Singh

Hukum Singh Editor
Forests and
Climate
Change
Biological Perspectives on Impact,
Adaptation, and Mitigation Strategies
Forests and Climate Change
Hukum Singh
Editors
Forests and Climate Change

Biological Perspectives on Impact,
Adaptation, and Mitigation Strategies
Editor
Hukum Singh
Forest Research Institute
Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
ISBN 978-981-97-3904-2 ISBN 978-981-97-3905-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-3905-9
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore
Pte Ltd. 2024
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
If disposing of this product, please recycle the paper.

About the Book
Forests play a critical role in the Earth’s climate system, serving as vast carbon res-
ervoirs and influencing local and global climate patterns; hence, they are crucial for
adapting to and mitigating climate change. However, climate change poses signifi-
cant challenges to forest ecosystems worldwide. This book provides a comprehen-
sive overview of the intricate relationship between forests and climate change from
a biological perspective. It delves into the impacts of climate change on individual
trees and forest ecosystem structure, function, composition, and biodiversity, as
well as the adaptive strategies employed by forests to cope with changing conditions
and potential mitigation strategies to alleviate climate change effects.
Moreover, the book covers an in-depth understanding of the adaptive capacity of
forests, exploring adaptive mechanisms at various levels, such as morphological,
physiological, biochemical, molecular, and other changes through which they
respond to changing climatic conditions. It discusses how forests can acclimate and
adapt to new climates by altering their phenology, growth rates, and species compo-
sition. Furthermore, it explores the role of genetic diversity and evolutionary pro-
cesses in shaping forest resilience and adaptation, the potential of forests as carbon
sinks, and the mechanisms through which forests sequester and store carbon.
Conservation and restoration efforts are essential for maintaining and enhancing
the resilience of forest ecosystems in the face of climate change. Protecting existing
forest areas and restoring degraded or deforested lands can help preserve biodiver-
sity, maintain ecosystem services, and promote carbon sequestration. Therefore,
this book considers incorporating ecological principles and engaging local commu-
nities in conservation and restoration initiatives critical for ensuring their success
and long-term sustainability.
Furthermore, continued research and monitoring are crucial for advancing scien-
tific understanding of the biological impacts of climate change on forests. This book
offers long-term monitoring protocols, robust scientific studies, and case studies
that may provide valuable insights into the impacts of climate change on forests and
inform evidence-based management and policy decisions. The research gaps identi-
fied in the book may help track the responses of forests to climate change, assess the
v
vi About the Book
effectiveness of adaptation and mitigation measures, and guide adaptive manage-

ment approaches.
The book also covers case studies and empirical evidence that may offer practi-
cal recommendations for policymakers, forest managers, and conservation practi-
tioners to develop effective climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies
within forest landscapes.
This book is valuable for researchers, academicians, students, and professionals
in forestry, ecology, botany, climate science, sustainability, environment, and envi-
ronmental policy. It offers a comprehensive overview of the biological aspects of
forests and climate change, providing insights and guidance for addressing the
urgent need to protect and sustainably manage forest ecosystems in the face of a
rapidly changing climate.
Contents
1 limate Change and Forests: Biological Perspectives�� 1

C
Hukum Singh
2 eciphering Abiotic and Biotic Stress Effects on Secondary
D
Metabolites of Medicinal Plants �� 19
Purnima Rawat and Mithilesh Singh
3 daptive Modulations in Morphological and Physiological
A
Responses of Forest Ecosystems to Climate Change�� 43
Garima Mishra, Tushal Srivastava, Rama Kant, Rajendra K. Meena,
Shailesh Pandey, and Maneesh S. Bhandari
4 apflow and Gas Exchange in Plants Under Changing Climate and
S
Environment �� 73
Pragya, Parmanand Kumar, and Hukum Singh
5 limate Change Effects on Plant-Pollinator Interactions,
C
Reproductive Biology and Ecosystem Services �� 97
Arvind Kumar, Neha Rajwar, and Tripti Tonk
6 he flow of forest ecosystem services in an era of disturbance
T
ecology: A nexus that warrants exploration�� 119
Agnish Kumar Das, Bhavya Thapa, and Diksha Verma
7 redicting Future Climate Change Effects on Biotic
P
Communities: A Species Distribution Modeling Approach �� 137
Garima Kumari, Parul Bhatt Kotiyal, Hukum Singh, Manoj Kumar,
Narendra Kumar, Apurva Malik, Ajay Sojitra, and Shubham Singh
8 limate Shifts and Ecosystem Resilience: Investigating the
C
Linkages�� 169
Rishita Pakhira, Hukum Singh, and Subhankar Biswas
vii
viii Contents
9 Climate-Induced Adaptations in Gluta travancorica Bedd.:

A Case Study from the Western Ghats Kerala, India After
25 Years �� 187
P. A. Jose, K. Anuraj, and S. Praveena
10 limate-Change Effects and Bud Phenology in Trees: Insights
C
from Studies in Model Genus Populus �� 203
Sakshi Rathor, Shambhavi Yadav, Anugrah Tripathi, Shruti Godara,
Parminder Singh, and Ajay Thakur
11 ecadal Shift in the Vegetation Line and Forest Loss in the
D
Kinnaur District of the Himachal Pradesh�� 219
Nidhi Kanwar, Jagdish Chandra Kuniyal, and D. C. Pandey
12 ffects of CO2 Enrichment on Microbial Community in Soils�� 231
E
Ritika Gupta, Shivam Kumar Gupta, Parul Bhatt Kotiyal, and
Hukum Singh
13 he Soil-Climate Nexus in Forest Ecosystems�� 245
T
Varsha Pandey and Deepak Kumar
14 orest Ecosystem Adaptation to Climate Change: Morphological
F
and Physiological Responses �� 269
Apurva Yadav, N. K. Bohra, and Hukum Singh
15 echanisms of Natural Adaptation in Forests�� 291
M
Tushal Srivastava, Garima Mishra, Shailesh Pandey,
Rajendra K. Meena, Rama Kant, and Maneesh S. Bhandari
16 arbon Sequestration Potential of Forests and Forest Soils
C
and Their Role in Climate Change Mitigation�� 315
M. Jagadesh, Munmun Dash, Santosh Kumar Singh,
Aradhna Kumari, Vinod Kumar Garg, and Aparna Jaiswal
17 iogeochemical Interactions and Soil Parameters: With
B
Reference to Climate Change�� 327
Parul Bhatt Kotiyal and Ritika Gupta
18 limate Change Impacts on Wetland Ecosystem Functioning
C
with Special Reference to Greenhouse Gas Emissions �� 345
Asha Raturi, Aasheesh Raturi, and Hukum Singh
19 orest Ecosystems: Insights, Adaptations, and Mitigation
F
Strategies to Climate Change�� 365
Damya Srivastava
20 gronomic Strategies for Enhancing Forest Resilience to Climate
A
Change�� 385
Deepak Kumar, Varsha Pandey, and Shelly Dixit
Contents ix
21 orests and Agroforestry: Nature-Based Solutions for Climate

F
Change Mitigation �� 421
Hitesh Gupta, Shiva Janju, Aman Mahajan, Chandramohan Singh,
Shivani Sharma, and Ajay Prajapati
22 groforestry Adoption in the Eastern Region of Uttar Pradesh,
A
India: A Way to Mitigate Climate Change�� 445
Anubha Srivastav and Hukum Singh
23 amboo: A Fast-Growing Species to Mitigate Carbon Footprint �� 469
B
Anugrah Tripathi, Shambhavi Yadav, Nishtha, Mathiuthonliu
Nkengnamai, and Ajay Thakur
24 mpowering Climate Change Resilience Through Forests and
E
Agroforestry�� 489
Yourmila Kumari, Garima, Neena Kumari, Aruna Mehta, Kashish
Walia, Meera Devi, Reenu Kumari, Dipika Rana, and Swati Verma
25 armony in Extraction: Navigating Mining, Land Degradation
H
and Ecological Restoration for Sustainable Futures�� 513
Sanjay Singh, Abhishek Kumar, and Aakash Kumar
26 pproaches for Land Restoration: An Alternative Strategy for
A
Climate Change Mitigation�� 535
Suruchi Devi, Suraj Goswami, Jigyasa Bisaria, and Bhaskar Sinha
27 limate Change and Forest Ecosystems: Restoration and
C
Rehabilitation Approaches�� 553
Bill Nelson Paul, Aman Mahajan, and S. Sarath
28 nhancing Sustainability: Reclamation and Rehabilitation
E
Strategies for Restoring Mined-Out Lands in India to Mitigate
Climate Change Impacts �� 573
Kumbhlesh K. Rana, Anish V. Pachu, V. Jeeva, N. Rama Rao, Ajin
Sekhar, A. N. Singh, and Sudhir Kumar
29 he Importance of Conserving Existing Forest Areas and Protecting
T
Biodiversity in Addressing Climate Change Issues�� 605
Prachi Upadhyay and Thiyam Seityajit Singh
30 angrove Forest Ecosystem: Services, Conservation,
M
Restoration and Carbon Finance �� 625
Subhajit Chanda
31 ignificance of Ethnobotanical Studies in Unravelling Biodiversity
S
Change Under Changing Climatic Scenario in the North-Western
Himalayas of India�� 653
Astha Chauhan, Vaneet Jishtu, and Hukum Singh
x Contents
32 uman-Induced Soil Acidification in the Indian Sundarbans:

H
Implications for Carbon Dynamics in Mangrove Soil�� 675
Sana Ahmed, Prosenjit Pramanick, Sufia Zaman, and Abhijit Mitra
33 patial Variability in Carbon Storage Among Dominant
S
Mangrove Species in the Indian Sundarbans�� 691
34 uantifying Carbon Stock Variability and Aspect-Slope Impact
Q
in Sal and Pine-Dominated Forests of Nepal �� 709
Santosh Ayer, Rajeev Joshi, Anil Poudel, Aman Prabhakar, Dinesh
Prasad Joshi, Sandip Poudel, Jeetendra Gautam, and Kishor
Prasad Bhatta
35 ssessing Carbon Sequestration Potential and Socio-economic
A
Benefits of Ficus thonningii in the Tigray Region, Northern
Ethiopia�� 731
Negasi Solomon, Kidus Nirea, Fisseha Ghebretinsae, and Abraham
Gebrehiwot Yihdego
36 limate Change Vulnerability and Its Impacts on Livelihoods of
C
Indigenous Communities in Tanahun, Gandaki Province, Nepal �� 751
Prabesh Adhikari, Rajeev Joshi, and Santosh Ghimire
37 omputing Aboveground Carbon Stocks Using Ground-Based
C
and Sentinel Imagery Approach �� 771
Payal Thakur, Rajeev Joshi, Sewak Bhatta, Santosh Ghimire,
and Ramesh Silwal
38 endro-Paleoclimatology: An Optimal Climate Change Detection
D
Technique to Strengthen Forest Ecosystem �� 789
Divya Arora, Keshav Upadhyay, and R. K. Verma
39 ong-Term Physiological Monitoring for Detecting Climate
L
Change Impacts on Forest Ecosystems�� 817
Tannu Ruhil, Hukum Singh, and Santan Barthwal
40 ap Flow Dynamics in Tree Species�� 835
S
Kriti Bohra, Priyanka Lohani, Sandipan Mukherjee,
and Hukum Singh
41 I dentifying Future Research and Directions to Address Forest and
Climate Change Challenges�� 851
Ajay Sojitra, Divya Arora, Kareena Singh, Apurva Malik,
and Aman Mahajan
42 I ntegrating Ecosystem-Based Adaptation (EbA) into the
Educational Curricula of Nepal�� 879
Deependra Joshi, Krrish Gubhaju, Top Bahadur Khatri, Keshav
Prasad Khanal, Prakash Lamsal, and Rajeev Joshi
About the Editor
Hukum Singh is an esteemed scientist in forest physiology, climate change, and

environments affiliated with the ICFRE-Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, India.
With a career spanning over a decade, he has contributed significantly to research
and teaching since 2007. Dr. Singh’s outstanding work has earned him numerous
accolades, including the prestigious SERB-DST Fast Track Young Scientist
Research Award, UCOST Young Scientist Award, AsiaFlux Japan Travel Fellowship,
VIFRA Young Scientist Research Award, VIFA Outstanding Faculty Award,
Excellence Research Fellow Award in Forestry, M.S. Swaminathan Research Fellow
Award, and the Best Research Paper Award.Being an active member of various
national and international scientific societies and organizations, Dr. Singh continu-
ally engages with a vast network of experts in his field. His research encompasses a
diverse range of forest physiology, climate change, and environments, primarily
focusing on eco-physiology, plant responses to abiotic stresses, climate change
adaptation and mitigation, plant functional traits, carbon-water-energy flux, urban
climate and environment, urban forestry, biological responses of tree plants to cli-
mate change, forest fire, and climate change, and climate change and vegetation
modeling.Dr. Singh has been fortunate to secure funding for his research from
esteemed institutions such as ICFRE, SERB-DST, DST, ISRO, NMHS, MoEF&CC,
and SFDs. He has also demonstrated his dedication to mentorship by supervising
numerous M.Sc. and Ph.D. students and post-doctoral fellows.The impact of Dr.
Singh’s work extends beyond his mentorship and supervision. His research findings
have been disseminated through numerous papers, chapters, and articles published
in renowned national and international peer-reviewed journals, which boast high
impact factors. Additionally, Dr. Singh has contributed as an editor to various books
published by international publishers, further solidifying his influence in the scien-
tific community.Dr. Singh has established himself as a prominent scientist, educa-
tor, mentor, and researcher through his relentless pursuit of knowledge and profound
dedication to forest physiology and climate change. His multifaceted contributions
to understanding and addressing crucial issues in forest physiology and climate
change adaptation have significantly advanced the field and inspired future scientists.
xi
Chapter 1
Climate Change and Forests: Biological
Perspectives
Hukum Singh
Abstract Climate change poses significant challenges to the health and sustain-
ability of global forests, impacting their structure, function, and biodiversity. This
chapter offers a comprehensive insight into the intricate relationship between cli-
mate change and forest ecosystems from a biological standpoint. Climate change,
encompassing alterations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme
weather events, may significantly disrupt forest ecosystems, leading to shifts in spe-
cies distributions, changes in phenology, and increased susceptibility to pests and
diseases. Forests play a crucial role in climate regulation by sequestering carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. Nonetheless, the capacity of
forests to function as carbon sinks is undermined by climate change-induced factors
such as increased tree mortality and diminished growth rates. Understanding the
science behind the interactions between climate change and forests is essential for
developing effective strategies to conserve and sustainably manage forest ecosys-
tems under the influence of global climate change. Exploring the complex interplay
between climate change and forests is needed for international, national, and local
collaborative action to safeguard forest ecosystems and mitigate the impacts of cli-
mate change. This chapter serves as an invaluable resource for researchers, policy-
makers, forest managers, and conservation practitioners striving to address the
challenges presented by climate change and cultivate resilience in forest ecosystems
to benefit future generations.
Keywords Climate change · Biological perspectives · Ecosystem services · Forest

ecosystem · Sustainable forest management
H. Singh (*)
Plant Physiology Discipline, ICFRE- Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 1

Ltd. 2024
H. Singh (ed.), Forests and Climate Change,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-3905-9_1
2 H. Singh
1.1 Introduction
Climate change is one of humanity’s most critical issues in the twenty-first century.
Climate change will impact forests through various mechanisms, including altering
the growth rates of trees, modifying disturbance patterns, and shifting the optimal
geographic locations where trees can thrive (IPCC 2014; Singh 2021; Singh and
Kumar 2022). Rising carbon concentrations and subsequent changes in temperature
and precipitation regimes will shape these impacts (Singh et al. 2018a, b; Singh
2024; Singh et al. 2024). Meanwhile, fluctuations in temperature and precipitation
may directly affect forests by rendering them more or less susceptible to distur-
bances like pest infestations or wildfires. Climate change indirectly influences for-
est disturbances by altering weather patterns, such as the intensity or trajectory of
hurricanes. Historical disturbance patterns have played a significant role in shaping
the current structure of forest ecosystems. Climate change might severely influence
future forest structures due to the anticipated climate shifts compared to historical
trends (Singh et al. 2023). It poses significant challenges to ecosystems worldwide,
with forests among the most vulnerable (Devi et al. 2023). Forests can help mini-
mize future climate change by absorbing and storing carbon and supplying resources
for bioenergy production (Joyce et al. 2014; Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d; Bisht et al.
2021). Forests are crucial in mitigating climate change by sequestering carbon diox-
ide (CO2) from the atmosphere and regulating local and regional climates (Kumar
et al. 2022). However, they are also susceptible to the impacts of climate change,
such as increased temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and extreme weather
events (Singh et al. 2022; Singh and Kumar 2022). Understanding the intricate rela-
tionship between climate change and forests is essential for devising effective strat-
egies for conservation and adaptation (Singh et al. 2022). Disturbances that impact
forests and their management include invasive species, wildfires, outbreaks of
insects and pathogens, and extreme weather events such as hurricanes, ice storms,
high winds, droughts, and storm-induced landslides (Savita et al. 2017; Singh et al.
2018a, b; Kumari and Singh 2018; Prajapati et al. 2020). Underlying trends may
exacerbate these disruptions and are a natural part of the dynamics of forests. For
instance, decades of increasing average temperatures can potentially worsen
droughts’ effects on forests (Joyce et al. 2014). Therefore, it is vital to understand
the morphological, physiological, biochemical, molecular, and ecological basis of
heat stress in plants to minimize its impact on food production (Verma et al. 2020;
Dhyani et al. 2021). Scientific research has provided invaluable insights into the
dynamics of climate change and its effects on forests. Studies have documented
how rising temperatures alter the distribution and composition of forest ecosystems,
with shifts in species ranges and changes in phenology and productivity (Singh
et al. 2020a). Williams et al. (2013) revealed that climate change has significantly
increased the frequency and severity of wildfires in many forested regions, posing
severe threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services.
1 Climate Change and Forests: Biological Perspectives 3
1.2 Climate Change Impact on Forests
Climate change manifests in various ways, including Physiological, Morphological,

Phenological, Carbon sequestration, Biochemical, and shifts in ecological zones.
These changes have profound impacts on forests, leading to:
1.2.1 Physiological Changes
Climate change profoundly influences plant physiology, impacting fundamental

processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, and water relations (Singh et al.
2020b). Elevated temperatures and altered precipitation patterns can exacerbate
drought stress, reducing stomatal conductance and impair photosynthetic efficiency
(Menzel et al. 2006). Additionally, increased atmospheric CO2 levels may stimulate
photosynthesis initially, but prolonged exposure can lead to downregulation of pho-
tosynthetic capacity (Ainsworth and Long 2005; Yadav et al. 2019a; Kumar et al.
2019a, b). Higher temperatures can increase photosynthetic rates but may also lead
to increased water loss through transpiration, exacerbating moisture stress, espe-
cially in water-limited environments (Gupta et al. 2018a, b; Kumari and Singh
2018; Singh et al. 2018a, b; Yadav et al. 2019b). Conversely, extreme heat events
can cause physiological damage and mortality in trees, particularly during drought
conditions (Ainsworth and Long 2005; Kumar et al. 2021a; Sharma and Singh
2021). These shifts in plant physiological processes have far-reaching implications
for ecosystem functioning, carbon cycling, and biodiversity (Kumar et al. 2021b).
However, prolonged heat stress can also lead to physiological damage, such as leaf
scorch, reduced water uptake, and increased susceptibility to pests and diseases
(McCarthy 2001).
1.2.2 Phenological Changes
Phenology studies recurring life cycles in plants and animals influenced by environ-
mental and climatic factors, particularly seasonal variations (Cleland et al. 2007).
Phenology provides valuable insights into how species respond to changing envi-
ronmental conditions, highlighting the interconnectedness between climate dynam-
ics and biological processes (Singh et al. 2021; Singh and Kumar 2022). The
seasonal phenological processes of plants play an important role in regulating both
the hydrological cycle and the energy exchange dynamics between terrestrial eco-
systems and the surrounding atmosphere. Climate change significantly impacts phe-
nological processes in plant and animal species, leading to shifts in the timing of
key life cycle events such as bud burst, flowering, migration, and hibernation (Gupta
and Singh 2017; Kumar et al. 2019a, b). These shifts have been widely documented
4 H. Singh
across diverse ecosystems and taxa, reflecting the influence of rising temperatures
and altered precipitation patterns (Parmesan and Yohe 2003). For instance, studies
have shown earlier spring phenology, including advanced bud burst and flowering,
in response to warming temperatures (Menzel et al. 2006). These phenological
shifts can disrupt species interactions, such as pollination and herbivory, leading to
mismatches between phenological stages of interacting species. Changes in tem-
perature and precipitation regimes also affect plant phenology, with altered timing
of bud burst, flowering, and senescence observed across various ecosystems
(Parmesan and Yohe 2003; Gupta and Singh 2017). Moreover, modified phenology
may affect ecosystem functioning, carbon cycling, and biodiversity, with cascading
effects on food webs and ecosystem services (Gupta and Singh 2017).
1.2.3 Morphological Changes
Climate change significantly influences the morphological characteristics of plants,

manifesting in various observable changes. Alterations in temperature and precipi-
tation patterns, driven by climate change, prompt shifts in plant morphology as
species adapt to new environmental conditions (Apurva et al. 2017). Studies indi-
cate increased temperatures can lead to changes in leaf size, shape, and structure,
with leaves becoming smaller, thicker, or exhibiting altered surface characteristics
as adaptive responses to mitigate water loss (Sharma et al. 2018). Changes in pre-
cipitation regimes, including altered frequency and intensity of rainfall events, can
influence root morphology, with plants developing deeper or shallower root systems
to access water resources in drought-prone or waterlogged soils, respectively
(Kumari and Singh 2018). Furthermore, rising atmospheric CO2 levels can influ-
ence plant growth rates and canopy architecture, impacting overall plant form and
structure (Ainsworth and Long 2005).
1.2.4 Biochemistry Changes
Climate change has significant implications for biochemical processes across vari-
ous ecosystems, affecting everything from nutrient cycling to the metabolic activi-
ties of organisms. Temperature-dependent enzyme activity, a fundamental aspect of
biochemical reactions, is susceptible to changes in temperature (IPCC 2014). As
global temperatures rise, enzyme activity may be altered, impacting crucial bio-
chemical pathways vital for growth, reproduction, and overall metabolism (Jangra
et al. 2024). Shifts in metabolic pathways also occur as organisms adapt to changing
environmental conditions induced by climate change, influencing carbon allocation
patterns and microbial metabolism, thereby affecting nutrient cycling and biogeo-
chemical processes (Smith 2011; Singh et al. 2017a; Gupta et al. 2017). Moreover,
climate change-induced stressors such as heat, drought, and extreme weather can
disrupt protein structure and function within living organisms, potentially leading to
cellular dysfunction and ecosystem-wide consequences (Singh et al. 2014). The
oceans’ absorption of excess atmospheric CO2 is causing ocean acidification, alter-
ing marine biochemistry and impacting marine ecosystems (Doney et al. 2009).
These changes in biochemical processes have direct and indirect implications for
human health, including shifts in disease distribution and disruptions in agricultural
productivity, which can lead to nutritional deficiencies (Haines et al. 2006).
1.2.5 Molecular and Gene Expression
Climate change intensely impacts nearly every facet of life on Earth, extending
down to the molecular and genetic levels within organisms. This influence on
molecular and gene expression is intricate and diverse, affecting various organisms
across different ecosystems (Kumar et al. 2024). Direct alterations in gene expres-
sion patterns have been observed in response to shifting environmental conditions
such as temperature, humidity, and carbon dioxide levels (Sharma and Singh 2021;
Nirmal and Singh 2021; Verma et al. 2021; Prakash et al. 2022). For instance,
changes in the expression of stress response genes, photosynthesis-related genes,
and those regulating flowering time have been documented under altered climate
conditions (Blanco Sánchez 2023). Similarly, genes associated with thermoregula-
tion, metabolism, and immune function may impact plants’ survival and reproduc-
tive success (Meena et al. 2011; Kumar et al. 2017).
Moreover, climate change can induce epigenetic modifications, including DNA
methylation and histone modifications, which can influence gene expression with-
out altering the underlying DNA sequence (Bossdorf et al. 2008). These epigenetic
changes can have trans-generational effects, influencing phenotypic plasticity and
adaptation potential (Donelson et al. 2018). In response to environmental stressors
associated with climate change, organisms activate molecular mechanisms to main-
tain cellular homeostasis and survival. Heat shock proteins (HSPs), for example, aid
in cellular protection from heat stress by facilitating protein folding and preventing
aggregation (Feder and Hofmann 1999), while genes involved in antioxidant defense
systems may be upregulated to counteract oxidative stress (Suzuki et al. 2012).
Furthermore, climate change drives evolutionary responses in populations, leading
to genetic adaptations that confer increased tolerance or resilience. However, the
rate of adaptation may not always keep pace with environmental change, resulting
in mismatches between organisms and their habitats (Parmesan 2006; Gienapp et al.
2008). Also, climate change can interact with other stressors, such as habitat loss
and pollution, amplifying organisms’ physiological and molecular responses.
Understanding these intricate molecular and genetic responses is critical for predict-
ing species’ adaptive capacities and implementing effective conservation measures
in the face of ongoing environmental change (Singh et al. 2023).
6 H. Singh
1.2.6 Carbon Sequestration
Forests play a crucial role in the global carbon cycle, absorbing CO2 from the atmo-
sphere through photosynthesis and storing it in biomass and soils (Kumar et al.
2021a, b, c, d). However, climate change can disrupt this process by altering forest
dynamics and reducing carbon sequestration capacity (Pan et al. 2011). For instance,
disturbances such as wildfires, insect outbreaks, and deforestation release stored
carbon into the atmosphere, contributing to further climate change. Additionally,
warmer temperatures and water stress can impair tree growth, limiting their ability
to sequester carbon effectively (Seidl et al. 2017). Forest phenology and physiology
changes can alter carbon fluxes between forests and the atmosphere. For example,
earlier leaf emergence may enhance carbon uptake during the growing season,
while delayed leaf senescence can prolong the period of carbon fixation (Smith
et al. 2016). For instance, warming temperatures can lead to increased microbial
activity in soils, accelerating the decomposition of organic matter and releasing
stored carbon (Shukla et al. 2019; Kumar et al. 2020; Raturi et al. 2022).
Moreover, shifts in precipitation patterns may disrupt vegetation growth, reduc-
ing ecosystems’ capacity to absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. Events
like wildfires and droughts, intensified by climate change, may cause substantial
ecosystem carbon losses (Bastin et al. 2019; Sett et al. 2022). These impacts dimin-
ish the effectiveness of natural carbon sinks and contribute to a feedback loop, fur-
ther exacerbating climate change (Chand et al. 2018; Joshi and Singh 2020; Joshi
et al. 2021; Nautiyal et al. 2022).
1.3 Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies
Adaptation and mitigation of plant traits to climate change are essential for the sur-
vival and resilience of plant species in rapidly changing environments. Plants exhibit
various physiological, morphological, and phenological adaptations in response to
shifts in temperature, precipitation, CO2 levels, and other climate-related factors.
Increased photosynthetic efficiency in some plant species under elevated CO2 con-
centrations can lead to higher carbon assimilation rates and potential growth bene-
fits (Phukon et al. 2022). However, the extent of this response varies among species
and depends on factors such as nutrient and water availability. Water availability is
critical for plant growth and survival, particularly in regions experiencing drought
stress. Plants adapt by enhancing their water-use efficiency through reduced stoma-
tal conductance, increased root-to-shoot ratio, and altered leaf morphology (Flexas
et al. 2008; Singh et al. 2017a, b).
Additionally, some plant species exhibit traits associated with drought tolerance,
such as deep root systems, succulence, or the ability to undergo dormancy during
periods of water scarcity (Chaves et al. 2003). Phenological shifts, including earlier
spring phenology and extended growing seasons observed in temperate and boreal
regions, affect ecosystem dynamics, influencing species interactions, carbon

cycling, and biodiversity (Cleland et al. 2007). Changes in seed and pollen dispersal
patterns due to climate change can impact the distribution and migration of plant
populations. Plants may adapt by producing seeds with characteristics suited to dis-
persal under changing environmental conditions, along with alterations in pollen
dispersal mechanisms (Burkle and Runyon 2016). However, climate change also
increases the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, posing significant
challenges to plant survival. The ability of plants to adapt to these extremes might
be limited by genetic diversity, habitat fragmentation, and the rate of environmental
change (Bellard et al. 2012).
In addition to these natural adaptations, genetic adaptation and silvicultural prac-
tices play vital roles in aiding forest adaptation to climate change. Utilizing genetic
resources through selective breeding and assisted migration can help develop
climate-resilient tree species (Aitken and Whitlock 2013). Adaptive silvicultural
practices such as selective logging, thinning, and prescribed burning can mitigate
the impacts of climate change on forests by promoting forest regeneration and
reducing wildfire risk (Gustafson and Sturtevant 2013). Conservation efforts,
including seed banks and breeding programs, help preserve genetic diversity and
facilitate the selection of climate-adapted tree populations (Aitken and Whitlock
2013). Genetic monitoring and assisted selection techniques further identify traits
associated with climate resilience for incorporation into forest management prac-
tices (Holliday et al. 2017). Overall, understanding and implementing these adapta-
tion strategies are crucial for ensuring plant species’ and forest ecosystems’
long-term survival and health in the face of climate change.
1.4 Forest Conservation and Restoration
Protecting existing forests and restoring degraded ecosystems are essential strate-
gies for mitigating climate change and enhancing forest resilience. Conservation
efforts should focus on preserving biodiversity, maintaining ecosystem services,
and reducing deforestation and forest degradation. Reforestation projects help
sequester carbon, enhance habitat connectivity, and restore ecosystem functions.
Furthermore, sustainable forest management practices, such as selective logging
and agroforestry, can promote ecosystem health and socio-economic development
(Gustafson and Sturtevant 2013). Expanding forest cover through afforestation
(planting trees on non-forest land) and reforestation (replanting trees in deforested
or degraded areas) can sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide, mitigating climate
change. These efforts enhance carbon storage and contribute to global climate miti-
gation goals (Poorter et al. 2016).
8 H. Singh
1.5 Climate-Smart Forestry Practices
Implementing climate-smart forestry practices can help forests adapt to changing

environmental conditions and mitigate climate change impacts. This includes pro-
moting native species adapted to local climates, diversifying forest composition,
and improving forest structure and connectivity. Sustainable land-use planning may
minimize the risk of wildfires, pests, and diseases while enhancing carbon storage
and biodiversity conservation. Furthermore, incorporating climate change consider-
ations into forest management plans can improve adaptive capacity and resilience
(Weatherall et al. 2022).
1.6 Community Engagement and Stakeholder Collaboration
Effective forest management requires active engagement and collaboration among

diverse stakeholders, including local communities, indigenous peoples, govern-
ments, NGOs, and the private sector (Reed 2008). Community-based approaches
empower local stakeholders to participate in decision-making, contribute traditional
knowledge, and implement adaptive measures. Supporting indigenous land rights
and traditional land management practices can enhance forest resilience and pro-
mote socio-cultural values (Colfer et al. 2006). Furthermore, fostering partnerships
and knowledge-sharing networks can facilitate the exchange of expertise, resources,
and best practices for climate change adaptation and mitigation.
1.7 Policy and Institutional Support
Governments and international organizations are crucial in developing and imple-

menting policies and incentives to address climate change and promote sustainable
forest management (Gibbs et al. 2007). This includes establishing legal frameworks
for forest conservation, enforcing regulations against illegal logging and land con-
version, and providing financial incentives for ecosystem services and carbon off-
sets. Integrating climate change considerations into national forest strategies and
land-use planning can enhance policy coherence and mainstream climate adaptation
and mitigation efforts (Carnus et al. 2006). Moreover, investing in research, moni-
toring, and capacity-building initiatives can improve our understanding of climate
change impacts on forests and inform evidence-based decision-making.
1.8 Research Needs
Research in climate change and forests from biological perspectives is crucial for
understanding and mitigating the impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems.
Here are some future research needs in this area:
1.8.1 Understanding Species Responses
Investigate how tree species respond to climate change stressors such as tempera-
ture increase, altered precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events. This
research may help to predict species composition and distribution changes within
forest ecosystems.
1.8.2 Genetic Adaptation
Study the genetic mechanisms underlying the adaptation of trees to climate change.
This includes identifying genetic markers associated with traits like drought toler-
ance, heat resistance, and pest resistance, which may inform breeding programs to
develop climate-resilient tree varieties.
1.8.3 Ecosystem Dynamics
Explore the dynamics of forest ecosystems under climate change scenarios, includ-
ing changes in carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, and biodiversity. Research
should assess how these changes impact ecosystem services such as water purifica-
tion, soil stabilization, and habitat provision.
1.8.4 Forest Disturbances
Investigate the interactions between climate change and forest disturbances such as
wildfires, insect outbreaks, and disease epidemics. This research should aim to
understand how climate change influences the frequency, intensity, and spatial
extent of these disturbances and their ecological consequences.
10 H. Singh
1.8.5 Soil-Tree Interactions
Examine the relationships between soil properties and tree responses to climate
change. Research should focus on how changes in soil moisture, nutrient availabil-
ity, and microbial communities affect tree growth, health, and resilience to environ-
mental stressors.
1.8.6 Long-Term Phenological Monitoring
Establish and maintain long-term phenological monitoring networks at various spa-

tial scales (e.g., local, regional, global) to collect consistent and standardized data
on tree and ecosystem phenology over multiple decades. These networks should
include diverse forest types and species compositions to capture variability in phe-
nological responses.
1.8.7 Long-Term Eco-Physiological Monitoring
The study should focus on developing innovative eco-physiological monitoring

techniques integrating multi-scale data to elucidate the mechanisms driving plant
responses to environmental stressors, aiding in predictive modeling of ecosystem
resilience.
The research must enhance long-term eco-physiological monitoring efforts to
capture intra- and inter-annual variability, enabling comprehensive assessments of
plant functional responses to climate change and informing adaptive management
strategies for ecosystem conservation.
1.8.8 Long-Term Hydrological and Sap Flow Monitoring

in Forest Ecosystems
Enhanced long-term monitoring of hydrological processes and sap flow dynamics

in forest ecosystems is essential for understanding how climate change alters water
availability and distribution, facilitating more accurate predictions of ecosystem
resilience and hydrological responses to future climatic conditions.
Integrating advanced sensor technologies, remote sensing techniques, and inter-
disciplinary approaches in long-term monitoring efforts can provide comprehensive
insights into the complex interactions between climate change and forest hydrology,
guiding adaptive management strategies to sustainably manage water resources and
ecosystem services in a changing climate.
1.8.9 Carbon Dynamics
Improve our understanding of carbon dynamics in forest ecosystems under chang-

ing climatic conditions. This includes quantifying carbon fluxes between forests and
the atmosphere, assessing the vulnerability of forest carbon stocks to disturbances,
and developing models to predict future changes in carbon storage.
1.8.10 Silvicultural Practices
Evaluate the effectiveness of silvicultural practices (e.g., thinning, prescribed burn-

ing, assisted migration) for enhancing forest resilience to climate change. Research
should address the trade-offs between various management strategies and their
long-term impacts on ecosystem functioning and biodiversity.
1.8.11 Remote Sensing and Monitoring
Develop innovative remote sensing techniques and monitoring protocols for assess-
ing forest responses to climate change at various spatial and temporal scales. This
includes using satellite imagery, LiDAR technology, and unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs) to monitor forest structure, composition, and health changes.
1.8.12 Cross-Scale Interactions
Investigate how processes operating at different spatial and temporal scales (e.g.,
local-scale microclimate effects, landscape-scale habitat connectivity, regional-
scale climate gradients) interact to influence forest responses to climate change.
This research should integrate multiple-scale data to improve predictions and man-
agement strategies.
1.8.13 Socio-Ecological Systems
Integrate biological research with social science perspectives to understand the

socio-ecological dynamics of forest ecosystems under climate change. This includes
assessing the impacts of climate change on forest-dependent communities, indige-
nous knowledge systems, and traditional land management practices.
12 H. Singh
1.9 Conclusion
Climate change presents substantial obstacles to forests on a global scale, threaten-

ing biodiversity, the provision of ecosystem services, and human welfare. It is cru-
cial to comprehend the scientific intricacies of how climate change affects forests to
devise successful strategies for both adaptation and mitigation. The impact of cli-
mate change on forests is a multifaceted and dynamic process with far-reaching
consequences for ecosystem structure, function, and services. Through shifts in
phenology and physiology, forests are responding to rising temperatures in ways
that can disrupt species interactions, alter carbon dynamics, and influence regional
climate patterns. These changes pose significant challenges for forest management
and conservation efforts, requiring adaptive strategies considering both short-term
responses and long-term resilience. Furthermore, the complex feedback between
forests and the climate system underlines the interconnectedness of Earth’s ecosys-
tems and the urgency of mitigating climate change to safeguard the health and integ-
rity of forests worldwide. Addressing these challenges will require interdisciplinary
research, robust monitoring networks, and concerted global action to mitigate
greenhouse gas emissions and support the adaptive capacity of forest ecosystems in
the face of ongoing climate change. Various approaches, mainly conserving existing
forests, restoring degraded ecosystems, implementing climate-smart forestry prac-
tices, engaging local communities, and strengthening policy support, might enhance
forest resilience and contribute to global efforts to address climate change. Besides,
collaborative action at regional, national, and international levels is crucial for safe-
guarding forests and building a sustainable future for future generations via adap-
tive forestry interventions.
References
Ainsworth EA, Long SP (2005) What have we learned from 15 years of free-air CO2 enrichment
(FACE)? A meta-analytic review of the responses of photosynthesis, canopy properties and
plant production to rising CO2. New Phytol 165(2):351–372
Aitken SN, Whitlock MC (2013) Assisted gene flow to facilitate local adaptation to climate change.
Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 44:367–388
Apurva K, Singh H, Kumar H (2017) Elucidating morphological and growth changes in Arjun tree
(Terminalia arjuna) grown under elevated temperature condition. Trends Biosci 10(1):332–336
Bastin J-F, Finegold Y, Garcia C, Mollicone D, Rezende M, Routh D, Zohner CM, Crowther TW
(2019) The global tree restoration potential. Science 365(6448):76–79
Bellard C, Bertelsmeier C, Leadley P, Thuiller W, Courchamp F (2012) Impacts of climate change
on the future of biodiversity. Ecol Lett 15(4):365–377
Bisht S, Kumar A, Kumar N, Singh H, Kumar P (2021) Biofuel production by using biomass and
their application. In: Kumar N, Singh H, Kumar A (eds) Renewable energy and green technol-
ogy: principles and practices. CRC Press Taylor and Francis, Pp, pp 85–103
Blanco Sánchez, M. (2023). Genetic variation and phenotypic plasticity in Mediterranean gypsum
specialists: insights into climate change responses
Bossdorf O, Richards CL, Pigliucci M (2008) Epigenetics for ecologists. Ecol Lett 11(2):106–115
Burkle LA, Runyon JB (2016) Drought and leaf herbivory influence floral volatiles and pollinator
attraction. Glob Chang Biol 22(4):1644–1654
Carnus JM, Parrotta J, Brockerhoff E, Arbez M, Jactel H, Kremer A, Walters B (2006) Planted
forests and biodiversity. J For 104(2):65–77
Chand HB, Singh H, Chhetri R (2018) Carbon sequestration potential in Sahid Smriti community
forest; a case study of Terai region of Nepal. In: International Conference on Agriculture and
Allied Sciences: The Productivity, Food Security and Ecology, pp 108–113
Chaves MM, Maroco JP, Pereira JS (2003) Understanding plant responses to drought—from genes
to the whole plant. Funct Plant Biol 30(3):239–264
Cleland EE, Chuine I, Menzel A, Mooney HA, Schwartz MD (2007) Shifting plant phenology in
response to global change. Trends Ecol Evol 22(7):357–365
Colfer CJP, Sheil D, Kishi M (2006) Forests and human health: assessing the evidence, vol
45. CIFOR
Devi N, Thakur A, Singh H (2023) Allometric equations for evaluating above-ground biomass
and carbon storage capability of Indian bamboos: review approach. Eco Environ Conserv
29(2):451–457
Dhyani K, Kuniyal HB, Singh H, Sobha (2021) Growth and physiological potential of
Terminalia arjuna under elevated CO2 levels in open top chamber condition. J Appl Nat Sci
13(3):1121–1126. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13i3.2490
Donelson JM, Salinas S, Munday PL, Shama LN (2018) Transgenerational plasticity and climate
change experiments: where do we go from here? Glob Chang Biol 24(1):13–34
Doney SC, Fabry VJ, Feely RA, Kleypas JA (2009) Ocean acidification: the other CO2 problem.
Annu Rev Mar Sci 1(2009):169–192
Feder ME, Hofmann GE (1999) Heat-shock proteins, molecular chaperones, and the stress
response: evolutionary and ecological physiology. Annu Rev Physiol 61(1):243–282
Flexas J, Ribas-Carbo MIQUEL, Diaz-Espejo A, Galmés J, Medrano H (2008) Mesophyll con-
ductance to CO2: current knowledge and future prospects. Plant Cell Environ 31(5):602–621
Gibbs HK, Brown S, Niles JO, Foley JA (2007) Monitoring and estimating tropical forest carbon
stocks: making REDD a reality. Environ Res Lett 2(4):045023
Gienapp P, Teplitsky C, Alho JS, Mills JA, Merilä J (2008) Climate change and evolution: disen-
tangling environmental and genetic responses. Mol Ecol 17(1):167–178
Gupta SK, Singh H (2017) Observations on sporadic flowering in Ficus benjamina L. and
Peltophorum africanum L. in new Forest. Indian Forester 143:290–291
Gupta N, Kumar R, Maurya SK, Singh H, Kumar S (2017) Isolation and identification of soil
mycoflora in crop field (C. Borivillianum) of Bareilly District, Uttar Pradesh. Biochem Cell
Arch 17(2):539–543
Gupta SK, Ram J, Singh H (2018a) Comparative study of transpiration in cooling effect of tree
species in the atmosphere. J Geosci Environ Prot 6:151–166
Gupta SK, Ram J, Singh H, Kumar P (2018b) Comparative study of cooling under shades of some
forestry tree species with respect to ambient temperatures. J Geosci Environ Prot 6:51–66
Gustafson EJ, Sturtevant BR (2013) Modeling forest mortality caused by drought stress: implica-
tions for climate change. Ecosystems 16:60–74
Haines A, Kovats RS, Campbell-Lendrum D, Corvalán C (2006) Climate change and human
health: impacts, vulnerability, and mitigation. Lancet 367(9528):2101–2109
Holliday JA, Aitken SN, Cooke JE, Fady B, González-Martínez SC, Heuertz M, Plomion C et al
(2017) Advances in ecological genomics in forest trees and applications to genetic resources
conservation and breeding. Mol Ecol. 26(3):706–717
IPCC. (2014). Climate change 2014: synthesis report. Contribution of working groups I, II and III
to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change
Jangra A, Kumar K, Maikhuri S, Bhandari MS, Pandey S, Singh H, Barthwal S (2024) Unveiling
stress-adapted endophytic bacteria: characterizing plant growth-promoting traits and assess-
ing cross-inoculation effects on Populus deltoides under abiotic stress. Plant Physiol Biochem
210:108610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2024.108610
14 H. Singh
Joshi R, Singh H (2020) Carbon sequestration potential of disturbed and non-disturbed forest
ecosystem: a tool for mitigating climate change. Afr J Environ Sci Technol 14(11):385–393.
https://doi.org/10.5897/AJEST2020.2920
Joshi R, Singh H, Chhetri R, Poudel SR, Rijal S (2021) Carbon sequestration potential of commu-
nity forests: a comparative analysis of soil organic carbon stock in community managed forests
of far-Western Nepal. Eurasian. J Soil Sci 10(2):96–104. https://doi.org/10.18393/ejss.825066
Joyce LA, Running SW, Breshears DD, Dale VH, Malmsheimer RW, Sampson RN, Sohngen B,
Woodall CW (2014) Ch. 7: forests. Climate change impacts in the United States: the third
national climate assessment. In: Melillo JM, Richmond TC, Yohe GW (eds) U.S. global change
research program, pp 175–194. https://doi.org/10.7930/J0Z60KZC
Kumar N, Suyal DC, Sharma IP, Verma A, Singh H (2017) Elucidating stress proteins in rice
(Oryza sativa L) genotype under elevated temperature: a proteomic approach to understand
heat stress response. 3 Biotech 7:205. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-017-0856-9
Kumar M, Kalra N, Khaiter P, Ravindranath NH, Singh V, Singh H, Sharma S, Rahnamayan
(2019a) PhenoPine: a simulation model to trace the phenological changes in Pinus roxhburghii
in response to ambient temperature rise. Ecol Model 404:12–20
Kumar N, Jeena N, Singh H (2019b) Elevated temperature modulates rice pollen structure: a study
from the foothill of the Himalayan agro-ecosystem in India. 3. Biotech 9(5):175. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s13205-019-1700-1
Kumar P, Singh R, Singh H, Chand T, Bala N (2020) Assessment of soil carbon dioxide efflux and
its controlling factors in moist temperate forest of West Himalayas. Curr Sci 19(4):661–669.
https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v119/i4/661-669
Kumar A, Tewari S, Singh H, Kumar P, Kumar N, Bisht S, Kaushal R et al (2021a) Biomass
accumulation and carbon stock in different agroforestry systems prevalent in the Himalayan
foothills, India. Curr Sci:1083–1088
Kumar N, Singh H, Kumar A (eds) (2021b) Renewable energy and green technology: principles
and practices, 1st edn. CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003175926
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021c) Modulation of plant functional traits under essen-
tial plant nutrients during seasonal regime in natural forests of Garhwal Himalayas. Plant Soil
465:197–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-021-05003-x
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Bisht S, Kumar N (2021d) Relationship of physiological plant func-
tional traits with soil carbon stock in the temperate forest of Garhwal Himalaya. Curr Sci
120(8):1368–1373. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v120/i8/1368-1373
Kumar A, Singh H, Kumari G, Bisht S, Malik A, Kumar A, Singh M, Raturi A, Barthwal S, Thakur
A, Kaushal R (2022) Adaptive resilience of roadside trees to vehicular emissions via leaf enzy-
matic, physiological, and anatomical trait modulations. Environ Pollut 313:120191. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120191
Kumar N, Singh H, Giri K et al (2024) Physiological and molecular insights into the allelopathic
effects on agroecosystems under changing environmental conditions. Physiol Mol Biol Plants
30(3):417–433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-024-01440-x
Kumari A, Singh H (2018) Impact of heat and drought stress on physiological response of
Terminalia arjuna grown under elevated temperature condition: an adaptive mechanism to cli-
mate change. J Pharmacogn Phytochem 7(1):1374–1378
McCarthy JJ (ed) (2001) Climate change 2001: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability: contribu-
tion of working group II to the third assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on cli-
mate change, vol 2. Cambridge University Press
Meena D, Singh H, Chaudhari SK (2011) Elucidating strontium response on growth dynamics and
biochemical change in Phaseolus mungo L. Int J Agric Environ Biotechnol 4:107–113
Menzel A, Sparks TH, Estrella N, Koch E, Aasa A, Ahas R, Zust ANA (2006) European phe-
nological response to climate change matches the warming pattern. Glob Chang Biol
12(10):1969–1976
Nautiyal S, Singh H, Kamboj S, Kumar A, Panwar VP, Bala N (2022) Carbon regulating Services
of a 30-year-old reclaimed limestone mine area in foothills of Himalaya. Indian Forester
148(3):338–343. https://doi.org/10.36808/if/2022/v148i3/168187
Nirmal BM, Singh H (2021) Effect of CO2 elevation on Shisham growth at nursery stage. Indian
J Hill Farm 34:272–276
Pan Y, Birdsey RA, Fang J, Houghton R, Kauppi PE, Kurz WA, Hayes D (2011) A large and per-
sistent carbon sink in the world's forests. Science 333(6045):988–993
Parmesan C (2006) Ecological and evolutionary responses to recent climate change. Annu Rev
Ecol Evol Syst 37:637–669
Parmesan C, Yohe G (2003) A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across
natural systems. Nature 421(6918):37–42
Phukon SN, Kumar M, Singh H, Nandy S (2022) Climate change and plant phenological variabil-
ity. In: Climate change alleviation for sustainable progression. CRC Press, pp 256–279
Poorter L, Bongers F, Aide TM, Almeyda Zambrano AM, Balvanera P, Becknell JM, Rozendaal
DM (2016) Biomass resilience of Neotropical secondary forests. Nature 530(7589):211–214
Prajapati N, Sharma R, Singh H (2020) Unraveling the bio-herbicidal potential of eucalyptus
species aqueous leaf extract and leaf oil on germination and initial growth performance of
weed Parthenium hysterophorus. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 9(9):3028–3040. https://doi.
org/10.20546/ijcmas.2020.909.xx
Prakash V, Hunney K, Singh H (2022) Effect of elevated carbon dioxide on growth and develop-
ment of Santalum album L. seedlings inoculated with plant growth promoting microorganisms
in open top chambers. Int J Environ Agric Biotechnol 7(5):149–159
Raturi A, Singh H, Kumar P, Shukla N (2022) Characterizing the post-monsoon CO2, CH4, N2O,
and H2O vapor effluxes from a tropical wetland in the Himalayan foothill. Environ Monit
Assess 194:50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09721-8
Reed MS (2008) Stakeholder participation for environmental management: a literature review.
Biol Conserv 141(10):2417–2431
Savita SSK, Singh H, Singh O (2017) Forest fire: a review. Indian Forester 143(8):719–728
Seidl R, Thom D, Kautz M, Martin-Benito D, Peltoniemi M, Vacchiano G, Reyer CP (2017) Forest
disturbances under climate change. Nat Clim Chang 7(6):395–402
Sett T, Nikam BR, Singh H, Purohit S (2022) Effect of drought stress on Forest evapotranspi-
ration- a case study on Indian forests. In: EGU general assembly. https://doi.org/10.5194/
egusphere-egu22-510
Sharma R, Singh H (2021) Alteration in biochemical constituents and nutrients partitioning of
Asparagus racemosus in response to elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration. Environ Sci
Pollut Res 29:6812–6821. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16050-3
Sharma R, Singh H, Kaushik M, Nautiyal R, Singh O (2018) Adaptive physiological response,
carbon partitioning and biomass production of Withania Somnifera (L) Dunal grown under
elevated CO2 regimes. 3 Biotech 8:267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-018-1292-1
Shukla, P. R., Skeg, J., Buendia, E. C., Masson-Delmotte, V., Pörtner, H. O., Roberts, D. C., &
Malley, J. (2019). Climate change and land: an IPCC special report on climate change, deserti-
fication, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas
fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems
Singh H (2021) Process-based carbon sequestration study in relation to the energy-water-carbon
flux in a forest ecosystem. In: Kumar P, Singh RK, Kumar M, Rani M, Sharma (eds) Climate
impacts on sustainable natural resource management. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group,
United States, pp 336–361
Singh H (2024) Exploring adaptive modulation in plant functional traits and its impact on the
productivity of Acacia auriculiformis under CO2-enriched environment. Ind Crop Prod
210(2024):118186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2024.118186
Singh H, Kumar M (2022) Climate change and its impact on Indian Himalayan forests: current sta-
tus and research needs. In: Rani S, Kumar R (eds) Climate change. Springer Climate. Springer,
Cham, pp 223–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
16 H. Singh
Singh H, Verma A, Ansari MW, Shukla A (2014) Physiological response of rice (Oryza sativa L.)
genotypes to elevated nitrogen applied under field conditions. Plant Signal Behav 9:e29015.
https://doi.org/10.4161/psb.29015
Singh H, Savita Sharma R, Sinha S, Kumar M, Kumar P, Verma A, Sharma SK (2017a)
Physiological functioning of Lagerstroemia speciosa L. under heavy roadside traffic: an
approach to screen potential species for abatement of urban air pollution. 3 Biotech 7(61):1–10.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-017-0690-0
Singh H, Verma A, Kumar M, Sharma R, Gupta R, Kaur M, Negi M, Sharma SK (2017b)
Phytoremediation: a green technology to clean up the sites with low and moderate level of
heavy metals. Austin Biochem 2(2):1–8
Singh H, Sharma R, Savita SMP, Kumar M, Verma A, Ansari MW, Sharma SK (2018a) Adaptive
physiological response of Parthenium hysterophorus to elevated atmospheric CO2 concentra-
tion. Indian Forester 144:1–14
Singh H, Verma A, Kumar M (2018b) Can elevated CO2 alter the growth dynamics, morphology,
physiology and biochemistry of the forestry tree species? In: Chauhan A, Bharti PK (eds)
Climate change and agriculture. Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, pp 288–305
Singh H, Kumar N, Kumar M, Singh R (2020a) Modelling habitat suitability of western tragopan
(Tragopan melanocephalus) a range-restricted vulnerable bird species of the Himalayan region,
in response to climate change. Climate. Risk Manage 29:100241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
crm.2020.100241
Singh H, Yadav M, Kumar N, Kumar A, Kumar M (2020b) Assessing adaptation and mitigation
potential of roadside trees under the influence of vehicular emissions: a case study of Grevillea
robusta and Mangifera indica planted in an urban city of India. PLoS One 15(1):e0227380.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227380
Singh S, Singh H, Sharma SK, Nautiyal R (2021) Seasonal variation in biochemical responses of
bamboo clones in the sub-tropical climate of Indian Himalayan foothills. Heliyon 7(4):e06859.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06859
Singh H, Bandyopadhyaya S, Kumar A, Singh M, Malik A, Kumari G, Raturi A, Yadav SK,
Kumar M, Barthwal S, Thakur A, Rawat PS (2022) Understanding the physiological and
biophysical response of urban roadside plantations for assessing adaptation and mitigation
mechanisms toward vehicular emissions. Urban Clim 44:101183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
uclim.2022.101183
Singh H, Kumar N, Singh R, Kumar M (2023) Assessing the climate change impact on the habi-
tat suitability of the range-restricted bird species (Catreus wallichii) in the Indian Himalayan
ecosystem. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30(57):121224–121235. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11356-023-30789-x
Singh M, Singh H, Kumar A, Kumar M, Barthwal S, Thakur A (2024) Soil nitrogen availability
determines the CO2 fertilization effect on tree species (Neolamarckia cadamba): growth and
physiological evidence. Environ Sustain 7:53–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42398-023-00300-w
Smith MD (2011) The ecological role of climate extremes: current understanding and future pros-
pects. J Ecol 99(3):651–655
Smith P, Davis SJ, Creutzig F, Fuss S, Minx J, Gabrielle B, Yongsung C (2016) Biophysical and
economic limits to negative CO2 emissions. Nat Clim Chang 6(1):42–50
Suzuki N, Koussevitzky SHAI, Mittler RON, Miller GAD (2012) ROS and redox signalling in the
response of plants to abiotic stress. Plant Cell Environ 35(2):259–270
Verma S, Kumar N, Verma A, Singh H, Siddique KH, Singh NP (2020) Novel approaches to
mitigate heat stress impacts on crop growth and development. Plant Physiol Rep 25:627–644
Verma A, Ansari MW, Singh H, Kumar N, Anwar MS, Mudila H, Tuteja N (2021) Proteomics for
Brassinosteroid signalling: understanding Brassinosteroids mediated stress responses through
advanced proteomics. Plant. Gene 26:100282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plgene.2021.100282
Weatherall A, Nabuurs GJ, Velikova V, Santopuoli G, Neroj B, Bowditch E, Tognetti R (2022)
Defining climate-smart forestry. In: Climate-Smart Forestry in Mountain Regions, pp 35–58
Yadav SK, Singh H, Nautiyal R, Ginwal HS, Ansari SA, Barthwal S (2019a) Modulation of
morpho-physiological responses in Populus deltoides by elevated carbon dioxide and tempera-
ture. For Sci 66:105–118. https://doi.org/10.1093/forsci/fxz048
Yadav SK, Singh H, Ginwal HS, Barthwal S (2019b) Elevated CO2 enhanced growth and physi-
ological process of Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh. Indian Forester 145(1):23–27
Chapter 2
Deciphering Abiotic and Biotic Stress
Effects on Secondary Metabolites
of Medicinal Plants
Purnima Rawat and Mithilesh Singh
Abstract Since plants are immobile, they are constantly subjected to shifting envi-
ronmental circumstances. Due to their sessile nature, plants have developed defence
mechanisms, which include changing their morphology and producing chemical
substances to help them survive. These chemical substances are called plant second-
ary metabolites. Plant tissues’ ability to produce and accumulate secondary metabo-
lites depends on abiotic (such as soil and climate) and biotic (such as microbes and
herbivores). These substances improve plants’ ability to withstand environmental
stressors and to survive. Research on secondary metabolites is an important bridge
between fields such as plant physiology, ecology, biochemistry, systematics, mycol-
ogy, and phycology. These secondary metabolites are typically responsible for the
therapeutic capabilities of plant species. Despite the enormous significance of these
metabolites for plant survival and ability to adapt to stressful environments, very
little is known about how climate and environmental factors affect the secondary
metabolites of medicinal plants. This chapter aims to narrow the gap and aid in
creating strategies for the sustainable use and conservation of medicinal plants by
offering up-to-date information on the effects of abiotic and biotic stress on second-
ary metabolites of beneficial plants.
Keywords Environmental factors · Secondary metabolites · Medicinal plants ·

