[ íPAWýá] aÿw‚ ÿáïíR[ âU[ëïík„ý #ábÙ ÿâR SPïí ¤üS âRïíNýñ *bÙÿ @üâJýRNýX aXïíZ
í@üKÙý @üïí[ Ráñ Uçk„ý -[ @üOá[ XïíQó í¤üáWý, PåÚA, íUPRá[ S÷@üá^ PÜáâKòýïíZ âUWæýâNýWæý_ïíM[ Bq†|üâ] UKòýbÙÿ S÷áaâ§ÿ@ü RNåýR S÷GïílŠ[ GRóñ
CïíýIý S÷âNý @üOáZñ @üNý â@üýFåý - íAïíNý bÙÿífFý @üïí[ *bÙÿ UZïía, í@ü
íPïíU? *@üá *bÙÿ G§ÿïí] âWýïíýIý UáKòýãïíNý í[ÜïíQ íUïíKòý PåïíýIýá AáRñ NýOóaæ¼ :
SáKòýá[ UKÙý RRãUá]á íýFýïí]ïí@ü âRïíZ ýEýáýIåýïíª GóáJýá[ UáKòýã Cåïí[ YáRñ 1ñ âUWæýâNýWæý_M Bq† aXB÷ - 1X A~ü / âX¼ < íCá_ // 4OÞ XåÿPùM, #á_áýLòý
UåïíKòýá[ íAÜáG AU[ íRRñ *@üýIåý Sïí[áýIýá íUïí] íPRñ Wýáïí]á @üïí[ 1401ñ
|üâýFýïíZ íAïíNý íPRñ UåïíKòýá UgýüKý Aåâ^ bRñ Sïí[[ âPïíR #áUá[ *@üýIåý 2ñ âUWæýâNýWæý_M Bq† aXB÷ 2Z A~ü / âX¼ < íCá_ / 2Z XæÿPùM, XáC - 1396
|üKòý #áRïíNý Uïí]Rñ ýEýáýIåýïíª X^ábÙÿïíZ[ @üOáïíNý Uçk„ý XáRåïí_[ XRy‚ÿºýš 3ñ aåRã] @åüXá[ ýEýïíµýáSáQóáZ / âUWæýâNýWæý_M: GãUR < aáâbNýó / S÷OX S÷@üá^
Q[á SïíKòýñ `Nýá íU^ *íaá íUðXá ! *@üýIåý |üKòý aïí§ÿ âRïíZ #áaïíNý - #B÷báZM 1377
Sáïí[á ? AáUá[ bÙÿífFý bZ, * UýFý[ â@üRïíNý Sáâ[âRñ UgýüKý PáXñ
4ñ yŠçâNý[ í[Aá / âUWæýâNý [ýEýRáU]ã 1X A~ü / Ê BïíGú@åüXá[ âX¼, Ê
Sïí[áýIýá âPïíZ íAGåïí[[ |üKòý ]áïíB UKòý Wýáïí]á'ñ S÷áZ ^Ný UÖa[
ýEý~üãPáa ýEýïíµýáSáQóáZ, Ê Nýá[áPáa UïímPóáSáQóáZ axSáâPNý / S÷@üá^@üá]
#áíB í]Aá Bq† | üâ] #áG< #áXáïí P[ Sáâ[Uáâ[@ü aáXáâG@ü
28 í^ WýáÿPù, 1377
GãUïíR[ íýEýbá[áïí@ü íýEýáïíA #á§åÿ] âPïíZ íPâAïíZ íPZ, #á[< â@üýFåý
5ñ íP^ 10bÙÿ íaïín ýx‡[, 1994, U_Þ 61, aÛAóá -23
WýáUïíNý íÂáZ #áXáïíP[ñ *bÙÿ aáXáâG@ü Bq† |üâ] B÷áX UáÛ]á[
6ñ [ë^Nýã íaR / âUWæýâNýWæý_M UïímPóáSáQóáZ / SÚ UÚ UáÛ]á #á@üáïíPâX /
S÷âNý #í^_ ^÷k„ýá S÷ãâNý[ âRP^ÞRñ
íaïín ýx‡[ 1995ñ
âUWæýâNýWæý_ïíM[ S[UNýãÞ@üáïí] í]Aá Uçk„ý âSNýáXáNýá[ GãUR
@üOá íY aU Bïí q† KÙýíJý *ïíaïíýFý NýáïíP[ XïíQó KÙýïíq‰ï AïíYáBó b] 7ñ íBáâS@üRáO [áZ íýEýðQå[ã / âUWæýâNýWæý_M : XR < â^q† / Sâ[XáâGÞNý <
#á^áSæMÞïíPUã[ í]Aá WýZ, aïíÿwÿá‚ _@åüXá[ íCáïí_[ í]Aá í^á@ü, PãS¥ý[ Sâ[UâQÞNý aÛy€ý[Mñ
214