Climate change
2.1 Introduction
Large classes of organic molecules, usually categorized as primary and secondary

metabolites, are produced by plants (Joshi and Singh 2020; Nautiyal et al. 2022). It
is difficult to distinguish between primary and secondary metabolites based on
P. Rawat · M. Singh (*)

G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment, Almora, India
e-mail: [email protected]

Ltd. 2024
20 P. Rawat and M. Singh
precursor molecules, chemical structures, or origins in biosynthesis. For instance,

the diterpenes (C20) and triterpenes contain primary and secondary metabolites
(C30). Within the diterpene family, kaurenoic and abietic acids are produced through
a closely linked series of enzymatic reactions. The former is a crucial step in synthe-
sizing gibberellins, growth hormones in all plants. At the same time, the latter is a
resin component primarily found in plants belonging to the Fabaceae and Pinaceae
families.
Similarly, pipecolic acid (C6) is regarded as an alkaloid and a natural product, but
proline, an essential amino acid, is categorized as a primary metabolite. Thus, the
differentiation between primary and secondary metabolites is based on their signifi-
cance to the plant system. Primary metabolites are compounds that have essential
roles associated with photosynthesis, respiration, and growth and development.
These include phytosterols, acyl lipids, nucleotides, amino acids, and organic acids.
Plant secondary metabolites play essential physiological and biochemical roles that
ensure plant fitness and survival, particularly concerning their interactions with the
environment and coping with biotic and abiotic stress (Namdeo 2007; Teoh 2015;
Sharma and Singh 2021).
Based on their biosynthetic origins, plant secondary metabolites are classified
into three groups: (1) terpenoids, (2) alkaloids, and (3) flavonoids and phenolic
compounds. The most common pathways for biosynthesis of secondary metabolites
are performed through acetate-malonate for phenols and alkaloids; mevalonic acid
for terpenes, steroids, and alkaloids; pentose for glycosides, polysaccharides; shi-
kimic acid for phenols, tannins, aromatic alkaloids.
2.1.1 Terpenoids
The most prevalent and structurally varied class of secondary metabolites are called
terpenoids. Terpenoids are categorized according to the quantity of five-carbon
units in their core structure. They are all created by condensation of isoprene units
(C5). Monoterpenes (C10), sesquiterpenes (C15), diterpenes (C20), and triterpenes
(C30) are formed by condensation of two isoprene units, three isoprene units, four
isoprene units and six isoprene units, respectively. Isoprene combines to generate a
variety of aromatic and flavoring molecules, including menthol, linalool, geraniol,
and caryophyllene. Majorly, terpenes act as insect attractants, toxins, and feeding
constraints to many insects and mammals that use plants as food (Mahmoud and
Croteau 2002). Many terpenoids, such as taxol, artemisinin, and ginsenosides, are
known for their therapeutic properties.
2 Deciphering Abiotic and Biotic Stress Effects on Secondary Metabolites… 21
2.1.2 Alkaloids
Alkaloids are characterized as simple molecules produced by living things and, with
certain exceptions, generated from amino acids. They are also known to be pharma-
cologically active substances that contain one or more heterocyclic nitrogen atoms.
Almost all alkaloids are primary (alkaline) chemicals directly related to the class
name. The category is characterized by various structural formulas originating from
several biosynthetic pathways and exhibiting multiple pharmacological actions.
Numerous pharmacological activities are linked to alkaloids. Many are poisonous
and, in small enough doses, can be fatal. Certain substances, like hallucinogens
(mescaline) and antidepressants (reserpine), disrupt behaviour patterns, while oth-
ers have antibiotic-like properties.
2.1.3 Flavonoids and Phenolic Compounds
Flavonoids are fifteen-carbon polyphenolic compounds with two aromatic rings

joined by three carbon bridges. Flavonoids are the most numerous and widespread
in the plant kingdom. In plants, flavonoids play crucial roles in UV protection, pig-
mentation, and disease resistance. Phenolics are characterized by having at least one
aromatic ring with one or more hydroxyl groups. The main subclasses of flavonoids
are flavonols, flavones, flavan-3-ol, anthocyanidins, flavanones, and isoflavones,
and the main non-flavonoids are phenolic acids (C6-C1), hydroxycinnamates (C6-C3)
and polyphenolic compounds (C6-C2 -C6) stilbenes.
Secondary metabolites are known to have antioxidant, antifungal, antiviral, and
antibiotic qualities in addition to being essential for plants’ environmental adapta-
tion and interaction and, therefore, able to defend plants from pathogens (phyto-
alexins), anti-germinative or toxic for other plants (allelopathy), UV damage, etc. as
mentioned in Fig. 2.1. They are also unique food additives, flavours, and pharma-
ceutical sources (Kumar et al. 2024; Ravishankar and Rao 2000; Ravishankar and
Venkataraman 1990) (Figs. 2.1 & 2.2).
Secondary metabolites aid plants in responding to environmental stimuli in a
rapid, reversible, and ecologically meaningful manner and, thus, play an important
role in the existence of plants in their varying environmental conditions. The studies
on secondary metabolites play a dynamic role in linking various aspects, like ecol-
ogy, biochemistry, systematics, mycology, phycology, plant physiology, and evolu-
tionary studies. Environmental and climatic factors affect the content of secondary
metabolites, and the growth and output of industrially significant plant species have
been hampered by such gradual or abrupt changes (Singh 2021; Cao et al. 2020;
Tubiello et al. 2007). With the growing demand and need for nature-based products,
medicinal plants’ economic value has witnessed a market hike. Recently, much
work has been done on manipulating and altering environmental factors to increase
the production and biosynthesis of secondary metabolites of medicinal plants. This
Fig. 2.1 Major uses of plant secondary metabolites in plants and human consumption
chapter attempts to compile the available information regarding the plant response
to varying environmental conditions regarding secondary metabolites, focusing on
medicinal plants. In addition, this effort emphasizes recommendations for prospects
and identifies knowledge gaps.
2.2 Methodology
The chapter aimed to determine how climate and environmental conditions affect
the secondary metabolites found in medicinal plants. The environmental factors
were studied as stress conditions subjected to the medicinal plants in in-vitro condi-
tions. The methodology followed is depicted in Fig. 2.3. The exclusion criteria of
the search results include duplicate results, inaccessible papers, and unrelated topics
from the objectives. Out of 200 search results, around 100 medicinal plants have
been reported for experimental studies on environmental effects (abiotic and biotic
stresses).
Fig. 2.2 Applications of plant secondary metabolites and their properties
Criteria Inclusion Exclusion

Plant Medicinal plant Crops, non-medicinal plant
Article Research article Review article, thesis, conference
proceedings, book chapter
Keywords Environmental factors, medicinal Identified keywords not available; articles
plants, Indian Himalayan region not related to the current study
Others English language papers; abstracts Non-English language papers; duplicates;
related to the study full-length articles not related to the study
2.3 Effect of Abiotic Stress on Medicinal Plants
Abiotic stresses, light intensity, extreme temperatures, water and nutrient availabil-
ity, heavy metals, and salinity in the soil (Fig. 2.4), have been reported to affect the
content of secondary metabolites in plants. Certain plant metabolites are synthe-
sized under specific environmental conditions, and production is enhanced under
specific environments. The effects of abiotic factors on the production and concen-
tration of secondary metabolites in medicinal plants have been summarised in
Table 2.1.
Potential articles included

Identification
through Databases search
Articles screened (Inclusion

Screening
and Exclusion criteria)
Eligibility Full text articles
Included Articles reviewed = 120
Criteria Inclusion Exclusion

Plant Medicinal plant Crops, non-medicinal plant
Review article, Thesis, Conference
Article Research article
proceedings, book chapter
Environmental factors, medicinal Identified keywords not available; Articles
Keywords
plants, Indian Himalayan region not related to the current study
English language papers; abstracts Non-English language papers; Duplicates;
Others
related to the study full-length articles not related to the study
Fig. 2.3 The methodology followed in the study
2.4 Effect of Biotic Stress on Medicinal Plants
Plants create diverse defence systems in their habitats against insects, herbivores,
and several microorganisms (bacteria, filamentous fungi, protozoa etc.), which
develop several relationships with the host plant. These interactions form the basis
for synthesizing specific metabolites, as depicted in Fig. 2.3. Natural products
resulting from such interaction are classified into phytoalexins, phytoanticipins, and
signaling molecules. The plants produce and store low molecular weight com-
pounds called phytoalexins after exposure to microbes. Some therapeutic plants’
responses to specific biotic stressors have been documented, and Table 2.2 lists
these responses.
Table 2.1 Impact of abiotic stress on some medicinal plants

Plant species/
abiotic stress Findings
Drought
Andrographis Andrographolides (terpene) increased (Chen et al. 2020)
paniculate
Artemisia annua Artemisinin (terpene) accumulation increased (Marchese et al. 2010)
Bunium persicum Increased essential oil percentage (Saeidnejad et al. 2013)
Camellia sinensis Flavonoid accumulation (Hernandez et al. 2006)
Chelidonium majus Increased secondary metabolites (Kleinwächter et al. 2015)
Cymbopogon sp. Mild water stress increased the oil content (Singh-Sangwan et al. 1994)
Hedychium Increased linalool (terpene) content (Pandey et al. 2021)
spicatum
Hypericum Increased levels of phenolic compounds (Nacif de Abreu and Mazzafera
brasiliense 2005)
Labisia pumila An increase in the total phenolics, total flavonoids, and total anthocyanins
Ibrahim et al. (2011)
Melissa officinalis Increased balm essential oil content Abbaszadeh et al. (2020)
Mentha arvensis Reduced essential oil content in hydric stress Misra and Srivastava (2000)
var. piperascens
Dracocephalum Polyphenol oxidase activity increased Naghizadeh et al. (2019)
moldavica
Picea abies Tricyclene, α -pinene, and camphene (terpene) were significantly high
Kainulainen et al. (1992)
Quercus ilex Low monoterpene emissions Lavoir et al. (2009)
Salvia miltiorrhiza Increased salvianolic acid B yield but decreased tanshione IIA (terpene)
(Liu et al. 2011)
Salvia officinalis Increase in the concentration of terpenes (Bettaieb et al. 2009)
Satureja hortensis Rise in bicyclogermacrene (terpene) and caracrol (terpene), and the
decrease in b-caryophyllene (terpene) and ϒ-terpinene (Baher et al. 2002)
Scutellaria Increased content of proline and soluble sugar in leaves (Liu et al. 2010)
baicalensis
Sesamum indicum Polyphenol oxidase activity increased (Fazeli et al. 2007)
Tagetes minuta The proportions of essential oil constituents changed (Babaei et al. 2021)
Thymus vulgaris Increase monoterpenes such as thymol, carvacrol, γ-terpinene, and
p-cymene (Mohammadi et al. 2020)
Thymus vulgaris Severe drop of thymol (monoterpenoid phenol) amount in T. vulgaris as
and thymus compared to T. daenesis (Alavi-Samani et al. 2015)
daenesis
Tropaeolum majus Moderate drought increased glucosinolate concentration with increased
biomass (Bloem et al. 2014)
Valeriana Valerenic acid (terpene) content in all plant parts increased (Pandey et al.
jatamansi 2021)
Verbascum Proline, MDA, CAT, phenolic, and flavonoid increased (Ghahremani et al.
songaricum 2020)
Elevated CO2
(continued)
Table 2.1 (continued)

Plant species/
Hypericum Increased hypericin content (Kaundal et al. 2021)
perforatum
Picrorhiza kurroa Decrease in picroside-I and increase in picroside-II content
Quercus spp High tannin (polyphenol) levels (Stiling and Cornelissen 2007)
Scutellaria spp Increased concentration of flavonoids (Stutte et al. 2008)
Zingiber officinalis Total flavonoids and total phenolics concentration increased
(Ghasemzadeh and Jaafar 2011)
Light effect
Aloe vera Anthocyanin (flavonoid) and aloin concentration increased as the light
intensity increased (Hazrati et al. 2020)
Cassia angustfolia Sennoside (glycoside) increased with increased light intensity (Raju et al.
2013)
Curcuma longa Total phenol content, POD, and PAL activity increased (Ferreira et al.
2016)
Hypericum Naphthodianthrones content and phenolic compounds amplified under
perforatum high light intensity (Radušienė et al. 2012)
Matricaria α-Bisabolol (terpene) oxide content accumulates with increased light
chamomilla radiation (Salehi and Hazrati 2017)
Melastomama Moderate light intensity (301–600 lux) induced a higher accumulation of
labathricum anthocyanins (flavonoid) in the cell culture (Chan et al. 2010)
Mentha arvensis High l-menthol (terpene) content at 16 h d−1 light intensity of
var. piperascens 200 μmol m−2 s−1 (Malayeri et al. 2010)
Ocimum basilicum Exposure to red light increased rosmarinic acid (polyphenol) accumulation
(Shiga et al. 2009)
Panax ginseng The contents of ginsenosides (glycoside) increased considerably under
light-treated cultures (Yu et al. 2005)
Panax Long light exposure increased the level of ginsenosides (glycoside)
quinquefolius (Fournier et al. 2003)
Perilla frutescens Anthocyanin (flavonoid) synthesis increased (Zhong et al. 1993)
Pilocarpus Calluses in the dark released high pilocarpine (alkaloid) in the medium
microphylla (Abreu et al. 2005)
Sarcandra glabra White light increased the yields of coumarins like esculetin, fraxetin,
isofraxidin, fraxidin etc., while chlorogenic acid, cryptochlorogenis acid,
and scopolin decreased (Xie et al. 2020)
Ozone
Ginkgo biloba Concentrations of terpenes showed an increase while the concentrations of
phenolics decreased (He et al. 2009)
Melissa officinalis accumulation of phenolic compounds, in particular, rosmarinic acid
(Tonelli et al. 2015)
Sida cordofolia Steroid metabolites showed an increase in root and leaves, while terpenes
showed variable response (Ansari et al. 2021)
UV radiations
Abies faxoniana Carotenoids content decreased (Yao and Liu 2005)
(continued)

Plant species/
Acorus calamus Increments in thiol, proline, and phenol under supplemented UV-B
(Kumari et al. 2009)
Anisodus luridus Under UV-B influence, scopolamine increased while hyoscyamine
decreased (Qin et al. 2014)
Artemisia annua Carotenoids, flavonoids, and artemisinin content increased (Li et al. 2021)
Betula pendula Epidermal flavonoids decreased (Morales et al. 2010);
Quercetin content increased while cinnamic acids and soluble tannins
decreased
Camptotheca Camptothecin content increased (Ruan et al. 2014)
acuminata
Catharanthus Significant increase in vinblastine (alkaloid) and vincristine (alkaloid)
roseus production when exposed to UV-B light (Zhong et al. 2019)
Chrysanthemum No change in total flavones concentration. Chlorogenic acid, free amino
morifolium acids increased (Yao et al. 2015)
Cistus sp. Content of flavonoids in its leaf enhanced under UV radiation induction
(Chaves et al. 1997)
Clematis terniflora Increase in Indole alkaloid carboxylic acid methyl ester under UV-B
radiations influence (Gao et al. 2016)
Coleus forskohlii Essential oil content decreased (Takshak and Agrawal 2016)
Conocarpus Total flavonoids content increased (Suleman et al. 2014)
lancifolius
Curcuma caesia Increased production of epicurzereonone, elemene, pinanediol, and
1,8-cineole, whereas curcumenol, D-camphor, eucalyptol, isocurcumenol,
and zederone were reduced (Jaiswal et al. 2020)
Curcuma longa Total phenol content, POD and PAL activity decreased after UV exclusion
(Ferreira et al. 2016)
Deschampsia Phenolics increased at low exposure while content drastically reduced at
antarctica high intensity of UV-B radiations (Sequeida et al. 2012)
Galega officinalis Production and accumulation of trans-ferulic acid and salicylic acid
(Karakas and Bozat 2020)
Genista tinctoria Isoflavones like gentisic, daidzein, genistein, and biochanin-A increased
(Tůmová and Tůma 2011)
Ginkgo biloba Total flavonoids, isorhamnetin, kaempferol, and quercetin, increased (Sun
et al. 2010)
Heteropogon Tannins and phenolics content increased while carotenoids decreased
contortus (Hamid et al. 2019)
Laurus nobilis Neoxanthin, β-carotene increased while quercetins and kaempferols
decreased (Bernal et al. 2015)
Malva neglecta Total catechin, cinnamic acid, gallic acid, phenolics, ferulic acid, tannic
acid, benzoic acid, malvidin, anthocyanins, and flavonoids increased
(Ghanati and Khatami 2011)
Picea asperata Carotenoids increased (Han et al. 2009)
Populus alba, Flavanols like myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, rutin, and total
Populus russkii anthocyanins increased (Ma et al. 2016)
(continued)

Plant species/
Prunella vulgaris The content of caffeic acid, flavonoids, rosmarinic acid, salviaflaside,
hyperoside increased under UV-B radiations (Tang et al. 2020)
Psychotria Brachycerine (alkaloid) content increases when the plant is exposed to
brachyceras UV-B(Do Nascimento et al. 2013)
Salix myrsinifolia Chlorogenic acid increased irrespective of gender, but hypericin content
increased in female plants while decreasing in males (Sivadasan et al.
2015)
Scutellaria Scutellarin (phenolic) content decreased with an increase in chrysin
baicalensis (flavanoid)(Miao et al. 2022)
Taxus chinesis var. Flavonoids and Taxol content increased while carotenoids decreased (Zu
matret et al. 2010)
Trigonella Carotenoids, anthocyanins, flavonoids, phenolics content increased
foenum-graecum (Sebastian et al. 2018)
Tropaeolum majus Glucotropaeolin and phenolics content increased (Schreiner et al. 2009)
Turnera diffusa Phenolics content decreased (Soriano-Melger et al. 2014)
Withania somnifera β-stigmasterol, ethyl stearate, isophytol, methyl linoleate, perhydrofarnesyl
acetone, methyl stearate, nonacosane, withaferin A, and trans-squalene,
content increased while 3-Eicosyne, campeterol, cholesterol, crenosterol,
neophytadiene, linolenic acid, methyl palmitate, palmitic acid, and stearic
acid decreased (Takshak and Agrawal 2015)
Zanthoxylum Phenolic and alkaloids like benzophenanthridine, benzylisoquinoline,
bungeanum aporphine, protoberberine, berbine increased.
Salinity
Chelidonium majus The key enzyme in alkaloid biosynthesis, stylopine synthase, is enhanced
in salt-stressed conditions (Yahyazadeh et al. 2018)
Datura innoxia Treatment of salt increased total alkaloid (Brachet and Cosson 1986)
Digitalis purpurea Moderate salinity conditions lead to raised cardenolide levels (Morales
et al. 1993)
Limonium bicolor Induce the accumulation of specific phenolic compounds, both in leaves
and roots (L. Wang et al. 2016)
Lonicera japonica There is a positive correlation between the buildup of phenolic acids with
antioxidant enzyme activity under salt stress (Cai et al. 2020)
Matricaria Reduced growth but enhanced accumulation of protocatechuic acid
chamomilla (phenolic acid) in salt-exposed leaf rosettes (Kováčik et al. 2009)
Matricaria recutita Increase in the amount of several essential oil compounds (Baghalian et al.
2008)
Mentha sp. Essential oil content reduced (Aziz et al. 2008)
Nigella sativa Salinity-enhanced quercetin, apigenin, and trans-cinnamic acid but
reduced vanillic acid content (Bourgou et al. 2010)
Salvia mirzayanii Increase in leaf total phenol compounds under mild salinity with increased
production of a-terpinyl acetate, 1,8-cineoleand linalyl acetate (Valifard
et al. 2014)
Schizonepeta Accumulation of antioxidants, including phenolics and flavonoids
tenuifolia enhanced by low and moderate levels of salinity (Zhou et al. 2018)
(continued)

Plant species/
Silybum marianum The morpho-anatomical structure showed significant variations under salt
stress (Belitz 2007)
Stevia rebaundina Salt stress increased malondialdehyde content (Shahverdi et al. 2014)
Temperature
Artemisia tilesii Low temperature reduced flavonoids content (Havryliuk et al. 2017)
Datura metel Cold stress significantly increases the concentration of melatonin (Murch
et al. 2009)
Eleutherococcus Low and high temperatures decreased total phenolics, flavonoids and total
senticosus eleutheroside accumulation, while low temperatures increased
eleutheroside E accumulation (Shohael et al. 2006)
Galega officinalis Enhanced rutin (flavonoid) production and accumulation at 4 °C (Karakas
and Bozat 2020)
Hypericum Increase in the levels of total soluble phenols and decrease in rutin and
brasiliense quercetin at low temperatures (17 °C) (Nacif de Abreu and Mazzafera
2005)
Hypericum Naphthodianthrones content and phenolic compounds increased under
perforatum higher temperatures and hyperforin content decreased (Kaundal et al.
2021)
Melastoma Low temperature enhanced pigment accumulation (Chan et al. 2010)
malabathricum
Panax High temperatures increase root secondary metabolite (Jochum et al.
quinquefolius 2007)
Chemical stress
Bacopa monnieri Active constituent, bacoside-A (triterpenoid saponins) content in metal
(iron) treated plants increased (Sinha and Saxena 2006)
Datura stramonium Copper and cadmium salts enhanced the accumulation of sesquiterpenoid
defensive compounds, 3-hydroxylubimin and lubimin (Furze et al. 1991)
Heterotheca High leaf mono- and sesquiterpene content in low nitrate availability
subaxillaris (Mihaliak and Lincoln 1985)
Labisia pumila High nitrogen fertilizer reduces the production of total flavonoids and
phenolics (Ibrahim et al. 2011)
Phyllanthus amarus Therapeutically active compounds—phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin,
enhanced at certain levels of Cadmium with a significant decrease in fresh
and dry weight, root and shoot length, carotenoids, and sugar (Rai et al.
2005)
Pilocarpus Absence and excess of Nitrogen and Phosphorous induced high production
microphylla of pilocarpine (Abreu et al. 2005)
Satureja hortensis Silver nanoparticles improved germination speed, plant height, and stem
length. Silver nanoparticles treated seeds survived high salinity
(Nejatzadeh 2021)
Stevia rebaudiana ZnO and CuO nanoparticles enhanced the antioxidant activities in callus
tissues (Javed et al. 2018);
Exogeneous foliar application of KNO3 reduces the effects of high salinity
on leaf yield (Mahajan et al. 2020)
(continued)

Plant species/
Taxus baccata Increased polyethylene glycol (PEG) in the culture medium enhanced the
H2O2 and malondialdehyde (MDA) content (Sarmadi et al. 2020)
Brugmansia Salicylic acid increased significantly the release of alkaloids in hairy root
candida cultures (Pitta-Alvarez et al. 2000)
Pinus pinaster Methyl jasmonate (MeJA) depleted α-pinene content and reduced
sesquiterpene (Sampedro et al. 2010)
Trigonella MeJA enhanced diosgenin production (steroid saponin), while Calcium
foenum-graecum had inhibitory effects (De and De 2011)
Tropaeolum majus MeJA increased glucosinolate concentration (Bloem et al. 2014)
Vinca minor Upon MeJA treatment, indole alkaloids (minovincinine, minovincine, and
9-methoxyvincamine) were detected in high quantities (Abouzeid et al.
2017)
Withania somnifera MeJA elicited production of withanone, withanolide A, and withaferin A
(steroid) (Sivanandhan et al. 2013)
2.5 Discussion
Secondary metabolite biosynthesis is affected by changing environmental condi-

tions. With increasing global temperature and extreme weather conditions, it is
hypothesized that climate change would affect the medicinal plants of high-altitude
regions (Zobayed et al. 2005), affecting the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites.
Due to their pharmacological values, medicinal plants have been used as model spe-
cies to assess the impact of environmental changes on the synthesis and production
of secondary metabolites. It has been noted that both biotic and abiotic stress cause
plants to accumulate more secondary metabolites, strengthening their defenses and
boosting their potential for adaptation. In this chapter, it has been observed that
stress conditions mainly increase the production of plant secondary metabolites.
Under water deficit and elevated CO2 conditions, terpenes majorly showed enhanced
production and accumulation, with exceptions in Pinus pinaster, Quercus ilex,
Salvia miltiorrhiza, Satureja hortensis where terpene content was reduced under
water deficit conditions. Under changing light intensity, phenolic and terpene com-
pound concentrations were significantly enhanced. Ultraviolet radiations have been
described to show variable response to phenols, whereas flavonoids accumulation in
medicinal plants has majorly improved, except in Betula pendula. The reported
medicinal plants produced more secondary metabolites when exposed to salinity.
Low and high temperatures show variable responses to the concentration and accu-
mulation of plant secondary metabolites.
In the current investigative study, the terpene metabolite has been the most stud-
ied and reported, which is in sync with the group being the largest and most diverse
in chemical compounds and structures. It may also be concluded that more studies
and experiments on abiotic than biotic stress conditions exist. Drought, radiation
(UV A/B), and temperature drastically change metabolite synthesis in medicinal
Fig. 2.4 Production of plant secondary metabolites
plants. We may, therefore, state that research on the effects of changing climate on
secondary metabolite synthesis has been continuous. These environmental factors
are also the critical markers of patterns of climate change. The studies on biotic
stress are limited, but it is very well indicated that it also increases metabolite levels
and upregulates the pathways leading to metabolite production in medicinal plants.
As observed, extensive studies and research on commercial crops and plants
have been conducted, but medicinal plants have not been examined in detail for
climatic change studies (Singh and Verma 2013; Sharma et al. 2019; Sharma and
Singh 2021; Prakash et al. 2022; Phukon et al. 2022). According to the observations
of the available literature, studies on how environmental conditions affect medicinal
plants increased after the year 2000. The observations can be linked with the release
of Third Assessment Report (TAR) (2001) and Fourth Assessment Report (AR4)
(2007) of the IPCC (IPCC 2019), which highlighted the impacts of climate change
and the need for adaptation laying the groundwork for a post-Kyoto agreement,
Table 2.2 Impact of biotic stress on some medicinal plants

Biotic
stress Plant species
Findings
Bacteria Withania Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and P. fluorescens in the inert tissues of
sominifera plants trigger the pathways related to secondary metabolite
production and provide tolerance against Alternaria alternate
(Chowdhary et al. 2016; Mishra et al. 2018)
Fungus Artemisia Colletotrichum gloesporioides could induce the production of
annua artemisinin in hairy root cultures (Wang et al. 2001)
Brugmansia Yeast extract incremented content of alkaloids, especially
candida scopolamine increased seven-fold in hairy root cultures (Pitta-
Alvarez et al. 2000)
Catharanthus Fungus species like Fusarium solani, Penicillium spimulorum, P.
roseus citrium, Verticillium dahliae, Pythium irregulare, Ustilaginodia
verens and Armillaria melleu significantly stimulated ajmalicine
production, improved serpentine accumulation, catharanthine
production (Namdeo et al. 2002)
Panax ginseng Ginseng metabolites like kaempferol, quercetin, and luteolin
production reduce after infection of Botrytis cinera (Chen et al.
2022)
Tinospora Piriformospora indica enhanced production of jatrorrhizine and
cordifolia palmatine (Kumar et al. 2017)
Herbivory Panicum Schizaphis graminum, green bug attack, upregulates the pathways
virgatum involving biosynthesis of secondary metabolite (Zogli et al. 2020)
focusing on limiting warming to 2 °C respectively. The decline in the studies on

environmental factors and their role in medicinal plants after 2019 could be accom-
panied by the development of modern technologies and other research domains like
prediction modelling, vulnerability assessment, conservation strategies, and propa-
gation protocols for threatened species.
The utilization practices are being explored for therapeutic plant species, espe-
cially with traditional consumption patterns; thus, adopting multi-objective
approaches and strategies is necessary for both consumption and preservation in the
wild. Manipulating environmental factors enhances the synthesis of secondary
metabolites in various medicinal plants, as reported in the chapter above (Fig. 2.5).
2.6 Conclusion and a Way Forward
Humans consume medicinal plants and their secondary metabolites or extracts in

various forms, including medicine, condiments, spices, flavoring agents, dyes, and
perfumes. The multi-purpose utilization of secondary metabolites has increased
demand for medicinal plants, posing a risk of extinction due to overexploitation and
low regeneration rates resulting from unsustainable harvesting practices. Plant spe-
cies in high-altitude regions like the Himalayas face a dual challenge, being at risk
of both changing environmental conditions and overexploitation. This study
Number of studies reported from 1990-2023

45
42
40
35
33
30 30
Number of studies
25
20
17
15
10
8
5 5
2
0
1990-1994 1995-1999 2000-2004 2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2019 2020-2023
Year
Drought Elevated CO2 Light Ozone

Radiation Salinity Temperature Chemical
Biotic Total studies
Fig. 2.5 Year wise publication of number of studies
highlights the potential to manipulate and enhance the biosynthesis of secondary

metabolites in medicinal plant species by altering their environmental and climatic
conditions and utilizing stress elicitors. The enhanced in-vitro production of plant
secondary metabolites could alleviate pressure on natural and wild populations, pro-
moting the conservation and management of high-value medicinal plants.
References
Abbaszadeh B, Layeghhaghighi M, Azimi R, Hadi N (2020) Improving water use efficiency

through drought stress and using salicylic acid for proper production of Rosmarinus officinalis
L. Ind Crop Prod 144:111893. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.111893
Abouzeid S, Beutling U, Surup F, Abdel Bar FM, Amer MM, Badria FA, Yahyazadeh M, Brönstrup
M, Selmar D (2017) Treatment of Vinca minor leaves with methyl Jasmonate extensively alters
the pattern and composition of indole alkaloids. J Nat Prod 80(11):2905–2909. https://doi.
org/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00424
Abreu IN, Sawaya ACHF, Eberlin MN, Mazzafera P (2005) Production of pilocarpine in callus of
jaborandi (pilocarpus microphyllus stapf). Vitro Cell Dev Biol Plant 41(6):806–811. https://
doi.org/10.1079/IVP2005711
Alavi-Samani SM, Kachouei MA, Pirbalouti AG (2015) Growth, yield, chemical composition,
and antioxidant activity of essential oils from two thyme species under foliar application of
jasmonic acid and water deficit conditions. Hortic Environ Biotechnol 56(4):411–420. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s13580-015-0117-y
Ansari N, Agrawal M, Agrawal SB (2021) An assessment of growth, floral morphology, and metab-
olites of a medicinal plant Sida cordifolia L. under the influence of elevated ozone. Environ Sci
Pollut Res 28(1):832–845. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10340-y
Aziz EE, Al-Amier H, Craker LE (2008) Influence of salt stress on growth and essential oil produc-
tion in peppermint, pennyroyal, and apple mint. Int J Geogr Inf Syst 14(1–2):77–87. https://doi.
org/10.1080/10496470802341375
Babaei K, Moghaddam M, Farhadi N, Ghasemi Pirbalouti A (2021) Morphological, physiologi-
cal and phytochemical responses of Mexican marigold (Tagetes minuta L.) to drought stress.
Scientia Horticulturae 284:110116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2021.110116
Baghalian K, Haghiry A, Naghavi MR, Mohammadi A (2008) Effect of saline irrigation water on
agronomical and phytochemical characters of chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.). Sci Hortic
116(4):437–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2008.02.014
Baher ZF, Mirza M, Ghorbanli M, Bagher Rezaii M (2002) The influence of water stress on plant
height, herbal and essential oil yield and composition in Satureja hortensis L. Flavour Fragr J
17(4):275–277. https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.1097
Belitz AR (2007) Effects of environmental stress on growth, yield, and Flavonolignan content in
Milk thistle Silybum marianum L. University of Tennessee, Gaertn
Bernal M, Verdaguer D, Badosa J, Abadía A, Llusià J, Peñuelas J, Núñez-Olivera E, Llorens L
(2015) Effects of enhanced UV radiation and water availability on performance, biomass
production and photoprotective mechanisms of Laurus nobilis seedlings. Environ Exp Bot
109:264–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2014.06.016
Bettaieb I, Zakhama N, Wannes WA, Kchouk ME, Marzouk B (2009) Water deficit effects on
Salvia officinalis fatty acids and essential oils composition. Sci Hortic 120(2):271–275. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2008.10.016
Bloem E, Haneklaus S, Kleinwächter M, Paulsen J, Schnug E, Selmar D (2014) Stress-induced
changes of bioactive compounds in Tropaeolum majus L. Ind Crop Prod 60:349–359. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.06.040
Bourgou S, Kchouk ME, Bellila A, Marzouk B (2010) Effect of salinity on phenolic composi-
tion and biological activity of Nigella sativa. Acta Hortic 853:57–60. https://doi.org/10.17660/
ActaHortic.2010.853.5
Brachet J, Cosson L (1986) Changes in the Total alkaloid content of Datura innoxia mill. Subjected
to salt stress. J Exp Bot 37(5):650–656. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/37.5.650
Cai Z, Chen H, Chen J, Yang R, Zou L, Wang C, Chen J, Tan M, Mei Y, Wei L, Yin S, Liu X
(2020) Metabolomics characterizes the metabolic changes of Lonicerae Japonicae Flos under
different salt stresses. PLoS One 15(12 December):e0243111. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.
pone.0243111
Cao Y, Li K, Li Y, Zhao X, Wang L (2020) MYB transcription factors as regulators of secondary
metabolism in plants. Biology 9(3):61. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology9030061
Chan LK, Koay SS, Boey PL, Bhatt A (2010) Effects of abiotic stress on biomass and anthocy-
anin production in cell cultures of Melastoma malabathricum. Biol Res 43(1):127. https://doi.
org/10.4067/S0716-97602010000100014
Chaves N, Escudero JC, Gutierrez-Merino C (1997) Role of ecological variables in the seasonal
variation of flavonoid content of Cistus ladanifer exudate. J Chem Ecol 23(3):579–603. https://
doi.org/10.1023/B:JOEC.0000006398.79306.09
Chen X, Xie Y, Wei K, Lan Z, Li C, Li Y, Guo X (2020) Drought stress enhanced andrographolides
contents in Andrographis paniculata. Acta Ecol Sin 40(2):113–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
CHNAES.2020.02.003
Chen H, Zhang S, He S, Runa A, Wang M, Liu S (2022) The necrotroph Botrytis cinerea pro-
motes disease development in Panax ginseng by manipulating plant defense signals and
antifungal metabolites degradation. J Ginseng Res 46(6):790–800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jgr.2022.03.005
Chowdhary A, Agarwal K, Meis JF (2016) Filamentous fungi in respiratory infections. What
lies beyond Aspergillosis and Mucormycosis? PLoS Pathog 12(4):e1005491. https://doi.
org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1005491
De D, De B (2011) Elicitation of diosgenin production in Trigonella foenum-graecum L. seedlings
by heavy metals and signaling molecules. Acta Physiol Plant 33(5):1585–1590. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11738-010-0691-7
Do Nascimento NC, Menguer PK, Sperotto RA, Almeida MR, Fett Neto AG (2013) Early changes
in gene expression induced by acute UV exposure in leaves of Psychotria brachyceras, a bioac-
tive alkaloid accumulating plant. Mol Biotechnol 54:79–91
Fazeli F, Ghorbanli M, Niknam V (2007) Effect of drought on biomass, protein content, lipid per-
oxidation and antioxidant enzymes in two sesame cultivars. Biol Plant 51(1):98–103. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s10535-007-0020-1
Ferreira MI, Uliana MR, Costa SM, Magro M, Vianello F, Ming LC, Lima GPP (2016) Exclusion
of solar UV radiation increases the yield of curcuminoid in Curcuma longa L. Ind Crop Prod
89:188–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.05.009
Fournier AR, Proctor JTA, Gauthier L, Khanizadeh S, Bélanger A, Gosselin A, Dorais M (2003)
Understory light and root ginsenosides in forest-grown Panax quinquefolius. Phytochemistry
63(7):777–782. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(03)00346-7
Furze JM, Rhodes MJC, Parr AJ, Robins RJ, Withehead IM, Threlfall DR (1991) Abiotic fac-
tors elicit sesquiterpenoid phytoalexin production but not alkaloid production in transformed
root cultures of Datura stramonium. Plant Cell Rep 10(3):111–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/
BF00232039
Gao C, Yang B, Zhang D, Chen M, Tian J (2016) Enhanced metabolic process to indole alkaloids
in Clematis terniflora DC. After exposure to high level of UV-B irradiation followed by the
dark. BMC Plant Biol 16(1):231. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-016-0920-3
Ghahremani A, Ghasemi Pirbalouti A, Mozafari H, Habibi D, Sani B (2020) Phytochemical
and morpho-physiological traits of mullein as a new medicinal crop under different plant-
ing pattern and soil moisture conditions. Ind Crop Prod 145:111976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
indcrop.2019.111976
Ghanati F, Khatami F (2011) Polyphenols and their antioxidant activity in callus-cultured Malva
neglecta cells under UV-B and UV-C irradiation. Planta Med 77(12):PB43. https://doi.
org/10.1055/s-0031-1282297
Ghasemzadeh A, Jaafar HZE (2011) Effect of CO 2 enrichment on synthesis of some primary and
secondary metabolites in ginger (Zingiber officinale roscoe). Int J Mol Sci 12(2):1101–1114.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms12021101
Hamid A, Singh S, Agrawal M, Agrawal SB (2019) Heteropogon contortus BL-1 (Pilli grass) and
elevated UV-B radiation: the role of growth, physiological, and biochemical traits in deter-
mining forage productivity and quality. Photochem Photobiol 95(2):572–580. https://doi.
org/10.1111/php.12990
Han C, Liu Q, Yang Y (2009) Short-term effects of experimental warming and enhanced ultravi-
olet-B radiation on photosynthesis and antioxidant defense of Picea asperata seedlings. Plant
Growth Regul 58(2):153–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10725-009-9363-2
Havryliuk O, Мatvieieva N, Tashyrev O, Yastremskaya L (2017) Influence of cold stress on growth
and flavonoids accumulation in Artemisia Tilesii root culture. In: Agrobiodiversity for improv-
ing nutrition, health and life quality, vol 1
Hazrati S, Tahmasebi-Sarvestani Z, Nicola S, Kashkooli AB, Habibzadeh F, Mohammadi H,

Mokhtassi-Bidgoli A (2020) Effect of light and water deficiency on growth and concentra-
tion of various primary and secondary metabolites of Aloe vera L. J Agric Sci Technol
22(5):1343–1358
He X, Huang W, Chen W, Dong T, Liu C, Chen Z, Xu S, Ruan Y (2009) Changes of main second-
ary metabolites in leaves of Ginkgo biloba in response to ozone fumigation. J Environ Sci
Hernandez I, Alegre L, Munnebosch S (2006) Enhanced oxidation of flavan-3-ols and proantho-
cyanidin accumulation in water-stressed tea plants. Phytochemistry 67(11):1120–1126. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2006.04.002
Ibrahim MH, Jaafar HZE, Rahmat A, Rahman ZA (2011) Effects of nitrogen fertilization on
synthesis of primary and secondary metabolites in three varieties of Kacip Fatimah (Labisia
Pumila Blume). Int J Mol Sci 12(8):5238–5254. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms12085238
IPCC. (2019). Climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management,
food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems
Jaiswal D, Pandey A, Mukherjee A, Agrawal M, Agrawal SB (2020) Alterations in growth, anti-
oxidative defense and medicinally important compounds of Curcuma caesia Roxb. Under
elevated ultraviolet-B radiation. Environ Exp Bot 177:104152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
envexpbot.2020.104152
Javed R, Yucesan B, Zia M, Gurel E (2018) Elicitation of secondary metabolites in callus cul-
tures of Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni grown under ZnO and CuO nanoparticles stress. Sugar Tech
20(2):194–201. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12355-017-0539-1
Jochum GM, Mudge KW, Thomas RB (2007) Elevated temperatures increase leaf senescence
and root secondary metabolite concentrations in the understory herb Panax quinquefolius
(Araliaceae). Am J Bot 94(5):819–826. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.94.5.819
ecosystem: A tool for mitigating climate change. Afr J Environ Sci Technol 14(11):385–393.
Kainulainen P, Oksanen J, Palomäki V, Holopainen JK, Holopainen T (1992) Effect of drought
and waterlogging stress on needle monoterpenes of Picea abies. Can J Bot 70(8):1613–1616.
https://doi.org/10.1139/b92-203
Karakas FP, Bozat BG (2020) Fluctuation in secondary metabolite production and antioxidant
defense enzymes in in vitro callus cultures of goat’s rue (Galega officinalis) under different abi-
otic stress treatments. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture (PCTOC) 142(2):401–414. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s11240-020-01870-x
Kaundal M, Sharma R, Kumar R (2021) Elevated CO2 and temperature effect on growth, phenol-
ogy, biomass and hypericin content of Hypericum perforatum L. in the western Himalaya.
Plant Physiol Rep 26(1):116–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40502-021-00571-7
Kleinwächter M, Paulsen J, Bloem E, Schnug E, Selmar D (2015) Moderate drought and signal
transducer induced biosynthesis of relevant secondary metabolites in thyme (Thymus vul-
garis), greater celandine (Chelidonium majus) and parsley (Petroselinum crispum). Ind Crop
Prod 64:158–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.10.062
Kováčik J, Klejdus B, Hedbavny J, Bačkor M (2009) Salicylic acid alleviates NaCl-induced
changes in the metabolism of Matricaria chamomilla plants. Ecotoxicology 18(5):544–554.
Kumar P, Srivastava V, Chaturvedi R, Sundar D, Bisaria VS (2017) Elicitor enhanced production of
protoberberine alkaloids from in vitro cell suspension cultures of Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.)
Miers ex hook. F. & Thoms. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult (PCTOC) 130(2):417–426. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s11240-017-1237-0
Kumar N, Singh H, Giri K, Kumar A, Joshi A, Yadav A, Singh R, Bisht S, Kumari R, Jeena N,
Khairakpam R, Mishra G (2024) Physiological and molecular insights into the allelopathic
effects on agroecosystems under changing environmental conditions. Physiol Mol Biolo Plants
Kumari R, Agrawal SB, Singh S, Dubey NK (2009) Supplemental ultraviolet-B induced changes
in essential oil composition and total phenolics of Acorus calamus L. (sweet flag). Ecotoxicol
Environ Saf 72(7):2013–2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2009.02.006
Lavoir A-V, Staudt M, Schnitzler JP, Landais D, Massol F, Rocheteau A, Rodriguez R, Zimmer I,
Rambal S (2009) Drought reduced monoterpene emissions from the evergreen Mediterranean
oak Quercus ilex: results from a throughfall displacement experiment. Biogeosciences
6(7):1167–1180. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-6-1167-2009
Li Y, Qin W, Fu X, Zhang Y, Hassani D, Kayani S-I, Xie L, Liu H, Chen T, Yan X, Peng B,
Wu-Zhang K, Wang C, Sun X, Li L, Tang K (2021) Transcriptomic analysis reveals the
parallel transcriptional regulation of UV-B-induced artemisinin and flavonoid accumula-
tion in Artemisia annua L. Plant Physiol Biochem 163:189–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
plaphy.2021.03.052
Liu JH, Zhang YQ, Li J, Hu JH, Li ZH (2010) Influence of water stress on the physiological and
biochemical characteristics of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. Agric Sci Technol 11(6):22–25
Liu H, Wang X, Wang D, Zou Z, Liang Z (2011) Effect of drought stress on growth and accumula-
tion of active constituents in salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge. Ind Crop Prod 33(1):84–88. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2010.09.006
Ma X, Ou Y-B, Gao Y-F, Lutts S, Li T-T, Wang Y, Chen Y-F, Sun Y-F, Yao Y-A (2016) Moderate
salt treatment alleviates ultraviolet-B radiation caused impairment in poplar plants. Sci Rep
6(1):32890. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep32890
Mahajan M, Sharma S, Kumar P, Pal PK (2020) Foliar application of KNO3 modulates the biomass
yield, nutrient uptake and accumulation of secondary metabolites of Stevia rebaudiana under
saline conditions. Ind Crop Prod 145:112102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112102
Mahmoud SS, Croteau RB (2002) Strategies for transgenic manipulation of monoterpene biosynthe-
sis in plants. Trends Plant Sci 7(8):366–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1360-1385(02)02303-8
Malayeri SH, Hikosaka S, Goto E (2010) Effects of light period and light intensity on essential
oil composition of Japanese mint grown in a closed production system. Environ Control Biol
48(3):141–149. https://doi.org/10.2525/ecb.48.141
Marchese JA, Ferreira JFS, Rehder VLG, Rodrigues O (2010) Water deficit effect on the accumu-
lation of biomass and artemisinin in annual wormwood(Artemisia annua L., Asteraceae). Braz
J Plant Physiol 22(1):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1677-04202010000100001
Miao N, Yun C, Han S, Shi Y, Gao Y, Wu S, Zhao Z, Wang H, Wang W (2022) Postharvest UV-A
radiation affects flavonoid content, composition, and bioactivity of Scutellaria baicalensis root.
Postharvest Biol Technol 189:111933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2022.111933
Mihaliak CA, Lincoln DE (1985) Growth pattern and carbon allocation to volatile leaf terpenes
under nitrogen-limiting conditions in Heterotheca subaxillaris (Asteraceae). Oecologia
66(3):423–426. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00378309
Mishra A, Singh SP, Mahfooz S, Bhattacharya A, Mishra N, Shirke PA, Nautiyal CS (2018)
Bacterial endophytes modulates the withanolide biosynthetic pathway and physiological per-
formance in Withania somnifera under biotic stress. Microbiol Res 212–213:17–28. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.micres.2018.04.006
Misra A, Srivastava NK (2000) Influence of water stress on Japanese mint. Int J Geogr Inf Syst
7(1):51–58. https://doi.org/10.1300/J044v07n01_07
Mohammadi H, Javad Nikjoyan M, Hazrati S, Hashempour H (2020) Improvement of yield and
phytochemical compounds of Thymus vulgaris through foliar application of salicylic acid
under water stress. J Agric For 66(1):129–142. https://doi.org/10.17707/AgricultForest.66.1.13
Morales C, Cusido RM, Palazon J, Bonfill M (1993) Response of Digitalis purpurea plants to
temporary salinity. J Plant Nutr 16(2):327–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/01904169309364534
Morales LO, Tegelberg R, Brosche M, Keinanen M, Lindfors A, Aphalo PJ (2010) Effects of solar
UV-A and UV-B radiation on gene expression and phenolic accumulation in Betula pendula
leaves. Tree Physiol 30(7):923–934. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpq051
Murch SJ, Alan AR, Cao J, Saxena PK (2009) Melatonin and serotonin in flowers and fruits of Datura
metel L. J Pineal Res 47(3):277–283. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-079X.2009.00711.x
Nacif de Abreu I, Mazzafera P (2005) Effect of water and temperature stress on the content of
active constituents of Hypericum brasiliense Choisy. Plant Physiol Biochem 43(3):241–248.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2005.01.020
Naghizadeh M, Kabiri R, Hatami A, Oloumi H, Nasibi F, Tahmasei Z (2019) Exogenous applica-
tion of melatonin mitigates the adverse effects of drought stress on morpho-physiological traits
and secondary metabolites in Moldavian balm (Dracocephalum moldavica). Physiol Mol Biol
Plants 25(4):881–894. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-019-00674-4
Namdeo AG (2007) Plant cell elicitation for production of secondary metabolites: a review.
Pharmacogn Rev 1(1):69–79
Namdeo A, Patil S, Fulzele DP (2002) Influence of fungal elicitors on production of Ajmalicine by
cell cultures of Catharanthus roseus. Biotechnol Prog 18(1):159–162. https://doi.org/10.1021/
bp0101280
of A 30-year-old reclaimed limestone mine area in foothills of Himalaya. Indian Forester
Nejatzadeh F (2021) Effect of silver nanoparticles on salt tolerance of Satureja hortensis l. dur-
ing in vitro and in vivo germination tests. Heliyon 7(2):e05981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heli-
yon.2021.e05981
Pandey V, Tiwari DC, Dhyani V, Bhatt ID, Rawal RS, Nandi SK (2021) Physiological and meta-
bolic changes in two Himalayan medicinal herbs under drought, heat and combined stresses.
Physiol Mol Biol Plants 27(7):1523–1538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-021-01027-w
Phukon SN, Kumar M, Singh H, Nandy S (2022) Climate change and plant Phenological variabil-
ity. In: Climate change alleviation for sustainable progression: climate change alleviation for
sustainable progression: floristic perspectives and arboreal avenues as a viable sequestration
tool. CRC Press, pp 256–269
Pitta-Alvarez SI, Spollansky TC, Giulietti AM (2000) The influence of different biotic and
abiotic elicitors on the production and profile of tropane alkaloids in hairy root cultures of
Brugmansia candida. Enzym Microb Technol 26(2–4):252–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0141-0229(99)00137-4
Qin B, Ma L, Wang Y, Chen M, Lan X, Wu N, Liao Z (2014) Effects of acetylsalicylic acid and
UV-B on gene expression and tropane alkaloid biosynthesis in hairy root cultures of Anisodus
luridus. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult (PCTOC) 117(3):483–490. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11240-014-0454-z
Radušienė J, Karpavičienė B, Stanius Ž (2012) Effect of external and internal factors on secondary
metabolites accumulation in St. John’s Worth. Botanica Lithuanica 18(2):101–108. https://doi.
org/10.2478/v10279-012-0012-8
Rai V, Khatoon S, Bisht SS, Mehrotra S (2005) Effect of cadmium on growth, ultramorphology
of leaf and secondary metabolites of Phyllanthus amarus Schum. And Thonn. Chemosphere
61(11):1644–1650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.04.052
Raju S, Shah S, Gajbhiye N (2013) Effect of light intensity on photosynthesis and accumula-
tion of sennosides in plant parts of senna (Cassia angustifolia Vahl.). Indian J Plant Physiol
18(3):285–289. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40502-013-0038-7
Ravishankar GA, Rao SR (2000) Biotechnological production of phytopharmaceuticals. J Biochem
Mol Biol Biophys 4:73–102
Ravishankar GA, Venkataraman LV (1990) Food applications of plant cell cultures. Curr Sci
59(19):914–920
Ruan J, Zhang J, Li M, Zhu Y, Sun L, Jin H, Su H, Xu M (2014) Dependence of UV-B-induced
camptothecin production on nitrate reductase-mediated nitric oxide signaling in Camptotheca
acuminata suspension cell cultures. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult (PCTOC) 118(2):269–278.
Saeidnejad AH, Kafi M, Khazaei HR, Pessarakli M (2013) Effects of drought stress on quantitative
and qualitative yield and antioxidative activity of Bunium persicum. Turk J Bot 37:930–939.
https://doi.org/10.3906/bot-1301-2
Salehi A, Hazrati S (2017) How essential oil content and composition fluctuate in German chamo-
mile flowers during the day? J Essent Oil Bear Plants 20(3):622–631. https://doi.org/10.108
0/0972060X.2017.1351895
Sampedro L, Moreira X, Llusia J, Penuelas J, Zas R (2010) Genetics, phosphorus availability, and
herbivore-derived induction as sources of phenotypic variation of leaf volatile terpenes in a
pine species. J Exp Bot 61(15):4437–4447. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erq246
Sarmadi M, Karimi N, Palazón J, Ghassempour A, Mirjalili MH (2020) Physiological, biochemi-
cal, and metabolic responses of a Taxus baccata L. callus culture under drought stress. In Vitro
Cell Dev Biol - Plant 56(5):703–717. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11627-020-10128-2
Schreiner M, Krumbein A, Mewis I, Ulrichs C, Huyskens-Keil S (2009) Short-term and mod-
erate UV-B radiation effects on secondary plant metabolism in different organs of nastur-
tium (Tropaeolum majus L.). Innovative Food Sci Emerg Technol 10(1):93–96. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ifset.2008.10.001
Sebastian A, Kumari R, Kiran BR, Prasad MNV (2018) Ultraviolet B induced bioactive changes of
enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants and lipids in Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (fenu-
greek). Eur Biotech J 2(1):64–71. https://doi.org/10.2478/ebtj-2018-0010
Sequeida Á, Tapia E, Ortega M, Zamora P, Castro Á, Montes C, Zúñiga GE, Prieto H (2012)
Production of phenolic metabolites by Deschampsia Antarctica shoots using UV-B treatments
during cultivation in a photobioreactor. Electron J Biotechnol 15, 8(4). https://doi.org/10.2225/
vol15-issue4-fulltext-7
Shahverdi MA, Omidi H, Tabatabaei SJ (2014) Stevia (Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni) responses to
NaCl stress: growth, photosynthetic pigments, diterpene glycosides and ion content in root and
shoot. J Saudi Soc Agric Sci 119:469–477
Sharma R, Singh H, Prajapati N, Ranjan M (2019) Effects of different seed treatments on germina-
tion of endangered Pinus gerardiana. Int J Chem Stud 7(1):1635–1638
Shiga T, Shoji K, Shimada H, Hashida S, Goto F, Yoshihara T (2009) Effect of light quality on
rosmarinic acid content and antioxidant activity of sweet basil, Ocimum basilicum L. Plant
Biotechnol 26(2):255–259. https://doi.org/10.5511/plantbiotechnology.26.255
Shohael AM, Ali MB, Yu K-W, Hahn E-J, Paek K-Y (2006) Effect of temperature on second-
ary metabolites production and antioxidant enzyme activities in Eleutherococcus sentico-
sus somatic embryos. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult 85(2):219–228. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11240-005-9075-x
Singh H (2021) An integrated approach considering physiological and biophysical based indica-
tors for assessing tolerance of roadside plantations of Alstonia scholaris towards urban roadside
air pollution: an assessment of adaptation of plantations for mitigating urban roadside air pol-
lution. Trees https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-021-02179-8
Singh H, Verma A (2013) Physiological responses of rice cultivars to various nitrogen levels. Int J
Environ Agric Biotechnol 6(3):383–388
Singh-Sangwan N, Farooqi AHA, Singh-Sangwan R (1994) Effect of drought stress on growth and
essential oil metabolism in lemon grasses. New Phytol 128(1):173–179
Sinha S, Saxena R (2006) Effect of iron on lipid peroxidation, and enzymatic and non-enzymatic
antioxidants and bacoside-A content in medicinal plant Bacopa monnieri L. Chemosphere
62(8):1340–1350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.07.030
Sivadasan U, Randriamanana TR, Julkunen-Tiitto R, Nybakken L (2015) The vegetative buds of
Salix myrsinifolia are responsive to elevated UV-B and temperature. Plant Physiol Biochem
93:66–73
Sivanandhan G, Kapil Dev G, Jeyaraj M, Rajesh M, Arjunan A, Muthuselvam M, Manickavasagam

M, Selvaraj N, Ganapathi A (2013) Increased production of withanolide A, withanone, and
withaferin A in hairy root cultures of Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal elicited with methyl jas-
monate and salicylic acid. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult (PCTOC) 114(1):121–129. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11240-013-0297-z
Soriano-Melger LA, Alcaraz-Meléndez LC, Puente ME, Rivera-Cabrera F, Zenteno-Savin T
(2014) Antioxidant responses of damiana (Turnera diffusa Willd) to exposure to artificial ultra-
violet (UV) radiation in an in vitro model; part II; UV-B radiation. Nutr Hosp 29:116–122
Stiling P, Cornelissen T (2007) How does elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) affect plant–herbi-
vore interactions? A field experiment and meta-analysis of CO2-mediated changes on plant
chemistry and herbivore performance. Glob Chang Biol 13(9):1823–1842. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01392.x
Stutte GW, Eraso I, Rimando AM (2008) Carbon dioxide enrichment enhances growth and fla-
vonoid content of two Scutellaria species. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 133(5):631–638. https://doi.
org/10.21273/JASHS.133.5.631
Suleman P, Redha A, Afzal M, Al-Hasan R (2014) Effects of UV-B on photosynthetic parameters,
lipid peroxidation, flavonoids, and growth traits of Conocarpus lancifolius (Engl). Am J Agric
Biol Sci 9:55–63
Sun M, Gu X, Fu H, Zhang L, Chen R, Cui L, Zheng L, Zhang D, Tian J (2010) Change of second-
ary metabolites in leaves of Ginkgo biloba L. in response to UV-B induction. Innov Food Sci
Emerg Technol 11:672–676
Takshak S, Agrawal SB (2015) Alterations in metabolite profile and free radical scavenging activi-
ties of Withania somnifera leaf and root extracts under supplemental ultraviolet-B radiation.
Acta Physiol Plant 37(12):260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11738-015-2014-5
Takshak S, Agrawal SB (2016) The role of supplemental ultraviolet-B radiation in altering the
metabolite profile, essential oil content and composition, and free radical scavenging activities
of coleus forskohlii, an indigenous medicinal plant. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23(8):7324–7337.
Tang H, Yang J, Zhang XR, Cao LP, Qin Q, Zhao M, Li C, Chen YH (2020) Effects of UV-B
pre-treatments on physiological properties and accumulation of active ingredients in herbal
plant, Prunella vulgaris. J Environ Biol 41(3):556–562. https://doi.org/10.22438/JEB/41/3/
MRN-1269
Teoh ES (2015) Secondary metabolites of plants. In: Medicinal Orchids of Asia, pp 59–73
Tonelli M, Pellegrini E, D’Angiolillo F, Petersen M, Nali C, Pistelli L, Lorenzini G (2015) Ozone-
elicited secondary metabolites in shoot cultures of Melissa officinalis L. Plant Cell Tissue
Organ Cult 120(2):617–629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11240-014-0628-8
Tubiello FN, Amthor JS, Boote KJ, Donatelli M, Easterling W, Fischer G, Gifford RM, Howden
M, Reilly J, Rosenzweig C (2007) Crop response to elevated CO2 and world food supply. Eur
J Agron 26(3):215–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2006.10.002
Tůmová L, Tůma J (2011) Dyer’s Greenweed (Genista tinctoria L.): constituents and biological
activity. Ceska Slov Farm 60(2):61–64
Valifard M, Mohsenzadeh S, Kholdebarin B, Rowshan V (2014) Effects of salt stress on volatile
compounds, total phenolic content and antioxidant activities of salvia mirzayanii. S Afr J Bot
93:92–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2014.04.002
Wang JW, Zhang Z, Tan RX (2001) Stimulation of artemisinin production in Artemisia annua hairy
roots by the elicitor from the endophytic Colletotrichum sp. Biotechnol Lett 23(11):857–860.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010535001943
Wang L, Li W, Ma L, Chen J, Lü H, Jian T (2016) Salt stress changes chemical composition in
Limonium bicolor (bag.) Kuntze, a medicinal halophytic plant. Ind Crop Prod 84:248–253.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.01.050
Xie D, Chen L, Zhou C, Tarin MWK, Yang D, Ren K, He T, Rong J, Zheng Y (2020) Transcriptomic
and metabolomic profiling reveals the effect of LED light quality on morphological traits, and
phenylpropanoid-derived compounds accumulation in Sarcandra glabra seedlings. BMC Plant

Biol 20:476
Yahyazadeh M, Meinen R, Hänsch R, Abouzeid S, Selmar D (2018) Impact of drought and salt
stress on the biosynthesis of alkaloids in Chelidonium majus L. Phytochemistry 152:204–212
Yao X, Liu Q (2005) The effects of enhanced ultraviolet-B and nitrogen supply on growth, photo-
synthesis and nutrient status of Abies faxoniana seedlings. Acta Physiol Plant 31(3):523–529
Yao X, Chu J, He X, Ma C, Han C, Shen H (2015) The changes in quality ingredients of qi chrysan-
themum flowers treated with elevated UV-B radiation at different growth stages. J Photochem
Photobiol B Biol 146:18–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2015.02.023
Yu K, Niranjana MH, Hahn E, Paek K (2005) Ginsenoside production by hairy root cultures of
Panax ginseng: influence of temperature and light quality. Biochem Eng J 23:53–56
Zhong J-J, Yoshida M, Fujiyama K, Seki T, Yoshida T (1993) Enhancement of anthocyanin produc-
tion by Perilla frutescens cells in a stirred bioreactor with internal light irradiation. J Ferment
Bioeng 75(4):299–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/0922-338X(93)90155-2
Zhong Z, Liu S, Zhu W, Ou Y, Yamaguchi H, Hitachi K, Tsuchida K, Tian J, Komatsu S (2019)
Phosphoproteomics reveals the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in Catharanthus roseus
under ultraviolet-B radiation. J Proteome Res 18(9):3328–3341. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.
jproteome.9b00267
Zhou Y, Tang N, Huang L, Zhao Y, Tang X, Wang K (2018) Effects of salt stress on plant growth,
antioxidant capacity, glandular Trichome density, and volatile exudates of Schizonepeta tenui-
folia Briq. Int J Mol Sci 19(1):252. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19010252
Zobayed SMA, Afreen F, Kozai T (2005) Temperature stress can alter the photosynthetic effi-
ciency and secondary metabolite concentrations in St. John’s wort. Plant Physiol Biochem
43(10–11):977–984. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2005.07.013
Zogli P, Alvarez S, Naldrett MJ, Palmer NA, Koch KG, Pingault L, Bradshaw JD, Twigg P, Heng-
Moss TM, Louis J, Sarath G (2020) Greenbug (Schizaphis graminum) herbivory significantly
impacts protein and phosphorylation abundance in switchgrass (Panicum virgatum). Sci Rep
10:14842
Zu YG, Pang HH, Yu JH, Li DW, Wei XX, Gao YX, Tong L (2010) Responses in the morphology,
physiology and biochemistry of Taxus chinensis var mairei grown under supplementary UV-B
radiation. J Photochem Photobiol 98:152–158
Chapter 3
Adaptive Modulations in Morphological
and Physiological Responses of Forest
Ecosystems to Climate Change
Garima Mishra, Tushal Srivastava, Rama Kant, Rajendra K. Meena,

Shailesh Pandey, and Maneesh S. Bhandari
Abstract As global climate patterns shift, forests face myriad consequences, grap-
pling with rising temperatures, altered weather patterns, and extreme events. This
chapter delves into the intricate morphological and physiological changes within
forest ecosystems in response to climate change, impacting forest health, biodiver-
sity, and ecosystem services. While morphological adaptations enhance resilience
to challenges like drought and pests, adverse changes hinder growth and structural
integrity. Physiological adaptations, such as impaired photosynthesis, exacerbate
vulnerability to stress. These adaptations drive shifts in species composition, influ-
encing forest dynamics and nutrient cycling. Genetic constraints and biotic interac-
tions further complicate adaptation efforts. Despite challenges, forests exhibit
remarkable plasticity, underscoring the need for understanding to guide long-term
conservation and management strategies. This chapter’s findings suggested that
future research must unravel the mechanisms and limitations of these adaptations to
bolster forest resilience in a warming world.
Keywords Forests · Climate change · Morphological changes · Physiological

changes · Adaptations · Conservation
G. Mishra · T. Srivastava · R. Kant · R. K. Meena · M. S. Bhandari (*)

Division of Genetics and Tree Improvement, ICFRE-Forest Research Institute,
S. Pandey
Division of Forest Protection, ICFRE-Forest Research Institute,

Ltd. 2024
44 G. Mishra et al.
3.1 Introduction
Forests are pivotal in preserving environmental equilibrium, controlling the climate,

and supporting diverse ecosystems. However, in the face of unprecedented climate
change, forest ecosystems are experiencing profound morphological and physiolog-
ical transformations. Changing weather patterns, increasing temperatures, and a
surge in the frequency of catastrophic events threaten the world’s essential forests,
which are crucial in regulating the global climate (Daniels et al. 2011; Verma et al.
2020). The current global climate is undergoing a pervasive shift marked by rising
temperatures, elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels, and alterations in
precipitation patterns (Singh and Kumar 2022). This climatic transformation influ-
ences forests’ physiology, morphology, defensive mechanisms, and intricate rela-
tionships among pests, their surroundings, and other species like natural enemies,
competitors, and mutualists (Moore and Allard 2008). Notably, climate variations
have discernible effects on the growth of trees and saplings within natural forests
(Singh 2024).
Elevated temperatures lead to shifts in the timing of life cycle events (phenol-
ogy), resulting in earlier bud burst, leafing, and tree flowering. However, consider-
able year-to-year and regional variations exist(Singh et al. 2020). This alteration
directly affects forests and indirectly heightens the risk of infestations (Singh et al.
2014). The influence of changing climate on forest ecosystems primarily revolves
around their function in carbon emission and sequestration (Battles et al. 2008;
Singh et al. 2018). Furthermore, it modifies the frequency and severity of natural
disturbances in some forests, particularly fire and insect disturbances (Singh et al.
2017). In recent years, there have been alterations in disturbance regimes across
many forest ecosystems, and this trend is expected to stand as one of the most pro-
found effects of climate change in the coming decades (Seidl et al. 2017).
The foundation for acclimation and evolutionary adaptation to climate change
lies in ecophysiological processes, with particular traits like the timing of bud flush
exhibiting substantial phenotypic plasticity(Sharma et al. 2018). However, genetic
diversity within populations regarding this trait suggests that only phenotypic plas-
ticity might not ensure optimal fitness across a species’ range of climates (Rawat
et al. 2020). Trees are genetically tuned to their local climates, making rapid climate
change a potential challenge for species to adapt to their current locations or migrate
to new ones (Aitken et al. 2008; Mishra et al. 2023). Decision-makers must compre-
hend the potential ecophysiological responses of trees and forests to climate change
to support the acclimation and adaptation of forests. This chapter delves into the
intricacies of these changes, exploring their causes, implications, and possible adap-
tive strategies (Raturi et al. 2022; Prakash et al. 2022).
3 Adaptive Modulations in Morphological and Physiological Responses of Forest… 45
3.2 Climate Change and Drivers
Climate change, primarily driven by human activities such as deforestation and the
release of greenhouse gases, has resulted in alterations to global temperature and
precipitation patterns. The consequences of these changes are far-reaching and
impact the intricate balance of forest ecosystems (Phukon et al. 2022). Climate
change represents a formidable force shaping the dynamics of forest ecosystems,
driving intricate morphological and physiological changes in plant species (Gifford
et al. 2011). The ongoing global rise in temperatures is a crucial driver, impacting
the phenological events of trees and prompting shifts in their life cycle. Notably,
earlier bud burst, leafing, and flowering are becoming prevalent responses, altering
the temporal sequence of critical biological processes (Kumari and Singh 2018;
Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c).
Simultaneously, the escalating levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) con-
tribute significantly to the changing physiological landscape of forest ecosystems.
As a crucial component of photosynthesis, CO2 influences tree physiology, influ-
encing growth patterns and nutrient cycling (Bussotti et al. 2015; Kumar et al.
2019). The intricate balance of carbon sequestration, a fundamental ecosystem ser-
vice provided by the forests, is thus disrupted by these elevated CO2 levels, posing
challenges to the overall health and sustainability of forested areas(Kumar
et al. 2022).
Precipitation patterns, another essential climatic factor, are transforming in the
era of climate change. Variations in rainfall intensity, frequency, and distribution
impact water availability, with cascading effects on the morphology and physiology
of forest vegetation (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d). Drought stress and waterlogged
conditions become more prevalent, influencing tree growth, species composition,
and the overall resilience of forest ecosystems (Menezes-Silva et al. 2019). These
climatic drivers influence individual tree species and orchestrate changes at the
community and ecosystem levels. Biotic interactions within forests are paradigm-
shifting, with implications for plant and animal species(Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c).
Relationships between pests, their environments, and other species, including natu-
ral enemies, competitors, and mutualists, are redefined in response to these morpho-
logical and physiological alterations (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d). In addition to
biotic interactions, climate change is changing the occurrence and intensity of natu-
ral disturbances like wildfires and insect outbreaks within forest ecosystems. These
events, often exacerbated by changing climate conditions, threaten forest ecosys-
tems’ structural and functional integrity (Li et al. 2020). As species compositions
shift and feedback loops amplify impacts, concerted conservation and adaptive
management efforts are imperative to safeguard the health and sustainability of for-
est ecosystems in the face of climate change (Littell et al. 2010).
Due to these multifaceted drivers, forest ecosystems are at a critical juncture,
facing challenges that require adaptive responses (Joshi et al. 2021). Understanding
the morphological and physiological changes induced by climate change is impera-
tive for devising effective conservation and management strategies. Proactive
46 G. Mishra et al.
measures are needed to enhance the resilience of forest ecosystems, ensuring their
capacity to adapt to evolving environmental conditions(Gupta et al. 2019). The
urgency of addressing climate change and its drivers in forest ecosystems cannot be
overstated. Conservation efforts must go beyond individual tree species to consider
the broader ecological context, incorporating the intricate web of interactions and
dependencies within these dynamic systems(Dhyani et al. 2021).
3.3 Morphological Changes in Forests
The growth of trees in response to climate warming may hinge on a combination of

morphological (such as specific leaf area and stomatal traits) and physiological
(particularly photosynthesis) characteristics(Apurva et al. 2017). It’s important to
note that the specific morphological changes in forests can vary depending on
regional climate conditions, the type of forest, and other local factors (Devi et al.
2023). Additionally, the interactions between different environmental stressors can
amplify the impressions of climate change on forest ecosystems. Some fundamental
morphological changes in forests due to climate change are as follows.
3.3.1 Shifts in Species Composition
As temperatures rise and precipitation patterns change, the suitable habitat for vari-
ous tree species may shift(Gupta et al. 2018). Some species may decline or migrate
to higher latitudes or elevations, while others may expand their range. The impacts
of climate change, presenting both positive and negative consequences, will induce
alterations in the quantitative and qualitative aspects of forest composition, struc-
ture, and functioning. This will prompt species to exhibit adaptive responses
(Huntley and Baxter 2013). Plant reactions to climate change are unique to each
species, although species sharing similar vital characteristics are anticipated to
demonstrate comparable responses (Joshi and Singh 2020). Consequently, angio-
sperms and gymnosperms/conifers are likely to display distinct ecophysiological
reactions to elevated CO2 concentrations, potentially influencing the regional
responses of each forest type (Klein and Ramon 2019).
3.3.2 Altered Growth Patterns Among Forest Species
Changes in temperature and precipitation can influence the growth patterns and
nutrient availability of plants and trees (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c). For example,
elevated temperatures might result in heightened evaporation and increased water
strain. In contrast, altered precipitation patterns lead to changes in the density and
Fig. 3.1 Climate impacts various stages of the tree life cycle, along with seed production, germi-
nation, and the survival/growth of seedlings
distribution of trees, impacting the overall canopy structure and understory compo-
sition (Li et al. 2020). A progressive rise in temperature is poised to modify the
regeneration, particularly during the seedling stage, as it is influenced by low soil
moisture and competition with other species (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d). The sus-
tainability of local populations is intricately tied to the reproductive success of indi-
vidual trees. The reproduction dynamics are significantly influenced by climate
change, impacting key aspects such as seed production, germination, and the sur-
vival/growth of seedlings. These climatic influences can potentially induce shifts in
population and community structures (Kramer et al. 2020; Fig. 3.1). The variability
and change in climate contribute to the degradation of forest resources, leading to
the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This, in turn, affects the resilience
of forest resources and compromises their capacity to provide essential ecosystem
services (Lasco et al. 2008).
3.3.3 Heightened Occurrence and Severity of Disturbances
Environmental disruptions such as wildfires, infestations of insects, wind throws

and storms, and droughts play a crucial role in the dynamic equilibrium of ecosys-
tems worldwide. Forest structure and function disruption occurs when disturbances
48 G. Mishra et al.
surpass their natural range of variation (Paoletti et al. 2007). Generally, the rise in
the occurrence and strength of extreme weather events are linked to climate change.
The rising temperatures generate circumstances that significantly heighten the like-
lihood and intensity of forest fires. Notably, fires play a pivotal role in regulating the
carbon balance of forests, diminishing their capacity as carbon sinks (Rice 2010).
The occurrence, scale, intensity, seasonal patterns, and nature of fires are contingent
upon the quantity and frequency of precipitation and the specific structure and com-
position of the forest. Importantly, wildfires can result in the loss of vegetation,
disturbance of wildlife habitats, acceleration of nutrient cycling, and alter the struc-
ture of the forest (Battles et al. 2008). It substantially affects the concentrations of
available macronutrients and potentially amplifies mortality rates in older forests
already strained by low soil moisture.
3.3.4 Shifts in Phenology
Temperature serves as a primary catalyst for various biological developmental pro-

cesses. The rates of chemical reactions, especially those mediated by enzymes in
living systems, are temperature-dependent and typically rise with increasing tem-
peratures (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d). Temperature-sensitive biological phenomena
encompass enzyme denaturation at an elevated temperature, enzyme kinetics, mem-
brane fluidity, and the formation of ice crystals, leading to the destruction of cellular
structures (Johnson and Thornley 1985). Higher temperatures have often acceler-
ated plant development, prompting earlier transitions to subsequent ontogenetic
stages (Kumar et al. 2018). In cold-deciduous plants, temporal trends in phenologi-
cal switches (duration between vegetative growth and floral bud initiation stage)
have been dictated by the global trend in temperature rise. The observed advance-
ments in spring leaf bud burst and flowering dates in middle and higher latitudes
could be attributed to concurrent anthropogenic climate change and the associated
rise in temperatures. Anticipated correlations include the onset of pheno-phases and
cumulative heat sums, primarily representing temperatures from preceding months.
In a water-limited system, where plants may enter dormant stages or perish without
sufficient soil water, changes in precipitation patterns are foreseen to alter the annual
cycle of plant activity (Hisano et al. 2018).
Supporting evidence for these anticipated trends in plant phenology is derived
from long-term ground observations and more recent remote sensing-based time
series monitoring the greenness of the Earth’s surface (Badeck et al. 2004).
Nevertheless, spring phenology is not reactive to global mean temperatures. Instead,
it responds to regional shifts in winter and spring temperatures, with a notable
emphasis on temperatures during the weeks leading up to the initiation of pheno-
logical transitions (Sharma et al. 2019; Singh 2021). Further research is needed to
comprehend the reasons behind the regional and temporal variations in phenol-
ogy trends.
3.3.5 Spread of Invasive Species
Climate change is anticipated to amplify invasive species’ scope, frequency, and

intensity, facilitating a transition towards invasiveness in species that historically
were not considered invasive. This change creates optimal circumstances for inva-
sive species to infiltrate forest ecosystems through various intermixed channels
(Fig. 3.2). Relaxing temperature or moisture constraints on dispersal and survival
leads to alterations in species distributions, enabling successful invasions into new
areas (Hellmann et al. 2008). The habitat-shifting ranges of a species may create
ecological niches for non-native invasive species to increase and expand.
In response to increased carbon dioxide levels, invasive species exhibit a more
robust reaction than their non-invasive counterparts. Invasive species are well-
equipped to adapt to swift environmental changes, possessing robust dispersal capa-
bilities and broad ecological tolerances. Invasive plants, characterized as recent
introductions of non-indigenous or exotic species, effectively establish themselves
in new localized natural habitats, causing economic or environmental harm. Changes
in weather events contribute to an increased disturbance regime, and invasive spe-
cies typically thrive in disturbed landscapes (fragmented communities) with ample
light and geographical space(Gebeyehu and Hirpo 2019).
In the case of introduced species in non-native environments, most introduced
species face challenges in survival due to unsuitable climatic conditions (Williamson
1999). However, a shift in temperature regimes across the globe results in a different
mix of species that thrive or falter (Singh and Verma 2013). A warmer climate might
Fig. 3.2 A streamlined

framework illustrating the
impacts of climate change
on the survival and
viability of weeds and
invasive species in a forest
ecosystem
50 G. Mishra et al.
favour a more significant fraction of introduced species, considering that introduced

species constitute a more substantial portion of the biota in warmer regions. Notably,
the rise in CO2 levels can directly impact introduced plants by enhancing photosyn-
thesis, albeit at varying rates for different species (Badeck et al. 2004).
3.3.6 Impact on Biodiversity
The biodiversity of forest ecosystems may experience a series of interconnected

consequences due to climate change (Singh et al. 2023). Species unable to adapt or
migrate to more suitable habitats may face population decline or local extinction
(Singh et al. 2010). This may result in changes in community composition and eco-
system function. Climate change is expected to directly impact the abundance and
diversity of faunal biodiversity by altering temperature and precipitation patterns.
The biodiversity components, including trees, birds, amphibians, and mammals,
exhibit significant interactions with temperature and precipitation, while reptiles are
responsive to temperature but not to precipitation (Currie 2001). Forecasts indicate
that bird and mammal richness will be severely affected, particularly in regions
characterized by high temperatures and low rainfall, which are expected to expand.
Typically, species richness is highest in moderately warm areas and diminishes in
hotter regions. Consequently, areas experiencing rising temperatures coupled with
reduced precipitation may witness a decline in bird and mammal richness, although
certain cooler regions becoming warmer may experience an increase in the avian
faunas. Climatic warming is anticipated to positively impact reptile and amphibian
richness, as both groups exhibit a consistently rising pattern with increased tem-
peratures, with amphibians additionally influenced by precipitation (Hansen
et al. 2001).
The most pronounced response is expected for amphibians in warming regions
presently considered cold, like high-elevation forests. The expansion of terrestrial
invertebrate ranges due to global warming is not merely a projection (Thomas et al.
2001). The overall expectation is that the temperature rise caused by climate change
will benefit reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates while potentially diminishing
bird and mammal richness in some areas while increasing in others. Mammal diver-
sity, in particular, is predicted to increase by 10–20% in more northern latitudes due
to temperature rise. Although there is a general assumption that species will be
capable of shifting climatic zones despite anthropogenic and natural barriers, this
assumption may face challenges due to habitat fragmentation and the projected rate
of climate change (Shwartz et al. 2001). A comprehensive collection of scale-
dependent biodiversity characteristics and processes contributed to the forests’
resilience (Table 3.1). Whether the impact is positive or negative— the resilience
will depend on the orientation and extent of alteration in regional climatic condi-
tions, particularly for rainfall (seasonal/annual) and evaporation (Thompson
et al. 2009).
Table 3.1 Summary of biodiversity traits in response to climate change that confer resilience on
a forest ecosystem
Sl.
No. Biodiversity traits Potential impact of climate change
1. Niche selection • Altered conditions push beyond the optimal range for driver
species, increasing passenger species’ competitiveness
• Changed conditions produce new niches
2. Functional • As climatic stress prompts a shift in biodiversity, historical
diversity diversity is lost, and new entities emerge. In this transformation,
certain previously passive elements transition into active drivers of
ecological dynamics
3. Adaptive • The pace of altered environmental stresses may surpass the natural
selection speed of adaptive selection, hindering the process
4. Phenotypic • Altered conditions lead to structural modifications in the dominant
plasticity canopy species
5. Microevolution • Key species experience evolutionary shifts, acquiring novel
adaptive characteristics that enable them to sustain competitiveness
amid changed conditions
6. Microhabitat • The shift in canopy density resulting from changing climatic
safeguarding conditions modifies the environmental landscape for ground-
dwelling faunal habitats
7. Source habitats • Altered climatic conditions have the potential to either
compromise the viability of traditional source habitats or enhance
their productivity
8. Refugia habitats • In the face of changing climatic conditions, once a widespread
habitat contracts into a network of specific locations. Here, the
topographical features offer microhabitat buffering, allowing
populations to endure
9. Regional species • The speed of climate change may outpace the ability of species to
pool migrate from their original habitats
10. Synergistic • The potential impacts of stress on ecosystem resilience remain
interactions uncertain, posing challenges in accurate prediction
At geological time scale, the transformation of forest ecosystems is a slow pro-

cedure that develops across decades to millennia, and the pace of this change is
contingent upon the spatial scale at which the ecosystem is observed. Changes man-
ifest more swiftly at more minor spatial scales over time. Historical evidence sug-
gests that shifts in species range occur slowly compared to the projected rate of
warming (Shwartz et al. 2001). Past trends, occurring over centuries, show forests
responding over one or two generations, allowing for gradual migrations at
30–40 km per century (Thompson et al. 1998). In fragmented habitats, migration
rates are anticipated to be no faster than 1–10 km per century (Shwartz et al. 2001).
Given the accelerated pace of climate change compared to historical observations,
the forest response is expected to differ significantly from patterns revealed by
paleoecological data.
Nevertheless, well-established forest ecosystems exhibit substantial resistance,
creating a form of inertia within the forest (Loehle and Leblanc 1996). Rapid
52 G. Mishra et al.
species replacement is feasible only when the dominant canopy is removed; other-
wise, competition gradually influences replacement. This ecological inertia
enhances the resilience and resistance of established forest ecosystems to climate
change (Noss 2001).
Forest ecosystems that display resilience and resistance are essential in maintain-
ing the structures necessary for biodiversity conservation. Consequently, the indi-
rect impact of climate change becomes more significant to consider, as disturbances
such as fires serve as mechanisms to overcome this inertia (Nitschke and Innes
2007). This facilitates the rapid replacement of species and the subsequent loss of
habitat structures vital for existing biodiversity.
3.3.7 Shifts in Forest Distribution
In some cases, forests may migrate poleward or to higher elevations in response to

changing climate conditions. This migration process, known as “forest migration”
or “shifting ranges”, can affect biodiversity and ecosystem services. As tempera-
tures rise, the geographic range of certain tree species is shifting. Warmer tempera-
tures may allow trees to thrive at higher latitudes or altitudes. Conversely, some
species may struggle to adapt to the changing climate and may experience a decline
in their traditional range. Forests are expanding into historically too cold areas due
to milder temperatures, a process known as “boreal greening.”
Conversely, forests may contract in warmer regions as higher temperatures
become less suitable for certain tree species. Changes in temperature and precipita-
tion patterns influence the types of tree species that can thrive in specific areas. This
can lead to a shift in the composition of forest ecosystems as some species become
more dominant while others decline. Boreal forests in high northern latitudes are
particularly vulnerable (Joshi et al. 2012).
Notably, higher temperatures may result in permafrost thawing, impacting the
stability of these ecosystems and potentially allowing the encroachment of more
southerly species. Rising temperatures and changes in precipitation can subject
trees to increased strain, rendering them more vulnerable to pests, diseases, and
wildfires. This can result in elevated mortality rates and a decline in forest health.
Warmer temperatures may alter the timing and length of growing seasons. In some
regions, this could extend the growing period, while in others, it may lead to shorter
and less predictable seasons. Changes in forest distribution have consequences for
services provided by the ecosystems, such as carbon sequestration, water regula-
tion, and habitat provision. Altered forest distribution can affect these services and
adversely impact the environment and human societies. Climate change can disrupt
the intricate web of relationships between trees and other species, including fungi,
insects, and animals (Chiang et al. 2008).
3.3.8
Effect on forest health
The extent of overwinter survival for various insects and shortened reproduction
cycles and development has expanded due to climate change (Grimm et al. 2013).
Both insects and pathogens exhibit responses to warming across anticipated dimen-
sions, encompassing alterations in phenology, distribution, and the influencing of
community dynamics and composition (Moore and Allard 2008). The incidence of
pests and diseases is expected to rise with climatic variability and change. Extended
dry spells and more intense rainfall contribute to declining water quality, heighten-
ing the risk of waterborne diseases (Dinse 2010). Invasive forest plants, insects, and
pathogens possess the direct capacity to induce tree mortality. Elevated disturbance
in forests, particularly from bark beetles, has been observed due to increased insect
activity.
Moreover, trees damaged by insects and pathogens can wield substantial socio-
economic impacts due to their heightened physiological responsiveness to climate,
brief reproductive cycles, significant mobility, and prolific reproductive potential.
Many pests and pathogens are anticipated to exhibit accelerated reproduction,
expanded ranges, and invasion into new regions under increased warmth, moisture,
or elevated CO2 levels. Insect pests, in particular, are sensitive to a warming climate,
where heightened moisture or temperatures stress their survival and reproductive
rates. The outcome of climate change-induced outbreaks of tree pests and pathogens
can yield negative economic and environmental repercussions (Macpherson
et al. 2017).
3.3.9 Changes in Nutrient Availability
The rise in temperature is poised to impact nutrient availability in the soil in a forest
ecosystem by accelerating the decomposition of organic matter and promoting the
mineralization of soil nutrients. Crucial connections exist between trees and soil
nutrient availability, with the cycling of nutrients between soil and plants being a
key determinant of forest ecosystem functioning. Climate change has repercussions
on nutrient availability for plant uptake, thereby limiting the productivity and sur-
vival of forest ecosystems. Importantly, nutrient availability is pivotal in shaping
forest ecosystems and influencing net primary productivity (Dukes et al. 2014). On
the forest floor, the breakdown of organic matter like fallen leaves by microbes
releases nitrogen into the soil. However, as atmospheric CO2 levels rise, more
microbes are experiencing nitrogen limitations, which may reduce the release of
nutrients to the trees (Juneja et al. 2013). Conclusively, elevated temperatures
directly affect the rate of photosynthesis and the macronutrient concentration in
soils, leaves of trees, shrubs, and herbs.
54 G. Mishra et al.
3.4 Physiological Responses of Trees
Trees rely on light, heat, carbon dioxide, and water nutrients for photosynthesis and
growth. The increase in temperature and CO2 are impacting the rates of photosyn-
thesis and overall growth. With rising temperatures, the decomposition rate of soil
organic matter accelerates, leading to increased mineralization and nutrient avail-
ability for plant uptake. The combined effects of elevated CO2 and temperature
depend on soil properties, water content, minerals, and nutrient availability. The
growth of a tree is intricately tied to the availability of forest resources, influencing
the delicate balance between growth and mortality and, consequently, determining
forest productivity (Seidl et al. 2017). Changes in temperature, precipitation, and
CO2 levels have long-term implications for the carbon balance and directly or indi-
rectly impact nutrient cycling. These effects manifest through alterations in forest
composition, growing season length, and the water cycle (Peterson et al. 2014).
Some of the critical physiological responses are as follows.
3.4.1 Altered Rates of Photosynthesis
Climate change can influence the rate of photosynthesis in plants. CO2 also directly
impacts plant metabolism by influencing photosynthesis—the crucial process by
which carbon enters the biosphere. Elevated CO2 levels may initially enhance pho-
tosynthesis, but other factors, such as increased temperatures and water stress, can
offset these benefits (Zhu et al. 2017). Changes in photosynthetic rates can impact
overall plant growth and productivity. This is particularly relevant in forest ecosys-
tems, which predominantly consist of plants with C3 photosynthetic pathways, and
their photosynthetic processes are not saturated at current CO2 levels. Such an
enhancement could, to some extent, lead to increased carbon storage in forest bio-
mass, acting as a counterforce against the rise in atmospheric CO2. Limited evi-
dence from tree rings suggests that forest growth in certain locations may have
increased over the past century, independent of climate influences, although this
finding is subject to debate (Kienast and Luxmoore 1988).
Moreover, global 3-D atmospheric tracer model studies support the hypothesis
that the observed rise in the annual variation of atmospheric carbon, especially in
northern latitudes, can be attributed to an increased growth rate in temperate and
boreal forests (Bacastow et al. 1985). While the regulation of CO2 is just one facet—
how does global vegetation impact the climate, vegetation is vital in modifying
energy fluxes by altering the Earth’s albedo. Generally, vegetation has a lower
albedo than soil, absorbing more radiant energy and warming the Earth’s surface
(Dusenge et al. 2019).
3.4.2 Increased Water Stress
Alterations in rainfall trends and elevated temperatures may result in more frequent
and severe drought conditions. Forests may experience water stress, affecting the
physiological processes of plants, such as water uptake, transpiration, and nutrient
transport. Water plays a significant role as a principal determinant of ecosystem
type. Earlier, the average annual precipitation in temperate forests spans a range of
500–2500 mm per year (Whittaker 1970). Millennia of plant competition have
favoured vegetative species that demonstrate optimal adaptation to limited resources,
including water. Short-term droughts, enduring for fewer than two years, can reduce
ecosystem productivity (Hanson and Weltzin 2000).
On the other hand, long-term droughts exceeding two years can introduce addi-
tional disruptions to ecosystems. These extended periods of drought share features
with short-term droughts but also carry the risk of tree mortality from water stress
(Kloeppel et al. 2003), a higher likelihood of insect outbreaks, and an elevated sus-
ceptibility to wildfires (Flannigan and Wotton 2001). Changes in either insect spe-
cies, the frequency or intensity of insect outbreaks, or the dynamics of fires could
modify the competitive advantages among temperate tree species. Consequently,
such shifts can render certain species and forest types less resistant to environmental
challenges (Thompson et al. 2009).
It is well-established that severe droughts diminish the carbon sink of forests by
causing tree mortality. The impacts of mild yet persistent water stress on forest phe-
nology and physiology remain largely unexplored. According to a recent study,
chronic water stress could potentially reduce the carbon absorption capacity of
deciduous forests by as much as 17% (equivalent to 0.04 pg C yr.−1) in the coming
decades. This reduction in carbon sink is attributed to mesophication and chronic
water stress, comparable to an additional 1–3 days of global carbon emissions from
fossil fuels. This suggests that regional declines in water availability might counter-
act the growth-enhancing effects of other global changes, thereby diminishing the
extent to which forests mitigate climate warming (Brzostek et al. 2014). The sus-
ceptibility of tree species to drought conditions is heightened in various ways due to
global warming. In some species, elevated temperatures cause a decrease in stoma-
tal conductance, resulting in reduced leaf transpiration and increased leaf tempera-
ture. This may lead to more significant reductions in photosynthesis and an increase
in photorespiration and respiration rates (Menezes-Silva et al. 2019). Conversely, in
other species, high temperatures enhance stomatal conductance and leaf transpira-
tion, exacerbating tension in xylem vessels induced by drought. This increases sus-
ceptibility to cavitation and hydraulic failure (Fig. 3.3).
One notable physiological adjustment in plants during water stress is osmotic
adaptation, which relies on the generation and build-up of osmolytes like proline,
mannitol, glucose, and fructose. These substances aid in sustaining the water poten-
tial of the plant’s tissues, effectively counteracting water loss. Additionally, the
accumulation of inorganic ions in vacuoles assists in overcoming soil salinity,
thereby preventing excessive water absorption. For instance, effective vacuolar
56 G. Mishra et al.
Fig. 3.3 Schematic representation of diverse effects of drought on forest ecosystem due to cli-
mate change
sequestration of Na+ in the Pongamiapinnata root prevents the accumulation of

excess Na+ in the leaf (Kijowska-Oberc et al. 2020).
3.4.3 Changes in Carbon Dynamics
Forests are significant carbon sinks, sequestering carbon through photosynthesis

and storing it in trees and soils. Climate change can impact carbon cycling by alter-
ing the equilibrium between carbon uptake and release. Increased temperature and
disturbances can accelerate decomposition rates, potentially leading to ecosystem
carbon loss. Oxygenic or photosynthetically-driven ecosystems have endured on
Earth for at least 2.8 billion years. Forests will persist in the uptake and storage of
carbon as long as there is an adequate supply of water and solar radiation for photo-
synthesis. As demonstrated in previous occurrences, forest ecosystems’ genetic and
taxonomic makeup might change over time (Des Marais 2000). In the past, the
expansion of the terrestrial buffer has naturally taken place as a negative feedback
response to the elevated CO2 levels, coupled with the associated global warming
and heightened precipitation (approximately a 5% increase in global rainfall for
every 10° increase in temperature) (Zhang et al. 2007).
The carbon dynamics within forests, including the rate of flows and the stock
resulting from net carbon exchanges, are influenced by climatic factors that control
the rates of photosynthesis and respiration/decay. The rates of photosynthesis
increase with greater water availability, provided that thermal and radiation condi-
tions adequately support plant growth. Prolonged heat stress diminishes photosyn-
thetic rates and escalates water loss through transpiration (Thom et al. 2017).
Maintaining a constant moisture level leads to respiration decomposition rates that
vary proportionally with temperature. Typically, biochemical process rates double
with each degree Celsius. Additionally, variations in the chemical and physical
properties of substrates also impact growth rates due to localized differences in sub-
surface water availability and the underlying status of soil-forming bedrock (Law
et al. 2002).
The recovery of carbon stocks after substantial disturbances in the early twenti-
eth century will have a limited yet crucial role in this system. In regions character-
ized by a high soil water holding capacity, reduced soil moisture may result in lower
total carbon, causing these forests to shift from carbon sinks to carbon neutral by the
latter part of the twenty-first century. Conversely, regions with reduced soil water
retention capability and species that can withstand drought are anticipated to experi-
ence comparatively modest alterations in the coming century (Thompson et al.
2009). However, irrespective of soil type, the regeneration of several crucial tree
species may decline, presenting an extended risk to forest carbon levels beyond the
2100 s. These unique reactions are primarily shaped by the dominant tree species,
their specific tolerances to temperature and soil moisture, and the soil’s capacity to
retain water (Scheller et al. 2012).
3.4.4 Species Migration and Adaptation
Some plant and animal species may migrate to new locations or adapt to changing
conditions within their current habitats. This movement is a physiological response
to finding suitable environmental conditions for survival and reproduction. Forest
tree populations can face three potential outcomes in a swiftly evolving environ-
ment: persistence by relocating to track ecological niches spatially, persistence by
adjusting to new conditions in their existing locations, and extinction (Davis and
Shaw 2001). Forecasts derived from models predicting species distribution indicate
a comprehensive reshuffling of tree distributions in the upcoming century. However,
the necessary migratory responses to align with shifting climates are expected to
surpass the maximum rates observed post-glacially. The extent of population adap-
tation depends on factors such as phenotypic diversity, selection intensity, reproduc-
tive capacity, interspecific competition, and biotic interactions (Mclachlan
et al. 2007).
58 G. Mishra et al.
Significantly, populations of temperate and boreal trees demonstrate substantial

local adaptation through moderate to strong variations in phenology and growth
along temperature gradients. Also, traits associated with local adaptation seem to
result from the cumulative effects of numerous genes. This genotypic redundancy
and high fecundity may facilitate swift local adaptation despite substantial gene
flow. Gene flow, particularly with pre-adapted alleles from warmer climates, can
enable adaptation and movement at the forefront, whereas populations at the rear
may face extinction (Mimura and Aitken 2007).
Widespread species distinguished by sizable populations and high reproductive
rates are expected to endure and adjust, although there may be a delayed adaptation
over a few generations. Considering that every tree species might encounter such
delays, the competition between species might diminish, increasing the chances of
survival under less-than-ideal conditions. Conversely, species with limited popula-
tions, fragmented distribution areas, low reproductive rates, or those experiencing
declines due to introduced insects or diseases are likely to benefit from assisted
migration (Aitken et al. 2008).
3.4.5 Temperature-Dependent Growth and Metabolism
Many physiological processes in plants are temperature-dependent. Warmer tem-

peratures can accelerate these processes, but intense heat occurrences might also
exceed the threshold temperature range for certain species, leading to stress and
reduced performance. For instance, temperature is a crucial factor influencing many
life-history events that lead to the successful breeding of insect populations. Elevated
temperatures can enhance the survival of winter conditions for the
DendroctonusponderosaeHopkins (mountain pine beetle), the most severe insect
pest affecting pine forests in western North America. In the early decades of 2000,
an outbreak of this beetle destroyed over 15 million hectares of pine forests, leaving
a significant impact on both forest health and the economy of wood-based industries
(Kijowska-Oberc et al. 2020).
Invariably, the uncertainty in predicting biosphere-atmosphere feedback in a
warming world is significantly impacted by the response of tropical trees to rising
temperatures. Thermal acclimation, characterized by biochemical, physiological, or
morphological adjustments in individual plants due to changes in the temperature
regime, plays a pivotal role in altering the short-term response to temperature.
Specifically, thermal acclimation of photosynthesis often leads to repositioning the
thermal optimum to align with the new growth temperature. This shift stems from
alterations in the relative contributions of ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) carboxyl-
ation and RuBP regeneration in controlling net photosynthesis (Slot and
Winter 2017).
3.4.6 Feedback Loops
Certain physiological reactions may contribute to reinforcing feedback loops that

worsen climate change. For instance, elevated temperatures can release stored car-
bon in soils, further amplifying greenhouse gas emissions. Positive feedback loops
amplify the initial changes, creating a self-reinforcing cycle. Some positive feed-
back mechanisms regarding forests and climate change are given below.
3.4.6.1 Permafrost Thawing
As global temperatures rise, permafrost in northern boreal forests begins to thaw.

These release stored carbon in the form of methane and carbon dioxide, which fur-
ther contribute to the greenhouse effect, leading to more global warming.
3.4.6.2 Increased Forest Fires
Warmer temperatures and changing precipitation patterns can create drier condi-
tions in many forested areas. This may enhance the frequency and intensity of wild-
fires, which release large amounts of CO2. Further, the loss of trees also reduces the
forest’s capacity to sequester carbon.
3.4.6.3 Insect Outbreaks
Elevated temperatures and changed climatic conditions may increase insect infesta-
tions in forests. For example, pine bark beetles increase in warmer conditions, lead-
ing to widespread tree mortality. Dead trees release stored carbon, and the loss of
living trees reduces the ecosystem’s carbon absorption capacity.
3.4.6.4 Albedo Effect
Changes in forest cover via deforestation or the expansion of deciduous trees in the
Arctic can alter the surface albedo. An albedo shift reflects lesser sunlight, which
can lead to increased absorption of solar radiation and higher temperatures, creating
a feedback loop for further warming.
60 G. Mishra et al.
3.4.6.5 Shifts in Vegetation Types
Climate changes may alter the suitability of vegetation types in specific regions. For
example, some forests may transition to grasslands or shrublands as temperatures
rise. Various vegetation types possess different carbon sequestration capabilities,
and these shifts can influence the overall carbon balance in ecosystems.
It is important to note that these feedback mechanisms can vary regionally and
depend on specific ecosystem characteristics. Additionally, the interactions between
different feedback loops are complex, making predicting the exact outcomes in spe-
cific locations challenging. The combined impact of reinforcing feedback loops
presents substantial challenges in alleviating the effects of climate change on forest
ecosystems (Bonan 2008).
3.5 Case Studies
This section highlighted general trends and examples of morphological and physi-
ological changes observed in forests due to climate change. It is important to note
that these reports provide examples of the diverse ways in which climate change can
affect forests globally. Moreover, current research endeavors persist in enhancing
our comprehension of the intricate interplays between climate and forest ecosystems.
3.5.1 Shifts in Tree Distribution and Range
In Europe, multiple investigations have indicated that specific tree varieties, such as
beech and oak, are shifting their distribution ranges to higher elevations. Elevated
temperatures in higher altitudes generate more favourable conditions for these trees,
resulting in alterations in the makeup of forest ecosystems (Pavlović et al. 2019).
Similarly, in the Himalayan ecosystem, studies on broad-leaved forest species like
Quercussemecarpifolia (Shekhar et al. 2022), Quercuslanata (Bhandari et al. 2021),
and Myrica esculenta (Bhandari et al. 2020) were conducted in the recent past.
3.5.2 Phenological Changes and Altered Tree Growth Rates
Research in temperate and boreal forests has documented shifts in the timing of leaf
bud burst, flowering, and fruiting events. For instance, studies in North America and
Europe have reported earlier spring events in response to rising temperatures, affect-
ing the overall phenology of forest ecosystems (Menzel et al. 2006). A study in the
western United States found that higher temperatures and increased drought stress
have reduced growth rates in Douglas fir (Restaino et al. 2016).
3.5.3 Increased Forest Stress and Vulnerability to Pests
Rising temperatures have been associated with a rise in the occurrence and severity
of pest outbreaks in forests. For instance, the infestation of mountain pine beetles in
North America has worsened due to milder winters, enabling a higher survival and
reproduction rate of beetles and resulting in extensive tree mortality (Safranyik
et al. 2010).
3.5.4 Changes in Carbon Sequestration
Research in tropical rainforests, specifically in the Amazon basin, has shown that
changing climate conditions, including increases in temperature and altered precipi-
tation patterns, can impact the ability of forests to sequester carbon. Drought stress
and disturbances like wildfires contribute to the release of stored carbon (Phillips
et al. 2008).
3.5.5 Impacts on Ectomycorrhizal Symbiosis
Mycorrhizal fungi form crucial symbiotic relationships with many tree species.
Research has suggested that alterations in temperature and precipitation patterns
can influence the structure and operation of mycorrhizal communities. This, in turn,
may influence nutrient uptake and overall tree health (Gao et al. 2016).
3.6 Mitigation and Conservation Strategies
Mitigating and conserving forest ecosystems in the face of morphological and phys-
iological dynamics due to climate change requires a combination of local, regional,
and global strategies. Some fundamental approaches are highlighted below.
3.6.1 Afforestation and Assisted Migration
Afforestation involves planting trees in areas that were not previously forested,
while reforestation focuses on replanting in areas where forests have been degraded
or lost. These practices contribute to carbon sequestration, restore ecosystem struc-
ture, and enhance biodiversity. Also, assisted migration is a strategy that involves
intentionally translocating tree species to areas where climate conditions are
62 G. Mishra et al.
becoming more suitable. This helps prevent the loss of species that may struggle to
adapt to rapidly changing local climates.
3.6.2 Climate-Smart Forestry Practices
Incorporating climate change considerations into forest management is essential to

embracing climate-smart forestry practices. Sustainable practices like selective har-
vesting, maintaining diverse age and species structures, and adaptive management
enhance the resilience of forests to changing climatic conditions.
3.6.3 Preserving Genetic Diversity and Restoring

Degraded Ecosystems
Conserving the genetic diversity of tree species is vital for their adaptation to new
environmental conditions. Initiatives like ex-situ seed banks and field gene banks,
which store genetic material from various tree species, contribute to preserving
diverse gene pools. Restoring degraded ecosystems through soil conservation, ero-
sion control, and habitat restoration enhances the ability of forests to cope with
climate-related stressors. This approach promotes overall ecosystem health and
functionality.
3.6.4 Promoting Resilient Tree Species
Identifying and promoting trees that exhibit resilience to changing climate condi-
tions is vital for combating climate change. This may involve breeding programmes
to develop climate-resilient varieties and encourage the planting of naturally adap-
tive species.
3.6.5 Integrated Fire Management and Early Warning Systems
Integrated fire management strategies are crucial as wildfires become more preva-
lent due to climate change. This includes controlled burns, creating firebreaks, and
involving communities in fire prevention efforts to minimize the impact of uncon-
trolled fires. Establishing forest ecosystem monitoring helps detect changes in a
time-bound manner. Early warning systems can detect stress indicators such as pest
outbreaks or diseases, enabling proactive interventions to mitigate potential damage.
3.6.6 Community Involvement and Policy and Legal Measures
Engaging local communities in forest conservation is essential for long-term suc-

cess. Educating communities about the impacts of climate change on forests and
involving them in sustainable practices fosters a sense of stewardship and enhances
conservation efforts. Governments and international organizations are crucial in
implementing policies and regulations that support sustainable forestry practices,
land-use planning, and conservation. Incentives for climate-resilient forestry prac-
tices can encourage the adoption of mitigation measures.
3.6.7 International Collaboration
International collaboration is vital to recognizing the global nature of climate

change. Sharing knowledge, resources, and best practices across countries and
regions can enhance the effectiveness of conservation and mitigation efforts.
Implementing these strategies requires a coordinated and interdisciplinary approach
involving governments, local communities, scientists, and non-governmental orga-
nizations. As climate change continues to pose challenges to forest ecosystems, a
holistic and adaptive strategy that considers ecological and socio-economic aspects
is essential for long-term success. Through these efforts, it is possible to strive to
alleviate the effects of climate change on forests and secure their sustainability for
generations to come.
3.7 Future Perspectives
The future of the chapter on ‘Morphological and Physiological Changes in Forest

Ecosystems in Response to Climate Change’ holds promising directions, reflecting
a dynamic interplay of scientific advancements, technological innovations, and
evolving conservation strategies as we anticipate the unfolding scenarios, several
critical perspectives emerge, which are given below.
3.7.1 Advancements in Remote Sensing and Monitoring
The future will witness enhanced remote sensing technologies, providing unprece-
dented insights into forest dynamics. Advanced satellite imagery, drones, and sen-
sor networks will facilitate continuous monitoring of morphological and
physiological changes, offering a real-time, global perspective on how forests
respond to climate fluctuations.
64 G. Mishra et al.
3.7.2 Integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI)

and Machine Learning
AI and machine learning algorithms will increasingly be crucial in unravelling intri-

cate patterns within extensive datasets. These technologies will assist in predicting
and understanding the intricate relationships between climate variables and the
morpho-physiological responses of diverse tree species, allowing for more accurate
modelling and predictions.
3.7.3 Genomic Understanding of Tree Adaptation
Genomic research will enhance our comprehension of the genetic foundations of

tree adaptation to climate change. Identifying specific genes and traits associated
with resilience will pave the way for precision breeding programs, allowing us to
selectively propagate tree populations better equipped to cope with changing envi-
ronmental conditions.
3.7.4 Microbiome Dynamics and Holistic Ecosystem Modelling
Future studies are expected to investigate the intricate interactions between trees
and their microbial communities. Understanding the dynamics of the microbiome
and symbiotic relationships between trees and fungi or bacteria can reveal novel
insights into adaptation in forests to changing climate. Ecosystem models will
evolve to incorporate a more holistic understanding of forest dynamics. Instead of
focusing solely on individual species, future models may consider entire ecosys-
tems, including diverse flora and fauna, to capture the complex web of interactions
influencing morphological and physiological changes.
3.7.5 Community-Based Conservation Initiatives
The future of forest conservation will increasingly involve local communities.