Liminality in Post-Colonial Theory A Journey From Arnold Van

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Liminality in Post-Colonial Theory A Journey From Arnold Van

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Liminality in Post-Colonial Theory A Journey From Arnold Van

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Anudhyan

An International Journal of Social Sciences (AIJSS)

Raja Narendralal Khan Women’s College

Manuscript Preparation : Instruction to the Author

From The Desk of The Chief Editors

Dr. Rina Pal

Black Death: A Disaster in European Civilization Dr. Tapati Dasgupta 9

(Trans) porting Play-texts into Films: Dynamics of

Lhotshampas Refugees: Implications on

Little Magazine: The Prime Space for Study of Sociology,

Domestic Violence Against Women In India Dr. Rina Pal 51

Comparative Study between the Kaivalya of Yoga

The Concept of Religion Gargi Medda 78

The Land Where Women Prevail: Khasi Matrilineality

Religious Fundamentalism and Fundamental

S añkar’s Concept About The “Nature of Self”” Sandhya Nandy 97

Politics of Inclusion and Empowerment of Women.

Violence Against Women In India :

Urban Local Government In India:

Liminality in Post-Colonial Theory: A Journey from

Caste in Mind: Craving for Endogamy

The Spirit of Renaissance: Reflections on

The Thaat-Ragas of North Indian Classical Music:

Introduction: event was call ed the ‘Great Mortality’ by

Consultant to Projects, Department of Architecture and Regional Planning, Kharahpur IIT

Key Words: transportation, appropriation, de/re-contextualization, canonical Shakespearean texts

1.0. Introduction of the changes that have occurred in these two

1.7. Conclusion holding jewels to represent wealth. In Dzongkha,

Little Magazine: The Prime Space for Study of Sociology,

1. Introduction Information Centres are not enough to meet the

Diagram 2: Editor’s strategy of the Little Magazines to choose the topics

Magazines or ultra-left political ideologies had some definite

Diagram 3: Percentage share of the subjects of the sample articles

Diagram 5: A Snap of Database showing some titles on local issues

society. That bibliographic database would be a handy

Key words : Domestic violence, woman.

Introduction economic and cultural population subgroup and

abuse. In this section, women’s experience of physical

Percentage who have Percentage who have experienced physical

who have experienced violence report current or

Table 2 : Persons committing physical violence

shows that 9 percent of all women age 15-49 report

Table 3 : Experience of sexual violence

Employed for cash 9.7 24,079

Table 4 : Age at experience of sexual violence

Age at first experience of sexual violence

Table 5 : Persons committing sexual violence

Own friend/acquaintance 1.0 22.9 10.2 4.3 0.1 1.6

separately. identified in the literature as risk factors for violence

Percentage of women whose husband

husbands than urban women, the differentials tend

Percentage who have experienced

Figure 8 : Spousal Violence by State

Figure 9 : Forms of Spousal Violence Experienced by Ever-married Women

greed of dowry, desire for a male child and

Comparative Study between the Kaivalya of Yoga and the Nirvāna

Introduction: attainment of right knowledge. Hence, Śrī Krsna

of yoga viz. yama, niyama, āsana, pranayama , praptikaranam y a t h ā dharmmah s u k h a s y a ,

of yoga; because, it prescribes us to be non-violent, nirupadhis  esa . Sopadhis esa sa mā dh i of