Empowering communities with knowledge, involving them in decision-making
processes, and recognizing indigenous practices will strengthen conservation
efforts. Community-based monitoring programs will contribute valuable data and
foster a sense of shared responsibility for forest health.
3.7.6 Blockchain Technology for Conservation Incentives
Blockchain technology helps to create transparent and traceable systems for conser-
vation incentives. This could enable direct compensation for communities and land-
owners engaged in sustainable practices, creating new economic models that align
conservation efforts with financial incentives. Conservation strategies will embrace
adaptive management principles, allowing flexibility in response to rapid ecological
changes. Continuous feedback loops, informed by real-time data and ongoing
research, will guide conservation efforts, ensuring that interventions remain rele-
vant and effective in the face of evolving climate scenarios.
3.7.7 Policy Integration and Global Collaboration
Governments and international organizations are expected to enhance policies

incorporating climate change adaptation into the management of forests. Increased
collaboration on a global scale will facilitate the exchange of knowledge, resources,
and best practices, fostering a united front against the impacts of climate change on
forest ecosystems. Educational initiatives will be pivotal in shaping public percep-
tions and fostering a sense of environmental stewardship. Citizen science projects,
environmental education campaigns, and interactive platforms will empower indi-
viduals to contribute to ongoing research and conservation initiatives.
3.8 Conclusions
The implications for global biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human societies
underscore the urgency of concerted efforts to address climate change and conserve
these invaluable ecosystems. This chapter elucidates the vulnerability of forest eco-
systems to morphological and physiological changes in response to climate shifts.
While trees exhibit adaptability, their responses are constrained by complex interac-
tions among temperature shifts, precipitation patterns, and atmospheric changes,
leading to diverse morphological adjustments and physiological adaptations.
Technological advancements such as remote sensing, genomics, and artificial intel-
ligence offer promising avenues to more accurately understand and predict forest
dynamics. Evolving conservation strategies, including community-based initiatives
and global collaborations, demonstrate resilience and adaptability in forest preser-
vation efforts. Integrating traditional ecological knowledge, blockchain technolo-
gies, and adaptive management principles underscores a holistic approach to
addressing the severity of challenges. Urgency in mitigating climate change impacts
on forests is evident in preventing irreversible ecosystem shifts and biodiversity
loss, necessitating proactive interventions such as sustainable forestry practices,
66 G. Mishra et al.
conservation policies, and education initiatives. This chapter is a pivotal resource

for understanding past and present forest states, guiding future conservation efforts,
and emphasizing the shared responsibility to safeguard forests as stewards of the
planet. Incorporating insights from this chapter into practical steps is crucial to pro-
tecting forest resilience amidst ongoing climate change.
References
Aitken SN, Yeaman S, Holliday JA, Wang T, Curtis-McLane S (2008) Adaptation, migration
or extirpation: climate change outcomes for tree populations. Evol Appl 1:95–111. Neutral
Genetic Variation in Conifers, 183
Apurva K, Singh H, Kumar H (2017) Elucidating morphological and growth changes in Arjun
tree (Terminalia arjuna) grown under elevated temperature condition. Trends in Bioscience
10(1):332–336
Bacastow RB, Keeling C, Whorf TP (1985) Seasonal amplitude increases in atmospheric CO2
concentration at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, 1959–1982. J Geophys Res Atmos 90(D6):10529–10540
Badeck FW, Bondeau A, Böttcher K, Doktor D, Lucht W, Schaber J, Sitch S (2004) Responses of
spring phenology to climate change. New Phytol 162(2):295–309
Battles JJ, Robards T, Das A, Waring K, Gilless JK, Biging G, Schurr F (2008) Climate change
impacts on forest growth and tree mortality: a data-driven modeling study in the mixed-conifer
forest of the Sierra Nevada, California. Clim Chang 87:193–213
Bhandari MS, Meena RK, Shankhwar R, Pandey S, Kant R, Barthwal S, Ginwal HS (2020)
Global warming scenario depicts enhanced spatial distribution of Quercuslanata in the western
Himalayas. Int J Glob Warm 22(3):255–271
Bhandari MS, Shankhwar R, Meena RK, Pandey S, Kant R, Barthwal S, Ginwal HS, Chauhan JS
(2021) Past and future distribution pattern of Myricaesculenta in response to climate change
scenario. Model Earth Syst Environ 7:1831–1846
Bonan GB (2008) Forests and climate change: forcings, feedbacks, and the climate benefits of
forests. Science 320(5882):1444–1449
Brzostek ER, Dragoni D, Schmid HP, Rahman AF, Sims D, Wayson CA, Johnson DJ, Phillips RP
(2014) Chronic water stress reduces tree growth and the carbon sink of deciduous hardwood
forests. Glob Chang Biol 20(8):2531–2539
Bussotti F, Pollastrini M, Holland V, Brüggemann W (2015) Functional traits and adaptive capac-
ity of European forests to climate change. Environ Exp Bot 111:91–113
Chiang JM, Iverson LR, Prasad A, Brown KJ (2008) Effects of climate change and shifts in forest
composition on forest net primary production. J Integr Plant Biol 50(11):1426–1439
Currie DJ (2001) Projected effects of climate change on patterns of vertebrate and tree species
richness in the conterminous United States. Ecosystems 4:216–225
Daniels LD, Maertens TB, Stan AB, McCloskey SP, Cochrane JD, Gray RW (2011) Direct and
indirect impacts of climate change on forests: three case studies from British Columbia. Can J
Plant Pathol 33(2):108–116
Davis MB, Shaw RG (2001) Range shifts and adaptive responses to quaternary climate change.
Science 292(5517):673–679
Des Marais DJ (2000) When did photosynthesis emerge on earth? Science 289(5485):1703–1705
and carbon storage capability of Indian bamboos: review approach. Ecol Environ Conserv
29(2):451–457
Dhyani K, Kuniyal HB, Singh H, Sobha (2021) Growth and physiological potential of Terminalia
arjuna under elevated CO2 levels in open top chamber condition. Journal of applied and natu-
ral. Science 13(3):1121–1126. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13i3.2490
Dinse K (2010) Understanding climate variability and climate change. In: Michigan Sea Grant
Report, pp 1–25
Dukes JS, Classen AT, Wan S, Langley JA (2014) Using results from global change experiments to
inform land model development and calibration. New Phytol 204(4):744–746
Dusenge ME, Duarte AG, Way DA (2019) Plant carbon metabolism and climate change: elevated
CO2 and temperature impacts on photosynthesis, photorespiration and respiration. New Phytol
221(1):32–49
Flannigan MD, Wotton BM (2001) Climate, weather, and area burned. In: Forest fires. Academic,
pp 351–373
Gao C, Kim YC, Zheng Y, Yang W, Chen L, Ji NN, Wan SQ, Guo LD (2016) Increased precipita-
tion, rather than warming, exerts a strong influence on arbuscularmycorrhizal fungal commu-
nity in a semiarid steppe ecosystem. Botany 94(6):459–469
Gebeyehu MN, Hirpo FH (2019) Review on effect of climate change on forest ecosystem. Int J
Environ Sci Nat Resour 17:126–129
Gifford R, Kormos C, McIntyre A (2011) Behavioural dimensions of climate change: drivers,
responses, barriers, and interventions. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Clim Chang 2(6):801–827
Grimm NB, Chapin FS III, Bierwagen B, Gonzalez P, Groffman PM, Luo Y, Melton F, Nadelhoffer
K, Pairis A, Raymond PA, Schimel J (2013) The impacts of climate change on ecosystem struc-
ture and function. Front Ecol Environ 11(9):474–482
Gupta SK, Ram J, Singh H (2018) Comparative study of transpiration in cooling effect of tree spe-
cies in the atmosphere. J Geosci Environ Prot 6:151–166
Gupta SK, Singh H, Ram J (2019) Need for a novel paradigm in forestry research: perspectives
of comparative atmospheric cooling by different forestry effect tree species. Indian Forester
145(6):509–515
Hansen AJ, Neilson RP, Dale VH, Flather CH, Iverson LR, Currie DJ, Shafer S, Cook R, Bartlein
PJ (2001) Global change in forests: responses of species, communities, and biomes: interac-
tions between climate change and land use are projected to cause large shifts in biodiversity.
Bio Science 51(9):765–779
Hanson PJ, Weltzin JF (2000) Drought disturbance from climate change: response of United States
forests. Sci Total Environ 262(3):205–220
Hellmann JJ, Byers JE, Bierwagen BG, Dukes JS (2008) Five potential consequences of climate
change for invasive species. Conserv Biol 22(3):534–543
Hisano M, Searle EB, Chen HY (2018) Biodiversity as a solution to mitigate climate change
impacts on the functioning of forest ecosystems. Biol Rev 93(1):439–456
Huntley B, Baxter R (2013) Vegetation ecology and global change. In: Vegetation Ecology,
pp 509–530
Johnson IR, Thornley JHM (1985) Temperature dependence of plant and crop process. Ann Bot
55(1):1–24
Joshi PK, Rawat A, Narula S, Sinha V (2012) Assessing impact of climate change on forest cover
type shifts in Western Himalayan eco-region. J For Res 23:75–80
of far-Western Nepal. Eurasian. J Soil Sci 10(2):96-104;10.18393/ejss.825066
Juneja A, Ceballos RM, Murthy GS (2013) Effects of environmental factors and nutrient avail-
ability on the biochemical composition of algae for biofuels production: a review. Energies
6(9):4607–4638
Kienast F, Luxmoore RJ (1988) Tree-ring analysis and conifer growth responses to increased
atmospheric CO2 levels. Oecologia 76:487–495
Kijowska-Oberc J, Staszak AM, Kamiński J, Ratajczak E (2020) Adaptation of forest trees to
rapidly changing climate. Forests 11(2):123
68 G. Mishra et al.
Klein T, Ramon U (2019) Stomatal sensitivity to CO2 diverges between angiosperm and gymno-
sperm tree species. Funct Ecol 33(8):1411–1424
Kloeppel BD, Clinton BD, Vose JM, Cooper AR (2003) Drought impacts on tree growth and mor-
tality of southern Appalachian forests. Climate variability and ecosystem response at long-term
ecological research sites. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 43–55
Kramer RD, Ishii HR, Carter KR, Miyazaki Y, Cavaleri MA, Araki MG, Azuma WA, Inoue Y, Hara
C (2020) Predicting effects of climate change on productivity and persistence of forest trees.
Ecol Res 35(4):562–574
Kumar A, Tewari S, Singh H, Singh I, Anand R, Kumar D, Pandey R (2018) Impact of different
agro-forestry systems on growth and yield of turmeric at Tarai region of Uttarakhand, India. J
Plant Dev Sci 10(3):157–162
Kumar N, Jeena N, Singh H (2019) Elevated temperature modulates rice pollen structure: a study
from the foothill of the Himalayan agro-ecosystem in India. 3. Biotech 9(5):175:10.1007/
s13205-019-1700-1
Kumar A, Dwivedi GK, Tewari S, Jaipaul SVK, Singh H, Kumar P, Kumar N, Kausal R (2020a) Soil
organic carbon pools under Terminalia chebula Retz. Based agroforestry system in Himalayan
foothills, India. Curr Sci 118:1098–1103. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v118/i7/1098-1103
Kumar A, Dwivedi GK, Tewari S, Paul J, Anand R, Kumar N, Kumar P, Singh H, Kaushal R
(2020b) Carbon mineralization and inorganic nitrogen pools under Terminalia chebula Retz.-
based agroforestry system in Himalayan foothills, India. For Sci 66(5):634–643. https://doi.
org/10.1093/forsci/fxaa012
Kumar P, Singh R, Singh H, Chand T, Bala N (2020c) Assessment of soil carbon dioxide efflux and
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Bisht S, Kumar N (2021a) Relationship of physiological plant func-
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021b) Adaptation and mitigation potential of road-
side trees with bio-extraction of heavy metals under vehicular emissions and their impact on
physiological traits during seasonal regimes. Urban For Urban Green 58:126900. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
Kumar A, Tewari S, Singh H, Kumar P, Kumar N, Bisth S, Kushwah S, Nidhi KR (2021d) Biomass
accumulation and carbon stocks in different agro forestry system prevalent in Himalayan foot-
hills, India. Curr Sci 120(6):1083–1188. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v120/i6/1083-1088
org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120191
Lasco RD, Pulhin FB, Sanchez PAJ, Villamor GB, Villegas KAL (2008) Climate change and
forest ecosystems in The Philippines: vulnerability, adaptation and mitigation. J Environ Sci
Manag 11(1)
Law BE, Falge E, Gu L, Baldocchi DD, Bakwin P, Berbigier P, Davis K, Dolman AJ, Falk M,
Fuentes JD, Goldstein A (2002) Environmental controls over carbon dioxide and water vapor
exchange of terrestrial vegetation. Agric For Meteorol 113(1–4):97–120
Li Y, Xu Y, Li Y, Wu T, Zhou G, Liu S, Meng Y, Wang J, Ling L, Liu J (2020) Warming effects on
morphological and physiological performances of four subtropical montane tree species. Ann
For Sci 77:1–11
Littell JS, Oneil EE, McKenzie D, Hicke JA, Lutz JA, Norheim RA, Elsner MM (2010) Forest eco-
systems, disturbance, and climatic change in Washington state, USA. Clim Chang 102:129–158
Loehle C, LeBlanc D (1996) Model-based assessments of climate change effects on forests: a criti-
cal review. Ecol Model 90(1):1–31
Macpherson MF, Kleczkowski A, Healey JR, Quine CP, Hanley N (2017) The effects of invasive
pests and pathogens on strategies for forest diversification. Ecol Model 350:87–99
McLachlan JS, Hellmann JJ, Schwartz MW (2007) A framework for debate of assisted migration
in an era of climate change. Conserv Biol 21(2):297–302
Menezes-Silva PE, Loram-Lourenço L, Alves RDFB, Sousa LF, Almeida SEDS, Farnese FS (2019)
Different ways to die in a changing world: consequences of climate change for tree species per-
formance and survival through an ecophysiological perspective. Ecol Evol 9(20):11979–11999
Menzel A, Sparks TH, Estrella N, Koch E, Aasa A, Ahas R, Alm-Kübler K, Bissolli P, Braslavská
OG, Briede A, Chmielewski FM (2006) European phenological response to climate change
matches the warming pattern. Glob Chang Biol 12(10):1969–1976
Mimura M, Aitken SN (2007) Adaptive gradients and isolation-by-distance with postglacial migra-
tion in Piceasitchensis. Heredity 99(2):224–232
Mishra G, Bhandari MS, Meena RK, Pandey S, Kant R (2023) Contemporary spatial association
of genetic diversity determinants in Asian dipterocarps: a systematic review. Ann Silvic Res
48(2):73–86
Moore, B. and Allard, G., 2008. Climate change impacts on forest health
Nitschke CR, Innes JL (2007) Interactions between fire, climate change and forest biodiversity.
CABI reviews, p 9
Noss RF (2001) Beyond Kyoto: forest management in a time of rapid climate change. Conserv
Biol 15(3):578–590
Paoletti E, Bytnerowicz A, Andersen C, Augustaitis A, Ferretti M, Grulke N, Günthardt-Goerg
MS, Innes J, Johnson D, Karnosky D, Luangjame J (2007) Impacts of air pollution and climate
change on forest ecosystems—emerging research needs. Sci World J 7:1–8
Pavlović L, Stojanović D, Mladenović E, Lakićević M, Orlović S (2019) Potential elevation shift
of the European beech stands (FagussylvaticaL.) in Serbia. Front Plant Sci 10:849
Peterson DL, Vose JM, Patel-Weynand T (eds) (2014) Climate change and United States forests
(Vol. 57). Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands
Phillips OL, Lewis SL, Baker TR, Chao KJ, Higuchi N (2008) The changing Amazon Forest.
Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 363(1498):1819–1827
in open top chambers. Int Environ Agric Biotechnol 7(5):149–159
Rawat AS, Kalra N, Singh H, Kumar M (2020) Application of vegetation models in India for
understanding the forest ecosystem processes. Indian Forester 146(2):93–100. https://doi.
org/10.36808/if/2020/v146i2/151208
Restaino CM, Peterson DL, Littell J (2016) Increased water deficit decreases Douglas fir growth
throughout western US forests. Proc Natl Acad Sci 113(34):9557–9562
Rice, J., 2010. Carbon stock conditions and how climate and disturbance may influence carbon
dynamics on the Shoshone national forest, Wyoming
Safranyik L, Carroll AL, Régnière J, Langor DW, Riel WG, Shore TL, Peter BJCB, Cooke BJ,
Nealis VG, Taylor SW (2010) Potential for range expansion of mountain pine beetle into the
boreal forest of North America. Can Entomol 142(5):415–442
70 G. Mishra et al.
Scheller RM, Kretchun AM, Van Tuyl S, Clark KL, Lucash MS, Hom J (2012) Divergent carbon
dynamics under climate change in forests with diverse soils, tree species, and land use histo-
ries. Ecosphere 3(11):1–16
Seidl R, Thom D, Kautz M, Martin-Benito D, Peltoniemi M, Vacchiano G, Wild J, Ascoli D, Petr
M, Honkaniemi J, Lexer MJ (2017) Forest disturbances under climate change. Nat Clim Chang
7(6):395–402
Shekhar C, Ginwal HS, Meena RK, Shankhwar R, Martins-Ferreira MAC, Pandey S, Barthwal
S, Bhandari MS (2022) Spatio-temporal distribution of broad-leaved Quercussemecarpifolia
indicates altitudinal shift in northwestern Himalayas. Plant Ecol 223(6):671–697
Shwartz M, Payne SM, Restuccia JD, Ash AS (2001) Does it matter how small geographic
areas are constructed? Ward's algorithm versus the plurality rule. Health Serv Outcomes Res
Methodol 2:5–18
tors for assessing tolerance of roadside plantations of Alstonia scholaris towards urban road-
side air pollution: an assessment of adaptation of plantations for mitigating urban roadside air
pollution. Trees 37:69–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-021-02179-8
productivity of Acacia auriculiformis under CO2-enriched environment. Ind Crops Prod
Singh H, Kumar M (2022) Climate change and its impact on Indian Himalayan forests: cur-
rent status and research needs. In: Climate change: impacts, responses and sustainability in
the Indian Himalaya. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 223–242. https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
Agric Environ Biotechnol 6(3):383–388
Singh H, Verma A, Krishnamoorthy M, Shukla A (2010) Consequence of diverse nitrogen levels
on leaf pigments in five rice genotypes under field emergent circumstance. Int J Bio-resource
Stress Manag 1:189–193
Singh H, Savita Sharma R, Sinha S, Kumar M, Kumar P, Verma A, Sharma SK (2017) Physiological
functioning of Lagerstroemia speciosa L. under heavy roadside traffic: an approach to screen
potential species for abatement of urban air pollution. 3. Biotech 7(61):1–10. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s13205-017-0690-0
Singh H, Sharma R, Savita SMP, Kumar M, Verma A, Ansari MW, Sharma SK (2018) Adaptive
Singh H, Yadav M, Kumar N, Kumar A, Kumar M (2020) Assessing adaptation and mitigation
tat suitability of the range restricted bird species (Catreus wallichii) in the Indian Himalayan
s11356-023-30789-x
Slot M, Winter K (2017) Photosynthetic acclimation to warming in tropical forest tree seedlings.
J Exp Bot 68(9):2275–2284
Thom D, Rammer W, Seidl R (2017) Disturbances catalyze the adaptation of forest ecosystems to
changing climate conditions. Glob Chang Biol 23(1):269–282
Thomas CD, Bodsworth EJ, Wilson RJ, Simmons AD, Davies ZG, Musche M, Conradt L (2001)
Ecological and evolutionary processes at expanding range margins. Nature 411(6837):577–581
Thompson ID, Flannigan MD, Wotton BM, Suffling R (1998) The effects of climate change on
landscape diversity: an example in Ontario forests. Environ Monit Assess 49:213–233
Thompson I, Mackey B, McNulty S, Mosseler A (2009) Forest resilience, biodiversity, and climate
change. In: A synthesis of the biodiversity/resilience/stability relationship in forest ecosystems.
Secretariat of the convention on biological diversity, Montreal. Technical series, pp 1–67
Verma S, Kumar N, Verma A, Singh H, Siddique KHM, Singh P (2020) Novel approaches to
mitigate heat stress impacts on crop growth and development. Plant Physiol Rep 25:627–644.
Whittaker RH (1970) Communities and ecosystems. Communities and Ecosystems
Williamson M (1999) Invasions. Ecography 22(1):5–12
Zhang X, Zwiers FW, Hegerl GC, Lambert FH, Gillett NP, Solomon S, Stott PA, Nozawa T
(2007) Detection of human influence on twentieth-century precipitation trends. Nature
448(7152):461–465
Zhu P, Zhuang Q, Ciais P, Welp L, Li W, Xin Q (2017) Elevated atmospheric CO2 negatively
impacts photosynthesis through radiative forcing and physiology-mediated climate feedback.
Geophys Res Lett 44(4):1956–1963
Chapter 4
Sapflow and Gas Exchange in Plants
Under Changing Climate and Environment
Pragya, Parmanand Kumar, and Hukum Singh
Abstract Changing climatic and environmental scenarios profoundly impact phys-

iological processes, including plant sap flow and gas exchange. Therefore, compre-
hending how these factors affect sap flow and gas exchange and quantifying their
responses is crucial for predicting climate change impacts on global vegetation and
ecosystem services. This chapter synthesizes the multifaceted responses of plants to
changing climatic and environmental conditions, focusing on the intricate interplay
between sap flow and gas exchange within the historical context of forest ecosys-
tems. Sap flow, the transportation of water and solutes through the plant’s vascular
system, and gas exchange, primarily involving photosynthesis and respiration, are
central to these adaptations. Sap flow is influenced by various factors such as solar
radiation, vapor pressure deficit, temperature, and soil moisture. Conversely, gas
exchange, mediated by stomatal conductance, determines the balance between pho-
tosynthetic CO2 uptake and transpirational water loss, adjusting under stressors like
drought, elevated atmospheric CO2 levels, and temperature. This synthesis of cur-
rent knowledge underscores the necessity for cross-disciplinary research on tree
ecophysiology to strengthen predictions of climate impacts on forests. It empha-
sizes the importance of informing management strategies to promote adaptation and
resilience.
Keywords Sapflow · Transpiration · Photosynthesis · Plant physiology · Stomatal

conductance
4.1 Introduction
Climate change and forest functioning are deeply intertwined. Forest coverage sig-
nificantly impacts the local climate, while alterations in climate can fundamentally
alter the structure and diversity of forest ecosystems. Rainfall patterns, temperature
Pragya (*) · P. Kumar · H. Singh

Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

Ltd. 2024
74 Pragya et al.
shifts, and increased atmospheric CO2 levels are the key drivers of ecosystem func-
tioning (Apurva et al. 2017; Devi et al. 2023). Over the years, forest growth has
undergone noticeable changes, prompting numerous investigations into how rising
CO2 levels and climatic variations shape the forest ecosystem (Kumar et al. 2020a,
b, c; Joshi et al. 2021).
Sap flow and gas exchange represent fundamental physiological processes sup-
porting plant growth, survival, and functioning across forest ecosystems globally.
Sap flow involves the internal transport of water and dissolved nutrients from roots
to stems and leaves through xylem vascular tissues. Transpiration at the leaf surface
creates negative pressure gradients that pull sap flow upward. Sap flow’s quantity
and timing closely relate to transpiration rates controlled by stomatal opening.
Gas exchange occurs at stomata and includes carbon dioxide (CO2) uptake for
photosynthesis and the loss of oxygen (O2) and water vapour during respiration and
transpiration (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e). Rates of sap flow and gas exchange
respond sensitively to light, humidity, atmospheric CO2, temperature, soil moisture,
and other abiotic factors (Gupta et al. 2019). As such, these processes are impacted
significantly by climate change drivers like rising CO2 levels, increasing tempera-
tures, shifts in precipitation patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events
(Joshi and Singh 2020). Most climate impact studies on plants have focused on
photosynthesis and respiration responses. Investigating sap flow to predict the func-
tioning of trees and ecosystems under environmental change scenarios is equally
important (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e).
Climate change effects on plant ecophysiology depend heavily on local adapta-
tion of tree species to historical climate norms (Singh and Kumar 2022). Species
from temperate and tropical biomes often show greater sensitivity to warming,
reduced water availability, or more variable conditions compared to species from
inherently cold or arid environments pre-adapted to resource limitations (Yadav
et al. 2019a). Still, the ability to acclimate to moderate climate changes over decades
differs across functional groups based on traits related to hydraulic architecture,
resource use efficiencies, and climate adaptive capacities evolved under contrasting
climate regimes (Yadav et al. 2019b; Verma et al. 2020).
The Sapflow method, which combines axial and tangential measurements of the
changing heat field, is a recently developed method that is gaining popularity for
sap-flux density measurements. These methods provide more precise information
on flow directions and spatial distribution than sap flow rate methods. Heat pulse
methods, such as the compensation heat pulse velocity and heat ratio methods, are
particularly advantageous as they do not require specific calibrations and are less
susceptible to natural temperature gradients. Each method has advantages and limi-
tations. The choice of method depends on the research question or practical applica-
tion. Incorporating sapflow and gas exchange in modelling is essential for
understanding the complex dynamics of water transport and plant carbon assimila-
tion. Many studies have explored the impact of varying climates and environments
on sapflow and gas exchange among various forest species. These studies have pro-
duced important information on how plants react to environmental challenges,
including drought, heat waves, and elevated CO2 levels. Notably, these studies
4 Sapflow and Gas Exchange in Plants Under Changing Climate and Environment 75
found that certain tree species employ strategies such as decreased sapflow rates and
modified stomatal behaviour to cope with drought conditions and conserve water.
Meinzer et al. (2004) explained the complex interplay between transpiration, sap
flow, and the utilization of stored water in tropical forest canopy trees. Their research
revealed the significant impact of plant size on water usage and storage patterns.
Larger trees were found to have a more substantial influence, exhibiting a higher
daily water usage rate and relying more on stored water to meet their needs (Singh
et al. 2021; Singh 2024). In a similar study, Čermák et al. (2004) explored the tran-
spiration and sap flow patterns in a temperate deciduous forest, highlighting the
critical influence of environmental factors such as temperature, solar radiation, soil
moisture levels, and vapour pressure deficit on tree water usage. The study demon-
strated strong seasonality in tree water use, highlighting environmental controls’
importance in shaping transpiration and sap flow dynamics (Yadav et al. 2019a, b).
Upscaling leaf-level measurements using remote sensing and processed-based
modelling is imperative to understanding the drivers of tree resilience from cells to
landscapes (Rawat et al. 2020). The insight gained from the research has significant
implications for climate feedback forecasting, sustainable forest management, and
biodiversity conservation in the face of global change (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c).
This chapter discusses knowledge gaps and priority research needs for predicting
the impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems and different methods for esti-
mating sapflow and gas exchanges.
4.2 Climate Change and Forest Functioning
Climate change impacts on forest physiological processes are significant and com-
plex (Caple 2012). Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can lead to
more frequent and severe moisture stress for plants (Zoltán 2019). Rising tempera-
tures may accelerate evapotranspiration and increase plant water requirements
beyond what soil moisture can provide, leading to water deficiency (Kumar
et al. 2022).
Changes in the rainfall patterns result in more intense rainfall but longer dry
periods between events, disrupting the water balance between soil and plants
(Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e). Heavy rainfall overloads infiltration capacity and
results in runoff losses, while prolonged droughts can lead to increased soil desicca-
tion (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c). More frequent heat waves and droughts also exceed
plants’ physiological thresholds, damaging tissue, and impairing function (Kumar
et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e). The interaction of higher evapotranspiration, reduced rain-
water uptake, and climate extremes increases water stress on vegetation worldwide
(Kumari and Singh 2018). Determining plant species’ drought and heat tolerance
limits is critical for ecosystem conservation. The response of different species to
changes in water availability varies, with oaks showing a higher degree of response
than maples (Daniels et al. 2011). The impact of climate change on forest
76 Pragya et al.
hydrology, including groundwater and streamflow, can be significant due to changes

in precipitation patterns and evapotranspiration processes. (Sperry et al. 2019).
Climate change also affects the biogeochemical processes in forest ecosystems,
such as carbon allocation, soil respiration, and nutrient availability (Thakur and
Phulara 2009). Increased concentrations of atmospheric CO2 and warmer tempera-
tures can affect forest growth and productivity differently (Manoj et al. 2021). The
ability of forests to acclimate to climate change is crucial in determining their
response, with acclimation potentially mitigating the negative impacts of warming
(Nirmal and Singh 2021).
4.3 Understanding Sapflow and Gas Exchange in Plants
Understanding sapflow and gas exchange is crucial for comprehending the complex
relationship between environmental conditions and plant physiological processes
(Phukon et al. 2022). Spatially distributed sapflow measurements have resulted in
key insights into the impact of climate change and environmental variability on
transpiration, leading to a deeper understanding of plant responses to changing cli-
matic conditions and enabling a more comprehensive assessment of plant water use
and drought resistance.
4.3.1 Sapflow
Sapflow refers to the movement of sap within a plant’s vascular system. Sap is a
liquid containing water, nutrients, and sugars that travels from roots to leaves
through the xylem and phloem tissues (types of vascular tissues found in plants,
responsible for transporting water, nutrients, and organic compounds throughout
the plant). The sap flow is driven by transpiration, the process of losing water from
the leaves through the stomata. When water evaporates from the surface of a leaf, it
creates a negative pressure that draws water up from the roots, like how water is
pulled up through a straw. This upward movement of sap is essential for delivering
water and nutrients to all plant parts, including the leaves, where photosynthesis
occurs (Fig. 4.1).
The xylem and phloem are vital components of the plant’s vascular system, facil-
itating the transport of water, nutrients, and organic compounds and supporting the
overall growth and function of the plant. The xylem is the tissue that transports
water and minerals from the roots to the other parts of the plant. It comprises spe-
cialized cells called tracheary elements, including vessel elements and tracheids,
which are interconnected to form continuous tubes. Transpiration drives water
movement in the xylem. It is essential for maintaining the plant’s turgor pressure,
facilitating the transport of nutrients, and providing structural support.
Fig. 4.1 Diagram illustrating water uptake from roots, transported through the xylem, and reach-
ing the leaves via the stem, showcasing the unidirectional water movement in plants
In contrast, the phloemis is responsible for transporting organic compounds,

such as sugars, from the leaves (where they are produced through photosynthesis)
to other parts of the plant. The phloem consists of sieve tube elements and compan-
ion cells, forming a network of tubes for translocating organic nutrients. This pro-
cess, known as translocation, is driven by pressure gradients and is essential for
supplying energy and building plant structures.
4.3.2 Gas Exchange
Gas exchange is when plants exchange carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2)with
their environment. During the process of photosynthesis (a natural phenomenon in
which solar photons convert into energy-rich products (Romero et al. 2017), plants
take in CO2 from the atmosphere and release water vapour (transpiration) as well as
O2 as a byproduct. The rates of these gas exchanges are susceptible to environmen-
tal conditions. This exchange of gases occurs through small openings called sto-
mata, which are primarily located on the surface of leaves. Stomata open and close
to regulate the flow of gases, allowing CO2 to enter the leaf for photosynthesis and
78 Pragya et al.
O2 to exit. Gas exchange balances plant carbon fixation (photosynthesis) and water
loss (transpiration). Plant gas exchange is an essential process shaping global hydro-
logical and carbon cycles. It is often characterized by plant water use efficiency
(WUE—the ratio of CO2 gain to water vapour loss) (Assouline and Or 2013). This
process is essential for the plant’s energy production and is influenced by environ-
mental factors such as temperature, humidity, and light intensity.
4.4 Drivers of Plant Hydraulics and Respiration
Climate change and environmental conditions shifts significantly impact key plant
physiological processes like sap flow, gas exchange, respiration, photosynthesis,
and phenology. These conditions include light intensity, temperature, humidity,
VPD (vapour pressure deficit), rainfall, and soil moisture. Rising temperatures,
altered precipitation regimes, and elevated CO2 levels modify plant ecophysiology
through various mechanisms (Dusenge et al. 2019; Fürstenau Togashi et al. 2018).
Elevated atmospheric CO2 levels can affect stomatal regulation of leaf gas exchange,
leading to changes in forest energy fluxes, carbon cycling, and water and nutrient
cycling (Voelker et al. 2016). Changes in water availability, soil moisture, and
vapour pressure deficit driven by precipitation patterns and aridity shifts can con-
strain supplies needed to maintain sap flow, gas exchange, and growth (Busch et al.
2007). Additionally, plants’ physiological aspects, such as stomatal conductance,
leaf area, and plant water status, also play a vital role.
Stomatal responses to environmental and plant conditions play a significant role
in regulating the exchange of gases from leaves into the atmosphere (Beerling
2015). Balancing carbon assimilation with water loss is crucial for plant growth and
productivity; therefore, these factors are significant. Furthermore, how stomata
behave can vary spatially and temporally. Factors like leaf age, position, and mor-
phology can influence this behaviour. There are major environmental conditions
that impact major physiological processes in plants.
4.4.1 Temperature
Temperature is a critical environmental factor affecting plants’ sap flow and gas
exchange. Higher temperatures accelerate enzymatic activity, transpiration, respira-
tion rates, and sap flow until heat damage thresholds, whereas lower temperatures
cause slower metabolic activity. Sapflowis positively correlated with solar radiation
and air temperature and negatively correlated with relative humidity (Rakkibu
2000). along with the atmospheric temperature, soil temperature also affects the
sapflow. Soil temperature significantly influences sap flow activities in Pinus tabu-
laeformis trees, with the most significant effect at 10.0–14.9 °C, the threshold being
about 10 °C (Jun 2008).
4.4.2 Precipitation and Soil Moisture
Declines in soil moisture due to insufficient precipitation reduce water availability

for roots, triggering stomatal closure and suppressing transpiration and sap flow.
The ratio of sap flow to soil moisture decreases with decreasing soil water content,
suggesting partitioning in water use between understory and overstory changes dur-
ing the season (Unsworth et al. 2004).
4.4.2.1 Solar Radiation
Solar radiation plays a crucial role in regulating plant sapflow and gas exchange.
Sufficient light intensity, especially blue wavelengths, drives faster photosynthetic
rates and transpiration, necessitating increased sap flow rates to supply water loss
from leaves. Low light reduces photosynthetic and sap flow demand. Solar radiation
affects sapflow rates more significantly on sunny days than on cloudy and rainy
days (Jianfang 2005). Sap flow is highly correlated to incoming solar radiation,
explaining 83% of diurnal variation in sap flow (Oguntunde 2005).
4.4.3 Vapour Pressure Deficit
Vapor Pressure Deficit (VPD) significantly impacts sap flow in plants. Lower
humidity allows a more significant vapour pressure deficit from leaves to air,
enhancing transpiration, sap flow, and CO2 diffusion even at the same temperature.
In comparison, higher humidity suppresses all three processes. Studies have shown
that VPD influences the rate of transpiration and sap flow in trees. For instance,
research has demonstrated that changing VPD affects mean hourly sap flux in vari-
ous tree species, with different responses observed under dry or wet soil water con-
ditions (Bovard et al. 2005). Additionally, the relationship between daily nocturnal
sap flow and averaged VPD has been studied, showing a correlation between VPD
and nocturnal sap flow in different tree species (Chen et al. 2011). Furthermore,
nocturnal sap flow is significantly correlated with diurnal sap flow and VPD, indi-
cating the influence of VPD on the dynamics of sap flow in plants (Bovard
et al. 2005).
4.4.4 Wind Speed
Higher wind speeds increase the leaf-to-air vapour pressure gradient and transpira-
tion rates, which must be met with enhanced sap flow, while lower wind speed
reduces this effect. Wind speed correlates positively with tree species’ stem sap flow
rate (Hai 2008; Zhao et al. 2017).
80 Pragya et al.
4.4.5 CO2 Concentrations
Elevated CO2 can reduce stomatal aperture and sap flow rates in the short term, but
plants may acclimate over extended periods (Prakash et al. 2022). Elevated atmo-
spheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations reduced sap flow by 33% in ironweed,
18% in big bluestem, and 22% in Indiangrass (Bremer et al. 1996). In contrast,
sapflow was reduced by 14% in trees, leading to a 10% reduction in evapotranspira-
tion and water savings in a mixed deciduous forest (Leuzinger and Körner 2007).
4.4.5.1 Morphometric Characteristics of Vegetation
Along with these environmental factors, morphometric characteristics of vegetation

also significantly influence the regulation of sap flow and gas exchange in plants
directly or indirectly, such as stomatal distribution, leaf morphology, hydraulic con-
ductance, canopy structure, and leaf area index.
4.4.6 Stomatal Distributions
More stomata and greater conductance facilitate transpiration rates, which relate
directly to required sap flow levels (Sharma et al. 2018). Also, the spatial distribu-
tion of stomata on leaves affects gas exchange. Stomatal density, shape, and func-
tion can vary considerably between and within leaves, impacting the optimization
of whole-plant gas exchange.
4.4.7 Leaf Morphology
Leaf morphology plays a vital role as the dense leaf trichomes can increase gas dif-
fusion resistance, decreasing gas fluxes (Sharma and Singh 2021). However, they
can also indirectly increase gas fluxes by increasing leaf temperature through heat
diffusion resistance (Amada et al. 2020). Also, the density of leaf veins is an impor-
tant factor in regulating stomatal responses. The distribution and arrangement of
leaf veins influence gas exchange efficiency and water transport from roots to sto-
mata. Thicker or amphistomatous leaves with more vein endings maximize sap flow
delivery for high gas exchange capacity. Stomatal traits, such as stomatal conduc-
tance (gs) and leaf epidermal area allocation, are crucial for achieving an economic
balance between carbon needs and water use. Leaf mass per unit area (LMA) and
internal leaf anatomy affect net gas exchange by influencing internal CO2 conduc-
tance, nitrogen concentration, and resource-use efficiency (Mediavilla et al. 2001).
Coordination between leaf hydraulic conductance (Kleaf) and stomatal conductance
(gs) is influenced by sapwood-specific hydraulic conductivity (Ks), with water trans-

port efficiencies of stem and leaf xylem playing a crucial role in stomatal conduc-
tance and photosynthetic capacity (Liu et al. 2019). Environmental conditions also
influence leaf morphology, with winter chilling stress affecting leaf structure and
function, leading to changes in gas exchange parameters (Lianopoulou et al. 2014).
4.4.8 Canopy Structure
Canopy structure is also one factor influencing sapflow and gas exchange, as tall,
broad canopies with more leaf area have higher combined transpiration demand,
necessitating more sapflow. Canopy shape and geometry play a crucial role in the
interception and distribution of light within the canopy, affecting gas exchange. It
also affects the radiative and convective exchange of the plant, influencing tempera-
ture, vapour concentration, radiation regime, precipitation, soil temperature, and
soil heat flow (Campbell and Norman 1989).
4.4.9 Leaf Area Index
The leaf area index (LAI) significantly impacts plant gas exchange and sap flow. A
higher LAI generally increases gas exchange due to a larger surface area for photo-
synthesis and transpiration (Singh 2021). This can increase water uptake rates and
subsequent plant sap flow (Cherry et al. 1998). Additionally, LAI is a crucial param-
eter for estimating transpiration from individual trees, as it can determine transpira-
tion from individual trees and scale up to stand-level estimates of water use (Cherry
et al. 1998).
The interplay between plant physiological parameters and environmental factors
is complex and influences the dynamics of sap flow in plants. These factors collec-
tively contribute to regulating water transport and gas exchange within plants and
adapting plants to varying environmental conditions. Sapflow and Gas exchange
processes, including photosynthesis and plant respiration, are important for under-
standing plant physiology, ecology, and plant growth and are particularly relevant in
global climate change.
4.5 Methods and Monitoring Protocol of Sapflow

and Gas Exchange
Assessing plant water consumption is essential for understanding plant physiology

and responses to environmental and climatic changes (Singh et al. 2017). Sap flow
measurement methods are crucial to understanding the physiological processes of
82 Pragya et al.
plants. With the help of these methods, we can determine transpiration rates for
individual plants, branches, and tillers, but understanding their theory is crucial for
selecting the most appropriate method and avoiding potential errors (Smith and
Allen 1996). Several sap flow measurement methods have been developed, includ-
ing heat dissipation, thermal properties, psychrometry, and tracer techniques.
Different techniques have advantages and disadvantages, including complexity,
cost, sensitivity, etc.
4.5.1 Methodological Approaches for Quantifying Sapflow
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, dyes have been applied to trace sap
flow in stems and roots (Dixon 1914; James and Baker 1933; Kramer 1940).
Alternatives were considered for sapflow measurement as this technique involves
cutting down plants as the dye ascends. One of the first to report on using heat as a
tracer to measure sapflow was the Huber method in 1932. The sap-flux density
methods based on heat-pulse were developed from the theoretical foundation of
Marshall (1958), who described the analytical background of heat conduction-
convection. Sapflux or sap-flux density is a metric that quantifies the amount of sap
that flows through a specific surface area at each time. It is a reliable way to deter-
mine the direction and distribution of sap flow within a plant.
There are two different methods for measuring sap flow: sap flow rate (g h−1),
which measures the total sap flow in a plant stem or part, and sap flux density
(cm3 cm−2 h−1), which measures the amount of sap flowing across a given surface in
a specific time. Sap-flow rate methods, such as the stem heat balance (SHB) and
trunk heat balance (THB) methods, measure the rate of sap flow in grams per hour
(g h −1) as described by (Smith and Allen 1996). The principal usage of these devices
is to estimate the entire plant’s water consumption. However, they cannot examine
the sap-flow fluctuations within the plant, such as radial sap-flow variations or
hydraulic redistribution.
4.5.2 Stem Heat Balance (SHB) Method
This technique estimates sap flow in plant stems by determining the heat balance of
the heated stem tissue. It follows the principle that sap flow rates can be calculated
from the amount of heat taken up by the sap stream. This technique involves encir-
cling a flexible heater around the stem with layers of cork, foam insulation, and a
PVC weather shield coated in aluminum. The temperature gradients along the stem
are measured by thermocouples placed against its surface. In contrast, thermocou-
ples embedded in the cork band measure the radial temperature gradient away from
the heater. Calculating the mass flow rate of sap in the stem involves solving the heat
balance equation and monitoring temperature differentials.
The stem heat balance method can be applied to small tree trunks, tree branches,
herbaceous, and woody stems (Steinberg et al. 1989). When using this approach, it
is critical to consider possible sources of error and take preventative measures to
avoid them.
4.5.3 Trunk Heat Balance (THB)Method
Sap flow in tree trunks wider than 120 mm is measured using the trunk heat balance
method. It relies on the idea that the heat balance of heated stem tissue can be used
to calculate sap flow rates. The trunk sector heat balance method only applies heat
internally to an area of the trunk, compared to the stem heat balance method, which
applies heat superficially to the entire circumference of the stem. Sap flow rates are
determined by measuring the voltage across the thermocouple junctions, indicating
the rise in the sap temperature. The electrode plates and thermocouple probes must
be installed carefully to ensure precise measurements.
Sap-flux density methods such as thermal dissipation and heat field
deformation(commonly used continuous heating-based sap-flux density methods),
whereas compensation heat pulse velocity, heat ratio method (widely used heat
pulse-based sap-flux density methods) provide more accurate flow directions and
spatial flow distribution in terms of cubic centimeters per square centimeters per
hour (cm 3 cm −2 h −1) (Table 4.1). Measuring sap-flux density allows a more in-
depth study of the hydraulic characteristics of the plant, as these methods can deter-
mine spatial variations in sap-flux density within the plant, whether radially,
vertically, or circumferentially.
Table 4.1 An overview of the common sap-flux density methods, indicating the measurement
frequency, range, zero flow, and wounding effect
Wounding
Method Frequency Range Zero flow needed effect
Thermal dissipation Continuous Low, moderate, Yes Yes
probe (TDP) and high flows
Heat field deformation Continuous Reverse to high No Yes
flows
Compensation heat-pulse Pulsed Moderate and No Yes
velocity (CHP) high flows
Heat ratio Pulsed Reverse to Depending on Dax Yes
moderate flows determination
84 Pragya et al.
4.5.4 Thermal Dissipation Probe (TDP) Method
The thermal dissipation method, also referred to as the heat dissipation method or
the TDP (thermal dissipation probe), is popular because of its affordability and ease
of use. It was developed by Granier (1985, 1987) using Vieweg and Ziegler’s (1960)
research as a basis. This method measures sap-flux density by assessing temperature
changes in the sapwood around a heated needle. It relates sap-flux density to the
temperature differential between a continuously heated needle and an unheated
needle positioned 10 cm lower in the xylem.
The thermal dissipation method can estimate low, average, and high sap-flux
density values but requires zero flow conditions for accurate calculations. However,
zero flow conditions are often not reached in practice, leading to underestimations
of sap-flux density. The method has been found to have limitations, including the
need for species-specific calibrations and potential underestimations of actual flux
density due to factors such as deviations in sensor design, radial sap-flux density
gradients, and wound effects.
Corrections have been proposed to address some limitations, such as accounting
for the part of the heated probe within conductive sapwood and inactive xylem.
Overall, while the thermal dissipation method is widely used, it requires careful
calibration and consideration of potential limitations to obtain accurate results.
4.5.5 Heat Field Deformation (HFD) Method
It is based on temperature variations detected in a varying heat field surrounding a

continuously heated needle. However, while the TD method only measures axial
temperature differences, the HFD method has a tangential needle that makes it sen-
sitive to the whole naturally occurring range of sap flux densities (Cermak and
Nadezhdina 1998; Nadezhdina et al. 2012). The HFD method uses symmetrical
axial needles above and below the heater to determine zero and reverse flows.
Putting thermocouples at various depths on the sensor needles makes measuring
radial sap-flux density profiles possible. The method was developed based on an
empirical temperature ratio that has been demonstrated to be correlated with sap-
flux density. The whole range of naturally occurring flow can be precisely deter-
mined using the HFD method, which does not require zero flow conditions.
4.5.6 Compensation Heat-Pulse Velocity (CHP) Method
The heat pulse velocity method, also known as the compensation heat-pulse veloc-
ity (CHP) method, is a sap-flux density measurement technique that estimates sap
velocity by measuring how long it takes for the temperature upstream and
downstream of a heater needle to equalize following the application of a heat pulse.

(Swanson and Whitfield 1981; Swanson 1972). The time it takes for the tempera-
tures to equalize is divided by the distance between the CHP method’s upstream and
downstream temperature measurement points to determine sap velocity. One of the
advantages of the CHP method is that it does not rely on the measurement of sap-
wood’s thermal diffusivity, which is a property that indicates how quickly heat can
be conducted through a material. This sapwood characteristic is required for other
methods, like the Tmax and heat ratio methods.
4.5.7 Heat Ratio Method (HRM)
The heat ratio method was developed as an alternative to the compensation heat-
pulse velocity (CHP) and Tmax methods for measuring low flows. It was introduced
by Burgess et al. (2001). After applying a heat pulse, the heat ratio method is based
on the temperature ratio between downstream and upstream measurements. A nee-
dle probe constantly heats the sapwood while probes above and below measure
temperatures. The increased temperature ratio in the upper and lower probes indi-
cates sap velocity. The average temperature ratio between 60 and 100 seconds after
the heat pulse is used to determine the sap-flux density.
The method requires determining the axial diffusivity (Dax) using an empirical
equation based on wood core samples. The heat ratio method has proven to be valu-
able for measuring low and reverse flows, but it has limitations for high flux densi-
ties (>45 cm3 cm−2 h−1) (Bleby et al. 2008). For high flows, the sensitivity of the
temperature ratio decreases, reducing the method’s accuracy. An external heat ratio
method was also developed to measure sap-flux density in small-diameter stems.
This method considers the stem and cork material applied to fix the sensor and has
shown promising results for low and reverse flows.
4.5.7.1 Wounding Effect
It refers to the physical disruption or damage caused to the xylem or sapwood when
inserting the probes or sensors for sap-flux density measurement methods. Wounding
can affect the accuracy of sap-flow results (Swanson and Whitfield 1981; Barrett
et al. 1995; Green et al. 2003). Wood density and fibre direction are also impacted
by wounding, particularly in the axial direction (Barrett et al. 1995). Wounding
obstructs the flow path in the sapwood, leading to underestimating sap-flux density
in heat-pulse methods. The obstructed zone depends on sensor geometry, probe
size, and, to a lesser extent, probe material. Regular reinstallation of sensors during
long-term experiments can help mitigate these long-term effects. Short-term wound-
ing, especially in the TD method, has been identified as a crucial error-inducing
factor, causing physical disruption of the xylem and gradients in the radial sap-flux
density (Wullschleger et al. 2011).
86 Pragya et al.
Furthermore, Wullschleger et al. (2011) have shown that the TD method depends
on the properties of the sapwood because it is susceptible to variations in thermal
conductivity. This indicates that the calibration could change for specific species of
tree based on the sapwood’s variable dry wood density and may even alter for a
single tree depending on changes in sapwood water content as wounding acceler-
ates. Correction equations and coefficients have been developed based on finite ele-
ment modelling (FEM) to account for the effects of wounding on sap-flow
measurements in heat-pulse methods like CHP and Tmax.
In the past years, research has been conducted on sap flow rates in various plant
species, utilizing different methods such as compensation heat pulse velocity, ther-
mal diffusion probes, and heat ratio methods, as shown in Table 4.2. Results have
shown a wide range of rates, from 3.4 to 57.6 cm/h, in species such as
Lophostemonconfertus, Liriodendron tulipifera, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, and
Banksia prionotes (Sun et al. 2021; Wullschleger and King 2000; Su et al. 2022;
Burgess et al. 2000).
4.5.8 Methodological Approaches for Quantification

of Gas Exchange
Gas exchange (CO2 and O2) between plants and their surroundings is quantified
using gas exchange measurement techniques (Singh et al. 2020). This is significant
because the exchange of gases can reveal a plant’s respiration and photosynthetic
Table 4.2 Sapflow rates in different plant species measured by various methods
Water
Species Method Sapflow rate uptake References
Liriodendron Compensation heat 57.60 cm h−1 223 l/day Wullschleger and King
tulipifera L. pulse velocity (2000)
Fraxinus Thermal diffusion 4.82 cm h−1 _ Su et al. (2022)
pennsylvanica probe (TDP)
Lophostemonconfertus Heat ratio method 3.40 cm h−1 _ Sun et al. (2021)
(HRM)
Banksia prionotes Heat ratio method 3.88 cm h−1 13.9 l/ Burgess et al. (2000)
(HRM) day
Swartziatomentifera Heat ratio method 9.8 cm h−1 22.15 l/ Antezana-Vera and
(HRM) day Marenco (2022)
Orange Thermal diffusion _ 3.57 l/ Mishr et al. (2021)
probe (TDP) day
Hevea brasiliensis Thermal diffusion _ 22 l/day Annamalainathan et al.
probe (TDP) (2013)
Mallotus Heat ratio method 11.5 cm h−1 _ Watham et al. (2017)
Philippensis (HRM)
rates. There are various ways to exchange gases, but open-flow and closed-flow
systems are the most widely used. While closed-flow systems measure changes in
CO2 and O2 concentrations by ululating air through a closed system, open-flow sys-
tems measure gas exchange by allowing air to flow through a chamber or leaf
cuvette (Raturi et al. 2022). Measurement accuracy and precision have been
improved in recent years by the development of new gas exchange techniques,
infrared gas analysis, and laser-based absorption techniques. Understanding these
methods is critical to comprehending how plants respond physiologically to envi-
ronmental stresses.
4.5.9 Close Gas Exchange System
Various techniques for measuring dissolved and gas phase O2 are employed in the
closed systems, including manometric techniques, O2 electrodes, and 14 CO2 fixa-
tion (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e). Determine the rates at which plants are housed
in a controlled environment, photosynthesis, and breathing. In order to alter the gas
composition, the plant places the sample in a closed chamber or recirculatory sys-
tem. Finding the rate at which the gas concentration changes over a particular allows
the plant to calculate its gas exchange rate. These methods have limitations, such as
the need for time integration and potential sources of error. On the other hand, open-
flow gas exchange systems offer continuous measurements of gas exchange rates
and provide advantages such as constant monitoring, ease of environmental control,
and non-invasiveness.
4.5.10 Open Gas Exchange Systems
Open gas exchange systems use infrared CO2 gas analyzers and differential O2 ana-
lyzers to measure instantaneous CO2 and O2 exchange rates (Kumar et al. 2021a, b,
c, d, e). In these systems, the sample is placed inside a chamber flushed with gas at
a steady flow rate before being released into space. Upon entering the chamber, the
sample gas and reference gas concentrations are multiplied by the flow rate through
the chamber to determine the gas exchange rates. Compared to closed systems,
these systems offer several benefits, such as the capacity to continuously monitor
respiration and photosynthesis, diverse chamber designs for different samples, sim-
pler environmental condition control, and non-invasiveness. Infrared gas analyzers
(IRGAs) are commonly used in open-flow gas exchange systems to track CO2
concentrations.
88 Pragya et al.
4.5.11 Infrared Gas Analysis
Infrared gas analysis is a technology that measures the concentration of gases such
as CO2, H2O, NO, and NH3 in the atmosphere. It uses infrared radiation, which is
absorbed by heteroatom molecules such as CO2. According to Hill and Powell
(1968), the primary absorbance band for CO2 is at 4.25 mm, with secondary peaks
at 2.66, 2.77, and 14.99 mm. According to the Beer-Lambert Laws, absorption at
any wavelength occurs when gas containing CO2 is passed through a waveguide
with an infrared light source at one end and an infrared detector at the other. This
implies that the detector’s signal will drop as the waveguide length or CO2 concen-
tration rises. Calibration is required to establish zero and full-scale values. This can
be achieved using carbon dioxide-free air and a known carbon dioxide concentra-
tion gas. Infrared gas analyzers (IRGA) are widely used in plant science applica-
tions and can measure carbon dioxide concentrations below 1 ppm against an air
background. IRGA calibration is usually done in ppm CO2 units, and the two-point
calibration assumes a linear relationship between the mole fraction of CO2 and the
IRGA output. It is essential to consider variables like flow rate, sample chamber
design, temperature, humidity, and tubing materials when using an IRGA for gas
exchange measurements.
Various IRGAs are offered commercially for use in plant science applications.
These include self-calibrating, microprocessor-controlled systems (e.g., LC4-A,
ADC) that can perform comprehensive data analysis. Gas exchange systems (e.g.,
S151, Qubit Systems Inc.) can be constructed around inexpensive pocket-size
IRGAs, such as those made by Bioscientific, Hoddesdon, UK; CIRAS-2, PP
Systems Inc., Hitchin, UK; LI-6400, Li-Cor Biosciences, Lincoln, NE, USA; and
CI-310, CID Inc., Camas, WA, USA.
4.6 Incorporation of Sapflow and Gas Exchange

in Modelling
Our ability to monitor and analyze plant physiological activity in response to envi-
ronmental factors has improved by validating remote sensing measurements by
integrating sapflow data with rainfall, meteorological, and soil water content infor-
mation. Furthermore, dual isotope-based methods effectively examine soil water
movement and how it relates to tree water fluxes, providing fresh perspectives on
the mechanics of plant water uptake. These measurements are essential to under-
standing the complex interactions between environmental factors and plant water
use, ultimately shaping our ability to mitigate the effects of climate change on veg-
etation and ecosystems. This understanding of sapflow and gas exchange is continu-
ing to grow. Several studies have examined the correlation among environmental
regulators, physiological parameters of plants, and the dynamics of sap flow and gas
exchange. Bovard et al. (2005) discussed the ecological controls on sap flow in a
northern hardwood forest, highlighting the species-specific responses to changing

environmental factors such as soil water content, photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR), and vapour pressure deficit (VPD). The study emphasized the importance of
developing a mechanistic basis for predicting sap flow responses in different tree
species based on environmental controls.
Integrating detailed hydraulic architecture into land surface models like ECHAM
(European Centre Hamburg Model), JULES (Joint UK Land Environment
Simulator), and CLM (Community Land Model) will significantly improve vegeta-
tion drought response projections. This requires explicitly defining xylem conduit
dimensions, including diameter, length, and connectivity based on plant functional
types (Christoffersen et al. 2016). Parametrizing xylem network models requires
significant empirical work characterizing water transport efficiency using tech-
niques like HPFM (High-pressure flow meter) for hydraulic conductivity estima-
tions (Plavcova and Jansen 2015) and hydraulic vulnerability curves (Li et al. 2016).
In montane Norway spruce stands, a three-dimensional microclimate and gas
exchange model was used to analyze changes in the canopy exchange of water and
carbon dioxide. The model accounted for tree structure and density and provided
accurate estimates of tree transpiration (Eva and Lambin 2000).
Better integrating stomatal optimization for maximizing carbon uptake while
minimizing water losses can improve model representations of complex transpira-
tion responses to variable light, vapour pressure deficit, soil moisture, and CO2
(Medlyn et al. 2011; Bonan et al. 2014). For example, adding the SPA (Soil-Plant-
Atmosphere)model (Williams et al. 1996) into SIPNET (Simultaneous Optimization
of Leaf Photosynthesis and Transpiration Model) (Perez-Priego et al. 2018) could
enhance responses to drought, sunlight, leaf nitrogen status, and CO2 availability.
Model benchmarking focused on extreme drought events can help parameterize
hydraulic safety margins before catastrophic failure for diverse species (Adams
et al. 2017).
For more realistic net carbon balance projections, enhancing biochemical model
detail on photosynthetic light reactions, carbon fixation pathways, photorespiration,
sink-source feedback, and temperature-influenced respiration is essential (Rogers
et al. 2014; Smith and Dukes 2017). For example, improving representations of how
Rubisco kinetics shift with rising temperatures and CO2 concentration enhances the
accuracy of net assimilation rates for C3 vs. C4 species (Wang et al. 2017).
Meanwhile, adding chloroplast inorganic phosphate regeneration and electron
transport rates better captures photosystem impairments during heatwaves for crop
models (Perdomo et al. 2017).
Validating next-generation models incorporating sap flux and gas exchange
dynamics requires extensive utilization of eddy covariance water and carbon flux
networks like Ameriflux, CarboEurope, and Fluxnet (Keenan et al. 2012). Site-level
data assimilation across precipitation gradients and biomes enables model bench-
marking focused on thresholds like hydraulic failure points, photosynthetic optima,
and respirations maxima (Dietze and Matthes 2014). Upscaling leaf- and plant-level
measurements with remote sensing via hyperspectral and thermal imaging, airborne
LIDAR, and satellite optical data provide spatially explicit validation (Chen et al.
90 Pragya et al.
2018). Open-access datasets allow continual model improvements with implica-

tions for forecasting ecosystem functioning under climate extremes.
4.7 Challenges and Opportunities
Accurately representing species-specific physiological dynamics in response to

multifactor environmental changes poses persistent difficulties for current-
generation models. As climate extremes become more prevalent, capturing acute
stress thresholds and recovery dynamics is increasingly important. Yet, field-based
ecophysiology struggles with controlled manipulation at scales relevant to remote
sensing inputs. Spatially distributed sapflow measurements have been proposed as a
potential solution to capture tree transpiration accurately. By considering the rela-
tionship between vapour pressure deficit and sapflow, it is possible to use this metric
as an indicator of physiological activity while accounting for the effects of tempera-
ture and moisture availability.
One of the challenges is the complexity of integrating physiological processes,
environmental factors, and plant characteristics into comprehensive models. This
complexity requires a multidisciplinary approach and the development of advanced
modelling techniques to accurately represent the interactions between sapflow, gas
exchange, and environmental variables.
On the other hand, there are opportunities for advancing our understanding of
plant water use efficiency, carbon assimilation, and ecosystem functioning. Efforts
are being made to optimize existing methods and develop new approaches to
improve accuracy. Species-specific calibrations are encouraged to address accuracy
issues associated with sap flow techniques. Lack of sensor calibration should not
necessarily lead to manuscript rejection if the resulting error does not dominate.
Advanced methods are available to measure sap flow and assess plant water use,
such as the heat ratio method, which can be improved with temperature correction
to avoid errors due to natural changes in stem temperature. Additionally, developing
integrated models can provide valuable tools for predicting plant responses to future
environmental conditions, optimizing water and carbon management strategies, and
assessing the resilience of ecosystems to climate change.
4.8 Future Suggestions
Future research should integrate environmental controls, such as climatic condi-

tions, soil water availability, and radiation, into comprehensive models to better
understand and predict tree transpiration and water fluxes in different ecosystems.
Further investigation into species-specific responses to environmental factors, par-
ticularly in mixed-species forests, will be crucial for improving our understanding
of ecosystem water use and predicting the impacts of changes in species
composition on water fluxes. Given the increasing urbanization, more studies are
needed to understand the water regulation strategies of planted trees, including their
ability to control transpiration in response to soil water availability and microcli-
mate variables. Also, efforts should be made to address potential sources of error in
scaling sap flow estimates to the stand level, as discrepancies between plot-level
transpiration and whole-ecosystem water flux measurements were observed in some
studies.
4.9 Conclusion
It is concluded that integrating sap flow sensors, gas analysis instrumentation, con-
trolled climate facilities, and flux monitoring networks with trait-informed ecophys-
iological modeling presents a powerful approach to addressing critical research
gaps. The studies reviewed offer valuable insights into transpiration dynamics, sap
flow, and water use across diverse plant species and ecosystems. These studies
underscore the significance of environmental influences, species-specific responses,
and the intricate regulation of water fluxes across varying environmental conditions.
While challenges persist in modeling the complex interplay between physiological
processes and environmental variables, the opportunities for advancing our under-
standing of plant water use efficiency, carbon assimilation, and ecosystem function-
ality are substantial. Monitoring gas exchange rates and their impacts is paramount
for predicting the effects of climate change on vegetation productivity and ecosys-
tem dynamics. Advanced modeling efforts must integrate stomatal, biochemical,
and hydraulic dynamics to project vegetation responses accurately and guide adap-
tation strategies. Future research endeavors should continue to delve into these
dynamics, incorporating environmental controls into models, and addressing the
complexities of scaling sap flow estimates to broaden our comprehension of water
fluxes in diverse ecosystems.h.
References
Adams HD, Barron-Gafford GA, Minor RL, Gardea AA, Bentley LP, Law DJ, Huxman TE et al
(2017) Temperature response surfaces for mortality risk of tree species with future drought.
Environ Res Lett 12(11):115014
Amada G, Kosugi Y, Kitayama K, Onoda Y (2020) Roles of leaf trichomes in heat transfers and
gas-exchange characteristics across environmental gradients. Authorea Preprints
Annamalainathan K, Joseph J, Alam B, Satheesh PR, Jacob J (2013) Seasonal changes in xylem
sap flow rate in mature rubber plants. J Plant Crop 41(3):343–349
Antezana-Vera SA, Marenco RA (2022) Transpiration of Swartziatomentifera in response to
microclimatic variability in the Central Amazon: the net effect of vapor pressure déficit. Cerne
27:e-102999
92 Pragya et al.
Assouline S, Or D (2013) Conceptual and parametric representation of soil hydraulic properties: a

review. Vadose Zone J 12(4):vzj2013–vzj2007
Barrett, D. J., Hatton, T. J., Ash, J. E., & Ball, M. C. (1995). Evaluation of the heat pulse velocity
technique for measurement of sap flow in rainforest and eucalypt forest species of South-
Eastern Australia
Beerling DJ (2015) Gas valves, forests and global change: a commentary on Jarvis (1976) ‘the
interpretation of the variations in leaf water potential and stomatal conductance found in cano-
pies in the field’. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 370(1666):20140311
Bleby TM, McElrone AJ, Burgess SSO (2008) Limitations of the HRM: great at low flow rates,
but not yet up to speed. In: Proceedings of the 7th international workshop on sap flow: book of
abstracts, Seville, Spain, pp 22–24
Bonan GB, Williams M, Fisher RA, Oleson KW (2014) Modelling stomatal conductance in the
earth system: linking leaf water-use efficiency and water transport along the soil–plant–atmo-
sphere continuum. Geosci Model Dev 7(5):2193–2222
Bovard BD, Curtis PS, Vogel CS, Su HB, Schmid HP (2005) Environmental controls on sap flow
in a northern hardwood forest. Tree Physiol 25(1):31–38
Bremer DJ, Ham JM, Owensby CE (1996) Effect of elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide and open‐
top chambers on transpiration in a tallgrass prairie abstract. J Environ Qual 25(4):691–701.
https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq1996.00472425002500040008x
Burgess SS, Pate JS, Adams MA, Dawson TE (2000) Seasonal water acquisition and redistribution
in the Australian woody phreatophyte, Banksia prionotes. Ann Botany 85(2):215–224
Burgess SS, Adams MA, Turner NC, Beverly CR, Ong CK, Khan AA, Bleby TM (2001) An
improved heat pulse method to measure low and reverse rates of sap flow in woody plants. Tree
Physiol 21(9):589–598
Busch F, Huner NP, Ensminger I (2007) Increased air temperature during simulated autumn condi-
tions does not increase photosynthetic carbon gain but affects the dissipation of excess energy
in seedlings of the evergreen conifer Jack pine. Plant Physiol 143(3):1242–1251
Campbell GS, Norman JM (1989) The description and measurement of plant canopy structure. In:
Plant canopies: their growth, form, and function, vol 1, p 19
Caple, M. (2012). Impacts of climate change on forests: physiological responses of Acer rubrum,
Quercus rubra, and Populus grandidentata to variable air and soil moisture
Cermak, J., & Nadezhdina, N. (1998). Sapwood as the scaling parameter-defining according to
xylem water content or radial pattern of sap flow?. In Annales des Sciences forestieres (Vol. 55,
5, pp. 509–521). EDP Sciences
Čermák J, Kučera J, Nadezhdina N (2004) Sap flow measurements with some thermodynamic
methods, flow integration within trees and scaling up from sample trees to entire forest stands.
Trees 18:529–546
Chen L, Zhang Z, Li Z, Tang J, Caldwell P, Zhang W (2011) Biophysical control of whole tree
transpiration under an urban environment in northern China. J Hydrol 402(3–4):388–400
Chen S, Wang W, Xu W, Wang Y, Wan H, Chen D, Bai Y (2018) Plant diversity enhances produc-
tivity and soil carbon storage. Proc Natl Acad Sci 115(16):4027–4032
Cherry M, Hingston A, Battaglia M, Beadle C (1998) Calibrating the LI-COR LAI-2000 for esti-
mating leaf area index in eucalypt plantations. Tasforests-Hobart 10:75–82
Christoffersen BO, Gloor M, Fauset S, Fyllas NM, Galbraith DR, Baker TR, Meir P et al (2016)
Linking hydraulic traits to tropical forest function in a size-structured and trait-driven model
(TFS v. 1-hydro). Geosci Model Dev 9(11):4227–4255
Daniels LD, Maertens TB, Stan AB, McCloskey SP, Cochrane JD, Gray RW (2011) Direct and
indirect impacts of climate change on forests: three case studies from British Columbia. Can J
Plant Pathol 33(2):108–116
29(2):451–457
Dietze MC, Matthes JH (2014) A general ecophysiological framework for modelling the impact of
pests and pathogens on forest ecosystems. Ecol Lett 17(11):1418–1426
Dixon HH (1914) Transpiration and the ascent of sap in plants. Macmillan and Co. Ltd, London
Dusenge ME, Duarte AG, Way DA (2019) Plant carbon metabolism and climate change: elevated
CO2 and temperature impacts on photosynthesis, photorespiration, and respiration. New Phytol
221(1):32–49
Eva H, Lambin EF (2000) Fires and land-cover change in the tropics: a remote sensing analysis at
the landscape scale. J Biogeogr 27(3):765–776
Fürstenau Togashi H, Prentice IC, Atkin OK, Macfarlane C, Prober SM, Bloomfield KJ, Evans BJ
(2018) Thermal acclimation of leaf photosynthetic traits in an evergreen woodland, consistent
with the coordination hypothesis. Biogeosciences 15(11):3461–3474
Granier A (1985) A new method of sap flow measurement in tree stems. Ann For Sci 42:193–200
Granier A (1987) Evaluation of transpiration in a Douglas-fir stand by means of sap flow measure-
ments. Tree Physiol 3(4):309–320
Green S, Clothier B, Jardine B (2003) Theory and practical application of heat pulse to measure
sap flow. Agron J 95(6):1371–1379
Gupta SK, Ram J, Singh H (2019) Relationship between leaf area index and atmospheric cooling
of tree species. Indian J For 42(3):203–208
Hai Z (2008) Water consumption by transpiration of several trees’ species in the loess plateau with
mixed water and wind erosion. Acta Ecol Sin
Hill, D. W., & Powell, T. (1968). Non-dispersive infra-red gas analysis: in science, medicine, and
industry
James WO, Baker H (1933) Sap pressure and the movements of sap. New Phytol 32(5):317–343
Jianfang M (2005) Sapflow rate of Pinus tabulaeformis in summer in Taiyue Mountain of Shanxi
Province, North China. J Beijing For Univ
Jun X (2008) Influence of soil temperature on sap flow of Pinus tabulaeformis. Acta Ecol Sin
Keenan TF, Baker I, Barr A, Ciais P, Davis K, Dietze M, Richardson AD et al (2012) Terrestrial
biosphere model performance for inter-annual variability of land-atmosphere CO2 exchange.
Glob Chang Biol 18(6):1971–1987
Kramer PJ (1940) Root resistance as a cause of decreased water absorption by plants at low tem-
peratures. Plant Physiol 15(1):63
Kumar M, Padalia H, Singh H (2020c) Remote sensing for mapping invasive alien plants: oppor-
tunities and challenges. In: ICFRE (ed) A handbook on invasive species. Indian Council of
Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun, India
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021b) Adaptation and mitigation potential of road-
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
94 Pragya et al.
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021c) Impact of plant functional traits on infiltration
rate under different forests of Kempty watershed in Garhwal Himalaya. Indian J Soil Conserv
49(1):38–44
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021d) Modulation of plant functional traits under essen-
Kumar A, Tewari S, Singh H, Kumar P, Kumar N, Bisth S, Kushwah S, Nidhi KR (2021e) Biomass
org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120191
Leuzinger S, Körner C (2007) Water savings in mature deciduous forest trees under elevated CO2.
Glob Chang Biol 13(12):2498–2508
Li Y, Chen W, Chen J, Shi H (2016) Vulnerability to drought-induced cavitation in shoots of two
typical shrubs in the southern mu us Sandy land, China. J Arid Land 8:125–137
Lianopoulou V, Bosabalidis AM, Patakas A, Lazari D, Panteris E (2014) Effects of chilling stress
on leaf morphology, anatomy, ultrastructure, gas exchange, and essential oils in the seasonally
dimorphic plant Teucrium polium (Lamiaceae). Acta Physiol Plant 36:2271–2281
Liu X, Liu H, Gleason SM, Goldstein G, Zhu S, He P, Ye Q (2019) Water transport from stem to
stomata: the coordination of hydraulic and gas exchange traits across 33 subtropical woody
species. Tree Physiol 39(10):1665–1674
Manoj M, Sweta NP, Singh H (2021) The role of communities in sustainable land and forest man-
agement. In: Forest Resources Resilience and Conflicts. Academic Press Elsevier. https://doi.
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
Marshall DC (1958) Measurement of sap flow in conifers by heat transport. Plant Physiol 33(6):385
Mediavilla S, Escudero A, Heilmeier H (2001) Internal leaf anatomy and photosynthetic resource-
use efficiency: interspecific and intraspecific comparisons. Tree Physiol 21(4):251–259
Medlyn BE, Duursma RA, Eamus D, Ellsworth DS, Prentice IC, Barton CV, Wingate L (2011)
Reconciling the optimal and empirical approaches to modelling stomatal conductance. Glob
Chang Biol 17(6):2134–2144
Meinzer FC, James SA, Goldstein G (2004) Dynamics of transpiration, sap flow and use of stored
water in tropical forest canopy trees. Tree Physiol 24(8):901–909
Mishr AK, Pujari PR, Dhyani S, Verma P, Janipella R, Balwant P, Veligeti J (2021) Assessing water
requirement of orange trees using sap flow measurements in Narkhed-Pandhurna critical zone
observatory (CZO) in Central India. J Agrometeorol 23(1):14–20
Nadezhdina N, Vandegehuchte MW, Steppe K (2012) Sap flux density measurements based on the
heat field deformation method. Trees 26:1439–1448
Oguntunde P (2005) Whole-plant water use and canopy conductance of cassava under
IimitedAvailable soil water and varying evaporative demand. Plant Soil 278:371–383
Perdomo JA, Capó-Bauçà S, Carmo-Silva E, Galmés J (2017) Rubisco and rubisco activase play
an important role in the biochemical limitations of photosynthesis in rice, wheat, and maize
under high temperature and water deficit. Front Plant Sci 8:490
Perez-Priego O, Katul G, Reichstein M, El-Madany TS, Ahrens B, Carrara A, Migliavacca M
(2018) Partitioning eddy covariance water flux components using physiological and microme-
teorological approaches. J Geophys Res Biogeo 123(10):3353–3370
Plavcova L, Jansen S (2015) The role of xylem parenchyma in the storage and utilization of non-
structural carbohydrates. In: Functional and ecological xylem anatomy, pp 209–234
Rakkibu MG (2000) A study of the effects of climatic factors on tree sapfolw in an agrosilvopas-
toral system. Khulna University Studies, pp 349–354
org/10.36808/if/2020/v146i2/151208
Rogers BM, Veraverbeke S, Azzari G, Czimczik CI, Holden SR, Mouteva GO, Randerson JT
(2014) Quantifying fire-wide carbon emissions in interior Alaska using field measurements and
Landsat imagery. J Geophys Res Biogeo 119(8):1608–1629
Romero P, Botía P, Keller M (2017) Hydraulics and gas exchange recover more rapidly from
severe drought stress in small pot-grown grapevines than in field-grown plants. J Plant Physiol
216:58–73
Singh H (2021) An integrated approach considering physiological and biophysical based indicators
for assessing tolerance of roadside plantations of Alstonia scholaris towards urban r oadside air
pollution: an assessment of adaptation of plantations for mitigating urban roadside air pollu-
tion. Trees. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-021-02179-8
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
potential species for abatement of urban air pollution. 3. Biotech 7(61):1–10. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s13205-017-0690-0
Smith DM, Allen SJ (1996) Measurement of sap flow in plant stems. J Exp Bot 47(12):1833–1844
96 Pragya et al.
Smith NG, Dukes JS (2017) Short-term acclimation to warmer temperatures accelerates leaf car-
bon exchange processes across plant types. Glob Chang Biol 23(11):4840–4853
Sperry JS, Venturas MD, Todd HN, Trugman AT, Anderegg WR, Wang Y, Tai X (2019) The impact
of rising CO2 and acclimation on the response of US forests to global warming. Proc Natl Acad
Sci 116(51):25734–25744
Steinberg S, van Bavel CH, McFarland MJ (1989) A gauge to measure mass flow rate of sap in
stems and trunks of woody plants. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 114(3):466–472
Su Y, Wang X, Sun Y, Wu H (2022) Sap flow velocity in Fraxinus pennsylvanica in response to
water stress and microclimatic variables. Front Plant Sci 13:884526
Sun X, Li J, Cameron D, Moore G (2021) On the use of sap flow measurements to assess the water
requirements of three Australian native tree species. Agronomy 12(1):52
Swanson RH (1972) Water transpired by trees is indicated by heat pulse velocity. Agric Meteorol
10:277–281
Swanson RH, Whitfield DWA (1981) A numerical analysis of heat pulse velocity theory and prac-
tice. J Exp Bot 32(1):221–239
Thakur RB, Phulara NK (2009) Impacts of climate change on biodiversity resources & forest
ecosystems. Initiation 3:86–96
Unsworth MH, Phillips N, Link T, Bond BJ, Falk M, Harmon ME, Kyaw Tha Paw U (2004)
Components and controls of water flux in an old-growth Douglas-fir–western hemlock ecosys-
tem. Ecosystems 7:468–481
Vieweg GH, Ziegler H (1960) Thermoelectrical recording of the rate of the transpiration stream.
I. Berichte der DeutschenBotanischen Gesellschaft 73(6):221–226
Voelker SL, Brooks JR, Meinzer FC, Anderson R, Bader MKF, Battipaglia G, Wingate L (2016)
A dynamic leaf gas-exchange strategy is conserved in woody plants under changing ambient
CO2: evidence from carbon isotope discrimination in paleo and CO2 enrichment studies. Glob
Chang Biol 22(2):889–902
Wang S, Tholen D, Zhu XG (2017) C4 photosynthesis in C3 rice: a theoretical analysis of bio-
chemical and anatomical factors. Plant Cell Environ 40(1):80–94
Watham T, Patel NR, Kushwaha SPS, Dadhwal VK (2017) A study on sap flow rate of
Mallotusphilippensis and its relationship with environmental factors. J Agrometeorol
19(2):104–109
Williams M, Rastetter EB, Fernandes DN, Goulden ML, Wofsy SC, Shaver GR, Nadelhoffer KJ
(1996) Modelling the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum in a Quercus–Acer stand at Harvard
Forest: the regulation of stomatal conductance by light, nitrogen and soil/plant hydraulic prop-
erties. Plant Cell Environ 19(8):911–927
Wullschleger SD, King AW (2000) Radial variation in sap velocity as a function of stem diameter
and sapwood thickness in yellow-poplar trees. Tree Physiol 20(8):511–518
Wullschleger SD, Childs KW, King AW, Hanson PJ (2011) A model of heat transfer in sapwood
and implications for sap flux density measurements using thermal dissipation probes. Tree
Physiol 31(6):669–679
Yadav SK, Singh H, Ginwal HS, Barthwal S (2019a) Elevated CO2 enhanced growth and physi-
Yadav SK, Singh H, Nautiyal R, Ginwal HS, Ansari SA, Barthwal S (2019b) Modulation of
Zhao CY, Si JH, Feng Q, Yu TF, Li PD (2017) Comparative study of daytime and nighttime sap
flow of Populus euphratica. Plant Growth Regul 82:353–362
Zoltán, A. (2019). How “wised up” are we in matters of climate change?
Chapter 5
Climate Change Effects on Plant-Pollinator
Interactions, Reproductive Biology
and Ecosystem Services
Arvind Kumar, Neha Rajwar, and Tripti Tonk
Abstract Climate change is significantly reshaping the dynamics of plant-

pollinator interactions, reproductive biology, and the delivery of essential ecosys-
tem services. This chapter highlights the impacts of climatic variables such as
rainfall patterns, temperature, and related climatic variability on fundamental eco-
logical processes, particularly plant-pollinator interactions, reproductive biology,
and ecosystem services. The phenological shift pattern of plants and pollinators,
driven by temperature and precipitation changes, has created temporal mismatches,
affecting the reproductive biology of various plant species. Concurrently, pollina-
tors’ geographical distribution and abundance are being redefined by changing cli-
matic conditions. This presents challenges and opportunities for plant-pollinator
relationships, raising concerns about the persistence of these essential interactions.
Further, changes in plant reproductive biology are evident through shifts in flower-
ing patterns, with some species displaying altered timing and duration of blooms in
response to warming temperatures. These alterations in flowering behaviour influ-
ence pollinator visitation and subsequent seed and fruit production. The conse-
quences of climate-driven disruptions in plant reproductive biology extend beyond
individual species to the broader ecosystem. Likewise, ecosystem services, includ-
ing pollination and the maintenance of biodiversity, are increasingly vulnerable to
climate-induced fluctuations in plant-pollinator interactions. Changes in pollinator
abundance, behaviour, and geographic ranges threaten the stability of natural eco-
systems. To cope with these challenges, mitigation strategies like promoting envi-
ronmental adaptation by plants and animals are gaining importance. Conservation
efforts targeting pollinator habitats, managed relocation of at-risk species, and pro-
moting climate-resilient practices represent critical steps toward safeguarding plant-
pollinator relationships and the services they provide. Therefore, understanding the
diverse interaction of climate change, plant-pollinator dynamics, reproductive biol-
ogy, and ecosystem services is essential for informed conservation and policy deci-
sions. This chapter not only elucidates the complex nature of these interactions but
A. Kumar (*) · N. Rajwar · T. Tonk

Forest Protection Division, ICFRE-Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

Ltd. 2024
98 A. Kumar et al.
also emphasizes the need to address the consequences of climate change to secure
the resilience and stability of forest and agriculture ecosystems worldwide.
Keywords Insect pollinators · Drought · Rainfall · Ecosystem services ·

Pollination · Foraging
5.1 Introduction
Pollination is a vital biological process within the plant community that plays a
significant role in establishing a symbiotic relationship between plants and their
associated pollinators. This process is brought about majorly by animal interactions.
This process benefits the interacting plants and animals. It also serves humanity
directly by increasing the yield of many crops and indirectly by contributing to the
healthy functioning of terrestrial ecosystems, both managed and unmanaged
(Nabhan and Buchmann 1997; Klein et al. 2007). To sustain the ever-increasing
human population amidst the changing global climatic conditions, pollination by
wild and managed pollinators plays a vital role. This interaction holds significance
in nature as it helps ensure the maintenance of ecosystem services, particularly in
yield. The role of insect pollinators in pollination constitutes an ecosystem service
that holds immense global significance, and it offers significant economic and aes-
thetic benefits and cultural value to human society. About 3.0 lakh animal species
are estimated as floral visitors (González-Varo et al. 2013), and about 75% of impor-
tant crops and 80% of the flowering plants are dependent on zoophily globally, with
foraging insects accounting for most of this activity (Nabhan and Buchmann 1997).
Driven by anthropogenic activities, ecosystem habitats have changed, which has
had detrimental effects on pollinators in animals, especially bees’ diversity (Abrol
2012; Singh and Kumar 2022). Estimating fruit tree pollination in the tropical envi-
ronment is challenging due to the existing research gaps. Tropics have a higher
diversity of pollinators compared to the temperate zones. Therefore, high pollinator
diversity increases the pollination service (Brittain et al. 2013; Singh et al. 2023a,
b). This produces a “subsidiary” effect in which more pollinators can make up for a
decrease in the absence of other pollinators. As estimated by the IPCC, the low-
emission and high-emission scenarios will increase the average global surface tem-
perature by 1.1 °C and 6.4 °C, respectively, during the twenty-first century (IPCC
2007a). Observational evidence from all continents shows that many ecosystems are
affected by regional and global climate changes, particularly temperature increase
(IPCC 2007b), and climate change is significantly reshaping the dynamics of plant-
pollinator interactions, reproductive biology, and the delivery of essential ecosys-
tem services (Fig. 5.1).
Changing climatic variables such as temperature, rainfall patterns, and related
climatic variability directly and indirectly affect fundamental ecological processes,
particularly plant-pollinator interactions, reproductive biology, and ecosystem ser-
vices (Singh et al. 2022). The shift in plants’ and pollinators’ phenological patterns,
5 Climate Change Effects on Plant-Pollinator Interactions, Reproductive Biology… 99
Fig. 5.1 Foraging activities of different insect pollinators. (a) Blue banded bee foraging on
Lantana camara; (b) Xylocopa latipes foraging on Peltophorum pterocarpum; (c) Cephonodes
hylas foraging on Cirsium hookerianum; (d) Trigonula irridipanis foraging on Ocimum sanctum
driven by temperature and precipitation changes, has created temporal mismatches,

affecting the reproductive biology of various plant species. Some anthropogenic
changes directly threaten pollination interactions, and climate change is one of the
most critical factors that disrupt the overlap in seasonal timing, i.e., flower produc-
tion phenology and flying activity of pollinators are altered, thereby, the interaction
opportunity for plants and animals is reduced (Wall et al. 2003; Sharma et al. 2018).
Parmesan’s (2006) studies suggest that both the distribution and phenology of many
animals and plants are biased in the direction prediction of global warming in the
100 A. Kumar et al.
last few decades, indicated by a global advancement of spring events by 2.3 days per
decade and a species range shift of 6.1 km per decades towards the poles (Parmesan
and Yohe 2003; Singh et al. 2023a, b).
The shift, which involves either advances or delays in phenological patterns of
plants and pollinators, driven by temperature and precipitation changes, has created
temporal mismatches, affecting the reproductive biology of various plant species.
Concurrently, pollinators’ geographical distribution and abundance are redefined as
they respond to changing climatic conditions (Phukon et al. 2022; Kumar et al.
2021a, b, c, d, e). This presents challenges and opportunities for plant-pollinator
relationships, raising concerns about the persistence of these shifts in flowering pat-
terns, with some species displaying altered timing and duration of blooms in
response to warming temperatures (Apurva et al. 2017). These alterations in flower-
ing behavior influence pollinator visitation and subsequent seed and fruit produc-
tion. The consequences of climate-driven disruptions in plant reproductive biology
extend beyond individual species to the broader ecosystem (Gupta et al. 2019).
Changes in pollinator abundance, behavior, and geographic ranges threaten the sta-
bility of natural ecosystems (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e).
Moreover, with the global changes in temperature, the mechanical fit for the
plant-pollinator interaction can be affected due to changes in morphological traits,
such as access to the plant due to altered tongue length and body size (Kumar et al.
2017). Further changing temperatures significantly impact the foraging behavior of
pollinators. In response to these challenges, adaptation and mitigation strategies are
gaining importance (Kumari and Singh 2018). Conservation efforts targeting polli-
nator habitats, managed relocation of at-risk species, and promoting climate-
resilient practices represent critical steps toward safeguarding the complex
interaction between climate change, plant-pollinator dynamics, reproductive biol-
ogy, and ecosystem services, essential for informed conservation and policy deci-
sions (Kumar and Singh 2020; Manoj et al. 2021).
5.2 Is Climate Change Affecting Pollinators?
Environmental variations related to climate change include the following factors

such as seasonal temperature increase, winter warming, temperature increase in dif-
ferent geographical regions, altered precipitation, altered seasonal variation,
increasing CO2, CH2, and N2O in the atmosphere, and extreme events like floods
having increased their frequency (IPCC 2014; Raturi et al. 2022). The overall effect
of these environmental alterations on species is complex to predict globally due to
distinct geographical variations. The timing of developmental events of organisms
(phenology) is expected to change as a result of changes in environmental cues
(CO2, temperature, and rainfall) (Hayes et al. 2012; Kumar et al. 2012). Global
warming is undoubtedly an effect of climate change which leads to hampering the
distribution, phenology, and morphology of plants and pollinators and might result
in mismatches of pollinator foraging and plant phenology (spatial, temporal,
morphological, and recognition mismatches) (Gerard et al. 2020; Prakash et al.

2022). These mismatches could also affect the foraging efficiency of pollinators as
well as the attractiveness of plants. Evidences are seen in many studies that a mis-
match between the flowering of plants and pollinator foraging could result from the
changes in phonologies of either one of the flora and fauna or both (Hegland et al.
2009; Monahan et al. 2016).
Consequently, species distributions and frequency are also changing as habitat
suitability is altered by these changes, which results in habitat shifting or emigration
in extreme scenarios (Hickling et al. 2006; Franzen and Ockinger 2012). Thus, pol-
linators deal with their abiotic environment’s spatial and temporal shifts by respond-
ing with biotic shifts in their phenology and changes in their global distributional
pattern. Global warming may affect a highly resolved plant-pollinator network and
relationship. They found that, depending on the phenological shifts applied, between
17 and 50% of all pollinator species suffer from food supply disruption due to tem-
poral mismatch. They showed that specialized pollinators were most likely to be left
with no food plants but that generalist pollinators could also experience consider-
able diet reductions following phenological shifts. The variation across species in
phenological responses to climate warming may also uncouple many plant-
pollinator interactions because the pollinators cannot track all their ancestral hosts
if some flower earlier and some later (Menzel et al. 2006; Memmott et al. 2007). In
the alteration of phenology, climate change can reshape plant-pollinator mutualism
by affecting partner traits, including morphological, physiological, or behavioral
characteristics (Gerard et al. 2020), many of which are sensitive to temperature
(Scaven and Rafferty 2013). The temperature increase in low and high-emission
scenarios will be the greatest in higher-latitude regions (IPCC 2007a, b; Savita et al.
2017). Increasing global temperature influences the production of nectar and pollen
in plants. Increased volatility of organic compounds is associated with increased
temperature (Yuan et al. 2009); fluctuating or erratic temperature scenarios are
linked with less nectar production in alfalfa plants compared to constant tempera-
ture (Walker et al. 1974); Glycine max grown in increased temperature produced up
to 50% less pollens and the produced pollens were less efficient to germinate (Koti
et al. 2005); similarly, less viable pollens were produced in peanut plant Arachis
hypogaea about high temperature (Vara Prasad et al. 2003). Research employing a
latitudinal climate gradient found that temperature and precipitation were important
drivers of structural network properties shaped by species richness and phenology
(Petanidou et al. 2018). Flower-visiting insects might be especially vulnerable to
climate change, primarily because their minute size constrains their migration abil-
ity. Additionally, their dependence on flowers for nutrition exposes them to numer-
ous other threats, including the loss of wildflowers, invasive species (Memmott and
Waser 2002; Bjerknes et al. 2007), pesticide use (Kremen et al. 2002), and habitat
loss or fragmentation of habitat fragmentation(Mustajarvi et al. 2001; Aguilar
et al. 2006).
102 A. Kumar et al.
5.2.1 Effect of Temperatureonpollinators
A region’s flora and fauna (particularly pollinators) is greatly influenced by tem-

perature. In most regions of the Earth, climate change caused by the enhanced
greenhouse effect results in global warming (National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration 2020). It is a vital factor that significantly influences the growth and
development of plants, as well as the behavior and survival of pollinators. It also
plays a crucial role in shaping the intricate dynamics and relationships between
plants and pollinators (Singh and Kumar 2022). The primary factor contributing to
climate change is the rise in global mean temperature, which has a direct impact
which is linked to a general shift in the timing of critical events in the life cycles of
various species, such as migration and reproduction in numerous plant species and
also on the poleward shifting of the distributional range of plants and animal species
(IPCC 2007a, b). This correlation has been observed in plants and their pollinators.
Throughout the last century, global warming has resulted in an earlier onset of flow-
ering in plants and increased activity in the seasonal flight of certain pollinating
insects. While most phenological events have been advanced, the extent of this
advancement differs, and there are instances where no significant alteration in phe-
nology has been experienced or delayed. The spring ephemeral plant (Corydalis
ambigua) flowering occurs earlier in mountain habitats, primarily driven by earlier
snowmelt (Kudo and Ida 2013). However, the emergence of pollinator species such
as Bombus hypocrita and B. hypnorumkoropokkrus, which is closely linked to soil
temperature, is not synced with the onset of flowering, thereby leading to dimin-
ished seed production, which is dependent on the pollination by the species men-
tioned above. Therefore, plant species with a narrow range or few pollinator species
are expected to be the most affected by the temporal changes in the associated pol-
linator species. Increasing spring temperature may decrease flower abundance and
affect species abundance differently within a community (Inouye et al. 2003). The
responses of both plants and pollinators regarding the nature of changes in phenol-
ogy to increasing temperatures on the Iberian Peninsula (Gordo and Sanz 2005) led
to a mismatch in the plant-pollinator complex. They found that the advancement in
the activity period by Apis mellifera and Pieris rapae compared to their preferred
forage species resulted in a mismatch with the phonological advances in some of
their primary plant resources. This result agrees with how herbivorous insects
respond to climate warming regarding food-plant availability; insect phenology
advances more than plant phenology (Visser and Both 2005).
In contrast, some species do not respond to changes in their environment up to a
particular range. Spring warming in Japan did not affect the emergence of the bum-
ble bee queen, and the adult emerged at its regular time of emergence (Kudo et al.
2004). This led to a decreased seed set in bumblebee-pollinated plants, which had
advanced their flowering in response to warm spring. Thus, response to temperature
and the extent of mismatches in pollination interactions may vary from species to
species and region to region (Singh et al. 2018). The activity of insects can also be
strongly influenced by photoperiodicity, which usually increases with altitude and
latitude, potentially counteracting warming impacts. The expected increase in tem-

perature is predicted to have a more adverse effect near the tropics than in other
regions, even if it is small in magnitude near the tropics and more significant at
higher latitudes (Singh et al. 2020). This is because the insects living in the tropics
have a narrow range of suitable temperatures compared to those living at higher
altitudes with higher thermal tolerance. In addition, tropical insects live near the
optimal environment in terms of temperature; therefore, an increase in temperature,
even if small, is likely to influence them deleteriously (Deutsch et al. 2008). This
explains the polar shifting of plants and animals correctly.
5.2.2 Climate Change Affects the Reproductive Biology

of Plants and Pollinators
Pollination is an important driver of floral morphology. Climate can shape pollinator-

associated adaptation because the abiotic environment imposes its selective demands
on floral traits and can determine the availability of pollinators. Climate directly
influences leaf and floral trait adaptation by imposing constraints on the size of
leaves and flowers (Miladin et al. 2022; Singh et al. 2020). In addition, climate also
influences floral evolution through its effect on pollinator distribution, which in turn
influences the likely pollination syndrome of the plant. However, the extent of cli-
mate change’s impact depends on the organism’s sensitivity, which varies from spe-
cies to species. Increasing the abundance of flowers within a community could
impact the reproductive efficacy of plant species. This may be attributed to a rise in
visitation rates due to modifications in pollinator behavior and changes in the com-
position of the pollinator community. Ultimately, these alterations can lead to an
increase in the rates of visitation, increased cross-pollination, and enhanced seed
production (Hegland and Totland 2005; Joshi et al. 2021).
Conversely, a rise in the number of flowers per plant may lead to increased self-
pollination, primarily due to increased geitonogamy (Vrieling et al. 1999).In the
context of plant-pollinator mutualisms, flowering phenology plays a crucial role in
influencing community structure and composition (de Manincor et al. 2020) because
it influences pollinator foraging behavior and, ultimately, pollinator population
dynamics (Ogilvie et al. 2017).The timing and sequence of pollinator activities sig-
nificantly impact the transfer of genes and the reproductive success of plants while
also influencing the dynamics of interactions between plants and pollinators in the
ecosystem (Duchenne et al. 2020; Memmott et al. 2007). Plant and pollinator phe-
nology may respond differently to climate change due to reliance on different cues
or differing sensitivities to the same cues (Renner and Zohner 2018). Trait matching
is critical in plant-pollinator interactions, where flower and pollinator morphologi-
cal traits shape the accessibility of nectar and pollen rewards for pollinators and the
effectiveness of pollen transfer for plants (Peralta et al. 2020; Rowe et al. 2020).
Direct temperature responses and mismatch in pollination interaction may vary
104 A. Kumar et al.
from region to region and species (Hegland et al. 2009). Heterogenous environ-
ments are more favorable for insects than homogenous environments as they pro-
vide alternative food sources until the flowering of the leading food plant.
Environmental warming can reduce flower size and number (Descamps et al. 2021a)
and alter nectar production and composition (Descamps et al. 2018; Descamps et al.
2021a; Takkis et al. 2018). Pollinators are sensitive to elevated temperatures; for
instance, bees rapidly absorb heat at high ambient temperatures and cool rapidly at
low temperatures due to their high surface-to-volume ratio. Long periods of sun
basking, shade seeking, and nest returning are some of the behavioral strategies
bees adopt to regulate their body temperature. Increased temperature leads to a
decreased visitation period as their body temperature reaches upper critical body
temperature (UCT) in less time, and they must return to their nests. The life span of
pollinator insect species is also negatively influenced by elevated temperatures. The
longevity of Colias eurytheme males declined by 40% with increased temperatures
than the normal range (Kingsolver and Watt 1983); similarly, Osmia lingnaria also
suffered shortened life span with longer summers (Sgolastra et al. 2011).
5.2.3 Effect of Rainfall on Pollinators
In order to develop a relationship between plants and pollinators, environmental

conditions play a pivotal role. Seasonality is an influential factor that significantly
impacts environmental conditions on a large scale (Devi et al. 2023). However,
seasonal variations in local ecological conditions also impact plants and pollinators.
Rainfall is a significant factor in changing environments that can impact plant-
pollinator interaction, as it can directly affect flowers and their pollinators (Kumar
et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e). Rain can have physical consequences on flowers and pollina-
tors and disrupt the timing of pollinator visits due to rain during morning hours.
Rain can disrupt and dislocate the pollen from the flower, hindering flowering
plants’ transfer and reproductive efforts through several mechanisms. Rainfall has
the potential to disrupt the transfer of pollen and negatively impacts the reproduc-
tive capabilities of flowering plants. Several mechanisms are involved in this pro-
cess, and past studies indicate that exposure to free water on the floral part can
disrupt the functionality of pollen grains incapable of reproduction due to osmotic
disruption. As a result, pollen transfer is hampered, posing a significant reproduc-
tive disadvantage to the plant (Sun et al. 2008).
On the contrary, some self-pollinated plants benefit from rainfall and are among
most plant species that depend on rainfall for successful pollination (Fan et al.
2012). Furthermore, rainfall can facilitate the inter-flower pollination process by
dispersing pollen from certain species other than hydrophily species. It has also
been proposed that precipitation before pollination may affect pollen’s attachment
to the stigma of flowers (Ortega et al. 2007).
Nectar is most pollinators’ primary reward for visiting a flower. In most nectar-
producing plant species, the risk of nectar dilution exists due to the flowers’
exposure to rainwater. This situation dramatically hampers the pollinator visits as

diluted nectars are associated with fewer floral visits in pollinator species(Cnaani
et al. 2006). However, lower nectar concentrations of flower populations sometimes
enhance the attractiveness of certain floral species to specific pollinators, particu-
larly those pollinators species that prefer less concentrated nectars. The notion is
that diluted nectar could confer reproductive advantages to plants by compelling
pollinators to visit numerous flowers, thereby facilitating outcrossing.
However, rainfall introduces mechanical challenges during flight and affects the
physical structure of pollinators. The overall increase in mass results from the added
water load on the insect, which alters both downward and backward momentum.
Non-uniform rainwater distribution on the body and wing surface may compromise
mobility and flight direction control by influencing fine-scale pre-landing move-
ments. On the other hand, pollinators̓ energetics during rainfall, in addition to other
energy-related challenges like thermoregulatory expenses, which potentially lower
the net energy gain, decreases the flight efficiency of the insect. Furthermore, rain-
fall can affect flower and pollinator complexes in several ways. It may reduce the
effectiveness of heat rewards offered by flowers, as rain can lower flower tempera-
ture. Pollinators’ behavior constantly evolves as they respond to their environment.
Altered sensory perception during rainfall influences pollinator behaviour, which
may obscure visual and olfactory signals, potentially affecting their navigation.
Rainfall could affect communication among pollinators by removing flower scent
and atmospheric volatiles and increasing environmental noise, thereby hindering
the olfactory signals necessary for proper communication (Lawson et al. 2017;
Pearce et al. 2017).
Additionally, temperature and scent patterns, along with floral textures, are com-
promised by rain, which hinders various interactions necessary to mediate direction
finding between pollinators and flowering plants (Lawson et al. 2018). The location
of the sun and sunlight play a significant role in direction search, and locating the
flowering plant gets disrupted by rain. Subsequently, disruption by rain causes sub-
stantial changes in the direction, finding interactions between these signals and pol-
linators (Harrap et al. 2017; Kaczorowski et al. 2012; Leonard and Masek 2014).
5.2.4 Effect of Drought on Pollinators
Reproductive processes in plants are significantly influenced by water stress. A vari-

ety of floral structures like flower length, stigma receptivity, floral tube length,
amount, quality, and growth of pollen, ovule number, ovule fertilization, and seed
maturity is positively correlated with reproductive success in plants (Su et al. 2013;
Kay and Picklum 2013; Sehgal et al. 2019). It was observed that, on average, 75%
of worker honey bees preferred to visit flowers of well-watered plants. In the case
of drought-stressed flowers, there was a significant reduction in the frequency per-
centage of honey bee workers visiting them, with only 5% of visits recorded
(Al-Ghzawi et al. 2009).
106 A. Kumar et al.
Flower number and size, volatile organic compound, and plant height signifi-
cantly affect the pollinator visit as these floral features are vital in attracting pollina-
tors to the plant. Water stress is associated with plants by lowering their heights by
up to 50% (Kahl et al. 2019; Al-Ghzawi et al. 2009; Qaderi et al. 2012). Variation in
plant height with increased rainfall was observed in wild populations (Lambrecht
et al. 2017. Flower density and number, which can act as pollinator attracts (Schiestl
and Johnson 2013; Fowler et al. 2016), are also negatively impacted by drought.
Pollinator visits decreased by half in Campanula rotundifolia, while in Potentilla
recta, drought drastically reduced pollinator visits by up to 22.5 fold per plant
(Burkle and Runyon 2016). Sometimes, water stress positively influences the plants,
as in the case of Phacelia hastata, where per-flower pollinator visits were increased
by up to ten times due to drought. There is also an instance in Heterothecavillosa
where drought stress doesn’t influence flower and pollinator interaction (Kumar
et al. 2019).
In contrast, wild bees exhibited different preferences, where 80% of wild bees
preferentially visited flowers of well-watered plants. They showed a lesser prefer-
ence for moderately watered plants, with only 15% of visits directed toward them.
Similarly, 10% of visits were made to flowers of drought-stressed plants (Kumar
et al. 2020a, b). Drought conditions can adversely affect pollen viability in various
ways; for instance, water stress can impair pollen tube growth. The number of pol-
len tubes reaching ovules was reduced notably by 30%, resulting in decreased fer-
tilization and directly impacting plant reproduction under water stress (Borrell 2005).
Varieties of factors are responsible for the decrease in seed and fruit set in the
plant; drought/water stress is one of the majors. The male reproductive organs are
susceptible to temperature and drought conditions, and the anther and pollen are
more responsive to drought than the female part of the flower, i.e., carpel (Su et al.
2013; Teixido and Valladares 2019). still, drought can negatively impact stigma
receptivity and ovule number. Drought adversely affects plant fertilization and
sometimes results in the abortion of ovaries (Alqudah et al. 2011; Smith and Zhao
2016). In some plants, when reproduced under water stress, abortion hinders seed
development(Sehgal et al. 2019). Therefore, water stress has detrimental effects on
the process of reproduction and can be a hurdle in obtaining better seed and fruit
sets, resulting in less yield (Sivakumar and Srividhya 2016; Mantel and Sweigart
2019; Sehgal et al. 2019).
Under drought conditions, the food supply for pollinators is reduced in quantity
and potential quality. Water stress reduces the lifespan of flowers, resulting in a
shorter window for pollinators to access floral rewards. The short time available for
flowers for insect pollinators minimizes food availability (Verma et al. 2021).
Additionally, water stress reduces flowering and the rewards provided to the insect
pollinators. Water stress conditions drastically minimize the production of pollen
and nectar in plants, which are significant sources of food for pollinators (Miller-
Struttmann et al. 2015); consequently, pollinators do not prefer such plants. The
decline in available flowers and floral-based food for pollinators strongly affects
pollinator populations.
Additionally, water stress leads to reduced lifespan in flowers, resulting in the

availability of flower food and other rewards for pollinators for a minimal period.
Due to water stress, honey bees may experience reduced essential nutrition. The
quality of nutrition insects get as floral rewards significantly reduces under stress,
and the overall quality of food and availability decreases during drought for bum-
blebee survival. Nectar with reduced sugar content has low nutritional value for
insects (Carvell et al. 2017). Therefore, insect pollinators must visit more plants or
flowers to meet their food requirement, increasing the net cost for the insect com-
pared with the net gain.
Floral resources, such as nectar and pollen, are the sole resources of food bees
rely on for their nourishment. The primary content of flowers for insect pollinators
to fulfill their nutritional requirement is nectar and pollen. The amount of nutrition
of these floral resources varies with sugar content in its nectar, amino acid, and pol-
len protein content. However, drought conditions significantly change the pollen
and nectar sugar content. Bee longevity is reduced substantially with low nutritional
availability, which also accounts for a reduction in fecundity (Vaudo et al. 2015;
Ziska et al. 2016).
Water stress significantly impacts plant-pollinator interactions at a single plant
and ecosystem level (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e). Water stress brought about by
drought influences the synchrony of flowering time in plants with insect emergence,
creating mismatches between plants and pollinators and their interaction. Water
stress may affect the release of floral scent and other volatile compounds, leading to
disruption in insect pollinators’ recognition of plant species(Descamps et al. 2021b)
(Fig. 5.2). Drought-affected plants also produce less pollen and nectar and are thus
avoided by many pollinators at the individual level.
5.3 Effect of Climate Change on Pollinator Driven

Ecosystem Services
Insect pollinators are essential to ecosystem services, benefiting natural habitats and
human-managed environments. About 2% of pollinator species provide about 80%
of pollination services globally (Kleijn et al. 2015). They foster biodiversity by
facilitating the reproduction of a wide array of plant species, supporting the survival
of numerous animal species dependent on these plants for sustenance and habitat.
The pollination process, crucial for plant fertilization and subsequent seed and fruit
production, is predominantly orchestrated by insect pollinators, driving global food
production. Approximately 84% of crop species rely on pollinators, enhancing
yields and crop quality by about 35% (IPBES 2016). The economic significance of
pollination is estimated at 9.5% of global agricultural production, making its role
indefinable in food security and human well-being(Gallai et al. 2009).
Pollinator species typically exhibit diverse foraging behavior, not relying on
individual plant species for shelter and food (Kumar et al. 2020a, b). They complete
108 A. Kumar et al.
Fig. 5.2 Relationship between successful plant reproduction and pollinators affected by water
stress. Water stress impacts flower display, size, color, scent, pollen quality, and nectar production.
These factors directly influence pollinator visitation (modified Descamps et al. 2021a, b)
their dietary needs by interacting with various flowering plants, ensuring sufficient
nutrition throughout their activity periods (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e). The pres-
ence of multiple pollinator species within ecosystems influences their dynamics,
with certain species contributing indirectly to plant reproduction by aiding in seed
and fruit development. Such interactions bolster plant populations and support fau-
nal diversity (Gupta et al. 2018).
The impact of climate change on pollinator-dependent ecosystems is profound,
as alterations in floral and faunal composition can disrupt vital ecological processes.
The loss of pollinator species may lead to cascading effects, affecting plant popula-
tions and associated faunal communities. The decline in bee populations, driven by
changes in floral availability, underscores the vulnerability of pollinator-dependent
systems to environmental stressors (Kumar et al. 2018).
Beyond pollination, insect-pollinated leguminous crops, by fixing nitrogen,
increase soil fertility, enhance soil structure, and reduce the need for synthetic fertil-
izers. Maintaining permanent vegetation cover helps mitigate soil erosion and
nitrogen leaching, contributing to ecosystem stability. Furthermore, promoting flo-

ral biodiversity in agricultural landscapes supports natural pest control through
increased parasitoid populations, reducing the need for chemical insecticides
(Wratten et al. 2012).
The value of pollinators extends beyond agricultural productivity, with ecotour-
ism opportunities arising from landscape restoration efforts. Successful seed setting
of plants pollinated by insects serves as the primary food source for many bird spe-
cies (Marshall et al. 2003). Recreational activities such as bird watching and nature
exploration capitalize on the beauty and diversity of pollinator-supported ecosys-
tems, fostering appreciation for conservation efforts. Initiatives like butterfly parks
and agri-tourism ventures educate the public on sustainability and provide income
opportunities and livelihood for the farmers, promoting a harmonious relationship
between humans and pollinator-dependent ecosystems.
5.4 Conservation of Pollinators Under Climate Change
The conservation of pollinator abundance and diversity has become a crucial con-
cern, owing to its significant role in fostering a rich tapestry of plant species within
agricultural and forest ecosystems. The vitality of the regeneration of numerous
plant species hinges upon the diligent efforts of diverse insect groups engaged in
pollination. Notably, the contributions of Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, and
Lepidoptera stand out as indispensable in upholding the integrity of these ecosys-
tems. Extensive research underscores the importance of native pollinators, such as
bees, hoverflies, and butterflies, highlighting the intricate web of interactions within
plant-pollinator communities. The presence of myriad specialist mutualisms within
these communities, wherein plants and pollinators exhibit specialized relationships,
holds the potential to enhance overall functional trait diversity. From generalist to
specialist interactions, the spectrum of relationships plays a pivotal role in deter-
mining the resilience of plant-pollinator dynamics in the face of environmental fluc-
tuations. While honeybees have garnered considerable attention in pollinator
research, it is imperative to maintain the significance of all remaining wild pollina-
tors and the myriad challenges they confront. Indeed, the sustainability of pollina-
tion services necessitates a holistic approach that transcends reliance on one or a
few domesticated species. Furthermore, native or wild pollinators often exhibit
superior efficiency in pollinating certain plant species than honeybees. Thus, recog-
nizing and safeguarding the contributions of these diverse pollinators is essential for
fostering resilient ecosystems and ensuring food security in the face of ongoing
environmental changes.
Studies focusing on thoroughly examining the potential efficacy of management
interventions in safeguarding pollinators amidst the challenges posed by climate
change have been scarce. However, present studies show that a strategic focus on
enhancing the availability of abundant and high-quality foraging resources holds
promise in mitigating the detrimental impacts of climate change, as indicated by
110 A. Kumar et al.
Prendergast (2023). One notable adaptive strategy organisms employ to contend

with shifting climatic conditions involves migrating to regions conducive to sur-
vival. This critical phenomenon relies heavily on suitable and undisturbed habitats,
which face existential crises due to human-induced activities such as urban sprawl
and agricultural expansion. Concerted efforts are required to conserve and rehabili-
tate habitats to facilitate the successful migration of pollinators and bolster their
resilience in the face of climate change. Preserving and restoring these vital ecosys-
tems provides pollinators with the necessary resources and pathways to navigate
and thrive amidst changing environmental conditions. Such proactive measures are
indispensable for safeguarding biodiversity and ensuring ecosystems’ continued
health and productivity amid ongoing climatic shifts.
Moreover, within the realm of vertebrates and plants, there is a widespread
endorsement for assisted migration or translocation as a proactive strategy to enable
species to remain within their appropriate climatic range (Gallagher et al. 2015).
Such proposals also face criticism, especially when species are moved outside their
historical range, but they hold more significant outcomes regarding species conser-
vation (Prendergast 2020). There have been no plans for assisted migration of wild
pollinators. However, the risks of disease and disruption ofplant–pollinator net-
works of the resident community are considered. This may be a vital tool to prevent
the climate-change-mediated extinction of vulnerable species. However, assisted
migration must be approached with scientific vigor. It should not be undertaken
without carefully considering potential risks (Prendergast 2020), such as introduced
species becoming invasive and negatively impacting the recipient community
(Mueller and Hellmann 2008).
In light of the current situation surrounding the decline in the population of pol-
linators, it is crucial to implement effective and strategic policies aimed at their
conservation. Various techniques have been developed to address this issue, and
active implementation of these techniques through well-constructed policies will
serve as a solid foundation for nationwide support. Consequently, multiple policies
have been formulated to facilitate and promote the conservation of pollinators. It is
imperative that there is a dedicated political and scientific commitment to support-
ing and preserving pollinators through the formulation of favourable policies (Dicks
et al. 2016).
5.5 Conclusion
Currently, climate change stands as a significant environmental concern and poses a

threat to biodiversity. Mismatches in the interactions between plant phenology and
pollinators will lead to the emergence of new biological networks and communities.
Predicting the future consequences of climate change and subsequent repercussions
on Earth’s biota is challenging. Insect pollinators, in particular, struggle to accli-
mate to changing climatic conditions due to their high sensitivity to such factors. It
becomes crucial to formulate effective strategies to safeguard their habitats from the
adverse effects of a warmer climate and establish suitable corridors for their sur-
vival. The focus should be on conserving both pollinators and the flora they polli-
nate. Neglecting this could cause a substantial disruption in the interaction between
plants and pollinators, potentially causing adverse effects on global food security.
References
Abrol DP (2012) Pollination biology: biodiversity conservation and agricultural production, vol
792. Springer, New York
Aguilar R, Ashworth L, Galetto L, Aizen MA (2006) Plant reproductive susceptibility to habitat
fragmentation: review and synthesis through a meta-analysis. Ecol Lett 9:968–980
Al-Ghzawi AA-M, Zaitoun S, Gosheh H, Alqudah A (2009) Drought's impacts on Trigonella
moabitica (Fabaceae) pollination via bee visitations. Arch. Agron. Soil Sci 55:683–692
Alqudah AM, Samarah NH, Mullen RE (2011) Drought stress effect on crop pollination, seed
set, yield and quality. In: Lichtfouse E (ed) Sustainable agriculture reviews. Alternative farm-
ing systems, biotechnology, drought stress and ecological fertilisation. Springer, Netherlands,
pp 193–213
Bjerknes AL, Totland O, Hegland SJ, Nielsen A (2007) Do alien plant invasions really affect pol-
lination success in native plant species? Biol Conserv 138:1–12
Borrell BJ (2005) Long tongues and loose niches: evolution of Euglossine bees and their nectar
flowers 1. Biotropica: J Biol Conserv 37(4):664–669
Brittain C, Kremen C, Klein AM (2013) Biodiversity buffers pollination from changes in environ-
mental conditions. Glob Chang Biol 19(2):540–547
Burkle LA, Runyon JB (2016) Drought and leaf herbivory influence floral volatiles and pollinator
attraction. Glob Chang Biol 22(4):1644–1654
Carvell C, Bourke AFG, Dreier S, Freeman SN, Hulmes S, Jordan WC, Redhead JW, Sumner
S, Wang J, Heard MS (2017) Bumblebee family lineage survival is enhanced in high-quality
landscapes. Nature 543:547–549
Cnaani J, Thomson JD, Papaj DR (2006) Flower choice and learning in foraging bumblebees:
effects of variation in nectar volume and concentration. Ethology 112:278–285
de Manincor N, Hautekeete N, Piquot Y, Schatz B, Vanappelghem C, Massol F (2020) Does phe-
nology explain plant-pollinator interactions at different latitudes? An assessment of its explana-
tory power in plant-hoverfly networks in French calcareous grasslands. Oikos 129:753–765
Descamps C, Quinet M, Baijot A, Jacquemart AL (2018) Temperature and water stress affect
plant-pollinator interactions in Borago officinalis (Boraginaceae). Ecol Evol 8:3443–3456
Descamps C, Jambrek A, Quinet M, Jacquemart AL (2021a) Warm temperatures reduce flower
attractiveness and bumblebee foraging. Insects 12:1–13
Descamps C, Quinet M, Jacquemart AL (2021b) The effects of drought on plant–pollinator inter-
actions: what to expect? Environ Exp Bot 182:104297
Deutsch CA, Tewksbury JJ, Huey RB, Sheldon KS, Ghalambor CK, Haak DC, Martin PR (2008)
Impacts of climate warming on terrestrial ectotherms across latitude. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
105:6668–6672
29(2):451–457
Dicks LV, Viana B, Bommarco R, Brosi B, del Coro Arizmendi M, Cunningham SA, Galetto L,
Hill R, Lopes AV, Pires C, Taki H (2016) Ten policies for pollinators. Sci 354(6315):975–976
112 A. Kumar et al.
Duchenne F, Thebault E, Michez D, Elias M, Darke M, Persson M, Rousseau-Piot JS, Pollet M,

Vanormelingen P, Fontaine C (2020) Phenological shifts alter the seasonal structure of pollina-
tor assemblages in Europe. Nat Ecol Evol 4:115–121
Fan XL, Barrett SCH, Lin H, Chen LL, Zhou X, Gao JY (2012) Rain pollination provides repro-
ductive assurance in a deceptive orchid. Ann Bot 110:953–958
Fowler RE, Rotheray EL, Goulson D (2016) Floral abundance and resource quality influence pol-
linator choice. Insect Conserv Divers 9:481–494
Franzen M, Ockinger E (2012) Climate-driven changes in pollinator assemblages during the last
60 years in an Arctic Mountain region in northern Scandinavia. J Insect Conserv 16:227–238
Gallagher EV, Makinson RO, Hogbin PM, Hancock N (2015) Assisted colonization as a climate
change adaptation tool. Austral Ecol 40(1):12–20
Gallai N, Salles JM, Settele J, Vaissière BE (2009) Economic valuation of the vulnerability of
world agriculture confronted with pollinator decline. Ecol Econ 68:810–821
Gerard M, Vanderplanck M, Wood T, Michez D (2020) Global warming and plant-pollinator mis-
matches. Emerg Topics Life Sci 4:77–86
González-Varo JP, Biesmeijer JC, Bommarco R, Potts SG, Schweiger O, Smith HG, Steffan-
Dewenter I, Szentgyörgyi H, Woyciechowski M, Vilà M (2013) Combined effects of global
change pressures on animal-mediated pollination. Trends Ecol Evol 28(9):524–530
Gordo O, Sanz JJ (2005) Phenology and climate change: a long-term study in a Mediterranean
locality. Oecologia 146:484–495
cies in the atmosphere. J Geosci Environ Protect 6:151–166
Harrap MJM, Rands SA, Hempel de Ibarra N, Whitney HM (2017) The diversity of floral tempera-
ture patterns, and their use by pollinators. elife 6:e31262
Hayes F, Williamson J, Mills G (2012) Ozone pollution affects flower numbers and timing in a
simulated BAP priority calcareous grassland community. Environ Pollut 163:40–47
Hegland SJ, Totland O (2005) Relationships between species’ floral traits and pollinator visitation
in a temperate grassland. Oecologia 145:586–594
Hegland SJ, Nielsen A, Lazaro A, Bjerknes L, Totland O (2009) How does climate warming affect
plant-pollinator interactions? Ecol Lett 12:184–195
Hickling R, Roy DB, Hill JK, Fox R, Thomas CD (2006) The distributions of a wide range of
taxonomic groups are expanding pole-wards. Glob Chang Biol 12:450–455
Inouye DW, Saavedra F, Lee-Yang W (2003) Environmental influences on the phenology and
abundance of flowering by Androsaceseptentrionalis(Primulaceae). Ann J Bot 90:905–910
IPBES (2016) The assessment report of the intergovernmental sciencepolicy platform on bio-
diversity and ecosystem services on pollinators, pollination and food production. In: Potts
SG, Fonseca VLI, Ngo HT (eds) Secretariat of the intergovernmental science-policy plat-
form on biodiversity and ecosystem services, Bonn, Germany, p 552. https://doi.org/10.5281/
zenodo.3402856
IPCC (2007a) Intergovernmental panel on climate change, fourth assessment report, climate
change 2007. In: Syntheses report. UNEP, Geneve
IPCC (2007b) Climate change 2007: synthesis report - contribution of working groups 1, 2 and
3 to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Change
IPoC, Geneva
IPCC (2014) Climate change 2014: synthesis report. In: Core Writing Team, Pachauri RK, Meyer
LA (eds) Contribution of working groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland
Joshi R, Singh H, Chhetri R, Poudel SR and Rijal S 2021. Carbon sequestration potential of com-
munity forests: a comparative analysis of soil organic carbon stock in community managed
forests of far-Western Nepal. Eurasian
Kaczorowski RL, Leonard AS, Dornhaus A, Papaj DR (2012) Floral signal complexity as a pos-
sible adaptation to environmental variability: a test using nectar-foraging bumblebees, Bombus
impatiens. Anim Behav 83:905–913
Kahl SM, Lenhard M, Joshi J (2019) Compensatory mechanisms to climate change in the widely
distributed species Silene vulgaris. J Ecol 107:1918–1930
Kay KM, Picklum DA (2013) Drought alters the expression of mating system traits in two species
of clarkia. Evol Ecol 27:899–910
Kingsolver JG, Watt WB (1983) Thermoregulatory strategies in Colias butterflies: thermal stress
and the limits to adaptation in temporally varying environments. Am Nat 121:32–55
Kleijn D, Winfree R, Bartomeus I, Carvalheiro LG, Henry M, Isaacs R, Klein A-M, Kremen C,
M’Gonigle LK, Rader R, Ricketts TH (2015) Delivery of crop pollination services is an insuf-
ficient argument for wild pollinator conservation. Nat Commun 6(1):7414
Klein AM, Vaissiere BE, Cane JH, Steffan-Dewenter I, Cunningham SA, Kremen C (2007)
Importance of pollination in changing landscapes for world crops. Proc R Soc Lond B
274:303–313
Koti S, Reddy KR, Reddy VR, Kakani VG, Zhao D (2005) Interactive effects of carbon dioxide,
temperature, and ultraviolet-B radiation on soybean (Glycine max L.) flower and pollen mor-
phology, pollen production, germination, and tube lengths. J Exp Botany 56:725–736
Kremen C, Williams NM, Thorp RW (2002) Crop pollination from native bees at risk from agri-
cultural intensification. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:16812–16816
Kudo G, Ida TY (2013) Early onset of spring increases the phenological mismatch between plants
and pollinators. Ecology 94(10):2311–2320
Kudo G, Nishikawa Y, Kasagi T, Kosuge S (2004) Does seed production of spring ephemerals
decrease when spring comes early? Ecol Res 19:255–259
Kumar M, Singh H (2020) Agroforestry as a nature-based solution for reducing community depen-
dence on forests to safeguard forests in rainfed areas of India. In: Nature-based solutions for
resilient ecosystems and societies, pp 289–306. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4712-6_17
Kumar SV, Lucyshyn D, Jaeger KE, Alos E, Alvey E, Harberd NP, Wigge PA (2012) Transcription
factor PIF4 controls the thermosensory activation of flowering. Nature 484:242–245
Kumar N, Suyal DC, Sharma IP, Verma A, Singh H (2017) Identification of stress proteins in rice
(Oryza sativa L.) genotype under elevated temperature: a proteomic approach to understand
Plant Devt Sci 10(3):157–162
Kumar N, Jeena N, Kumar N, Gangola S, Singh H (2019) Phytoremediation facilitating enzymes:
an enzymatic approach for enhancing remediation process. In: Bhatt P (ed) Smart bioremedia-
tion technologies. Academic Press, Elsevier, Cambridge, MA, pp 289–306
Kumar N, Kumar A, Jeena N, Singh R, Singh H (2020a) Factors influencing soil ecosystem and
agricultural productivity at higher altitudes. In: Microbiological advancements for higher
Altitude Agro-Ecosystems & Sustainability, pp 55–70
Kumar N, Singh H, Sharma SK (2020b) Antioxidants: responses and importance in plant defense
system. In: Sustainable agriculture in the era of climate change, pp 251–264. https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-3-030-45669-6_11
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021a) Adaptation and mitigation potential of road-
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021b) Impact of plant functional traits on infiltration
49(1):38–44
114 A. Kumar et al.
hills. India Curr Sci 120(6):1083–1188. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v120/i6/1083-1088
Kumar N, Jeena N, Kumar A, Khairakpan R, Singh H (2021e) Comparative response of rice culti-
vars to elevated air temperature in Bhabar region of Indian Himalaya: status on yield attributes.
Heliyon 7(7):e07474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07474
Lambrecht SC, Morrow A, Hussey R (2017) Variation in and adaptive plasticity of flower size and
drought-coping traits. Plant Ecol 218:647–660
Lawson DA, Whitney HM, Rands SA (2017) Colour as a backup for scent in the presence of olfac-
tory noise: testing the efficacy backup hypothesis using bumblebees (Bombus terrestris). R Soc
Open Sci 4:170996
Lawson DA, Whitney HM, Chittka L, Rands SA (2018) Bumblebees distinguish floral scent pat-
terns and can transfer these to corresponding visual patterns. Proc R Soc B 285:20180661
Leonard AS, Masek P (2014) Multisensory integration of colours and scents: insights from bees
and flowers. J Comp Physiol A 200:463–474
agement. In: Forest resources resilience and conflicts. Academic Press Elsevier. https://doi.
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
Mantel SJ, Sweigart AL (2019) Divergence in drought-response traits between sympatric species
of Mimulus. Ecol Evol 9:10291–10304
Marshall EJP, Brown VK, Boatman ND, Lutman PJW, Squire GR, Ward LK (2003) The role of
weeds in supporting biological diversity within crop fields. Weed Res 43:77–89
Memmott J, Waser NM (2002) Integration of alien plants into a native flowerpollinator visitation
web. Proc R Soc Lond [Biol] 269:2395–2399
Memmott J, Craze PG, Waser NM, Price MV (2007) Global warming and the disruption of plant-
pollinator interactions. Ecol Lett 10:710–717
Menzel A, Sparks TH, Estrella N, Roy DB (2006) Altered geographic and temporal variability in
phenology in response to climate change. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 15:498–504
Miladin JR, Janet CS, Collar DC (2022) A comparative approach to understand floral adaptation
to climate and pollinators during diversification in European and Mediterranean Silene. Integr
Comp Biol 62:496–508
Miller-Struttmann NE, Geib JC, Franklin JD, Kevan PG, Holdo RM, Ebert-May D, Lynn AM,
Kettenbach JA, Hedrick E, Galen C (2015) Functional mismatch in a bumble bee pollination
mutualism under climate change. Science 349:1541–1544
Monahan WB, Rosemartin A, Gerst KL, Fisichelli NA, Ault T, Schwarts MD, Gross JE, Weltzin
JF (2016) Climate change is advancing spring onset across the U.S. national park system.
Ecosphere 7:e01465
Mueller JM, Hellmann JJ (2008) An assessment of invasion risk from assisted migration. Conserv
Biol 22(3):562–567
Mustajarvi K, Siikamaki P, Rytkonen S, Lammi A (2001) Consequences of plant population size
and density for plant-pollinator interactions and plant performance. J Ecol 89:80–87
Nabhan GP, Buchmann SL (1997) Services provided by pollinators. In: Daily GC (ed) Nature’s ser-
vices: societal dependence on natural ecosystems. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp 133–150
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, N.C.F.E.I (2020) State of the climate: global
climate report for annual 2020. In: State of the climate. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Uwa
Ogilvie JE, Griffin SR, Gezon ZJ, Inouye BD, Underwood N, Inouye DW et al (2017) Interannual
bumble bee abundance is driven by indirect climate effects on floral resource phenology. Ecol
Lett 20:1507–1515
Ortega EE, Dicenta F, Egea J (2007) Rain effect on pollen-stigma adhesion and fertilization in
almond. Sci Hortic 112:345–348
Parmesan C (2006) Ecological and evolutionary responses to recent climate change. Ann Rev
Ecold Evol Syst 37:637–669
natural systems. Nature 421:37–42
Pearce RF, Giuggioli L, Rands SA (2017) Bumblebees can discriminate between scent-marks
deposited by conspecifics. Sci Rep 7:43872
Peralta G, Vazques DP, Chacoff NP, Lomascolo SB, Perry GLW, Tylianakis JM (2020) Trait
matching and phenological overlap increases the spatio-temporal stability and functionality of
plant-pollinator interactions. Ecol Lett 23:1107–1116
Petanidou T, Kallimanis AS, Lazarina M, Tscheulin T, Devalez J, Stefanaki A, Hanlidou E, Vujić
A, Kaloveloni A, Sgardelis SP (2018) Climate drives plant-pollinator interactions even along
small-scale climate gradients: the case of the Aegean. Plant Biol 20:176–183
Prendergast KS (2020) Critiquing the notion of a species natural range in an era of unprecedented
change. Austral Ecol 45:672–674
Prendergast K (2023) Assessing climate change impacts on pollinators promoting pollination and
pollinators in farming e-chapter. Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Ltd
Qaderi MM, Kurepin LV, Reid DM (2012) Effects of temperature and watering regime on growth,
gas exchange and abscisic acid content of canola (Brassica napus) seedlings. Environ Exp Bot
75:107–113
Renner SS, Zohner CM (2018) Climate change and phenological mismatch in trophic interactions
among plants, insects and vertebrates. Ann Rev Ecol Evol Syst 49:165–182
Rowe L, Gibson D, Bahlai CA, Gibbs J, Landis DA, Issacs R (2020) Flower traits associated with
the visitation patterns of bees. Oecologia 193:511–522
Scaven VL, Rafferty NE (2013) Physiological effects of climate warming on flowering plants
and insect pollinators and potential consequences for their interactions. Current Zoology
59:418–426
Schiestl FP, Johnson SD (2013) Pollinator-mediated evolution of floral signals. Trends Ecol Evol
28:307–315
Sehgal A, Sita K, Bhandari K, Kumar S, Kumar J, Prasad PV, Siddique HMK, Nayyar H (2019)
Influence of drought and heat stress, applied independently or in combination during seed
development, on qualitative and quantitative aspects of seeds of lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus)
genotypes, differing in drought sensitivity. Plant Cell Environ 42:198–211
Sgolastra F, Kemp WP, Buckner JS, Pitts-Singer TL, Maini S, Bosch J (2011) The long summer:
pre-wintering temperatures affect metabolic expenditure and winter survival in a solitary bee.
J Insect Physiol 57(12):1651–1659
116 A. Kumar et al.

carbon partitioning and biomass production of Withania Somnifera (L.) Dunal grown under
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
uclim.2022.101183
Singh H, Kumar N, Singh R, Kumar M (2023a) Assessing the climate change impact on the habi-
s11356-023-30789-x
Singh M, Singh H, Kumar A, Kumar M, Barthwal S, Thakur A (2023b) Soil nitrogen availability
Sivakumar R, Srividhya S (2016) Impact of drought on flowering, yield and quality parameters in
diverse genotypes of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Adv Hortic Sci 30:3–11
Smith AR, Zhao D (2016) Sterility caused by floral organ degeneration and abiotic stresses in
Arabidopsis and cereal grains. Front Plant Sci 7:202437
Su Z, Ma X, Guo H, Sukiran NL, Guo B, Assmann SM, Ma H (2013) Flower development under
drought stress: morphological and transcriptomic analyses reveal acute responses and long-
term acclimation in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 25(10):3785–3807
Sun J, Gong Y, Renner SS, Huang S (2008) Multifunctional bracts in the dove tree Davidia invo-
lucrate (Nyssaceae:Cornales): rain protection and pollinator attraction. Am Nat 171:119–124
Takkis K, Tscheulin T, Petanidou T (2018) Differential effects of climate warming on the nectar
secretion of early and late- flowering mediterranean plants. Front Plant Sci 9:1–13
Teixido AL, Valladares F (2019) Heat and drought determine flower female allocation in a her-
maphroditic Mediterranean plant family. Plant Biol 21:1024–1030
Vara Prasad PV, Boote KJ, Hartwell Allen L Jr, Thomas JM (2003) Super‐optimal temperatures are
detrimental to peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) reproductive processes and yield at both ambient
and elevated carbon dioxide. Glob Chang Biol 9(12):1775–1787
Vaudo AD, Tooker JF, Grozinger CM, Patch HM (2015) Bee nutrition and floral resource restora-
tion. CurrOpin Insect Sci 10:133–141
advanced proteomics. Plant Gene 26:100282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plgene.2021.100282
Visser ME, Both C (2005) Shifts in phenology due to global climate change: the need for a yard-
stick. Proc R Soc B-Biol Sci 272:2561–2569
Vrieling K, Saumitou-Laprade P, Cuguen J, van Dijk H, de Jong TJ, Klinkhamer PGL (1999)
Direct and indirect estimates of the selfing rate in small and large individuals of the bumblebee
pollinated Cynoglossum officinale L (Boraginaceae). Ecol Lett 2:331–337
Walker AK, Barnes DK, Furgala B (1974) Genetic and environmental effects on quantity and qual-
ity of alfalfa nectar. Crop Sci 1974(14):235–238
Wall MA, Timmerman-Erskine M, Boyd RS (2003) Conservation impact of climatic variability
on pollination of the federally endangered plant, Clematis socialis (Ranunculaceae). Southeast
Nat 2(1):11–24
Wratten SD, Gillespie M, Decourtye A, Mader E, Desneux N (2012) Pollinator habitat enhance-
ment: benefits to other ecosystem services. Agric Ecosyst Environ 159:112–122
Yuan JS, Himanen SJ, Holopainen JK, Chen F, Stewart CN (2009) Smelling global climate
change: mitigation of function for plant volatile organic compounds. Trends Ecol Evol
2009(24):323–331
Ziska LH, Pettis JS, Edwards J, Hancock JE, Tomecek MB, Clark A, Dukes JS, Loladze I, Polley
HW (2016) Rising atmospheric CO2 is reducing the protein concentration of a floral pollen
source essential for north American bees. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 283:20160414
Chapter 6
The flow of forest ecosystem services
in an era of disturbance ecology:
A nexus that warrants exploration
Agnish Kumar Das , Bhavya Thapa , and Diksha Verma
Abstract In response to the dynamic needs and evolving perspectives of the scien-
tific community and the anthropogenic world, the concept of ecosystem services has
continuously evolved since its inception in the last decade of the twentieth century.
The chapter attempts to trace the evolution of the idea of ecosystem services in the
era of disturbance ecology using forests as the model ecosystem since forests play
a vital role as a reservoir for the flow of ecosystem services. An evident surge in
disturbances that are primarily induced by climate change may have had an impact
on the flow of these services. The chapter aims to understand and conceptualize the
modifying influence of these disturbance drivers on the structure and function of
forest ecosystems and its subsequent effect on the ecosystem services and their flow.
This chapter delves into the multifaceted realm of ecosystem services research,
focusing on the critical research gaps that need addressing. These gaps encompass
the importance of long-term monitoring for understanding disturbance impacts and
ecosystem service recovery, identifying thresholds to prevent irreversible harm in
the face of climate change, and refining valuation methods for comprehensive eco-
nomic assessment. Various methodologies that facilitate ecosystem services research
have been investigated, including remote sensing and Earth observation for real-
time monitoring and using current ecosystem modeling methods to uncover detailed
patterns. Furthermore, the crucial contribution of stakeholder involvement and citi-
zen scientists in offering various insights on the effects of disturbances on ecosys-
tem services has been emphasized. Establishing a robust knowledge base is
imperative for effectively estimating these variations in service flow, which can fur-
ther enhance communities’ adaptive capacity in response to future changes and
A. K. Das (*)
Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences,
Prague, Czech Republic
B. Thapa
Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, India
D. Verma
Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, India
Ltd. 2024
120 A. K. Das et al.
enable informed decisions for sustainable ecosystem management and conservation

in an ever-evolving landscape.
Keywords Forest policy · Climate change · Forest monitoring · Forest modeling ·

Responsive planning · Ecosystem functioning
6.1 Introduction
Forests are the most productive terrestrial ecosystems, and the science of managing,
crafting, and tailoring forests to fulfill human needs is forestry. As a scientific disci-
pline, forestry did not emerge until the mid-nineteenth century. Before its establish-
ment as a formal field of study and research, the global history of forests was
characterized mainly by destruction. Initially, forests were valued primarily for the
vast array of services they could offer, including fodder, timber, and fuelwood.
Significant scientific advancements in forestry came about through the development
of silvicultural practices (Singh et al. 2022a, b). While silviculture methods have
resorted to uncontrolled exploitation in the past, the blooming of civilization in the
modern age and the consequent dwindling of forests have made forest managers
rethink the methods for managing forests (Gupta et al. 2018). Considering that for-
ests and other ecosystems play a significant role in human welfare and society and
that they must be managed sustainably led to the emergence of a scientific discipline
within the broader domain of environmental sciences called “ecosystem services”
(Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c). The idea that nature plays a role in human welfare is not
recent. Still, its recognition within the scientific domain led to the possible manage-
ment of ecosystems to sustain ecosystems for human welfare, which originated
around the mid-1970s and gained major attraction after 1997 (Lele et al. 2013).
The introduction of ecosystem services in the scientific literature can be credited
to Walter Westman, who first came up with the idea in a paper titled “How Much are
Nature’s Services Worth?” (Westman 1977). The more commonly used term ‘eco-
system services’ was coined by Ehrlich and Ehrlich (1981) and more systematically
by Ehrlich and Mooney (1983). Since then, the scope of ecosystem services has
been broadened to encompass goals related to socioeconomic development, envi-
ronmental preservation, and natural capital beyond biodiversity, thereby moving
beyond the concepts of ecological efficiency and human resource demands (Mooney
et al. 1997; Fisher et al. 2009) (Table 6.1).
Recognizing ecosystem benefits beyond its direct consumptive value is a major
hurdle for human societies. However, the deliberations about ecosystem services in
national and international platforms have yielded an understanding beyond their
consumptive value (Gupta et al. 2019). Since the Millenium Ecosystem Assessment
6 The flow of forest ecosystem services in an era of disturbance ecology: A nexus… 121
Table 6.1 Definitions of ecosystem services

Specific definitions
De Groot (1992) The capacity of natural processes and components to provide goods
and services that satisfy human needs, directly or indirectly
Daily (1997) Conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems and
the species that make them up sustain and fulfill human life
Costanza et al. (1997) The benefits human populations derive, directly and indirectly,
from ecosystem functions
Millennium ecosystem The benefits that people obtain from ecosystems
assessment MEA (2005)
Boyd and Banzhaf (2007) The flow of final current services results from ecological things or
characteristics, not functions or processes in nature
Bishop et al. (2010) The direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human
well-being
Haines-Young and Contributions that ecosystems make to human well-being include
Potschin (2010) provisioning, cultural, regulating, and maintaining contributions to
people
(Millennium ecosystem assessment MEA 2005) highlighted various categories of

ecosystem services such as Provisioning, Regulating, Supporting, and Cultural,
there has been a growing interest in ecosystem dynamics, functions, services (De
Groot et al. 2010), and their value. Despite the attention to ecosystem services and
the growth of research in this domain, central ambiguity still exists regarding typol-
ogies within the domain, such as ecosystem function, process, and services, and
what these words entail. This uncertainty has led to blurry distinctions being made
between intermediate and final output services and an incongruent alignment of the
ecosystem services with their corresponding benefits (La Notte et al. 2017). The
clear distinction between final and intermediate services is crucial since it reduces
the chances of overestimating the worth of a specific service. The concept of ulti-
mate ecosystem services evolved out of the need to address such ambiguities (Boyd
and Banzhaf 2007). Apart from the progress made to address the technical nitty-
gritty of the concept, the application of the idea has made significant strides to
address goals warranting global attention and importance, such as sustainable
development. The recent efforts in the past aimed at addressing the larger goal of
sustainable development have consequently led to research that targeted the com-
plete integration of the recognition, significance, and challenges related to the exis-
tence and flow of ecosystem services. In the current dynamic, this is imperative
since it comprehends the links between functions and services. Also, the relation-
ship between ecosystem services and society, policymakers, and legislation will
enable us to identify threats to ecosystem services and address them with sustain-
able management with a case-specific degree.
6.1.1 Flow of Ecosystem Services
The concept of ecosystem services, as integrated by community and ecosystems,

emphasizes the role of function in determining the ultimate value of services derived
from nature (Jabbour 2016; Colvin et al. 2019). Any ecosystem can efficiently pro-
vide essential services for human well-being when it remains unaffected by pertur-
bations (Malhi et al. 2020). However, the impacts of climate change have disrupted
both direct and indirect ecosystem services (Haines-Young and Potschin 2010; Lele
et al. 2013), altering the transition from initial processes to the realization of final
output services and causing an imbalance in ecological structures’ optimal condi-
tions. These disruptions, often called ‘drivers’ (Bennett et al. 2009), can lead to
trade-offs among ecosystem services and affect their provisioning rates (Rodríguez
et al. 2006). Meanwhile, theoretical research on ecosystem service flow has primar-
ily focused on potential supply rather than service demand and flow trajectory
(Mengdong et al. 2022).
6.2 Disturbances in Forest Ecosystems
Forests are a function of many biotic and abiotic processes, yielding self-sustaining
and resilient ecological systems. These systems are occasionally subjected to
abrupt transformations, also known as ‘pulse events’(Yang and Naeem 2008).
Disturbances such as heat waves, fires or insect outbreaks are pivotal pulses in the
ecosystem and warrant investigations, as they modulate landscape dynamics by
modifying forest structure function and persist in shaping them for years (Seidl
et al. 2017).
Disturbance can be defined as “Any event that disrupts the structure of an ecosys-
tem, community, or population, and changes resource availability or the physical
environment” (White 1985). Disturbances are primarily driven by abiotic factors
(climate, relief, soil), biotic factors (competition and herbivory), and the interac-
tions between the two elements (Wohlgemuth et al. 2022). Disturbance can be natu-
ral and anthropogenic (e.g. flooding, fire, mowing, and grazing). These disturbances
often exhibit periodicity known as ‘disturbance regimes’, which is “the temporal
and spatial dynamics of all disturbances affecting a landscape and their interactions
over a longer period” (Burton et al. 2020). It encompasses spatial attributes like
area, shape, spatial distribution, temporal characteristics like duration, frequency,
seasonality, and return interval of disturbances coupled with factors such as distur-
bance intensity and severity (Turner 2010). Disturbances can lead to both positive
and negative gains of resources. It creates opportunities for some organisms while
leaving others resource-deprived, causing spatial heterogeneity, promoting biodi-
versity, and initiating successions and evolutionary adaptations (Jentsch and White
2019). It facilitates adaptation to new environmental conditions, thus fostering eco-
system resilience and functional stability.
While natural disturbances play a critical role in forest ecosystems, our insights
on how disturbances will alter in future global scenarios remain constrained (Dale
et al. 2001). Research involving attempts to understand complex feedback loops
between disturbances and global change scenarios, such as climate changes and
land use changes, will help comprehend the impacts of disturbances on forest eco-
systems and ensure effective management decisions (Savita et al. 2017).
6.2.1 Disturbances Under the Climate Change Scenario
The impact of climate change has elicited significant concerns across biomes and
landscapes. Disturbance regimes, being climate-sensitive processes, are poised to
deviate from the patterns to which forest ecosystems have adapted (Singh 2024).
This alteration poses a significant threat, potentially jeopardizing the existing struc-
tures and functions of forests and even pushing them to collapse. Disturbance
regimes are prone to changes on three fronts: the frequency, magnitude, and range
of occurrences. Observed fluctuations in climate drivers, such as temperature, pre-
cipitation, and winds, are anticipated to cause heightened occurrences of storms,
droughts, spells, extended fire periods, and an increase in insect and pest popula-
tions (Seidl et al. 2017).
Forest fires hinge on the twin combination of fuel availability and reduced fuel-
soil moisture. Climate-induced temperature rise and shifts in vegetation productiv-
ity have extended fires into uncharted regions of tropical and arid zones, modifying
the distribution of global fire-prone areas (Thom and Seidl 2016). From 1979 to
2013, there has been a notable 19% rise in global mean lengths of fire weather sea-
son lengths, exhibiting a 5–7% increase per decade, with the projected rate of
growth in extreme fire patterns even more substantial, ranging from 17 to 163%
(Jones et al. 2022). Furthermore, the forecasts indicate a manifold increase in sig-
nificant fire events (exceeding 500 hectares) (Albrich et al. 2018). While such siz-
able fire incidents were infrequent in the past, climate-induced reductions in summer
rains, diminished moisture, and prolonged evapo-transpiration have intensified fire
occurrences, compressing the intervals between successive fire events. Fire in xeric
zones is likely to be primarily influenced by fuel availability, emphasizing fuel-
limited dynamics. Conversely, future projections in cool, moist climates indicate a
more substantial influence of climate factors, indicating a climate-limited scenario
(Halofsky et al. 2020).
In response to novel climate scenarios, forest insect herbivores demonstrate posi-
tive growth trends, adapting with shorter generation times and increased fecundity
under new temperature and precipitation combinations (Pureswaran et al. 2018).
This adaptive response facilitates range expansions, enabling synchronous occur-
rence over large geographic areas and leading to region-wide mortality (Ghelardini
et al. 2016). A rise in temperatures also reduces food conversion efficiency, prompt-
ing increased insect consumption to compensate. There is a noticeable expansion in
defoliator ranges into northern latitudes beyond historical limits, extending into
temporal and boreal zones (Jactel et al. 2019). While research on the adverse effects
of extreme climates on insects remains limited, it points to insect mortality caused
by heat waves, thermal shocks, lesser palatability of host tissues, and increased
predator abundance.
Winds ranks third globally in financial losses, trailing only forest fires and pests.
Wind routinely disrupts European forests, a trend expected to persist and intensify
(Seidl et al. 2016). Winds are responsible for breakages, structural harm, and uproot-
ing of forest trees. Climate-driven decrease in soil freezing in Finland has dimin-
ished tree anchorage, rendering the trees 20–30% more susceptible to wind damage
(Blennow and Olofsson 2008). A European forest study found a +2.6% yearly
increase in wind damage between 1958 and 2001 attributed equally to forest changes
(growing stock, tree species composition) and climate factors (wind speed, ground
frost) (Seidl et al. 2011b).
Disturbances do not operate in isolation; they interact, often resulting in additive
or synergistic effects. A disturbance interaction can be defined as “two or more dis-
crete events that spatially overlap within a brief timeframe leading to changes in
biological and physical features of an ecosystem”. Several studies in this field unveil
the dynamics of disturbance interactions. Interactions between fire and drought,
fire-drought-insect, and fire-invasive predators are the areas that have been a focal
point of diverse research endeavors. A fire-drought interaction can severely harm
forest health through drought-induced needle cast, branch abscission, proximal tree
mortality, and exacerbating fire intensity and damage (Carnicer et al. 2011). In
drought, trees emit stressors in the form of chemicals like ethanol and monoterpenes
that attract insects and pests, amplifying vulnerability to pest attacks (Canelles et al.
2021). In certain instances, fire facilitates predator access to structurally complex
habitats, potentially influencing prey-predator dynamics. Birtsas et al. (2012) dis-
covered a higher visitation rate of foxes and dogs in an intensely burned area com-
pared to both a moderately burned and an unburned area. Numerous examples of
interactions underscore the urgent necessity of comprehending disturbances in a
combined framework, as climate change is not only expected to create conducive
scenarios for disturbance agents but is also poised to initiate a cascading impact,
resulting in a multifaceted challenge to forest ecosystems.
6.2.2 Impact of Disturbance Regimes on the Flow

of Ecosystem Services Under the Influence
of Climate Change
As discussed in the early parts of the chapter, the vitality of human society depends
upon well-functioning ecosystems, with forests playing a pivotal role in providing a
diverse array of ecosystem services (Kumar et al. 2020a, b). Any interruption, even
brief, in the continuous provision of these services can pose significant challenges
(Rawat et al. 2020). Understanding how climate-induced alterations in disturbance
regimes affect ecosystem service flow is crucial for managing uncertainties and
guiding necessary interventions. Figure 6.1 illustrates how changing disturbance
regimes under a climate change scenario could impact the flow of ecosystem
services.
The flow of ecosystem services is subject to varying impacts, positive, neutral, or
negative, induced by disturbance regimes (Seidl et al. 2016). However, in regions
experiencing recurrent natural disturbances, ecosystem services are likely to be con-
strained (Fleischer et al. 2017). There exists considerable variability in risk across
forest ecosystems, characterized by differences in region, intensity, and spatial het-
erogeneity (Stritih et al. 2021). These risks have profound implications for crucial
ecosystem services such as timber production, carbon storage, natural hazard regu-
lation, insect and pathogen regulation, biodiversity, and habitat (Turner 2010).
High-severity disturbance events can release substantial stored terrestrial carbon,
transforming forests into CO2 emitters (Kurz et al. 2008). Grasslands subjected to
frequent disturbances like grazing, drought, and fire reduce the aboveground bio-
mass (Sheik et al. 2011). Excessive erosion triggered in disturbed forests reduces
their buffering potential toward flood and snow avalanches, thereby reducing eco-
system resilience to natural hazards (Zurbriggen et al. 2014). Such disturbance
events also have lasting negative impacts on the recreational value of forests. They
tend to diminish the aesthetics of natural forests, impacting tourism and cultural
services of forests significantly (Sánchez et al. 2021). Certain studies have high-
lighted the positive feedback in services regarding enhanced nutrient cycling and
biodiversity support following disturbances such as extensive fire events. For
instance, dead wood in stands after disturbances helps mitigate the impact of distur-
bances by creating vital habitats for birds, plants, insects, and fungi (Thorn et al.
2020). It is worth noting that some studies propose that human-induced distur-
bances, such as silvicultural interventions, exert a more significant influence on
ecosystem services than climate-induced disturbances (large-scale natural
Flow of ecosystem Flow of Ecosystem Cilmate Change

services from Service adapted induced Changed flow of
forest to long term alterations in ecosystem service
ecosystems disturbance disturbance to the society
regimes regimes
1. Provisioning: Timber, Increased intensity 1. Reduced timber

food, fibre, fuelwood, water Fire, storms, dust and frequency. and water supply
supply events act as pulse
2. Regulating: Climate and resource inputs. Host and range 2. Carbon release
carbon storage, air and soil expansion. into atmosphere
quality creates spatial
3. Cultural heritage/ heterogenity, Increased 3. Loss of recreational
Spiritual values improves overall vulnerability due to and aesthetic value
4. Supporting: Biodiversity resilience. disturbance
and nutrient cycling interactions 4. Loss of biodiversity
Fig. 6.1 Conceptual framework depicting the dynamic interplay between the flow of ecosystem
services and disturbance regimes under a climate change scenario
disturbances excluded) (Joshi et al. 2020). The gathered evidence emphasizes the
necessity for a nuanced grasp of how disturbance regimes, under the influence of
climate change, intricately reshape the flow of ecosystem services. Novel monitor-
ing approaches and management solutions are pivotal in navigating these complexi-
ties (Singh 2021).
6.3 Modern Approaches in the Research

of Ecosystem Services
Disturbances in the natural world are pliable phenomena, and therefore, to compre-
hend their impacts on natural processes, our methods also need to be dynamic,
which evolves with the flexibility of the disturbances. The contemporary discourse
on ecosystem services has emerged as a pivotal topic, with sustainable development
beckoning us. It is also reflective of the age of disturbance that currently envelops
us. This multifaceted domain presents an intricate interweaving of biology, sociol-
ogy, economics, and policy elements. Adopting a myopic perspective in this context
proves inadequate, as it overlooks what must be undertaken for sustainable develop-
ment. Modern solutions are imperative for navigating the complexities of ecosys-
tem services. These include innovative tools such as remote sensing and modeling
approaches, active stakeholder participation, and informed policy-level decisions.
This section attempts to show the readers how these approaches have been used and
can be used for the sustainable exploitation of ecosystem services.
6.3.1 Mapping of Ecosystem Services
Practical benefits are associated with incorporating technological advancements in

remote sensing into ecosystem services. Remote sensing techniques measure
reflected radiation and make mathematical models of the interaction of the Earth’s
surface with light, allowing for the inverse estimation of the properties of the Earth’s
surface. Some properties of the earth’s surface that predict ecosystem services, such
as land cover type and biomass, can be estimated using such methods. In contrast,
specific properties, such as land use, can be inferred indirectly and mapped through
understanding contextual spatial relationships (De Araujo Barbosa et al. 2015).
Supporting services such as primary production can be directly mapped due to their
direct relationship with the chlorophyll measurements from reflected signals (De
Araujo Barbosa et al. 2015). Regulatory services such as climate regulation are
related to the reflected signal in a more indirect manner. One of the prominent
advantages of employing remote sensing is its competence to perform frequent and
spatially continuous observations, which can yield bounteous data exhibiting large-
scale spatial and temporal variability (Palacios-Orueta et al. 2012).
Socio-ecological systems have a very complex dynamic, which makes assess-

ing and quantifying the abundance of species the necessary type of habitat to main-
tain a sustainable and sufficient level of ecosystem services complicated (Luck
et al. 2009). Developing a set of indicators of the status of the ecosystem, which
would allow the monitoring and quantification of ecosystem services, is imperative
(Feld et al. 2010). The remote sensing tool can effectively monitor specific, mea-
surable, achievable, realistic, and time-sensitive indicators of ecosystem health
and status to quantify ecosystem services (Dawson et al. 2016). Remote sensing
proxies have been used effectively for studying provisional services such as water
and food, with the dominant environmental proxy variable being land cover (De
Araujo Barbosa et al. 2015). Regulating ecosystem services such as climate regu-
lation have been used using remote sensing proxy variables land cover and normal-
ized difference vegetation index (NDVI) (De Araujo Barbosa et al. 2015), and
supporting services such as primary production, biological refugia have been well
studied where the dominant remote sensing proxy variable employed has been
land cover, leaf area index (LAI) and NDVI (De Araujo Barbosa et al. 2015).
Remote sensing proxy variables have not been widely employed in examining cul-
tural and recreational services among various types of services (De Araujo Barbosa
et al. 2015).
Within the existing potential of the currently available technology, certain proxy
variables can be bettered and used more creatively to draw better inferences regard-
ing the flow of ecosystem services (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c). Regarding land cover,
assumptions regarding ecosystem services valuation heavily depend on the calcula-
tions of the area of the ecosystem services being considered. Therefore, the datasets
with higher spatial resolution must be used for more accurate results (Cai et al.
2013). The developing of a linkage between the areas in which the ecosystem ser-
vice is being generated and consumed is essential for the effective management of
the ecosystem services and the development of informed-policy decisions (Bagstad
et al. 2014; Stürck et al. 2014; De Araujo Barbosa et al. 2015).
The community values and the cultural ecosystem services have been overlooked
over time regarding remote sensing studies (Raymond et al. 2009). Remote sensing
and earth observation data can be valuable tools for defining areas of high priority
from a tourism point of view (Cabello et al. 2012). However, evaluating and assess-
ing the use of structural ecosystem services has been limited mainly to extracting
data to furnish them in the Geographic Information Systems (Sherrouse et al. 2011).
Using remote sensing in conjunction with economic and social data, both quantita-
tive and qualitative, can assist in establishing required abstractions for accounting of
cultural ecosystem services (De Araujo Barbosa et al. 2015).
Modelling studies that attempt to simulate the flow and provision of ecosystem
services under various climatic, management, and socioeconomic scenarios will
benefit from the effective realization of remote sensing’s potential for mapping eco-
system services due to its ability to measure biophysical parameters, map land use
and land-cover that act as proxies for socioeconomic scenarios and collect data over
a large temporal scale.
6.3.2 Modelling of Ecosystem Services
In the twenty-first century, one of the major goals of research in the environmental
sciences has been to simulate, predict, and anticipate the flux in the services pro-
vided to society by ecosystems (Clark et al. 2001). Quantitative models have
emerged as potential tools capable of dissecting the intricate linkages between dis-
turbances and their surroundings, along with the dynamics of their interaction with
forest management. The models help formalize our understanding and enable us to
test hypotheses quantitatively (Seidl et al. 2011a). Addressing the intricacies of the
dynamics of forest ecosystems, models are beneficial for two major reasons: (1) it
help in conducting scientific examinations in a systematic fashion, which allows us
to quantify our assessments, and (2) it help in channelizing scientific knowledge to
facilitate sustainable ecosystem management practices. The Intergovernmental
Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services has recognized the essentiality of
the integration of ecological modelling and the forecasting of scenarios (climatic
and socioeconomic) for the enhancement of our comprehension of the effects of
change on ecosystem services (Morán-Ordóñez et al. 2019).
The employment of quantitative ecological models to delineate the dynamics of
ecosystem services has gained prominence in the past one and a half decades or so.
Two types of models have been most used in studying ecosystem services, namely
the correlative/ regression models, which function through the assessment of statis-
tical relationships between multiple variables (Morán-Ordóñez et al. 2019), and the
mechanistic or process-based models, which are designed on the theoretical under-
standing of important processes in ecology and explicitly incorporated in the model
(Morán-Ordóñez et al. 2019).
Despite the recency associated with this field, modelling has led to the scientific
community gaining important observations on ecosystem services. A study was
undertaken to understand the effects of climate change on the ecosystem services
from mountain forests in Europe using a forest dynamic model, ForClim (Mina
et al. 2017). The study revealed that the impacts of climate change on ecosystem
services were heterogeneous and depended on the region, future climate, and site
considered. It also suggested that carbon stock, biodiversity, and many other ser-
vices benefitted from no forest management under a scenario characterized by the
absence of natural disturbance, and the adverse effects of climate change on multi-
ple ecosystem services were limited to the severest climate scenarios. The manage-
ment of forests often focuses on maximization of the provision of ecosystem
services on large temporal scales. Albrich et al. (2018) investigated the relationship
between the temporal stability of the ecosystem and the level of provisioning of the
ecosystem services using the process-based model, iLand. The results revealed a
negative relationship between ecosystem service provisioning for carbon-cycling
timber production and temporal stability. In contrast, a positive relationship existed
between the species richness and the temporal stability of ecosystem service provi-
sioning. These results are particularly beneficial for forest managers as they aid
their decision-making, which could make forest exploitation and harvest

sustainable.
While modeling approaches have achieved significant results in this domain,
there are areas in which the studies have room for improvement, both in the approach
to using the model and in the model itself. In the current era of change, models
which can integrate socioeconomic and environmental drivers are poised to be of
more relevance to policymakers (IPBES 2016). In such a scenario, the approaches
involving a process-based model show significant advantages over using a model
employing the correlative approach, which is showcased by the ability of the former
to extrapolate beyond the known conditions, consequentially aiding in the simula-
tion and prediction under scenarios of global change (Cuddington et al. 2013).
However, Morán-Ordóñez et al. (2019) review shows the scarcity of employing the
advanced integrative modelling approach.
Regarding the indicators of ecosystem services, the glaring underrepresentation
of cultural ecosystem services in modelling studies can be noted (Martinez-Harms
et al. 2015). The quantification, modelling, and prediction of cultural ecosystem
services are difficult because most indicators are generally modelled based on their
already established relationships with environmental parameters. Considering this
limitation, future research must attempt to address this, and the path to the evalua-
tion of cultural ecosystem services may involve indirect inferences drawn from
changes in appropriate environmental indicators (Morán-Ordóñez et al. 2019).
Economically, the demand for ecosystem services has scarcely found space in
modelling studies. Employing socio-ecological approaches to simulate the demand
for ecosystem services under various socioeconomic and climatic scenarios would
aid today’s forest managers in sustainably managing the needs that would beckon us
in the times to come.
The limitations in the existing approaches cannot be addressed through observa-
tion through a scientific lens alone. The nature of the domain demands active stake-
holder consultation and participation for the effective translation of scientific
innovation into practice.
6.3.3 Stakeholder Participation in the Flow

of Ecosystem Services
The uniqueness of the ecosystem services concept within the broader ecology
domain lies in its characteristic involvement in human-nature interaction, which is
one of its key facets. It is essential to address the roles and responsibilities of the
various stakeholders involved in determining the flow of ecosystem services. The
stakeholders’ decision-making and demands can alter the flow of ecosystem ser-
vices not only on the quantitative front but also on the qualitative front. For exam-
ple, on the quantitative front, a policy decision in favour of the exploitation of
forests to their maximum potential for commercial reasons may lead to an increase
in timber production and revenue generated thereof. On the qualitative front, a pol-
icy decision favoring the conservation of forests may lead to a reduction in soil
erosion. Thus, the trade-offs that exist between different ecosystem services are
affected by the stakeholders’ decisions. Hence, the dynamics of ecosystem services
must be scrutinized through a socio-ecological and socio-political lens.
The trade-offs between ecosystem services lead to the enhancement of the provi-
sion of one service at the cost of another (Paavola and Hubacek 2013, subsequently
leading to conflict between the facilitators and beneficiaries of these services. All
the potential beneficiaries of an ecosystem service equally benefit from the respec-
tive ecosystem services (Felipe-Lucia et al. 2015). For example, one might consider
that the populations living near the upstream of a river may benefit from the water
quality. Still, the populations close to the downstream may not. Leaving aside the
spatial aspect, the interaction between the involved stakeholder communities is a
significant player in the inequity of benefits humans reap from ecosystem services.
In light of this, it is crucial to understand and address the power relationships
between stakeholders. Limiting ourselves to the domain of ecosystem services,
power relationships are essentially understood in the context of payments for eco-
system services (Vatn 2010). Asymmetries exist in terms of power among the stake-
holders, and empowered stakeholders can decide about an ecosystem service being
supplied to them, regulate their access to them, and thereby put the unempowered
stakeholders at a disadvantage. Integrating power dynamics into ecological services
research will highlight the discrepancy between the advantages that stakeholders
receive and the services an ecosystem produces (Singh and Kumar 2022). These
disparities might highlight the stakeholders who depend on certain ecosystem ser-
vices for their survival and who run the danger of being unable to obtain those ser-
vices. The incorporation of power dynamics, which encompass the beneficiaries of
ecosystem services, the contributors to their production, and those who are margin-
alized or disadvantaged (referred to as “losers”), remains largely absent in the man-
agement of ecosystem services (Barnaud and Antona 2014). By explicitly integrating
power relationships into ecosystem services research, there is an opportunity to ana-
lyze how power influences the distribution of ecosystem services, offering valuable
insights for designing more sustainable management strategies (Felipe- Lucia
et al. 2015).
Therefore, for the sustainable development goals (SDGs) to be realized, such
intricate aspects need to be addressed and acknowledged in the policy decisions
resulting from the research (Fig. 6.2). Ecosystem service-based management has
the potential to effectively address many SDGs, such as SDG2 (Zero Hunger),
SDG6 (Clean Water), SDG12 (Responsible Consumption), SDG14 (Life Below
Water), and SDG15 (Life on Land) (Johnson et al. 2019). Using an ecosystem
service-based approach to the SDGs can lead to improved management decisions
that take into consideration the complex and vital, but often overlooked and invisi-
ble, ways in which socioeconomic growth is dependent on natural infrastructure
(Cumming et al. 2017). It emphasizes the importance of conservation targets
(SDG14 Life Below Water, SDG15 Life on Land) in achieving well-being goals,
notably hunger reduction (SDG2 Zero Hunger) and human health improvement
Fig. 6.2 A framework to address the existing research gaps to ensure the sustainable flow of eco-
system services
(SDG3 Good Health). Connecting environmental changes to specific human well-

being goals is challenging because it necessitates a thorough understanding of how
services are created, flow, and acquired throughout a landscape. Second, it requires
a knowledge of how ecosystem service provision affects progress towards certain
SDGs.Ultimately, it is necessary to comprehend how various policy choices, lead-
ing to different landscape scenarios, can influence the provision of each ecosystem
service. This understanding is crucial for evaluating the potential impact of a policy
on the probable outcomes of human well-being (Johnson et al. 2019).
6.4 Conclusion
The chapter chronicles the growth and evolution of research in ecosystem services,
showcasing significant advancements in the field. Yet, the ongoing disturbances
affecting natural ecosystems, notably forests, underscore the need to reimagine our
forest management strategies. It emphasizes aligning the management plans with
the overarching goal of sustainable development. While modern tools offer consid-
erable potential in addressing these challenges, a notable gap exists in their utiliza-
tion for research and policymaking. Central to the concept of ecosystem services is
the human predicament. The chapter advocates for incorporating various indicators
of human well-being in research, utilizing modern tools such as remote sensing,
modeling, and stakeholder participation. This approach aims to facilitate the effec-
tive management of ecosystem services amidst the complexities of disturbance
ecology.
References
Albrich K, Rammer W, Thom D, Seidl R (2018) Trade-offs between temporal stability and level of
forest ecosystem services provisioning under climate change. Ecol Appl 28:1884–1896. https://
doi.org/10.1002/eap.1785
Bagstad KJ, Villa F, Batker D et al (2014) From theoretical to actual ecosystem services: mapping
beneficiaries and spatial flows in ecosystem service assessments. Ecol Soc 19
Barnaud C, Antona M (2014) Deconstructing ecosystem services: uncertainties and controversies
around a socially constructed concept. Geoforum 56:113–123
Bennett EM, Peterson GD, Gordon LJ (2009) Understanding relationships among multiple ecosys-
tem services. Ecol Lett 12:1394–1404
Birtsas P, Sokos C, Exadactylos S (2012) Carnivores in burned and adjacent unburned
areas in a Mediterranean ecosystem. Mammalia 76:407–415. https://doi.org/10.1515/
mammalia-2011-0070
Bishop J, ten Brink P, Gundimeda H et al (2010) The economics of ecosystems and biodiversity:
mainstreaming the economics of nature: a synthesis of the approach, conclusions and recom-
mendations of TEEB
Blennow K, Olofsson E (2008) The probability of wind damage in forestry under a changed wind
climate. Clim Change 87:347–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-007-9290-z
Boyd J, Banzhaf S (2007) What are ecosystem services? The need for standardized environmental
accounting units. Ecol Econ 63:616–626
Burton PJ, Jentsch A, Walker LR (2020) The ecology of disturbance interactions. Bioscience
70:854–870. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biaa088
Cabello J, Fernández N, Alcaraz-Segura D et al (2012) The ecosystem functioning dimension in
conservation: insights from remote sensing. Biodivers Conserv 21:3287–3305
Cai Y-B, Zhang H, Pan W-B et al (2013) Land use pattern, socioeconomic development, and
assessment of their impacts on ecosystem service value: study on natural wetlands distribu-
tion area (NWDA) in Fuzhou city, southeastern China. Environ Monit Assess 185:5111–5123
Canelles Q, Aquilué N, James PMA et al (2021) Global review on interactions between insect
pests and other forest disturbances. Landsc Ecol 36:945–972. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10980-021-01209-7
Carnicer J, Coll M, Ninyerola M et al (2011) Widespread crown condition decline, food web
disruption, and amplified tree mortality with increased climate change-type drought. Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A 108:1474–1478. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010070108
Clark JS, Carpenter SR, Barber M et al (2001) Ecological forecasts: an emerging imperative.
Science 293:657–660
Colvin SAR, Sullivan SMP, Shirey PD et al (2019) Headwater streams and wetlands are critical for
sustaining fish, fisheries, and ecosystem services. Fisheries (Bethesda) 44:73–91
Costanza R, d’Arge R, De Groot R et al (1997) The value of the world’s ecosystem services and
natural capital. Nature 387:253–260
Cuddington K, Fortin M-J, Gerber LR et al (2013) Process-based models are required to manage
ecological systems in a changing world. Ecosphere 4:1–12
Cumming GS, Morrison TH, Hughes TP (2017) New directions for understanding the spatial resil-
ience of social–ecological systems. Ecosystems 20:649–664
Daily GC (1997) Nature’s services: societal dependence on natural ecosystems. Island Press,
Washington, DC
Dale VH, Joyce LA, Mcnulty S et al (2001) Climate change and forest disturbances. Bioscience
51:723. https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0723:CCAFD]2.0.CO;2
Dawson TP, Cutler MEJ, Brown C (2016) The role of remote sensing in the development of
SMART indicators for ecosystem services assessment. Biodiversity 17:136–148. https://doi.
org/10.1080/14888386.2016.1246384
De Araujo Barbosa CC, Atkinson PM, Dearing JA (2015) Remote sensing of ecosystem services:
a systematic review. Ecol Indic 52:430–443
De Groot RS (1992) Functions of nature: evaluation of nature in environmental planning, manage-
ment and decision making. Wolters-Noordhoff BV, Groningen
De Groot RS, Alkemade R, Braat L et al (2010) Challenges in integrating the concept of ecosystem
services and values in landscape planning, management and decision making. Ecol Complex
7:260–272
Ehrlich P, Ehrlich A (1981) Extinction: the causes and consequences of the disappearance of species
Ehrlich PR, Mooney HA (1983) Extinction, substitution, and ecosystem services. Bioscience
33:248–254
Feld CK, Sousa JP, Da Silva PM, Dawson TP (2010) Indicators for biodiversity and ecosystem
services: towards an improved framework for ecosystems assessment. Biodivers Conserv
19:2895–2919
Felipe-Lucia MR, Martín-López B, Lavorel S et al (2015) Ecosystem services flows: why stake-
holders’ power relationships matter. PLoS One 10:e0132232. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.
pone.0132232
Fisher B, Turner RK, Morling P (2009) Defining and classifying ecosystem services for decision
making. Ecol Econ 68:643–653
Fleischer P, Pichler V, Fleischer P Jr et al (2017) Forest ecosystem services affected by natural
disturbances, climate and land-use changes in the Tatra Mountains. Clim Res 73:57–71. https://
doi.org/10.3354/cr01461
Ghelardini L, Pepori AL, Luchi N et al (2016) Drivers of emerging fungal diseases of forest trees.
For Ecol Manag 381:235–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.09.032
Gupta SK, Ram J, Singh H, Kumar P (2018) Comparative study of cooling under shades of some
forestry tree species with respect to ambient temperatures. J Geosci Environ Protect 6:51–66
145(6):509–515
Haines-Young R, Potschin M (2010) The links between biodiversity, ecosystem services and
human well-being. In: Ecosystem ecology: a new synthesis 1:110–139
Halofsky JE, Peterson DL, Harvey BJ (2020) Changing wildfire, changing forests: the effects of
climate change on fire regimes and vegetation in the Pacific Northwest, USA. Fire Ecol 16:4.
IPBES (2016) The methodological assessment report on scenarios and models of biodiversity and
ecosystem services
Jabbour R (2016) Coffee agroecology: a new approach to understanding agricultural biodiversity,
ecosystem services and sustainable development
Jactel H, Koricheva J, Castagneyrol B (2019) Responses of forest insect pests to climate change:
not so simple. Curr Opin Insect Sci 35:103–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cois.2019.07.010
Jentsch A, White P (2019) A theory of pulse dynamics and disturbance in ecology. Ecology
100:e02734. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.2734
Johnson JA, Jones SK, Wood SLR et al (2019) Mapping ecosystem services to human well-being:
a toolkit to support integrated landscape management for the SDGs. Ecol Appl 29:e01985.
https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.1985
Jones MW, Abatzoglou JT, Veraverbeke S et al (2022) Global and regional trends and
drivers of fire under climate change. Rev Geophys 60:e2020RG000726. https://doi.
org/10.1029/2020RG000726
Joshi R, Singh H, Chhetri R, Yadav K (2020) Assessment of carbon sequestration potential in

degraded and non-degraded community forests in Terai region of Nepal. J Forest Environ Sci
36(2):13–121. https://doi.org/10.7747/JFES.2020.36.2.113
(2020a) Carbon mineralization and inorganic nitrogen pools under Terminalia chebula
Retz.-based agroforestry system in Himalayan foothills, India. For Sci 66(5):634–643. https://
doi.org/10.1093/forsci/fxaa012
Kumar N, Kumar A, Jeena N, Singh R, Singh H (2020b) Factors influencing soil ecosystem and
agricultural productivity at higher altitudes. In: Microbiological advancements for higher alti-
tude agro-ecosystems & sustainability, pp 55–70
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021b) Modulation of plant functional traits under essen-
Kumar A, Tewari S, Singh H, Kumar P, Kumar N, Bisth S, Kushwah S, Nidhi KR (2021c) Biomass
Kurz WA, Stinson G, Rampley GJ et al (2008) Risk of natural disturbances makes future contribu-
tion of Canada’s forests to the global carbon cycle highly uncertain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
105:1551–1555. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0708133105
La Notte A, D’Amato D, Mäkinen H et al (2017) Ecosystem services classification: a systems ecol-
ogy perspective of the cascade framework. Ecol Indic 74:392–402
Lele S, Springate-Baginski O, Lakerveld R et al (2013) Ecosystem services: origins, contributions,
pitfalls, and alternatives. Conserv Soc 11:343–358
Luck GW, Harrington R, Harrison PA et al (2009) Quantifying the contribution of organisms to the
provision of ecosystem services. Bioscience 59:223–235
Malhi Y, Franklin J, Seddon N et al (2020) Climate change and ecosystems: threats, opportunities
and solutions. Philos Trans R Soc B 375:20190104
Martinez-Harms MJ, Bryan BA, Balvanera P et al (2015) Making decisions for managing ecosys-
tem services. Biol Conserv 184:229–238
Mengdong H, Yu X, Jie XU et al (2022) A review on the supply-demand relationship and spatial
flows of ecosystem services. J Resour Ecol 13:925–935
Millennium ecosystem assessment MEA (2005) Ecosystems and human well-being. Island Press,
Washington, DC
Mina M, Bugmann H, Cordonnier T et al (2017) Future ecosystem services from European mountain
forests under climate change. J Appl Ecol 54:389–401. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12772
Mooney HA, Ehrlich PR, Daily GE (1997) Ecosystem services: a fragmentary history. In: Nature’s
services: societal dependence on natural ecosystems, vol 1, pp 11–19
Morán-Ordóñez A, Roces-Díaz JV, Otsu K et al (2019) The use of scenarios and models to evalu-
ate the future of nature values and ecosystem services in Mediterranean forests. Reg Environ
Chang 19:415–428
Paavola J, Hubacek K (2013) Ecosystem services, governance, and stakeholder participation: an
introduction. Ecol Soc 18
Palacios-Orueta A, Huesca M, Whiting ML et al (2012) Derivation of phenological metrics by
function fitting to time-series of spectral shape indexes AS1 and AS2: mapping cotton pheno-
logical stages using MODIS time series. Remote Sens Environ 126:148–159
Pureswaran DS, Roques A, Battisti A (2018) Forest insects and climate change. Curr For Rep
4:35–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40725-018-0075-6
org/10.36808/if/2020/v146i2/151208
Raymond CM, Bryan BA, MacDonald DH et al (2009) Mapping community values for natural
capital and ecosystem services. Ecol Econ 68:1301–1315
Rodríguez JP, Beard TD Jr, Bennett EM et al (2006) Trade-offs across space, time, and ecosystem
services. Ecol Soc 11:1–14
Sánchez JJ, Marcos-Martinez R, Srivastava L, Soonsawad N (2021) Valuing the impacts of for-
est disturbances on ecosystem services: an examination of recreation and climate regulation
services in U.S. national forests. Trees Forests People 5:100123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
tfp.2021.100123
Savita, Sharma SK, Singh H, Singh O (2017) Forest fire: a review. Indian Forester 143(8):719–728
Seidl R, Fernandes PM, Fonseca TF et al (2011a) Modelling natural disturbances in forest ecosys-
tems: a review. Ecol Model 222:903–924
Seidl R, Schelhaas M, Lexer MJ (2011b) Unraveling the drivers of intensifying for-
est disturbance regimes in Europe. Glob Chang Biol 17:2842–2852. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02452.x
Seidl R, Spies TA, Peterson DL et al (2016) Searching for resilience: addressing the impacts of
changing disturbance regimes on forest ecosystem services. J Appl Ecol 53:120–129
Seidl R, Thom D, Kautz M et al (2017) Forest disturbances under climate change. Nat Clim Chang
7:395–402. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate3303
Sheik CS, Beasley WH, Elshahed MS et al (2011) Effect of warming and drought on grassland
microbial communities. ISME J 5:1692–1700. https://doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2011.32
Sherrouse BC, Clement JM, Semmens DJ (2011) A GIS application for assessing, mapping, and
quantifying the social values of ecosystem services. Appl Geogr 31:748–760
Singh H (2021) Process-based carbon sequestration study with reference to the energy-water-
carbon flux in a forest ecosystem. In: Climate impacts on sustainable natural resource manage-
ment, pp 336–351
productivity of Acacia auriculiformis under CO2-enriched environment. Indus Crops Prod
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
Kumar M, Barthwal S, Thakur A, Rawat PS (2022a) Understanding the physiological and
uclim.2022.101183
Singh RK, Das AK, Jain H et al (2022b) Mapping and identification of trees using semantic seg-
mentation deep learning neural network. In: Forest dynamics and conservation: science, inno-
vations and policies. Springer, pp 385–398
Stritih A, Bebi P, Rossi C, Grêt-Regamey A (2021) Addressing disturbance risk to moun-
tain forest ecosystem services. J Environ Manag 296:113188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jenvman.2021.113188
Stürck J, Poortinga A, Verburg PH (2014) Mapping ecosystem services: the supply and demand of
flood regulation services in Europe. Ecol Indic 38:198–211
Thom D, Seidl R (2016) Natural disturbance impacts on ecosystem services and biodiversity in
temperate and boreal forests. Biol Rev 91:760–781. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12193
Thorn S, Seibold S, Leverkus AB et al (2020) The living dead: acknowledging life after tree death
to stop forest degradation. Front Ecol Environ 18:505–512. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.2252
Turner MG (2010) Disturbance and landscape dynamics in a changing world. Ecology
91:2833–2849. https://doi.org/10.1890/10-0097.1
Vatn A (2010) An institutional analysis of payments for environmental services. Ecol Econ
69:1245–1252
Westman WE (1977) How much are nature’s services worth? Measuring the social benefits of
ecosystem functioning is both controversial and illuminating. Science 197:960–964
White PS (1985) Natural disturbance and patch dynamics: an introduction. In: Natural disturbance
and patch dynamics, pp 3–13
Wohlgemuth T, Jentsch A, Seidl R (2022) Disturbance ecology: a guideline. In: Disturbance ecol-
ogy. Springer, pp 1–7
Yang LH, Naeem S (2008) The ecology of resource pulses. Ecology 89:619–620. https://doi.
org/10.1890/07-1431.1
Zurbriggen N, Nabel JEMS, Teich M et al (2014) Explicit avalanche-forest feedback simula-
tions improve the performance of a coupled avalanche-forest model. Ecol Complex 17:56–66.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecocom.2013.09.002
Chapter 7
Predicting Future Climate Change Effects
on Biotic Communities: A Species
Distribution Modeling Approach
Garima Kumari, Parul Bhatt Kotiyal, Hukum Singh, Manoj Kumar,

Narendra Kumar, Apurva Malik, Ajay Sojitra, and Shubham Singh
Abstract Climate change poses significant challenges to biodiversity and ecosys-

tems globally. Understanding how biotic communities will respond to future cli-
mate scenarios is crucial for effective conservation and management strategies. This
chapter delves into the Species Distribution Modeling (SDM) approach to predict
the potential effects of climate change on biotic communities, including flora and
fauna. The core ideas of SDM are explained, covering information on data needs,
modeling approach selection, and model validation. Detailed insights are provided
into how species occurrence data are meticulously gathered and processed with
environmental variables. Various SDM approaches are explored, including MaxEnt,
Random Forest, Generalized Linear Models, and others, shedding light on their
applications and practical uses. Additionally, this chapter discusses the implications
of this knowledge and understanding for conservation efforts and ecosystem man-
agement practices. Understanding the potential shifts in species distributions in
future climate change using SDMs aids in prioritizing conservation interventions
and adaptive management strategies. Furthermore, it provides valuable insights into
the vulnerability of biotic communities to climate change impacts. Overall, this
study contributes to understanding the potential effects of climate change on biotic
communities, guiding proactive measures for mitigating its adverse effects and fos-
tering resilience in natural ecosystems. A comprehensive exploration of SDM meth-
odologies and their implications in this chapter may inform decision-making
processes and support sustainable conservation practices under global cli-
mate change.
Keywords Climate change · Species · Species distribution modelling (SDM) ·

Habitat · Biodiversity
G. Kumari (*) · P. B. Kotiyal · H. Singh · M. Kumar · N. Kumar · A. Malik · A. Sojitra ·

S. Singh
Ltd. 2024
138 G. Kumari et al.
7.1 Introduction
Scientists and the public have realized over the past few decades that we are experi-
encing an unprecedented biodiversity crisis. Unquestionably, this is caused by the
increase in global temperatures causing climate change, which is one of the main
factors behind the ongoing reorganization of biological populations (Garcia et al.
2014; Kumar et al. 2019). Likewise, changes in precipitation patterns, such as a rise
in the frequency and severity of extreme events like droughts and heavy rainfall, are
also significant factors aggravating climate change (IPCC 2021; Kumar et al. 2022).
The consequences of this rapid climate change are predicted to cause the extinction
of millions of distinct populations in the wild. If the losses persist, the world will
experience a major extinction over several millennia, losing almost 75% of its spe-
cies (Monastersky 2014).
The global distribution of species is predicted to alter due to climate change since
they pursue the path of their preferred habitat, which is expected to alter due to the
rearrangement of climate zones (Peterson et al. 2002; Thomas et al. 2004; Loarie
et al. 2008; Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d). Since the average global temperature has
increased over the past century and is expected to continue rising by roughly 0.2 °C
every decade due to emission projections (IPCC 2007, 2014), numerous studies
focus on climate change effects on species distribution (Parmesan 2006). An empha-
sis has been paid to the changes in species distribution caused by variations in
regional climates (Parmesan and Yohe 2003; Levinsky et al. 2007).
Ecosystems have been impacted by global warming, and as the climate warms,
certain species in the tropics may be driven toward higher altitudes, thereby reduc-
ing the extent of their distributions (Chen et al. 2009, 2011; Barton et al. 2016;
Gupta et al. 2019). Mountain ecosystems will likely be more vulnerable to the
changing climate (Trivedi et al. 2008; Randin et al. 2009). Wilson et al. (2007) sug-
gested that mountain species ranges may react to climate change more rapidly
because these species can follow temperature change over shorter distances, and
mountains often retain more intact habitats than lowland landscapes (Dhyani et al.
2021; Devi et al. 2023). Therefore, mountain species are particularly well-suited to
assess the possible impacts of future climate change on distributions, in conjunction
with other causative factors (Bravo et al. 2008) to relocate their distribution, making
mountainous species extremely sensitive to climate change (Elsen and Tingley 2015).
These changes in the distribution of a species could risk its survival by reducing
its range or fragmenting it, which may result in smaller populations (Gaston 1994).
Reduced range sizes harm endemic species, as their ranges are already limited.
(Manne and Pimm 2001).Furthermore, a species may relocate to an area that is not
protected, and it may find a less favorable habitat than it does in its existing range
(Thuiller et al. 2006). Also, the shifts in species ranges after significant global cli-
mate shifts suggest that all species have climatic thresholds beyond which they can-
not survive (Xu et al. 2009). A few studies focusing on the impact of climate change
on flora and fauna is presented in Table 7.1.
7 Predicting Future Climate Change Effects on Biotic Communities: A Species… 139
Table 7.1 SDMs used to study climate change impacts on flora and fauna species
S. Biotic
no. community Model approach Key findings Reference
Flora
1. Notopterygium Ensemble model Areas of suitable habitat are Zhao et al.
incisum expected to decrease significantly (2020)
2. Endemic plant MaxEnt Future distribution is predicted to Chitale et al.
species shift towards cooler climate with (2014)
23.99% range reduction & 7.70%
range expansion by 2050, whereas
by 2080, 41.34% range reduction
and 24.10% range expansion are
expected
3. Invasive alien MaxEnt Distribution of most invasive plants Thapa et al.
plant species is expected to expand towards (2018)
upper and lower elevations ranging
from 448 to 3547 m under future
climate change scenarios
4. Dipterocarpus MaxEnt The species’ habitat shows an Islam et al.
turbinatus altitudinal shift towards the (2020)
southeast, and local extinction
might occur in 2070
5. Mimosa MaxEnt About 30–40% of the protected Choudhury
diplotricha & area was found to have been et al. (2016)
Mikania invaded by both invasive plants
micrantha
6. Himalayan birch Ensemble The climatic suitability of the Hamid et al.
species will change by the years (2019)
2050 and 2070 as compared to the
current period
7. Juniperus spp. SVM & MaxEnt Compare the performance of both Rahimian
models Boogar et al.
(2019)
8. Myrica esculenta MaxEnt The potential distribution area of Shankhwar
the species is found to be et al. (2019)
2017.14 km2
9. Cinnamomum MaxEnt Temperature plays significant role Zhang et al.
camphora in the distribution of species, and (2019)
with a change in climate, the area
of suitable habitat will change and
shift toward the northwest of China
10. Morina persica SVM, GLM, BRT MaxEnt performed best among all Ghareghan
and MaxEnt other models et al. (2020)
Fauna
(continued)

S. Biotic
no. community Model approach Key findings Reference
1. Himalayan SDM & Minimal range shift and habitat Bagaria et al.
Galliformes Bioclimatic gain are seen (2021)
Envelope Model Species belonging to E. Himalayas
(BEM) tend to be affected most by climate
change in the future
Species from W. Himalayas were
predicted to lose 70% of their
habitat
2. Iraqi amphibians MaxEnt High intraspecific niche overlap Kaky (2020)
between the current and future
3. Western tragopan MaxEnt Shifts towards higher altitudes and Singh et al.
decreases in suitable areas in the (2020)
future will restrict the range of
species
4. Nilgiri Tahr MaxEnt Complete loss of suitable habitats Sony et al.
in many protected areas in the (2018)
W. Ghats
5. Tegu lizards GLM, MARS, The possibility of invasion of tegus Jarnevich
BRT, RF and and other non-native species in et al. (2018)
MaxEnt different ecoregions
6. Black-necked Random forest The model suggested that the Han et al.
crane species prefer alpine meadows at (2017)
an elevation of 2800 m for
breeding
7. Desert jerboas MaxEnt and The species might not be affected Mohammadi
SDM (GLM, by changing climate et al. (2019)
GAM, MARS,
BRT, FDA,
CART, RF, SVM)
8. Fish GAM, GLM, The results suggested that the Lin et al.
SVM, RF, ANN, species prefer places with higher (2015)
Ensemble current velocity
The approach for measuring habitat
suitability and evaluating the
uncertainties
9. Bats MaxEnt Even if tea plantations negatively Wordley et al.
affect bats, several species can still (2015)
prefer tea-dominated areas
10. Indian rhino Ensemble Increase in suitable area by 13% Mukherjee
et al. (2020)
Climate change will probably affect species’ distribution, population dynamics,

and biotic relationships (Garcia et al. 2014; et al. 2020). Knowing this is very help-
ful for developing conservation policies, planning adaptations, determining the
degree of vulnerability, and lowering the likelihood that biodiversity will be lost in
the future (Kujala et al. 2013; Shrestha and Bawa 2014).
7.2 Species Distribution Modelling
7.2.1 What Is It?
Humans have consistently observed and documented the physical environment and
species distributions over the ages. Although most of the early scientific literature
was qualitative (Grinnell 1904), numerical models are now frequently utilized to
describe trends and make predictions. It has been proposed that determining the
magnitude of species distributions should serve as a basis for biodiversity assess-
ment schemes and facilitate the development of approaches, including species dis-
tribution models, that more accurately reflect threats to species. The most popular
method for determining a species’ actual or prospective geographic range is first to
characterize the environmental factors in which the species may thrive and then
choose the locations of these favorable settings across space (Pearson et al. 2002).
SDM has made it possible to project a species’ realized niche onto a geographic
area and analyze environmental determinants of species variance (Guisan and
Zimmermann 2000; Guisan and Thuiller 2005). These are increasingly being uti-
lized to guide conservation strategies and monitoring initiatives. The SDM has
proven effective in identifying new populations of uncommon and threatened spe-
cies (Guisan et al. 2013; Singh et al. 2023), identifying priority conservation areas,
assessing the possible impacts of worldwide changes in species distribution, and
estimating the probability of extinction for individual species (Thuiller et al. 2005;
Benito et al. 2009; Sarma et al. 2015).
Species Distribution Modelling (SDM) is a computational technique used in
ecology to forecast the spatial distribution of species based on environmental vari-
ables (Guisan and Zimmermann 2000). It is sometimes referred to as ecological
niche modelling or habitat suitability modelling. SDM predicts appropriate habitats
across landscapes and models the ecological requirements of a species by integrat-
ing environmental data with species occurrence records. To determine the favorable
environmental conditions for a species to persist, these two forms of data are subse-
quently fed into an algorithm that looks for correlations between the known occur-
rences of a species and the environmental factors at those places. The algorithm
uses these two forms of data to calculate the likelihood that a species will exist in a
given area. The researchers explain the connections between environmental factors
and species distributions (Guisan and Thuiller 2005; Franklin 2010).
Species distribution models (SDM) have gained importance in mapping and
monitoring animal and plant distributions as ecological ramifications of environ-
mental change have come to light. Since they were first introduced as tools for
resource inventories and conservation mapping, SDMs have developed in tandem
with the growing diversity and accessibility of statistical techniques, digital biologi-
cal data, and environmental information that they are integrated within geographic
information systems. These models have developed into significant and popular
decision-making tools for various biogeographical applications beyond species dis-
tribution prediction. Examples of these applications include researching the impacts
Fig. 7.1 Simplified

Overview of Species
Distribution Modelling
of climate change, discovering probable protected areas, identifying areas that may
be vulnerable to invasion, and mapping the risk and spread of vector-borne diseases
(Miller 2010; Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, d) (Fig. 7.1).
7.2.2 Data Requirements
Species occurrence records with a range of environmental variables are likely to

impact the physiology and persistence likelihood of the species. This approach aims
to estimate the environmental circumstances conducive to the species. The main
tenet of this approach is that information about a species’ observed distribution can
be used to infer the species’ environmental needs (Pearson 2007). Two kinds of
model input data are required: (1) Records of the occurrence of identified species
and (2) a variety of environmental factors.
7.2.3 Creating a Model for the Past or Future
Species distribution modeling (SDMs) consistently incorporate a temporal dimen-

sion or reference, reflecting their employment of environmental and species data
collected during specific periods (Schroder and Seppelt 2006). However, many
studies now consider temporal change, whereas previous implementations of SDM
typically assume a fixed and present time frame (even if integrated over some
months or years).These address issues with recent shifts in distributions brought

about by disturbances like fire and altered land use, hybrid zones, paleo-distribu-
tions (Jackson and Williams 2004), phylogeography (Rissler 2007), and projections
of species invasions and dispersal in the context of climate change. Applications
that need predictions in a time frame corresponding to the training data must be
distinguished from those that use a species’ current distribution model to anticipate
distributions at a different point in time. Time can be included explicitly as a predic-
tor in SDM models. Retrospective data is also used in models; for example, pollen
records and paleoclimatic data are modelled to represent the distribution of pre-
clearing vegetation, or historical survey and remnant vegetation records are com-
bined (Barrows et al. 2008).
7.2.4 Types of SDMs
7.2.4.1 Correlative Models
According to correlative SDMs, species are in equilibrium with their surroundings,

and significant sampling of the pertinent environmental variables has been done.
Using multiple regression techniques, correlative SDMs simulate an organism’s
observed distribution as a function of climatic predictor variables that are geograph-
ically referenced. With a set of climate maps and geographically referenced observed
presences of a species, an algorithm determines the most likely environmental
regions a species inhabits. Interpolation between restricted numbers of species
occurrences is possible using these models. For these algorithms to function appro-
priately, observations of species absences, i.e., places where the species does not
exist, must also be gathered. Since records of a species’ absence are usually less
frequent than those of its presence, these models are frequently fitted using “random
background” or “pseudo-absence” data. Pseudo-absences may cause bias in cases
where records of species occurrences are inadequate (Kearney et al. 2010; Peterson
et al. 2015).
7.2.4.2 Mechanistic Models
The development of mechanistic SDMs is more recent. Unlike correlative models,

mechanistic SDMs ascertain the range of environmental conditions that a species
can persist in using physiological data about the species (obtained from controlled
field or laboratory investigations). These models aim to put the core niche onto the
landscape and immediately characterize it. A basic model might only pinpoint the
boundaries beyond which a species cannot survive. A more complicated model
might have several sub-models, such as population dynamics, resource or energy
requirements, fitness or other biological rates given body temperature,
microclimate conditions given macroclimate circumstances, and body temperature

given microclimate conditions. Model inputs are environmental data with a geo-
graphic reference. These models benefit species, such as invasive species, whose
range is continually shifting and not at equilibrium because the species distribution
forecasts are independent of the species’ known range. Mechanistic SDMs perform
better in non-equilibrium and extrapolation scenarios and incorporate causal mech-
anisms. Nevertheless, compared to correlative models, they need more work to
develop because much physiological data must be collected and validated, which
may not always be easily accessible. The models can get highly complex and
involve many suppositions and estimates for the parameters (Kearney and
Porter 2009).
7.2.5 Importance of SDMs in Ecological Research
In ecological study, Species Distribution Modelling (SDM) plays a vital role

because it offers important insights into many facets of species-habitat connections
and environmental dynamics. Some of them are listed below.
7.2.5.1 Understanding Species-Habitat Relationships
Based on species occurrence records and environmental variables, SDM enables

researchers to measure and simulate the ecological requirements of various species.
This aids in determining important habitat characteristics that affect the distribution
of species.
7.2.5.2 Predicting Species Distribution
Species Distribution Modelling (SDM) makes it possible to anticipate species dis-

tributions in space and time by developing connections between the existence of a
species and its surroundings. This forecasting power is invaluable when evaluating
the possible effects of land-use changes, climate change, or other environmental
disturbances.
7.2.5.3 Assessing Climate Change Impact
Species Distribution Modelling (SDM) is an effective method for evaluating the

potential effects of climate change on species distributions (Singh et al. 2020).
Through the modeling of possible changes in suitable habitats under various climate
scenarios, scientists predict the ecological impacts of climate change.
7.2.5.4 Habitat Restoration and Rehabilitation
Species Distribution Modelling (SDM) helps determine places where a target spe-
cies’ habitat is highly suitable. Restoration experts may select areas where the spe-
cies has the best chance of thriving and increase the effectiveness of their restoration
efforts by using this knowledge.
7.2.5.5 Conservation and Planning Management
Species Distribution Modelling aids in the identification of important habitats and

regions with high conservation value. Conservationists can use the outcomes of
SDM to develop and carry out efficient conservation plans that focus on critical
areas to preserve biodiversity.
7.2.6 SDM Techniques
In ecological research, various Species Distribution Modelling (SDM) techniques

are employed to forecast and comprehend species distributions based on environ-
mental variables. Notably, selecting a SDM technique is contingent upon the par-
ticular attributes of the data, the type of ecological interactions under investigation,
and the research objectives. Frequently, a blend of methods or group strategies are
employed to enhance the performance and resilience of the model. The following
list includes several often-used SDM approaches:
7.2.6.1 BIOCLIM (Bioclimatic Envelope Model)
It defines a multi-dimensional environmental space where a species can occur based

purely on occurrence data. This environmental space is built as a multi-dimensional
rectilinear envelope, encircling the lowest and highest values of the environmental
variables for each occurrence (Busby 1991; Booth et al. 2014)
Merits
1. Easy to understand
2. No absence data is required
3. Lists environmental predictor variables in order of importance
Demerits
1. Prone to overprediction
2. It does not take into consideration the interaction between the predictors
3. Categorical variables cannot be used
4. Neither provides confidence levels nor makes quantitative predictions
7.2.6.2 DOMAIN
This uses a point-to-point similarity metric (Gower metric) to calculate pro-

spective distributions and classify candidate sites according to their proximity
to the most similar record site regarding environmental space (Carpenter
et al. 1993).
Merits
1. Performs effectively when the data about the species is scanty
Demerits
1. The model can exhibit some bias in the collection process
7.2.6.3 Ecological Niche Factor Analysis (ENFA)
This model links a species’ occurrence and distribution to the environmental

features of the site where it has been observed. Based solely on presence data, it
is a good modelling tool for estimating possible distributions and offers an
ecological interpretation based on specialization and marginality. It focuses on
establishing a connection between the area of interest’s local and overall
environmental conditions (Hirzel et al. 2002; Silva et al. 2017; Behmanesh
et al. 2019).
Merits
1. Based on presence data only
Demerits
1. Incapable of handling non-linear relationships
7.2.6.4 Generalized Linear Model (GLM)
It is an expansion of “simple” linear regression models. It forecasts the response

variable as a function of several predictor factors. A few presumptions underlie the
operation of linear regression models. One is the ability to depict the relationship
between the predictor and response variables with a straight line. This suggests that
the response variable changes continuously when a predictor changes continuously
(Guisan et al. 2002).
Merits
1. Capable of handling categorical predictors
2. Less prone to overfitting
3. Comparatively simple to understand
Demerits
1. Relatively large datasets are required
2. Sensitive to outliers
7.2.6.5 Generalized Additive Model (GAM)
A Generalised Linear model extension that allows non-parametric modelling of pre-

dictor variables in addition to linear and polynomial terms for other predictors.
GAMs are, therefore, helpful in situations where it is anticipated that the relation-
ship between the variables will take on a more complicated form and cannot be
readily fitted by conventional linear or non-linear models or when there is no pre-
sumptive basis for selecting a particular model (Guisan et al. 2002).
Merits
1. Capable of handling relationships between the response and the predictor vari-
ables that are both non-linear and non-monotonic
2. Capable of handling categorical predictors
Demerits
1. More difficult to comprehend than GLMs
2. Susceptible to overfitting
7.2.6.6 MARS (Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines)
Multiple linear regression models are constructed using this non-parametric regres-
sion technique over the range of predictor values. The data is partitioned to achieve
this, and a linear regression model is applied to each partition separately. The MARS
algorithm is a non-assumptive extension of linear models that examines the rela-
tionship between the predictor and response variables (Friedman 1991; Leathwick
et al. 2006).
Merits
1. Performs well with number predictor variables.
2. Automatically recognizes the interaction between different factors
3. Despite its complexity, the method is fast and effective
4. Robust to outliers
Demerits
1. Prone to overfitting
2. More challenging to comprehend and interpret than alternative techniques
3. Unable to handle missing data well
7.2.6.7 MaxEnt
In order to anticipate the occurrence of a species, maximum entropy modelling, or

maxent, finds the distribution that is the most uniform or as spread out as possible
while accounting for the limitations of the environmental variables of known sites.
The method used by MaxEnt compares the locations of a species’ finds to every
habitat in the research region, relying simply on presence data (Phillips et al. 2006;
Phillips and Dudík 2008; Elith et al. 2011; Yadav et al. 2019). Because MaxEnt may
build complex associations using presence-only data, which is widely used. When
environmental restrictions are considered, a probability distribution is predicted to
be as spread out as possible.
Merits
1. Needs only present data
2. Able to employ predictor variables that are categorical and continuous
3. Comprises how the predictor variables interact
4. Incorporates a regularisation technique to prevent overfitting
5. Performs well in terms of predictions overall
Demerits
1. The output provides environmental suitability rather than the anticipated proba-
bility of occurrence, making it difficult to compare with other algorithms.
2. The logistic output of Maxent is based on a prevalence assumption rather than an
estimate.
7.2.6.8 Artificial Neural Networks ANN
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) is a broad category of models that draw inspira-
tion from biological neural networks, specifically the brain, which processes infor-
mation through incredibly massive, interconnected networks of neurons. In a
similar vein, Artificial Neural Networks have a vast number of connections and
nodes. Usually, these are arranged in layers: an input layer, where data is fed into
the model; several hidden layers; and an output layer, which shows the model’s
results.
Large datasets can have complicated associations that ANNs can capture. They
are helpful when modelling non-linear patterns or interactions between variables is
required. The environmental data entered into the model are housed in the input
layer, where each input node represents a single environmental variable. The hidden
layer receives data from every node in the input layer. The output layer receives the
result after that. The output layer of a species distribution model predicts whether a
species will be present or missing in a specific area (Lek and Guégan 1999; Olden
et al. 2008).
Merits
1. Capable of managing large datasets
2. Predictive power is high
3. Able to simulate nonlinear relationships between the predictors and the
response
Demerits
1. Process is lengthy
2. Less effective at managing “mixed types” of data
3. Sensitive to outliers and missing data
7.2.6.9 GARP (Genetic Algorithm for Rule Set Production)
A GARP model is a random collection of mathematical rules, which can be inter-

preted as limiting environmental parameters and specify how ecological factors and
species occurrence relate to one another. Each rule is regarded as a gene, and the set
of genes is randomly combined to generate many additional models describing the
potential for the species to occur (Stockwell 1999).
Merits
1. Able to depict intricate, nonlinear interactions between environmental factors
and species occurrence
2. Useful for scanty data
Demerits
2. With large datasets, it is computationally complex
7.2.6.10 BRT (Boosted Regression Tree)/GBM
Boosting techniques and decision tree algorithms are combined to create Boosted
Regression Tree (BRT) models. BRTs fit numerous decision trees repeatedly to
increase the model’s accuracy, much like Random Forest models do. The pro-
cess by which the data used to construct the trees is chosen is one of the distinc-
tions between these two approaches. A random subset of all the data is used for
every new tree built using either method. The boosting strategy, which BRTs
employ, involves weighting the input data in subsequent trees. Data that could
have been better modeled by previous trees has a better chance of being selected
in the new tree because of how the weights are applied (De’Ath 2007; Elith
et al. 2008).
Merits
1. Suitable for a range of response types, including Poisson, Gaussian, and binomial
2. Stochastic, which enhances the accuracy of predictions
3. The system automatically identifies the best fit
4. Robust to outliers and missing values
Demerits
1. Requires two predictor variables or more to function
7.2.6.11 Random Forest (RF)
An extension of single classification trees and random forests includes building

numerous decision trees using arbitrary subsets of the data. Every random subset is
chosen from the entire dataset and has the same data points. Every data point in
Random Forests has an equal chance of being selected for every new random subset
through a process known as “bagging,” which determines the random subsets. All
the random subsets contain roughly two-thirds of the entire dataset. The “out-of-
the-bag” data refers to one-third of the data not utilized in tree-building. This sec-
tion assesses the model afterward (Cutler et al. 2007; Breiman 2001).
Merits
1. Resistant to overfitting
2. Effectively manages non-linear relationships
3. Capable of handling a large number of predictor variables
4. One of the most precise learning algorithms
5. Retains accuracy even when a significant amount of data is absent
Demerits
1. Highly complex
2. Due to its complexity, it takes more time to train the model
7.2.6.12 Support Vector Machine (SVM)
Support Vector Machine (SVM) is a computational method that labels objects by

learning through examples. Rather than being based on flimsy comparisons with
natural learning systems, they are based on statistics. Using a functional relation-
ship called a kernel, SVMs map data onto a new hyperspace that makes complex
patterns more accessible to understand (Cristianini and Scholkopf 2002; Tirelli
et al. 2012; Raghavendra and Deka 2014).
Merits
2. Outstanding generalization performance
3. Minimum model tuning necessary
4. A small training dataset is enough

Demerits
1. Computationally slow and complicated
2. It is difficult to understand the structure of the algorithm
7.2.6.13 Classification Tree (CT)
A tree-based model uses a set of environmental characteristics called predictor vari-

ables to divide the data into progressively homogeneous presence or absence groups
(Verma et al. 2020). It is a structural mapping of binary decisions that results in an
object’s class decision. It is more accurately described as a particular kind of deci-
sion tree that results in definite choices based on observed properties like reflectance
using training data instances. The simplest type of decision tree model is the single
classification tree (Breiman 1984; De’Ath and Fabricius 2000).
Merits
1. Easy to comprehend and interpret
2. Capable of handling both categorical and numerical data
3. Determine how the predictors interact hierarchically
4. Robust to outliers and missing values
Demerits
1. Less successful for smooth or linear species responses because of the stepwise
methodology
2. Large datasets are needed to find patterns, especially when there are numerous
predictors.
3. Minor alterations in the information can significantly alter the tree.
7.2.6.14 Ensemble
Ensemble modelling is the process of developing several distinct models were mul-
tiple models are combined to forecast a result, either by utilizing a variety of train-
ing data sets or a wide range of modelling algorithms. The combination of numerous
models improves the predictive accuracy and robustness. This approach is com-
monly used in various scientific fields, including climate science, ecology, and
machine learning (Kotu and Deshpande 2015).
Merits
1. Higher accuracy
2. More robust to outliers
Demerits
1. It is challenging to evaluate and comprehend the relative contributions of differ-
ent models.
7.3 Linking Climate Change and Species Distribution
Predicting species’ range changes requires understanding their relationships with

their surroundings (Singh and Kumar 2022). Significant changes in ecosystems are
expected due to climate change, including altered temperatures, patterns of precipi-
tation, increased seasonality, and extreme weather events that could cause glaciers
to melt quickly (Singh et al. 2022). This would upset the ecosystem’s fragile equi-
librium and prevent certain species from adapting because certain species are accus-
tomed to particular environments (Singh 2021). The changing climate can affect the
suitability of these habitats, which can cause shifts in the distribution of certain
species (Wiens et al. 2009). In response to climate change, species can either adapt
to existing conditions or relocate their distribution to follow the changing environ-
ment (Sharma et al. 2018). If they are unable to do either, they may choose to persist
in isolated areas of unaltered environments or, more likely, go extinct (Kelly and
Goulden 2008; Freeman and Freeman 2014; Chen et al. 2009; Konvicka et al. 2003).
Many elements are associated with changes in Earth’s climate when modelling
the effects of climate change on species distribution (Phukon et al. 2022). These ele-
ments are crucial for comprehending the potential impacts of changes in tempera-
ture, precipitation, and other climatic variables on ecosystems and species
distribution (Manoj et al. 2021). The frequency of extreme temperature events and
variations in normal temperatures are important factors to consider. Since many spe-
cies are acclimated to particular temperature ranges, even little changes can affect
their survival and range (Thuiller et al. 2005). Modifying precipitation regimes,
including rainfall frequency, intensity, and seasonality variations, may significantly
impact ecosystems. The range of certain species may change if they depend on par-
ticular moisture conditions (Chen et al. 2011). The severity of catastrophic events
like wildfires and floods can significantly impact the dynamics of ecosystems and
species distribution. Intense floods can disturb and change ecosystems (Kumar and
Singh 2020). Changes in topography, sediment deposition, and vegetation cover can
affect aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, affecting the availability of appropriate
habitats for various species (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d). The effects differ according
to how resilient the species is and how frequently and severe the incidents occur.
7.4 Data Collection and Pre-processing
In ecological and conservation research, collecting data on species occurrence and

pertinent environmental factors is essential, particularly when examining species
distribution, habitat preferences, and responses to environmental changes (Kumar
et al. 2021a, b, c, d). An algorithm detects environmental circumstances linked to
species occurrence by entering the ecological variables and records of species
occurrence (Pearson 2007).
Two types of data are needed for the distribution models to function: biological
data that describe the distribution of recognized species and environmental data that
describe the habitat in which the species is present.
7.4.1 Species Occurrence Data
The data refers to records or observations of the presence or absence of a particular

species in specific locations. These data are crucial for understanding species’ dis-
tribution, abundance, and ecological requirements. The following are the sources of
collecting species occurrence data:
• Field surveys—Researchers working alone or in small groups or surveys taken
by large groups can acquire occurrence localities through sign surveys, camera
traps, insect trapping, line transects, and other methods by collecting data from
time to time.
• Museum collection—Historical information about species occurrences can be
found in herbaria and natural history museum specimen records.
• Scientific literature—the data cited in research papers, government reports, and
other articles
• Online databases—Online distributional data from multiple sources are
becoming more and more accessible. The current databases aggregate reports
on species occurrence. GBIF (Global Biodiversity Information Facility),
eBird, iNaturalist, and national or regional biodiversity databases are a few
examples.
Data on the distribution of a species can be recorded as either presence-only (i.e.,
locations where the species has been seen) or presence/absence (i.e., records of the
species’ presence and absence at sampled regions). There have been various cases
in which it has been demonstrated that adding absence records enhances model
performance. Unfortunately, absence data are unreliable and frequently unavailable
(Hirzel et al. 2002; Brotons et al. 2004; Pearson 2007).
7.4.2 Environmental Variables
The circumstances of regions where a species exists or does not exist are best
described by environmental data. Several different environmental factors have
been used when modelling a species’s distribution. The most prevalent factors
are climate (temperature, precipitation, and humidity), topography (aspect, slope,
and elevation), land use, land cover, and forest types. The two types of data that
comprise environmental variables are categorical (data that are divided into dis-
tinct groups, like soil type or land cover type) and continuous (data that can take
any value within a given range, like temperature or precipitation) (Pearson
et al. 2002).
The environmental or predictor variables are raw and typically characterize the
abiotic environment, although biotic interactions may also be included in the
modelling process (Heikkinen et al. 2007; Pearson 2007). Since daily measure-
ments are highly variable and species respond to environmental variables over
longer time scales rather than daily, the raw data is not very relevant for a species
distribution model. As a result, summary statistics—variables like the mean
annual temperature, the wettest and driest month or season—are produced by

processing these raw data. In species distribution modelling, such minimum or
maximum values make much more sense because environmental factor thresholds
frequently affect the likelihood of a species being at a certain location (Hijmans
et al. 2005; Franklin 2010).
The predictability and performance of the model majorly depend upon the selec-
tion of the independent or predictor variables (Johnson and Gillingham 2005).
Predictor variables that indirectly affect the distribution of a species should gener-
ally be avoided since they can lead to inaccurate predictions when models are used
to predict the spread of the species in new areas or under different climatic condi-
tions (Guisan and Thuiller 2005).
Collinearity can cause extrapolation when a model is applied to a new region or
period, especially if the correlation structure between the variables is inconsistent.
It can also be exceedingly challenging to assess the relative relevance of variables
when there is high collinearity among them. It is crucial to keep some combinations
of variables in place throughout screening procedures, such as when removing asso-
ciated variables. It is essential to exclude strongly linked variables since, according
to metrics like Pearson, Spearman Rank, or Kendall correlation, they should be
“independent” of one another rather than highly collinear (Jarnevich et al. 2015)
(Table 7.2).
Table 7.2 Various types of data used in SDM and their sources
Type of data Source
Species distribution Field visit
data Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF): www.gbif.org
NatureServe: www.NatureServe.org
eBird: https://ebird.org/
BirdLife International: https://datazone.birdlife.org/
HerpNET: http://www.herpnet.net/
iNaturalist: https://www.inaturalist.org/
Pl@ntNet: https://identify.plantnet.org/
Climate WorldClim: http://www.worldclim.org/
Chelsa: https://chelsa-climate.org/
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA):
https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/
International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): http://www.
ipcc-data.org/
Topography/LULC/ United States Geological Survey (USGS): http://edc.usgs.gov/
Forest cover products/elevation/gtopo30/hydro/index.html
FSI: https://fsi.nic.in/
Global Landcover Facility: http://glcf.umiacs.umd.edu/data/
NASA: http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/
Soil Soilgrids: https://soilgrids.org/
UNEP: http://www.grid.unep.ch/data/data.php?category=lithosphere
Marine NOAA: www.nodc.noaa.gov
AquaMaps: www.aquamaps.org/main/envt_data.ph
7.5 Model Selection and Evaluation
7.5.1 Model Selection
Model selection in early SDMs was typically done using statistical techniques based
on p-values; however, in more recent times, AIC and multimodel inference have
received much more attention (Burnham and Anderson 2004). This change has
helped better understand traditional selection techniques’ erroneous tendencies and
lessen dependency on the “truth” of a model chosen through stepwise activities
(Whittingham et al. 2006). It is unclear, therefore, if this kind of multimodel infer-
ence is the most effective method for accurately predicting a result, even while it
helps investigate model-based uncertainty. Other computer science model averag-
ing techniques employ various strategies to simultaneously create several models
that collectively provide accurate predictions (Hastie et al. 2009). It could be benefi-
cial to conduct research comparing the theoretical underpinnings and efficacious-
ness of different model-averaging techniques (such as regression/AIC, Bayesian
methods, and machine learning model ensembles) (Prasad et al. 2006).
In addition, intriguing substitute methods exist for choosing a single ultimate
model. The various information criteria offer a variety of trade-offs between predic-
tion accuracy and model complexity and can be applied in cross-validation to select
a model(Hastie et al. 2009). Certain techniques emphasize choosing variables and
estimating parameters simultaneously, such as reducing coefficient estimates
(Reineking and Schroder 2006). These offer substitute techniques for selecting a
final regression model that is typically more trustworthy than stepwise techniques.
These model selection and tuning concepts are known as “regularisation” in machine
learning, controlling overfitting to make the fitted surface smoother or regular.
Although uncommon, these alternative model selection techniques in ecology will
probably evolve (Phillips et al. 2006).
7.5.2 Model Evaluation
While it is generally accepted that robust model evaluation is necessary, differing

views regarding the qualities of a model that matter and the best ways to test them
(Araujo et al. 2005; Peterson et al. 2008; Phillips and Elith 2010). Model fit tests
and comparisons with current knowledge are typically used to evaluate results when
modellers seek to explain trends or propose hypotheses (such as in evolutionary
biology and classical ecological studies). On the other hand, when prediction is the
goal, evaluation focuses on predictive capacity, and current methods often entail
assessing predictive performance with independent data sets or, less frequently, data
resampling (split samples, cross-validation, bootstrapping). Most performance sta-
tistics rely on a narrow range of data, such as correlation coefficients, kappa, and
area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC). Several researchers
have tried to comprehend the relative effectiveness of these tests, as well as how
sensitive they are to data characteristics. However, adopting a comprehensive tool-
kit of evaluation measures is sluggish and hindered by disagreements regarding the
general validity of certain statistics tools. Finding each statistic’s appropriate posi-
tion within the larger context of what requires testing would be more beneficial
instead. Machine learning and weather forecasting have honed their skills in evalu-
ating forecast accuracy and employing certain statistics rarely considered in ecol-
ogy (Caruana and Niculescu-Mizil 2006).
7.6 Predicting Future Species Distribution Under

Climate Change
Climate models project future changes in species distribution in climate change

scenarios (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d). They employ a variety of parameters, such
as air conditions, solar radiation, and greenhouse gas emissions, to mimic the
Earth’s climate system (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, d). Extreme weather occurrences,
including heat waves, floods, and droughts, are predicted to vary in climate change
scenarios. It is essential to comprehend these shifts to evaluate the effects of climate
change. Along with the global mean sea level rise under various emission scenarios,
as projected in IPCC reports (Church et al. 2013), Ecosystems and biodiversity are
also impacted by climate change scenarios (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, d). Therefore,
projections help evaluate possible changes to ecosystem services, species distribu-
tion, and habitats. Scientists, decision-makers, and planners can better plan for
adaptation and mitigation efforts by using these scenarios to anticipate possible
future situations. The Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) provided by
the IPCC are a spectrum of emissions scenarios that show many potential futures
based on distinct quantities of greenhouse gas emissions. RCPs range from very low
emissions (RCP2.6) to very high emissions (RCP8.5) (IPCC 2014).
7.7 Uncertainty Analysis
An essential component of species distribution modelling (SDM) is uncertainty

analysis, which sheds light on the accuracy of model predictions. Planning for con-
servation and management, as well as making educated judgments, require the abil-
ity to assess and communicate ambiguity.
When creating species distribution models, it is crucial to consider several
choices that could increase model uncertainty. The literature on statistics and ecol-
ogy has given great attention to sources of uncertainty in models (Guisan and
Zimmermann 2000; Elith et al. 2002). Uncertainty about how things will evolve,
especially when estimating future distributions considering potential climate change
scenarios. Uncertainty related to scale and spatial resolution affects how accurately
species distributions are anticipated. Other uncertainty in model parameter esti-

mates, particularly in complicated models with several parameters. Flaws or restric-
tions in the input data, such as inaccurate records of the occurrence of specific
species or environmental factors, also bring about uncertainties in Species
Distribution Modelling.
7.7.1 Methods to Assess Uncertainty in SDM
• Cross-validation
• Methods such as k-fold cross-validation offer approximations of the model’s per-
formance on separate subsets of the data, assisting in evaluating the model’s
robustness and capacity for generalization (Roberts et al. 2017).
• Bootstrapping
• Bootstrapping entails resampling the dataset via replacement to generate numer-
ous subsamples. Every subsample trains the models, and the prediction variation
estimates the uncertainty (Araujo and New 2007).
• Uncertainty propagation
• Rather than using a single point estimate, Bayesian techniques, such as Bayesian
model averaging, consider the distribution of potential model outputs, explicitly
modelling uncertainty (Dormann et al. 2018).
• Model averaging
• Combining predictions from several models while considering each one’s advan-
tages and disadvantages is known as model averaging. It lessens the effect of
uncertainty in the model (Araujo and New 2007).
• Sensitivity analysis
• Sensitivity analysis investigates how modifications to input variables affect
model predictions, assisting in identifying significant variables and sources of
ambiguity (Elith et al. 2011).
7.8 Conservation Strategies
The application of SDMs in conservation planning is unknown, although they are

increasingly being suggested to enhance the representation of biodiversity aspects
in conservation plans. After ecological features (species and habitat types) are iden-
tified, costs, limitations, and potential threat mitigation procedures are considered,
and decisions are made about where and when to execute measures. Structured
conservation planning is the term for this procedure (Guo et al. 2021).
Species Distribution models (SDMs) are valuable tools for projecting species
distribution into areas where biodiversity observations are scarce. Limited conser-
vation resources mean management decisions are often made based on scarce
biological information. The use of SDMs to assist in conservation decision-making

is increasingly recommended in peer-reviewed publications. This is due to their
ability to provide biological information much lower cost than large-scale field sur-
veys or population dynamics models that are parameterized using long-term datas-
ets (Duan et al. 2016). The advancements have made it possible for planners to
examine factors like whether managing or conserving particular species in land-
scapes is feasible. Furthermore, maps that predict how a specific hazard will affect
a species’ or habitat’s distribution may now be found in several decision support
systems.
However, as our ability to solve complex problems with systematic conservation
planning tools increases, so does the data needed to establish priorities (Li et al.
2013). Information gathering is time-consuming and costly, so organizers must
decide which data—such as point-occurrence data, range maps, expert knowledge
maps, or predictive model outputs like those produced by SDM—help illustrate the
distributions of ecological features and illustrate the benefits of diversity of apply-
ing a conservation action in any given location (Che and Wang 2016). Planners may
also want to include data on the distribution of other landscape or socioeconomic
variables in addition to these species-focused data, as they may be crucial for
achieving additional goals about ecosystem health or economic productivity. As an
alternative, planners who must select among several dangers to control could wish
to have a deeper comprehension of the possible consequences of alternate threat
mitigation measures for their target species.
7.8.1 Why Are Alternative Approaches Used in Place of SDMs

to Inform Conservation?
Planners use feature data to select conservation choices based on five primary rea-
sons. The conservation planners’ willingness to tolerate uncertainty, the quality of
the data at hand and its ability to parameterize complex models, the problem’s spa-
tial scale, the significance of ecological and evolutionary processes and constraints
like time, money, computational capacity, and the social-economic context of the
planning landscape are all factors to consider.
SDMs developed with ecologically relevant predictor variables can help shed
light on the variables influencing species distributions (Austin 2007). According to
Araujo et al. (2011) and Kujala et al. (2013), the data type is essential for estimating
the impact of substitute conservation strategies or determining how resistant the
current protected areas are to potential environmental changes. However, there are
other ways to prioritize reducing threats to biodiversity. This topic also raises the
possibility that in the absence of a commensurate rise in research aimed at improv-
ing the inclusion of critical ecological, evolutionary, and threatening processes, the
complexity of SDM methods may have little effect on their usage in conservation
planning.
7.9 Typical Errors in Species Distribution Modelling
Although there are now sets of rules for modelling distribution or niches for various
purposes in recent literature, a few errors still need to be addressed and clarified.
Some of the issues with SDM are listed below:
7.9.1 Variables with High Correlation Should Not Be Included

in the Model
It is impossible to have uncorrelated variables in the actual world because, as

Tobler’s Law (Tobler 1970) shows, everything is related to everything else. For
example, precipitation and temperature are always related; elevation is related to
both, and so on. Therefore, choosing one of the most associated variables for the
analysis is a trade-off. Using strongly linked variables in model construction can
have several unfavourable outcomes (Field et al. 2012; De Marco and Nóbrega
2018). It is possible to reject the null hypothesis incorrectly, for coefficients to alter
or even reverse in sign drastically.
It is possible to choose insignificant variables; the model may be over-fitted, and
it might not be possible to accurately disentangle the response curves for each vari-
able because each one will interact with the others, making it more challenging to
obtain the actual response curves (Dormann et al. 2013; Sillero and Barbosa 2021).
7.9.2 Species Records and Environmental Variables Should

Have the Same Spatial Resolution
Predictor variables for most SDM research are gridded environmental data, such as
raster maps (Booth et al. 2014). For this, the spatial resolution of the species records
and the pixel size of the environmental variables should match (Araujo et al. 2019).
The species coordinate inaccuracy must be on par with or less than the spatial reso-
lution of environmental variables (Sillero and Goncalves-Seco 2014).
7.9.3 Resampling Does Not Increase a Variable’s

Spatial Resolution
Without access to the interpolated relationships used to estimate the environmental

variables and an elevation model with sufficient spatial resolution, it is impossible
to directly increase the spatial resolution of the environmental variables (Hijmans
et al. 2005; Fick and Hijmans 2017). When changing the size or orientation of a
raster grid’s pixels, resampling makes it possible to recalculate and assign pixel
values. Consequently, resampling solely affects the characteristics of the raster.
7.9.4 Topographical Variable Calculations Should Not

Be Performed Using Unprojected Coordinate Systems
Rather than using a projected coordinate system, topographical variables with geo-
graphic coordinate systems, like WGS84, are commonly used. There is no issue if
elevation is the only topographical variable, but slope, aspect, and other topographi-
cal indices cannot be accurately determined using a geographic coordinate system.
The elevation map must be converted to a projected coordinate system to compute
other topographical variables.
7.9.5 Missing Data Should Be Same
Suppose missing data differs between two different periods. In that case, it will
affect the comparability of extents and result in an inaccurate range size change
calculation when comparing the extents of present and future suitable ranges (Sillero
and Barbosa 2021).
7.10 Conclusion
It is concluded that species distribution modeling (SDM) offers a promising

approach to understanding and predicting future climate change’s effects on biotic
communities. SDM bridges theory and application, enabling researchers to predict
potential shifts in species distributions under changing climatic conditions. This
chapter has illuminated the significance of SDMs as a powerful tool in this endeavor
through the comprehensive analysis of methodologies, applications, and challenges
within SDMs. SDM offers valuable insights into how biotic communities may
respond to future climate scenarios by integrating various modeling techniques and
considering multiple environmental factors. However, it is essential to acknowledge
the uncertainties inherent in SDM and the challenges in balancing model complex-
ity, data availability, and real-world applicability. Despite these obstacles, embrac-
ing interdisciplinary approaches and refining existing models may enhance the
accuracy and reliability of predictions further as the scientific community refines its
understanding of species-environment relationships and advances SDM techniques
to unravel the complexities of climate change impacts on biotic communities.
Besides, this chapter underscores the importance of collaborative research efforts

and adaptive management strategies in mitigating the adverse effects of climate
change on biodiversity and fostering resilience in biotic communities worldwide.
References
Araujo MB, New M (2007) Ensemble forecasting of species distributions. Trends Ecol Evol
22(1):42–47
Araujo MB, Pearson RG, Thuiller W, Erhard M (2005) Validation of species climate impact mod-
els under climate change. Glob Change Biol 11(9):1504–1513
Araujo MB, Alagador D, Cabeza M, Nogués-Bravo D, Thuiller W (2011) Climate change threat-
ens European conservation areas. Ecol Lett 14(5):484–492
Araujo MB, Anderson RP, Márcia Barbosa A, Beale CM, Dormann CF, Early R, Garcia RA,
Guisan A, Maiorano L, Naimi B, O’Hara RB, Zimmermann NE, Rahbek C (2019) Standards
for distribution models in biodiversity assessments. Sci Adv 5(1):eaat4858
Austin M (2007) Species distribution models and ecological theory: a critical assessment and some
possible new approaches. Ecol Model 200(1–2):1–19
Bagaria P, Thapa A, Sharma LK, Joshi BD, Singh H, Sharma CM, Sarma J, Thakur M, Chandra K
(2021) Distribution modelling and climate change risk assessment strategy for rare Himalayan
Galliformes species using archetypal data abundant cohorts for adaptation planning. Clim Risk
Manag 31:100264
Barrows CW, Preston KL, Rotenberry JT, Allen MF (2008) Using occurrence records to model
historic distributions and estimate habitat losses for two psammophilic lizards. Biol Conserv
141(7):1885–1893
Barton AD, Irwin AJ, Finkel ZV, Stock CA (2016) Anthropogenic climate change drives
shift and shuffle in North Atlantic phytoplankton communities. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
113(11):2964–2969
Behmanesh B, Tabasi E, Fakhireh A, Khalasi Ahvazi L (2019) Modeling the distribution of medic-
inal plant species of Thymus kotschyanus and Achillea millefolium using ENFA and logistic
regression. J Plant Ecosyst Conserv 6(13):91–120
Benito BM, Martínez-Ortega MM, Munoz LM, Lorite J, Penas J (2009) Assessing extinction-risk
of endangered plants using species distribution models: a case study of habitat depletion caused
by the spread of greenhouses. Biodivers Conserv 18:2509–2520
Booth TH, Nix HA, Busby JR, Hutchinson MF (2014) BIOCLIM: the first species distribution
modelling package, its early applications and relevance to most current MAXENT studies.
Divers Distrib 20(1):1–9
Bravo DN, Araújo MB, Lasanta T, Moreno JIL (2008) Climate change in Mediterranean moun-
tains during the 21st century. Ambio 37(4):280–285
Breiman L (1984) Classification and regression trees, 1st edn. Routledge
Breiman L (2001) Random forests. Mach Learn 45:5–32
Brotons L, Thuiller W, Araújo MB, Hirzel AH (2004) Presence-absence versus presence-only
modelling methods for predicting bird habitat suitability. Ecography 27(4):437–448
Burnham KP, Anderson DR (2004) Model selection and multimodel inference. A practical
information-theoretic approach, vol 2
Busby JR (1991) BIOCLIM—a bioclimate analysis and prediction system. Plant Protect Q
Carpenter G, Gillison AN, Winter J (1993) DOMAIN: a flexible modelling procedure for mapping
potential distributions of plants and animals. Biodivers Conserv 2:667–680
Caruana R, Niculescu-Mizil A (2006) An empirical comparison of supervised learning algorithms.
In: Proceedings of the 23rd international conference on machine learning, pp 161–168
Che J, Wang K (2016) AmphibiaChina: an online database of Chinese amphibians. Dongwuxue

Yanjiu 37(1):57–59
Chen IC, Shiu HJ, Benedick S, Holloway JD, Chey VK, Barlow HS, Hill JK, Thomas CD (2009)
Elevation increases in moth assemblages over 42 years on a tropical mountain. Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A 106(5):1479–1483
Chen IC, Hill JK, Ohlemüller R, Roy DB, Thomas CD (2011) Rapid range shifts of species associ-
ated with high levels of climate warming. Science 333(6045):1024–1026
Chitale VS, Behera MD, Roy PS (2014) Future of endemic flora of biodiversity hotspots in India.
PLoS One 9(12):e115264
Choudhury MR, Deb P, Singha H, Chakdar B, Medhi M (2016) Predicting the probable distribu-
tion and threat of invasive Mimosa diplotricha Suavalle and Mikania micrantha Kunth in a
protected tropical grassland. Ecol Eng 97:23–31
Church JA, Clark PU, Cazenave A, Gregory JM, Jevrejeva S, Levermann A, Merrifield MA, Milne
GA, Nerem RS, Nunn PD, Payne AJ, Pfeffer WT, Stammer D, Unnikrishnan AS (2013) Chapter
13. Sea level change. In: Stocker TF, Qin D, Plattner GK, Tignor M, Allen SK, Boschung J,
Nauels A, Xia Y, Bex V, Midgley PM (eds) The physical science basis: contribution of work-
ing group I to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change.
Cambridge University Press
Cristianini N, Scholkopf B (2002) Support vector machines and kernel methods: the new genera-
tion of learning machines. Ai Magazine 23(3):31
Cutler DR, Edwards TC Jr, Beard KH, Cutler A, Hess KT, Gibson J, Lawler JJ (2007) Random
forests for classification in ecology. Ecology 88(11):2783–2792
De Marco P, Nóbrega CC (2018) Evaluating collinearity effects on species distribution models: an
approach based on virtual species simulation. PLoS One 13(9):e0202403
De’Ath G (2007) Boosted trees for ecological modeling and prediction. Ecology 88(1):243–251
De’Ath G, Fabricius KE (2000) Classification and regression trees: a powerful yet simple tech-
nique for ecological data analysis. Ecology 81(11):3178–3192
29(2):451–457
Dormann CF, Elith J, Bacher S, Buchmann C, Carl G, Carré G, Marquéz JRG, Gruber B,
Lafourcade B, Leitão PJ, Münkemüller T, McClean C, Osborne PE, Reineking B, Schröder B,
Skidmore AK, Zurell D, Lautenbach S (2013) Collinearity: a review of methods to deal with it
and a simulation study evaluating their performance. Ecography 36:27–46
Dormann CF, Calabrese JM, Guillera-Arroita G, Matechou E, Bahn V, Bartoń K, Beale CM,
Ciuti S, Elith J, Gerstner K, Guelat J, Keil P, Lahoz-Monfort JJ, Pollock LJ, Reineking B,
Roberts DR, Schröder B, Thuiller W, Warton DI, Wintle BA, Wood SN, Wüest RO, Hartig F
(2018) Model averaging in ecology: a review of Bayesian, information-theoretic, and tactical
approaches for predictive inference. Ecol Monogr 88:485–504
Duan RY, Kong XQ, Huang MY, Varela S, Ji X (2016) The potential effects of climate change on
amphibian distribution, range fragmentation and turnover in China. PeerJ 4:e2185
Elith J, Burgman MA, Regan HM (2002) Mapping epistemic uncertainties and vague concepts in
predictions of species distribution. Ecol Model 157(2–3):313–329
Elith J, Leathwick JR, Hastie T (2008) A working guide to boosted regression trees. J Anim Ecol
77(4):802–813
Elith J, Phillips SJ, Hastie T, Dudík M, Chee YE, Yates CJ (2011) A statistical explanation of
MaxEnt for ecologists. Divers Distrib 17(1):43–57
Elsen PR, Tingley MW (2015) Global mountain topography and the fate of montane species under
climate change. Nat Clim Chang 5(8):772–776
Fick SE, Hijmans RJ (2017) WorldClim 2: new 1-km spatial resolution climate surfaces for global
land areas. Int J Climatol 37(12):4302–4315
Field Z, Miles J, Field A (2012) Discovering statistics using R. 1–992
Franklin J (2010) Mapping species distributions: spatial inference and prediction. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge
Freeman BG, Freeman AMC (2014) Rapid upslope shifts in New Guinean birds illustrate strong
distributional responses of tropical montane species to global warming. Proc Natl Acad Sci U
S A 111(12):4490–4494
Friedman JH (1991) Multivariate adaptive regression splines. Ann Stat 19(1):1–67
Garcia RA, Araújo MB, Burgess ND, Foden WB, Gutsche A, Rahbek C, Cabeza M (2014)
Matching species traits to projected threats and opportunities from climate change. J Biogeogr
41(4):724–735
Gaston KJ (1994) Measuring geographic range sizes. Ecography 17:198–205
Ghareghan F, Ghanbarian G, Pourghasemi HR, Safaeian R (2020) Prediction of habitat suitability
of Morina persica L. species using artificial intelligence techniques. Ecol Indic 112:106096
Grinnell J (1904) The origin and distribution of the chest-nut-backed chickadee. Auk 21(3):364–382
Guisan A, Thuiller W (2005) Predicting species distribution: offering more than simple habitat
models. Ecol Lett 8(9):993–1009
Guisan A, Zimmermann NE (2000) Predictive habitat distribution models in ecology. Ecol Model
135(2–3):147–186
Guisan A, Edwards TC, Hastie T (2002) Generalized linear and generalized additive models in
studies of species distributions: setting the scene. Ecol Model 157(2):89–100
Guisan A, Tingley R, Baumgartner JB, Naujokaitis-Lewis I, Sutcliffe PR, Tulloch AI, Regan
TJ, Brotons L, McDonald-Madden E, Mantyka-Pringle C, Martin TG, Rhodes JR, Maggini
R, Setterfield SA, Elith J, Schwartz MW, Wintle BA, Broennimann O, Austin M, Ferrier S,
Buckley YM (2013) Predicting species distributions for conservation decisions. Ecol Lett
16(12):1424–1435
Guo K, Yuan S, Wang H, Zhong J, Wu Y, Chen W, Hu C, Chang Q (2021) Species distribution
models for predicting the habitat suitability of Chinese fire-bellied newt Cynops orientalis
under climate change. Ecol Evol 11(15):10147–10154
Hamid M, Khuroo AA, Charles B, Ahmad R, Singh CP, Aravind NA (2019) Impact of climate
change on the distribution range and niche dynamics of Himalayan birch, a typical treeline
species in Himalayas. Biodivers Conserv 28:2345–2370
Han X, Guo Y, Mi C, Huettmann F, Wen L (2017) Machine learning model analysis of breeding
habitats for the black-necked crane in central Asian uplands under anthropogenic pressures.
Sci Rep 7(1):6114
Hastie T, Tibshirani R, Friedman JH, Friedman JH (2009) The elements of statistical learning: data
mining, inference, and prediction, vol 2. Springer, New York, pp 1–758
Heikkinen RK, Luoto M, Kuussaari M, Toivonen T (2007) Modelling the spatial distribu-
tion of a threatened butterfly: impacts of scale and statistical technique. Landsc Urban Plan
79(3–4):347–357
Hijmans RJ, Cameron SE, Parra JL, Jones PG, Jarvis A (2005) Very high-resolution interpolated
climate surfaces for global land areas. Int J Climatol 25(15):1965–1978
Hirzel AH, Hausser J, Chessel D, Perrin N (2002) Ecological-niche factor analysis: how to com-
pute habitat-suitability maps without absence data? Ecology 83(7):2027–2036
IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. Contribution of working group I
to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge
IPCC (2014) Climate change 2014: synthesis report. Contribution of working groups I, II and III to
the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. In: Core Writing
Team, Pachauri RK, Meyer LA (eds) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva
IPCC (2021) Climate change 2021: the physical science basis. Contribution of working group I
to the sixth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. In: Masson-
Delmotte V, Zhai P, Pirani A, Connors SL, Péan C, Berger S, Caud N, Chen Y, Goldfarb L,
Gomis MI, Huang M, Leitzell K, Lonnoy E, Matthews JBR, Maycock TK, Waterfield T,
Yelekçi O, Yu R, Zhou B (eds) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Islam K, Rahman MF, Islam KN, Nath TK, Jashimuddin M (2020) Modeling spatiotemporal dis-
tribution of Dipterocarpus turbinatus Gaertn. F. in Bangladesh under climate change scenarios.
J Sustain For 39(3):221–241
Jackson ST, Williams JW (2004) Modern analogs in quaternary paleoecology: here today, gone
yesterday, gone tomorrow? Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 32:495–537
Jarnevich CS, Stohlgren TJ, Kumar S, Morisette JT, Holcombe TR (2015) Caveats for correlative
species distribution modeling. Eco Inform 29:6–15
Jarnevich CS, Hayes MA, Fitzgerald LA, Yackel Adams AA, Falk BG, Collier MA, Bonewell LR,
Klug PG, Naretto S, Reed RN (2018) Modeling the distributions of tegu lizards in native and
potential invasive ranges. Sci Rep 8(1):10193
Johnson CJ, Gillingham MP (2005) An evaluation of mapped species distribution models used for
conservation planning. Environ Conserv 32(2):117–128
Kaky E (2020) Potential habitat suitability of Iraqi amphibians under climate change. Biodiversitas
21(2):731–742
Kearney M, Porter W (2009) Mechanistic niche modelling: combining physiological and spatial
data to predict species’ ranges. Ecol Lett 12(4):334–350
Kearney MR, Wintle BA, Porter WP (2010) Correlative and mechanistic models of species distri-
bution provide congruent forecasts under climate change. Conserv Lett 3(3):203–213
Kelly AE, Goulden ML (2008) Rapid shifts in plant distribution with recent climate change. Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A 105(33):11823–11826
Konvicka M, Maradova M, Benes J, Fric Z, Kepka P (2003) Uphill shifts in distribution of but-
terflies in The Czech Republic: effects of changing climate detected on a regional scale. Glob
Ecol Biogeogr 12(5):403–410
Kotu V, Deshpande B (2015) Data mining process. Predictive analytics and datamining, pp 17–36
Kujala H, Moilanen A, Araujo MB, Cabeza M (2013) Conservation planning with uncertain cli-
mate change projections. PLoS One 8(2):e53315
tion technologies. Academic, Cambridge, pp 289–306
(2020a) Carbon mineralization and inorganic nitrogen pools under Terminalia chebula Retz.-
Kumar M, Padalia H, Singh H (2020b) Remote sensing for mapping invasive alien plants: oppor-
Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun
Kumar N, Kumar A, Jeena N, Singh R, Singh H (2020d) Factors influencing soil ecosystem and
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021a) Modulation of plant functional traits under essen-
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Bisht S, Kumar N (2021b) Relationship of physiological plant func-
Kumar N, Jeena N, Kumar A, Khairakpan R, Singh H (2021d) Comparative response of rice culti-
org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120191
Leathwick JR, Elith J, Hastie T (2006) Comparative performance of generalized additive models
and multivariate adaptive regression splines for statistical modelling of species distributions.
Ecol Model 199(2):188–196
Lek S, Guégan JF (1999) Artificial neural networks as a tool in ecological modelling, an introduc-
tion. Ecol Model 120(2–3):65–73
Levinsky I, Skov F, Svenning JC, Rahbek C (2007) Potential impacts of climate change on the
distributions and diversity patterns of European mammals. Biodivers Conserv 16:3803–3816
Li Y, Cohen JM, Rohr JR (2013) Review and synthesis of the effects of climate change on amphib-
ians. Integr Zool 8(2):145–161
Lin YP, Lin WC, Wu WY (2015) Uncertainty in various habitat suitability models and its impact
on habitat suitability estimates for fish. Water 7(8):4088–4107
Loarie SR, Carter BE, Hayhoe K, McMahon S, Moe R, Knight CA, Ackerly DD (2008) Climate
change and the future of California’s endemic flora. PLoS One 3(6):e2502
Manne LL, Pimm SL (2001) Beyond eight forms of rarity: which species are threatened and which
will be next? Anim Conserv 4:221–229
Manoj M, Sweta NP, Singh H (2021) The role of communities in sustainable land and forest
management. In: Forest resources resilience and conflicts. Academic. https://doi.org/10.1016/
B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
Miller J (2010) Species distribution modeling. Geography Compass 4(6):490–509
Mohammadi S, Ebrahimi E, Moghadam MS, Bosso L (2019) Modelling current and future poten-
tial distributions of two desert jerboas under climate change in Iran. Eco Inform 52:7–13
Monastersky R (2014) Biodiversity: life—a status report. Nat News 516(7530):158–161
Mukherjee T, Sharma LK, Saha GK, Thakur M, Chandra K (2020) Past, present and future: com-
bining habitat suitability and future land cover simulation for long-term conservation manage-
ment of Indian rhino. Sci Rep 10(1):606
Olden JD, Lawler JJ, Poff NL (2008) Machine learning methods without tears: a primer for ecolo-
gists. Q Rev Biol 83(2):171–193
Ecol Evol Syst 37:637–669
Pearson RG (2007) Species’ distribution modeling for conservation educators and practitioners.
In: Synthesis American Museum Of Natural History, vol 50, pp 54–89
Pearson RG, Dawson TP, Berry PM, Harrison PA (2002) SPECIES: a spatial evaluation of climate
impact on the envelope of species. Ecol Model 154(3):289–300
Peterson AT, Ortega-Huerta MA, Bartley J, Sánchez-Cordero V, Soberón J, Buddemeier RH,
Stockwell DR (2002) Future projections for Mexican faunas under global climate change sce-
narios. Nature 416(6881):626–629
Peterson AT, Papeş M, Soberón J (2008) Rethinking receiver operating characteristic analysis
applications in ecological niche modeling. Ecol Model 213(1):63–72
Peterson AT, Papeş M, Soberón J (2015) Mechanistic and correlative models of ecological niches.
Eur J Ecol 1(2):28–38
Phillips SJ, Dudík M (2008) Modeling of species distributions with Maxent: new extensions and a
comprehensive evaluation. Ecography 31(2):161–175
Phillips SJ, Elith J (2010) POC plots: calibrating species distribution models with presence-only
data. Ecology 91(8):2476–2484
Phillips SJ, Anderson RP, Schapire RE (2006) Maximum entropy modeling of species geographic
distributions. Ecol Model 190(3):231–259
Prasad AM, Iverson LR, Liaw A (2006) Newer classification and regression tree techniques: bag-
ging and random forests for ecological prediction. Ecosystems 9:181–199
Raghavendra S, Deka PC (2014) Support vector machine applications in the field of hydrology: a
review. Appl Soft Comput 19:372–386
Rahimian Boogar A, Salehi H, Pourghasemi HR, Blaschke T (2019) Predicting habitat suitability
and conserving Juniperus spp. habitat using SVM and maximum entropy machine learning
techniques. Water 11(10):2049
Randin CF, Engler R, Normand S, Zappa M, Zimmermann NE, Pearman PB, Vittoz P, Thuiller W,
Guisan A (2009) Climate change and plant distribution: local models predict high elevation
persistence. Glob Change Biol 15:1557–1569
Reineking B, Schroder B (2006) Constrain to perform: regularization of habitat models. Ecol
Model 193:675–690
Rissler L (2007) Adding more ecology into species delimitation: ecological niche models and
phylogeography help define cryptic species in the black salamander (Aneides flavipunctatus).
Syst Biol 56:924–942
Roberts DR, Bahn V, Ciuti S, Boyce MS, Elith J, Guillera-Arroita G, Hauenstein S, Lahoz-
Monfort JJ, Schröder B, Thuiller W, Warton DI, Wintle BA, Hartig F, Dormann CF (2017)
Cross-validation strategies for data with temporal, spatial, hierarchical, or phylogenetic struc-
ture. Ecography 40:913–929
Sarma RR, Munsi M, Ananthram AN (2015) Effect of climate change on invasion risk of Giant
African snail (Achatina fulicaFérussac, 1821: Achatinidae) in India. PLoS One 10(11):e0143724
Schroder B, Seppelt R (2006) Analysis of pattern–process interactions based on landscape mod-
els—overview, general concepts, and methodological issues. Ecol Model 199(4):505–516
Shankhwar R, Bhandari MS, Meena RK, Shekhar C, Pandey VV, Saxena J, Ginwal HS (2019)
Potential eco-distribution mapping of Myrica esculenta in northwestern Himalayas. Ecol Eng
128:98–111
carbon partitioning and biomass production of Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal grown under
Shrestha UB, Bawa KS (2014) Impact of climate change on potential distribution of Chinese cater-
pillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) in Nepal Himalaya. PLoS One 9(9):e106405
Sillero N, Barbosa AM (2021) Common mistakes in ecological niche models. Int J Geogr Inf Sci
35(2):213–226
Sillero N, Goncalves-Seco L (2014) Spatial structure analysis of a reptile community with airborne
LiDAR data. Int J Geogr Inf Sci 28(8):1709–1722
Silva LD, Costa H, de Azevedo EB, Medeiros V, Alves M, Elias RB, Silva L (2017) Modelling
native and invasive woody species: a comparison of ENFA and MaxEnt applied to the Azorean
forest. In: Modeling, dynamics, optimization and bioeconomics II: DGS III, Porto, Portugal,
February 2014, and Bioeconomy VII, Berkeley, USA, March 2014-selected contributions 3.
Springer International Publishing, pp 415–444

impacts on sustainable natural resource management. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 336–361
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
Singh H, Kumar N, Kumar M, Singh R (2020) Modelling habitat suitability of western trago-
pan (Tragopan melanocephalus) a range-restricted vulnerable bird species of the Himalayan
region, in response to climate change. Clim Risk Manag 29:100241
uclim.2022.101183
Singh H, Kumar N, Singh R et al (2023) Assessing the climate change impact on the habitat suit-
ability of the range-restricted bird species (Catreus wallichii) in the Indian Himalayan ecosys-
tem. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30:121224–121235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30789-x
Sony RK, Sen S, Kumar S, Sen M, Jayahari KM (2018) Niche models inform the effects of climate
change on the endangered Nilgiri Tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius) populations in the southern
Western Ghats, India. Ecol Eng 120:355–363
Stockwell D (1999) The GARP modelling system: problems and solutions to automated spatial
prediction. Int J Geogr Inf Sci 13(2):143–158
Thapa S, Chitale V, Rijal SJ, Bisht N, Shrestha BB (2018) Understanding the dynamics in distribu-
tion of invasive alien plant species under predicted climate change in Western Himalaya. PLoS
One 13(4):e0195752
Thomas CD, Cameron A, Green RE, Bakkenes M, Beaumont LJ, Collingham YC, Erasmus BF,
De Siqueira MF, Grainger A, Hannah L, Hughes L, Huntley B, Van Jaarsveld AS, Midgley GF,
Miles L, Ortega-Huerta MA, Peterson AT, Phillips OL, Williams SE (2004) Extinction risk
from climate change. Nature 427(6970):145–148
Thuiller W, Richardson DM, Pyšek P, Midgley GF, Hughes GO, Rouget M (2005) Niche-based
modelling as a tool for predicting the risk of alien plant invasions at a global scale. Glob
Change Biol 11(12):2234–2250
Thuiller W, Broennimann O, Hughes G, Alkemade JRM, Midgley GF, Corsi F (2006) Vulnerability
of African mammals to anthropogenic climate change under conservative land transformation
assumptions. Glob Change Biol 12(3):424–440
Tirelli T, Gamba M, Pessani D (2012) Support vector machines to model presence/absence of
Alburnus alburnus alborella (Teleostea, Cyprinidae) in North-Western Italy: comparison with
other machine learning techniques. C R Biol 335(10–11):680–686
Tobler WR (1970) A computer movie simulating urban growth in the Detroit region. Econ Geogr
46(sup1):234–240
Trivedi MR, Morecroft MD, Berry PM, Dawson TP (2008) Potential effects of climate change
on plant communities in three montane nature reserves in Scotland, UK. Biol Conserv
141(6):1665–1675
Whittingham MJ, Stephens PA, Bradbury RB, Freckleton RP (2006) Why do we still use stepwise
modelling in ecology and behaviour? J Anim Ecol 75(5):1182–1189
Wiens JA, Stralberg D, Jongsomjit D, Howell CA, Snyder MA (2009) Niches, models, and
climate change: assessing the assumptions and uncertainties. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
106(Supplement_2):19729–19736
Wilson RJ, Gutierrez D, Gutierrez J, Monserrat VJ (2007) An elevational shift in butterfly spe-
cies richness and composition accompanying recent climate change. Glob Change Biol
13(9):1873–1887
Wordley CF, Sankaran M, Mudappa D, Altringham JD (2015) Landscape scale habitat suitability
modelling of bats in the Western Ghats of India: bats like something in their tea. Biol Conserv
191:529–536
Xu J, Grumbine RE, Shrestha A, Eriksson M, Yang X, Wang YUN, Wilkes A (2009) The melt-
ing Himalayas: cascading effects of climate change on water, biodiversity, and livelihoods.
Conserv Biol 23(3):520–530
Yadav SK, Singh H, Nautiyal R, Ginwal HS, Ansari SA, Barthwal S (2019) Modulation of morpho-
physiological responses in Populus deltoides by elevated carbon dioxide and temperature. For
Sci 66:105–118. https://doi.org/10.1093/forsci/fxz048
Zhang L, Jing Z, Li Z, Liu Y, Fang S (2019) Predictive modeling of suitable habitats for
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) presl using maxent model under climate change in China. Int J
Environ Res Public Health 16(17):3185
Zhao Z, Guo Y, Wei H, Ran Q, Liu J, Zhang Q, Gu W (2020) Potential distribution of Notopterygium
incisum Ting ex HT Chang and its predicted responses to climate change based on a compre-
hensive habitat suitability model. Ecol Evol 10(6):3004–3016
Chapter 8
Climate Shifts and Ecosystem Resilience:
Investigating the Linkages
Rishita Pakhira, Hukum Singh, and Subhankar Biswas
Abstract Climate shifts have become a defining feature, posing significant chal-
lenges to the resilience of ecosystems worldwide. Understanding the linkages
between climate shifts and ecosystem resilience is paramount for effective conser-
vation and management strategies. This review synthesizes current research on the
complex interactions between climate variability and ecosystem dynamics, focus-
ing on the mechanisms underlying ecosystem resilience in changing climatic condi-
tions. We highlight the direct and indirect effects of climate shifts on ecosystems,
including alterations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather
events. We discuss the role of species interactions, feedback loops, and thresholds
in shaping ecosystem responses to climate change. Furthermore, we examine adap-
tive capacity and resilience as critical determinants of ecosystem stability and per-
sistence in the face of environmental stressors. Moreover, we emphasize the
importance of adaptive capacity and resilience in maintaining ecosystem stability.
We advocated that adaptive management strategies are vital for enhancing ecosys-
tem resilience in the face of climate change. Overall, this chapter provides a com-
prehensive framework for investigating the complex interplay between climate
shifts and ecosystem resilience, offering valuable insights into the mechanisms
shaping the future of Earth’s ecosystems under the influence of climate change.
Keywords Climate change · Plant phenology · Forest vulnerability ·

Nutrient cycling
R. Pakhira (*) · H. Singh

S. Biswas
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Nadia, West Bengal, India
Ltd. 2024
170 R. Pakhira et al.
8.1 Introduction
Climate change will remain the planet’s primary stressor in the twenty-first century
due to high emission levels, posing a severe challenge (Apurva et al. 2017). The
combustion of fossil fuels, using fertilizers, deforestation, and changes in land use
and cover have all contributed to increased greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere (Devi et al. 2023). The Earth’s climate has changed due to all these
activities (Tubiello et al. 2013). More than 4.1 billion hectares (ha) of the Earth’s
surface is covered by forest ecosystems, serving as reservoirs for carbon sequestra-
tion and playing a significant role in the global carbon cycle (Körner 2017). In addi-
tion, forests are crucial terrestrial carbon sinks essential to absorbing atmospheric
carbon dioxide (CO2). The world’s forests are vital in regulating the climate because
they remove significant carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and maintain biologi-
cal equilibrium (Ekhuemelo et al. 2016; Kumar et al. 2019a, b).
Global climate change has significantly impacted forest ecosystems’ quality and
diversity (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, d, e). The degradation of the environment and
climate due to anthropocentric influences is causing changes in species composi-
tion, species interactions, and the distribution of organisms (Searle and Chen 2017;
Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e, f; Singh et al. 2023). Climate change has affected
carbon dynamics in global forests positively or negatively, depending on the under-
lying reason (Allen et al. 2015). According to the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC), if global warming keeps up its current pace, the air tem-
perature may rise by 1.5 °C between 2030 and 2052, changing the frequency and
severity of natural disturbances and potentially having a significant effect on forest
resources and species composition (IPCC 2018). The risk was forecasted in the
IPCC (2022) report for the short-term (2021–2040), mid-term (2041–2060), and
long-term (2081–2060) at various levels and 1.5 °C across several decades. In areas
where water availability is not a concern, growing nitrogen deposition and rising
atmospheric CO2 levels may promote tree growth and carbon storage (Körner 2017).
However, water shortages, increased competition brought on rising CO2 levels, and
higher temperatures have increased tree death and decreased net above-ground bio-
mass change (Chen and Luo 2015; Chen et al. 2016). Furthermore, reduced yields
under climate change may change the market price of timber products, which is
expected to impact the economic value of wood significantly (Gupta et al. 2018).
Therefore, adaptive forest management strategies, which rely on a better under-
standing of the challenges climate change poses to biodiversity and ecosystem func-
tion, are essential to counteracting the catastrophic influence of global climate
change (Dawson et al. 2011).
8 Climate Shifts and Ecosystem Resilience: Investigating the Linkages 171
8.1.1 Green House Gas (GHG) Emissions in Forest Ecosystem
Forests in the northern hemisphere are a significant CO2 sink. In the U.S., forest
ecosystems accounted for 86% of the total net CO2 flow in 2010 (USEPA 2012;
Joshi and Singh 2020). Forests contribute to the carbon budget by releasing and
withdrawing CO2 from the atmosphere(Schlesinger and Bernhardt 2013). Trees
continuously remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis
and convert it into organic carbon (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, d, e). The primary
mechanism for CO2 flow from forest ecosystems is respiration, which occurs in
autotrophic and heterotrophic forms.
Management practices such as nitrogen fertilizers affect CO2 emissions in agro-
forestry systems by controlling microbial and plant activities connected to soil pro-
cesses (such as N and C cycling) (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e, f). Nitrogen addition
is essential for promoting plant development and, as a result, improving CO2 absorp-
tion, particularly in N-restricted forest environments (Law 2013). As trees develop,
N fertilization often raises the net carbon balance and carbon sink of forest ecosys-
tems (Tyree et al. 2013). It has been found that the application of 224 kg N and
28 kg P per hectare resulted in an increased stem growth of 19.2 Mg CO2 equivalent
per hectare (Albaugh et al. 2012). Increased plant N content by N-fertilization facil-
itates increased autotrophic respiration and litter decomposition (Reich et al. 2008).
Methane is the second most common greenhouse gas contributing to global cli-
mate change. Atmospheric CH4 concentrations have grown by 8.5 ± 1.3 Gt CO2 eq.
year−1 since 1750. Methane oxidizing bacteria are a significant sink of CH4, and
methanogenic archaea in wetlands are a primary source of CH4 synthesis. According
to Arnold et al. (2005), undrained sites may emit CH4 on average ten times more
annually than drained sites. Forest soils can act as both sources and sinks of CH4.
Well-drained upland forest soils are one of the most critical global biological sinks
for CH4. Methanotrophic bacteria generally take up CH4 as organic C in the micro-
bial biomass and oxidize it to CO2 to release energy (Dutaur and Verchot 2007).
Methanotrophic bacteria are essential to GHG budgets because they are the only
biological sink for CH4, which is particularly important for forest ecosystems. The
only creatures that utilize CH4 are methanotrophic bacteria (Raturi et al. 2022).
However, they also produce CO2, often in a ratio of approximately 50% of the CH4
consumed (Sharma et al. 2019). Oxidation by methanotrophic bacteria, regulated by
environmental conditions that control oxidation rates, determines the strength of a
soil’s methane sink. 1.8–11.8 Tg CH4-C year−1 of atmospheric CH4 are estimated to
be absorbed by forest soils globally. Expressly, 28% (6.2 Tg year−1) of the global
CH4 sink is provided by tropical forest soils. Aerobic can consume up to 3.17 mg
CH4-C m−2 daily in temperate forest soils (Veldkamp et al. 2013).
Nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas (GHG) in the Earth’s atmosphere, is
destroying the stratospheric ozone layer. Soils are responsible for 65% of all N2O
emissions worldwide (Singh 2021). It is significant to remember that N2O concen-
trations on Earth have recently been rising by 0.3% year−1 (Davidson 2009). Despite
a 3.2% drop in N2O emissions in the U.S., direct emissions from fertilizing forests
have grown by 455% since 1990. Using synthetic fertilizers on U.S. forest soils in
2010 led to direct N2O emissions of 0.4 Tg CO2eq (USEPA 2012). The denitrifica-
tion process is triggered by high soil moisture when adequate substrate (i.e., NO3)
is present, responsible for ecosystem losses of N ranging from 24 to 53% (Houlton
et al. 2006). Nitrification and denitrification result in the release of nitric oxide (NO)
and N2O. Only denitrifying bacteria are capable of reducing N2O to N2 under total
anoxia. Depending on how wet the soil is, nitrification or denitrification may con-
tribute more to the production of N2O.
Brumme et al. (1999) reported significant N2O emissions from forest ecosys-
tems; estimates range from 2.4 to 5.7 Tg N2O-N year−1. Fertilizing forests has
become a standard practice in silviculture when soil N availability is restricted or
annual atmospheric N deposition is 2 kg N/ha. Mature woods with high nitrogen
(N) and soil carbon (C) and low C:N ratios are hotspots for N2O emissions follow-
ing N fertilizer application (Zhang et al. 2008). It has generally been demonstrated
that N2O production from N and phosphorus (P) limited forest soils is positively
impacted by nitrification and denitrification. Increased precipitation raises soil
water content and, as a result, N2O outflow when combined with additional N fertil-
izer (Brown et al. 2012).
8.1.2 Climate Change Impacts and Forest Vulnerability
The concept of vulnerability originated with studies on natural hazards and has been
defined as exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity (Prakash et al. 2022).
Throughout time, the scientific community began to view vulnerability in various
ways. Both present and future climatic changes impact how well forests can adapt
to the populations that depend on them (Fischer 2018). Assessments of the effects
of climate change and the vulnerability of forests are central to recent scientific
research (Rawat et al. 2020). Proxy measures such as temperature variables or indi-
cations to assess a forest’s inherent vulnerability are applied to lessen the impacts.
As a result, the structure of the vulnerability assessment has to be changed to con-
sider its multidimensionality in both place and time (Chakraborty et al. 2018).
Climate change impacts the structure and function, including habitat, that is
essential for maintaining the health of the forest (Sharma et al. 2018). Changing
temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, and photosynthesis-active radiation
(PAR) affect forests (Yang et al. 2019). The prolonged seasonal extension has sig-
nificant effects on forestry production and growth (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e, f).
According to their locations and ecosystems, climate change is anticipated to impact
the frequency of forest disturbances, along with commodities and services. Climate
change severely impacts flora and fauna, especially at the regional and local scales,
and diminishes the forest ecosystem’s capacity to regulate. Studies on species dis-
tribution, forest fragmentation, canopy density, etc., in response to climate change
have been studied using scientific models (Joshi et al. 2020). The Paris Agreement,
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and the U.N. Strategic Plan for Forests
(UNSPF), among other recent pledges and efforts, have all contributed to develop-
ing a good trajectory. These organizations provide policy guidance, capacity build-
ing, and technical assistance to help nations overcome these difficulties (Muller
et al. 2018). Optimizing the advantages of forest resources to meet societal demands
while preserving and sustaining forest ecosystems for both current and future gen-
erations is the goal of sustainable forest management. The altering patterns of plant
cover differed among places due to spatiotemporal differences in climate change
and eco-environmental variables (Masroor et al. 2021). It is also clear that several
human stressors, including climate change, exacerbate alterations in forest dynam-
ics (Wan et al. 2018). Thus, looking at the exposure and sensitivity components
when doing ecological and inherent vulnerability evaluations is essential.
Predicting the future impact of climate change on forests is challenging, espe-
cially at the regional and local levels, because of the wide range of expected changes
in temperature and precipitation (Gupta et al. 2019). There is additional uncertainty
due to biological mechanisms that connect the productivity and distribution of for-
ests to changes in climate. Most research concentrated on a convoluted timeframe
as the exclusive consequence of climate change (Dhyani et al. 2021). The uncer-
tainty surrounding future climate projections is the primary barrier to understanding
such data (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e, f). Therefore, long-term vegetation data
inventories are crucial for precisely tracking how climate change affects the forest.
The ecological services that forests provide are impacted by the diversity of species
unique to a particular area, as determined by forest management. Forest manage-
ment techniques can result from a detailed understanding of forest dynamics and the
causes of such dynamics, such as artificial activities or climate change. Further
analysis and study on threats and potential opportunities in predicted climate change
scenarios are required to enhance forest products and services and bridge the knowl-
edge gap for long-term planning to reduce livelihood vulnerability.
8.2 Climate Change and Its Effects on Forest

Ecosystem Performance
Demographics, production, and carbon storage across global forests have all been
influenced by climate change (Kumar et al. 2018). Reduced water availability
brought on by rising temperatures and altered precipitation has increased tree mor-
tality through the interaction of hydraulic failure and carbon starvation (Hartmann
et al. 2015) and indirectly through increased vulnerability to insects (Anderegg
et al. 2015). Additional effects of climate change have increased tree mortality even
in places without drought by decreasing tree lifespan or enhancing competition
amongst trees.Furthermore, substantial reductions in forest biomass are often asso-
ciated with increased climate-related tree mortality (Lewis et al. 2011).
Contrary to mortality rates, which consistently increase due to climate change,
tree growth experiences positive and negative effects independent of moisture
availability (Kumar et al. 2019a, b). Increased temperatures that extend the growing
season, increased moisture, nitrogen deposition, and elevated CO2 concentrations
are some of the combinations of these factors that have boosted tree growth and
production (Coomes et al. 2014). Conversely, increased frequencies of droughts and
rising temperatures have decreased the rate of tree development (Brzostek
et al. 2014).
The combined effects of these climate change impacts on biomass loss from tree
death, biomass gain from the development of surviving trees, and growth from
newly recruited trees create net above-ground biomass change (Kumar et al. 2020a,
b, c, d, e). The rise in mortality and decline in growth rates in certain areas have
significantly influenced the decrease in net aboveground biomass change (Chen
et al. 2016). Natural processes, like the age of the forest effects, are essential when
analyzing climate change’s impact on forest ecosystems. Stand aging is vital in
determining forest dynamics, especially in temperate and boreal forests where
stand-replacing disturbances like fire occur (Chen et al. 2016).
8.2.1 Nutrient Cycling
In terrestrial ecosystems, the biogeochemical cycles of important elements like C,

N, or P control production, respiration, and decomposition (Peñuelas et al. 2013). At
the same time, the biogeochemical cycles of P and N regulate the storage of C in
forest ecosystems (Kumar and Singh 2020). Living organisms need some aspects in
precise quantities or stoichiometry to synthesize necessary molecules with certain
element ratios and catalyze metabolic processes. Due to the conserved elemental
stoichiometry of the plants and microbes that drive the C, N, and P cycles, biogeo-
chemical cycles are biologically connected (Finzi et al. 2011). Elemental stoichiom-
etry can be linked to significant ecological processes and ecosystem characteristics,
such as ecosystem diversity and composition, trees’ capacity to adapt to environ-
mental stress, the make-up of decomposer communities and rates of litter decompo-
sition (Delgado-Baquerizo et al. 2017; Sardans et al. 2017).
Global change has significantly impacted Earth’s ecosystem’s biogeochemical
cycles of carbon and nutrient components (Nautiyal et al. 2022). Due to varying
degrees of regulation by biological and geochemical processes, rapid environmental
changes have caused an imbalance between C, N, and P in ecosystems. Over 300
million acres of wooded areas are burned yearly in forest fires, a worldwide phe-
nomenon (Van Lierop et al. 2015). Nutrient-related consequences of fires include
accelerated nutrient cycling, soil erosion, and volatilization of soil nutrients.
In forest ecosystems, a significant amount of nitrogen cycling between plants
and soils is caused by litter fall. Variations in yearly litter fall output, seasonal pat-
terns, and nutrient content correlate closely with climatic conditions (González
et al. 2019; Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, d, e). Therefore, predicted temperature increases
and precipitation pattern changes would dramatically affect litterfall dynamics
(Kumari and Singh 2018). Through the impact on nutrient uptake, allocation, and
resorption processes, altered soil nutrient availability caused by impaired P and N

deposition has additionally been discovered to modify litterfall composition
(Peñuelas et al. 2013).
Various variables, including soils, climate, the population of decomposers, and
litter quality, influence decomposition rates (Manoj et al. 2021). The most signifi-
cant factor influencing decomposition is litter quality (Singh and Verma 2013).
Green leaf ratios and resorption are the critical drivers of stoichiometric relation-
ships in leaf litter, subject to substantial changes to the shifting climate (Yuan and
Chen 2015). Increasing calcium (Ca) causes a rise in both C: N and C:P ratios
(Sardans et al. 2013), while Yang et al. (2014) have discovered evidence of a favor-
able association between rising Ca and N:P ratios. Additionally, by increasing foliar
N:P ratios and reducing N resorption, high N deposition rates also improve litter
N:P ratios (Peñuelas et al. 2013). Factors linked to water conservation and improved
nutrient usage efficiency would cause warming and drought to raise C: N and C: P
ratios. Globally, warm and damp circumstances decrease and increase N and P
resorption efficiency, respectively. The effect of increasing N and Ca deposition on
the stoichiometry of nutrient recycling is also significantly modulated by moisture
conditions (González et al. 2019).
According to the consumer-driven nutrient recycling theory (Sterner and Elser
2003), the ratios of nutrient recycling are directly influenced by the equilibrium
between trash stoichiometry and microbial element consumption efficiency. Since
soil microorganisms are mostly homeostatic regarding elemental stoichiometry, a
nutrient’s immobilization in microbial biomass derives from the stoichiometric
imbalance between litterfall and microbial populations (Zechmeister-Boltenstern
et al. 2015). Due to the negative correlation between high litter N:P ratios and
decomposition rates, the effects of global change on litter stoichiometry are pre-
dicted to slow down nutrient return to soils. Additionally, it has been discovered that
the variety of soil microorganisms is influenced by litterfall stoichiometry (Delgado-
Baquerizo et al. 2017).
Drought further impacts nutrient mineralization, reducing ion mobility and soil
microbial activity. The effect of CO2 on mineralization is also influenced by water
quality (Garten et al. 2009). In addition, warming decreases soil phosphorus avail-
ability while increasing net N mineralization and nitrification. The direction and
intensity of this reaction depend on interactions between deposition rates and litter
quality, although N deposition is known to hinder litter decomposition. High exter-
nal N inputs can cause forest soils to become more acidic and eutrophic, increasing
the amount of mineral nutrients lost by leaching to surface and ground waters
(Gundersen et al. 2006).
8.3 Climate Change Impacts on Global Biodiversity
Climate change may cause biome shifts on a geographic macro scale of biodiversity,
which should impact around 50% of the world’s vegetation over the next century
(Bergengren et al. 2011). Typically, geographical biome alterations coincide with
climate changes, which make the current borders of species distributions the most
vulnerable. At the local level, species may follow favorable climate conditions (i.e.,
species response along the spatial axis), and there is substantial proof that plant spe-
cies latitudinal and altitudinal ranges are shifting due to climate change (Bellard
et al. 2012). Furthermore, as each species has different climatic requirements and
adaptability levels, it is assumed that each will react to climate change differently
(Verma et al. 2021). In addition, species with characteristics that are resistant to
environmental change thrive, whereas those with features that are susceptible to
climatic factors lose supremacy within their range. In the Japanese archipelago, for
instance, warming has induced directional shifts in the relative abundance of life-
history features (Suzuki et al. 2015), resulting in increases in species near their
cooler range limits at the rate of the existing inhabitants.
Moreover, according to Harrison et al. (2015), drought favors features linked to
fast development and drought resistance. Similarly, increasing CO2 concentrations,
nitrogen deposition, or a combination of all climate drivers have also caused func-
tional traits or species composition shifts by favouring species with particular func-
tional traits that aid them in their new climatic reality (Searle and Chen 2017). As a
result, compositional changes might be caused by variations in species’ susceptibil-
ity to climate change or by functional features.
Warming and reduced water availability have resulted in the extinction of local
plant species and declines in species diversity at the taxonomic level (Thuiller et al.
2005). For instance, the loss of species susceptible to drought caused the plant spe-
cies richness of a grassland ecosystem in California to diminish (Harrison et al.
2015). Infertile grasslands and heathlands worldwide now have less species diver-
sity. In grasslands, elevated CO2 levels reduced species richness by postponing the
senescence of the dominating plant canopy, which covered late-emerging and
shorter species. As a result, various climatic factors have decreased the diversity of
plant species worldwide in grasslands.
Changes in community structure brought on by climate change have both benefi-
cial and adverse effects on regional species diversity (Yadav et al. 2019). It is
hypothesized that warmer, more significant precipitation and higher CO2 concentra-
tions might boost biodiversity by enhancing habitat quality or productivity for spe-
cific plant species or populations (Bellard et al. 2012). Through enhancing
reproduction and survival, rising CO2 levels in grasslands increase species richness
and evenness while reducing the dominance of particular species (Singh and Kumar
2022). Moreover, the quantity of immigrant species permitted by climatic change
exceeds that of extirpated species. In that case, regional diversity may rise with
compositional adjustments caused by climate change. Although water scarcity
reduced species richness on the summits of Mediterranean mountain areas,
warming-induced range shifts enhanced it in boreal and temperate mountain regions

(Pauli et al. 2012). Climate change may not have a general directional influence if
the direction of its effects on biodiversity is both beneficial and harmful (Singh
2024). A worldwide meta-analysis indicates that gains and decreases in net plant
biodiversity will likely happen at local scales because of climate change. González
et al. (2019) argue that these data must be reanalyzed with excellent care to consider
geographical bias, timing discrepancies, and post-disturbance recovery.
It is noteworthy that delays between these changes in biodiversity and climate
occur when biotic responses do not match the expectation of perfect synchroniza-
tion with climate change (Verma et al. 2020). For example, because of variations in
community tolerance to warming and the appropriateness of habitat for migration
between the places, the forest plant composition in France responded to climatic
warming in highland areas more quickly than in lowland areas (Bertrand et al. 2011).
8.4 Climate Changed Induced Forest Disturbances
Climate change may alter a disturbance regime that impacts the composition and
structure of forest ecosystems (Singh et al. 2014). When disturbances go beyond
their normal range of variation, the change in the composition and structure of the
forest is interrupted. Natural calamities like fires, insect outbreaks, and wind throws
significantly influence forest ecosystem dynamics. Warming temperatures seriously
threaten forest ecosystems (Battles et al. 2008). Mortality might increase in older
woods experiencing tension from low soil moisture.
Some species’ regeneration and growth will change as the temperature gradually
rises. Low soil moisture and competition from other species impact tree species’
regenerative capacity when the temperature increases during the seedling stage.
Climate change and unpredictability cause forest resources to degrade, emit carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere, and impair their capacity to provide ecosystem ser-
vices (Lasco et al. 2008).
8.4.1 Fire
Rising temperatures significantly increase the likelihood and intensity of forest

fires. A fire’s effects on the forest ecosystem include the mortality of individual
trees, the disruption of wildlife habitat, and an acceleration of the nutrient cycle.
The quantity and frequency of precipitation and the structure and composition of the
forest affect the frequency, magnitude, severity, seasonality, and type of fires. Fire
plays a significant role in regulating the carbon balance of forests and weakens their
capacity as carbon sinks (Gebeyehu and Hirpo 2019). The majority of soil nutrients
lost in forest fires affect the concentrations of macronutrients that are readily
accessible.
Extreme temperatures and the build-up of plant biomass contribute to climate

change’s increased risk of fire initiation and spread, but these elements also com-
bine with socioeconomic concerns. Forest fires damage plants and animals, causing
a direct loss of habitat. The prescribed fire’s capacity to reduce nitrogen saturation
is brought on by atmospheric deposition, and disturbances can lead to an equivalent
nutrient loss so quickly (Paoletti et al. 2007).
8.4.2 Invasive Species
As an outcome of climate change, invasive species will become more widespread,

frequent, and severe. Moreover, non-invasive species will become more prone to
invasion. It makes it easier for invasive species to colonize the forest environment
(Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, d, e). As temperature or moisture barriers to survival are
removed, species’ ranges vary, and they successfully colonize new areas (Hellmann
et al. 2008). When a species’ range changes, it also becomes rarer, allowing invasive
non-native species to proliferate and colonize. When carbon dioxide levels increase,
invasive species react more strongly than native species. Strong spreading capabili-
ties and a broad range of environmental tolerances in invasive species enable them
to adapt to quick changes.
Invasive plants are the imports of non-native or alien species that successfully
expand into new localized natural areas to threaten the economy or the environment.
They often flourish in disturbed settings with plenty of available light and frag-
mented native ecosystems because changes in weather events intensify the distur-
bance regime (Hellmann et al. 2008).
8.5 Climate Change Impacts on Forest Health
Climate change is anticipated to vary the quantity and distribution of pests and dis-
eases in the forest ecosystem, directly or indirectly, through increasing water stress
or wind damage, making trees more vulnerable to attack (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c,
d, e, f). Climate change alters the dynamics of native forest insect pests and ill-
nesses, making it easier for alien species to establish and spread. Climate change
presents an opportunity for pathogens, and it may have a noteworthy impact on the
health and survival of trees (Rustad et al. 2012).
Transmission rates of forest pathogens, which can cause viral, bacterial, or fun-
gal infections, vary with forest ecosystem temperature and moisture. Pathogens like
fungi may endure and stay contagious at various temperatures. Yet, the range of
temperatures where most fungal infections may flourish epidemically is only a few
degrees celsius wide.
8.5.1 Incidents of Pests and Disease
Insect overwinter survival increased due to climate change, and development and
reproductive cycles were reduced. Warming has been seen to affect insects and dis-
eases in all the predicted ways, affecting everything from phenology and dispersal
to community dynamics and composition (Moore and Allard 2008). Climate vari-
ability and climate change could lead to increased pest and disease occurrence.
Long dry periods and Water quality will decline with more precipitation and arise in
the danger of waterborne infections. Pathogens, insects, and invasive forest species
can directly contribute to tree death. Insects, particularly bark beetles, have caused
more disturbances in forests. Due to their great physiological sensitivity to the envi-
ronment, rapid generation rates, high mobility, and explosive reproductive capacity,
trees affected by insects and viruses can have significant economic repercussions.
Under warmer, wetter, or more carbon dioxide-rich conditions, many pests and
diseases will multiply more quickly, widen their geographic ranges, and invade new
areas. Pest insect populations are vulnerable to a changing environment because
higher moisture or temperature levels threaten their ability to survive and reproduce.
Climate change causes pest outbreaks and tree disease, which could hurt the envi-
ronment and economy (Macpherson et al. 2017). A highly virulent insect can sig-
nificantly alter the composition and structure of a forest, especially if it decimates
populations of vulnerable tree species.
8.6 Impacts of Climate Change on Nutrients Availability
Trees require light, heat, carbon dioxide, and water nutrients to grow. The photosyn-
thesis rate changes due to rising temperatures and increased atmospheric carbon
dioxide concentrations (Kumar et al. 2017). Naturally, plants have a system that
allows them to withstand temperature increases up to a certain point. When the
temperature rises, organic materials in the soil will decompose faster, which will
enhance the accessibility of nutrients for plant absorption. Soil characteristics,
water, mineral, and nutrient availability impact the interaction and various combina-
tions’ effects of rising carbon dioxide concentration and temperature.
The availability of forest resources will affect how successfully a tree grows,
changing the ratio of growth to mortality and, ultimately, affecting forest production
(Seidl et al. 2017). Increases in temperature, precipitation, and carbon dioxide
change the carbon balance over a more extended period and influence the duration
of the growth season, the composition of the forest, and the water cycle, among
other factors (Vose and Patel-Weynand 2014).
8.6.1 Changes in Nutrient Availability
Rising temperature is anticipated to impact nutrient availability in the soil by

enhancing the breakdown of organic matter and the mineralization of soil nutrients.
There are meaningful connections between soil nitrogen availability and trees
(Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e, f). One of the essential elements in the functioning of
the forest ecosystem is the cycling of nutrients between the soil and plants. Climatic
change reduces plant production and the capacity of forest ecosystems to survive by
limiting the availability of nutrients for plant absorption. The forest ecosystem’s and
net primary productivity’s nutrient availability (Dukes et al. 2014). Organic mate-
rial, such as leaves that have fallen to the forest floor and been broken down by
bacteria, releases nitrogen into the soil.
For plants to grow, develop, and produce protein, there has to be an increase in
nitrogen demand. Yet, as carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere rise, more micro-
organisms become nitrogen-limited and release less nutrients to the trees. The quan-
tity and accessibility of nutrients appear to be what determines how productive the
forest ecosystem is. The rate of photosynthesis, the concentration of macronutrients
in soils, and the leaves of trees, shrubs, and plants are all directly physiologically
impacted by rising temperatures. A temperature rise may result in a decrease in the
availability of nutrients (Juneja et al. 2013).
8.7 Conclusion
It concluded that climate change presents an alarming global challenge to forest

ecosystem functioning, with rising temperatures, atmospheric carbon dioxide lev-
els, and changing precipitation patterns profoundly impacting forest ecosystems.
The disruption of ecosystem services, including essential commodities and pro-
cesses, poses significant new challenges to forests worldwide. Observations indi-
cate notable impacts on species ranges, growth rates, and overall forest structure,
directly influencing tree growth, mortality, and reproductive patterns. With their
intricate ecosystems, natural forests are particularly vulnerable, leading to tree
growth and sapling establishment alterations. Moreover, climate change exacer-
bates drought, wildfires, and insect disturbances, resulting in increased carbon diox-
ide concentrations and the potential transformation of carbon sinks into sources.
Forest fires cause direct habitat loss and harm to plant and animal populations, while
invasive species colonization poses additional threats to forest ecosystems and the
economy. Fluctuations in temperature and precipitation patterns further impact for-
est health and characteristics, potentially altering soil pest and disease dynamics
and nutrient availability. Active management of forest ecosystems is crucial to
enhance their composition, functionality, diversity of tree species, and resilience to
climate change. Community awareness initiatives focusing on successful forest
conservation, reforestation, and afforestation may play a vital role in mitigating the
impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems. Overall, it is advocated that

addressing these challenges requires interdisciplinary collaboration and proactive
measures to safeguard the ecosystem services provided by forests to both humanity
and the environment in the face of global climate change.
References
Albaugh TJ, Vance ED, Gaudreault C, Fox TR, Allen HL, Stape JL, Rubilar RA (2012) Carbon
emissions and sequestration from fertilization of pine in the southeastern United States. For
Sci 58(5):419–429
Allen CD, Breshears DD, McDowell NG (2015) On underestimation of global vulnerability to
tree mortality and forest die-off from hotter drought in the anthropocene. Ecosphere 6(8):1–55
Anderegg WR, Hicke JA, Fisher RA, Allen CD, Aukema J, Bentz B, Hood S, Lichstein JW,
Macalady AK, McDowell N, Pan Y, Raffa K, Anna Sala A, Shaw JD, Stephenson NL, Tague
C, Zeppel M (2015) Tree mortality from drought, insects, and their interactions in a changing
climate. New Phytol 208(3):674–683
Arnold K, Nilsson M, Hånell B, Weslien P, Klemedtsson L (2005) Fluxes of CO2, CH4, and N2O
from drained organic soils in deciduous forests. Soil Biol Biochem 37(6):1059–1071
Battles JJ, Robards T, Das A, Waring K, Gilless JK, Biging G, Schurr F (2008) Climate change
impacts on forest growth and tree mortality: a data-driven modeling study in the mixed-conifer
forest of the Sierra Nevada, California. Clim Change 87:193–213
on the future of biodiversity. Ecol Lett 15(4):365–377
Bergengren JC, Waliser DE, Yung YL (2011) Ecological sensitivity: a biospheric view of climate
change. Clim Change 107:433–457
Bertrand R, Lenoir J, Piedallu C, Riofrío-Dillon G, De Ruffray P, Vidal C, Pierra J, Gégout JC
(2011) Changes in plant community composition lag behind climate warming in lowland for-
ests. Nature 479(7374):517–520
Brown JR, Blankinship JC, Niboyet A, van Groenigen KJ, Dijkstra P, Le Roux X, Leadley
PW, Hungate BA (2012) Effects of multiple global change treatments on soil N2O fluxes.
Biogeochemistry 109:85–100
Brumme R, Borken W, Finke S (1999) Hierarchical control on nitrous oxide emission in forest
ecosystems. Glob Biogeochem Cycles 13(4):1137–1148
Brzostek ER, Dragoni D, Schmid HP, Rahman AF, Sims D, Wayson CA, Jhonson DJ, Phillips RP
forests. Glob Chang Biol 20(8):2531–2539
Chakraborty A, Saha S, Sachdeva K, Joshi PK (2018) Vulnerability of forests in the Himalayan
region to climate change impacts and anthropogenic disturbances: a systematic review. Reg
Environ Chang 18:1783–1799
Chen HY, Luo Y (2015) Net aboveground biomass declines of four major forest types with
forest ageing and climate change in western Canada’s boreal forests. Glob Chang Biol
21(10):3675–3684
Chen HY, Luo Y, Reich PB, Searle EB, Biswas SR (2016) Climate change-associated trends
in net biomass change are age dependent in western boreal forests of Canada. Ecol Lett
19(9):1150–1158
Coomes DA, Flores O, Holdaway R, Jucker T, Lines ER, Vanderwel MC (2014) Wood production
response to climate change will depend critically on forest composition and structure. Glob
Chang Biol 20(12):3632–3645
Davidson EA (2009) The contribution of manure and fertilizer nitrogen to atmospheric nitrous
oxide since 1860. Nat Geosci 2(9):659–662
Dawson TP, Jackson ST, House JI, Prentice IC, Mace GM (2011) Beyond predictions: biodiversity
conservation in a changing climate. Science 332(6025):53–58
Delgado-Baquerizo M, Reich PB, Khachane AN, Campbell CD, Thomas N, Freitag TE, Al-Soud
WA, Sørensen S, Bardget RD, Singh BK (2017) It is elemental: soil nutrient stoichiometry
drives bacterial diversity. Environ Microbiol 19(3):1176–1188
29(2):451–457
Dukes JS, Classen AT, Wan S, Langley JA (2014) Using results from global change experiments to
inform land model development and calibration. New Phytol 204(4):744–746
Dutaur L, Verchot LV (2007) A global inventory of the soil CH4 sink. Glob Biogeochem Cycles
21(4):GB4013
Ekhuemelo DO, Amonum JI, Usman IA (2016) Importance of forest and trees in sustaining water
supply and rainfall. Nigeria J Educ Health Technol Res 8(1):11
Finzi AC, Austin AT, Cleland EE, Frey SD, Houlton BZ, Wallenstein MD (2011) Responses and
feedbacks of coupled biogeochemical cycles to climate change: examples from terrestrial eco-
systems. Front Ecol Environ 9(1):61–67
Fischer AP (2018) Forest landscapes as social-ecological systems and implications for manage-
ment. Landsc Urban Plan 177:138–147
Garten CT, Classen AT, Norby RJ (2009) Soil moisture surpasses elevated CO2 and temperature
as a control on soil carbon dynamics in a multi-factor climate change experiment. Plant Soil
319:85–94
Gebeyehu MN, Hirpo FH (2019) Review on effect of climate change on forest ecosystem. Int J
Environ Sci Nat Resourc 17(4):126–129
González DA, Blanco JA, Imbert JB, Guan BT, Lo Y, Castillo FJ (2019) ENSO and NAO affect
long-term leaf litter dynamics and stoichiometry of scots pine and European beech mixed-
woods. Glob Chang Biol 25(9):3070–3090
Gundersen P, Schmidt IK, Raulund-Rasmussen K (2006) Leaching of nitrate from temperate for-
ests effects of air pollution and forest management. Environ Rev 14(1):1–57
145(6):509–515
Harrison SP, Gornish ES, Copeland S (2015) Climate-driven diversity loss in a grassland commu-
nity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 112(28):8672–8677
Hartmann H, Adams HD, Anderegg WR, Jansen S, Zeppel MJ (2015) Research frontiers in
drought-induced tree mortality: crossing scales and disciplines. New Phytol 205:965–969
Hellmann JJ, Byers JE, Bierwagen BG, Dukes JS (2008) Five potential consequences of climate
change for invasive species. Conserv Biol 22(3):534–543
Houlton BZ, Sigman DM, Hedin LO (2006) Isotopic evidence for large gaseous nitrogen losses
from tropical rainforests. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103(23):8745–8750
IPCC (2018) Global warming of 1.5° C. Summary for policymakers. Contribution of working
groups I, II and III to the 48th session of the IPCC. IPCC, Geneva
IPCC (2022) Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Summary for policymakers. IPCC, Geneva

Juneja A, Ceballos RM, Murthy GS (2013) Effects of environmental factors and nutrient avail-
ability on the biochemical composition of algae for biofuels production: a review. Energies
6(9):4607–4638
Körner C (2017) A matter of tree longevity. Science 355(6321):130–131
Kumar N, Jeena N, Singh H (2019a) Elevated temperature modulates rice pollen structure: a study
from the foothill of the Himalayan agro-ecosystem in India. 3 Biotech 9(5):175. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s13205-019-1700-1
Kumar M, Singh H, Pandey R, Singh MP, Ravindranath NH, Kalra N (2019b) Assessing vulner-
ability of forest ecosystem in the Indian Western Himalayan region using trends of net primary
productivity. Biodivers Conserv 28:2163–2182
Kumar A, Dwivedi GK, Tewari S, Jaipaul, Sah VK, Singh H, Kumar P, Kumar N, Kausal R
(2020b) Soil organic carbon pools under Terminalia chebula Retz. based agroforestry sys-
tem in Himalayan foothills, India. Curr Sci 118:1098–1103. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v118/
i7/1098-1103
Kumar P, Singh R, Singh H, Chand T, Bala N (2020d) Assessment of soil carbon dioxide efflux and
Kumar N, Kumar A, Jeena N, Singh R, Singh H (2020e) Factors influencing soil ecosystem and
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021a) Adaptation and mitigation potential of roadside
trees with bio-extraction of heavy metals under vehicular emissions and their impact on physi-
ological traits during seasonal regimes. Urban Forestry Urban Greening 58:126900. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
49(1):38–44
Kumar A, Tewari S, Singh H, Kumar P, Kumar N, Bisth S, Kushwah S, Nidhi, Kaushal R

(2021e) Biomass accumulation and carbon stocks in different agro forestry system prevalent
in Himalayan foothills, India. Curr Sci 120(6):1083–1188. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v120/
i6/1083-1088
Kumar N, Jeena N, Kumar A, Khairakpan R, Singh H (2021f) Comparative response of rice culti-
Lasco RD, Pulhin FB, Sanchez PAJ, Villamor GB, Villegas KAL (2008) Climate change and forest
ecosystems in the Philippines: vulnerability, adaptation and mitigation. J Environ Sci Manag
11(1):1–14
Law B (2013) Nitrogen deposition and forest carbon. Nature 496(7445):307–308
Lewis SL, Brando PM, Phillips OL, Van Der Heijden GM, Nepstad D (2011) The 2010 Amazon
drought. Science 331(6017):554–554
Macpherson MF, Kleczkowski A, Healey JR, Quine CP, Hanley N (2017) The effects of invasive
pests and pathogens on strategies for forest diversification. Ecol Model 350:87–99
management. In: Forest resources resilience and conflicts. Academic. https://doi.org/10.1016/
B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
Masroor M, Rehman S, Sajjad H, Rahaman MH, Sahana M, Ahmed R, Singh R (2021) Assessing
the impact of drought conditions on groundwater potential in Godavari Middle Sub-Basin,
India using analytical hierarchy process and random forest machine learning algorithm.
Groundw Sustain Dev 13:100554
Moore B, Allard G (2008) Climate change impacts on forest health. Forest health and biosecurity
working papers FBS/34E, p 39
Muller EU, Kushlin AV, Linhares-Juvenal T, Muchoney D, Wertz-Kanounnikoff S, Henderson-
Howat D (2018) The state of the world’s forests: forest pathways to sustainable development.
FAO, Rome
Nautiyal S, Singh H, Kamboj S, Kumar A, Panwar VP, Bala N (2022) Carbon regulating ser-
vices of a 30-year-old reclaimed limestone mine area in foothills of Himalaya. Indian Forester
Paoletti E, Bytnerowicz A, Andersen C, Augustaitis A, Ferretti M, Grulke N, Günthardt-Goerg
MS, John Innes J, Johnson D, Karnosky D, Luangjame J, Matyssek R, McNulty S, Müller-
Starck G, Musselman R, Percy K (2007) Impacts of air pollution and climate change on forest
ecosystems—emerging research needs. Sci World J 7:1–8
Pauli H, Gottfried M, Dullinger S, Abdaladze O, Akhalkatsi M, Alonso JLB, Coldea G, Dick
J, Erschbamer B, Calzado RF, Ghosn D, Holten JI, Kanka R, Kazakis G, Kollár J, Larsson
P, Moiseev P, Moiseev D, Molau U, Mesa JM, Nagy L, Pelino G, Puşcaş M, Rossi G,
Stanisci A, Syverhuset AO, Theurillat J, Tomaselli M, Unterluggauer P, Villar L, Vittoz P,
Grabherr G (2012) Recent plant diversity changes on Europe’s mountain summits. Science
336(6079):353–355
Peñuelas J, Poulter B, Sardans J, Ciais P, Van Der Velde M, Bopp L, Boucher O, Godderis Y,
Hinsinger P, Llusia J, Nardin E, Vicca S, Obersteiner M, Janssens IA (2013) Human-induced
nitrogen–phosphorus imbalances alter natural and managed ecosystems across the globe. Nat
Commun 4(1):2934
org/10.36808/if/2020/v146i2/151208
Reich PB, Tjoelker MG, Pregitzer KS, Wright IJ, Oleksyn J, Machado JL (2008) Scaling of res-
piration to nitrogen in leaves, stems and roots of higher land plants. Ecol Lett 11(8):793–801
Rustad LE, Campbell J, Dukes JS, Huntington T, Lambert KF, Mohan J, Rodenhouse N (2012)
Changing climate, changing forests: the impacts of climate change on forests of the north-
eastern United States and eastern Canada. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Northern Research Station, Newtown Square, p 49
Sardans J, Rivas-Ubach A, Estiarte M, Ogaya R, Peñuelas J (2013) Field-simulated droughts
affect elemental leaf stoichiometry in Mediterranean forests and shrublands. Acta Oecologica
50:20–31
Sardans J, Grau O, Chen HY, Janssens IA, Ciais P, Piao S, Peñuelas J (2017) Changes in nutri-
ent concentrations of leaves and roots in response to global change factors. Glob Chang Biol
23(9):3849–3856
Schlesinger WH, Bernhardt ES (2013) Biogeochemistry: an analysis of global change. Academic
Searle EB, Chen HY (2017) Persistent and pervasive compositional shifts of western boreal forest
plots in Canada. Glob Chang Biol 23(2):857–866
Seidl R, Thom D, Kautz M, Martin-Benito D, Peltoniemi M, Vacchiano G, Wild J, Ascoli D, Petr
M, Honkaniemi J, Lexer MJ, Trotsiuk V, Mairota P, Svoboda M, Fabrika M, Nagel TA, Reyer
CP (2017) Forest disturbances under climate change. Nat Clim Chang 7(6):395–402
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
Singh H, Verma A (2013) Characterization and screening of high nitrogen efficient rice genotype
to curtail environmental pollution. Int J Agric Environ Biotechnol 6(1):23–30
Sterner RW, Elser JJ (2003) Ecological stoichiometry: the biology of elements from molecules to
the biosphere. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Suzuki SN, Ishihara MI, Hidaka A (2015) Regional-scale directional changes in abundance of tree
species along a temperature gradient in Japan. Glob Chang Biol 21(9):3436–3444
Thuiller W, Lavorel S, Araújo MB, Sykes MT, Prentice IC (2005) Climate change threats to plant
diversity in Europe. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102(23):8245–8250
Tubiello FN, Salvatore M, Rossi S, Ferrara A, Fitton N, Smith P (2013) The FAOSTAT database of
greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Environ Res Lett 8(1):015009
Tyree M, Seiler J, Maier C (2013) Site-specific forest management: matching genotypes and
silviculture to optimize carbon sequestration. In: Proceedings of the 15th biennial Southern
Silvicultural Research Conference-Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-GTR-175. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Asheville, pp 343–348
USEPA (2012) Inventory of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions and sinks: 1990-2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/
Downloads/ghgemissions/US-GHG-Inventory-2012-Main-Text.pdf
Van Lierop P, Lindquist E, Sathyapala S, Franceschini G (2015) Global forest area disturbance
from fire, insect pests, diseases and severe weather events. For Ecol Manag 352:78–88
Veldkamp E, Koehler B, Corre MD (2013) Indications of nitrogen-limited methane uptake in tropi-
cal forest soils. Biogeosciences 10(8):5367–5379
brassinosteroid signalling: understanding brassinosteroids mediated stress responses through
Vose JM, Patel-Weynand T (2014) In: Peterson DL (ed) Climate change and United States forests,
vol 57. Springer, Dordrecht
Wan JZ, Wang CJ, Qu H, Liu R, Zhang ZX (2018) Vulnerability of forest vegetation to anthropo-
genic climate change in China. Sci Total Environ 621:1633–1641
Yadav SK, Singh H, Ginwal HS, Barthwal S (2019) Elevated CO2 enhanced growth and physi-
Yang X, Thornton PE, Ricciuto DM, Post WM (2014) The role of phosphorus dynamics in tropical
forests—a modeling study using CLM-CNP. Biogeosciences 11(6):1667–1681
Yang Q, Zhang H, Peng W, Lan Y, Luo S, Shao J, Chen D, Wang G (2019) Assessing climate
impact on forest cover in areas undergoing substantial land cover change using Landsat imag-
ery. Sci Total Environ 659:732–745
Yuan ZY, Chen HY (2015) Negative effects of fertilization on plant nutrient resorption. Ecology
96(2):373–380
Zechmeister-Boltenstern S, Keiblinger KM, Mooshammer M, Peñuelas J, Richter A, Sardans J,
Wanek W (2015) The application of ecological stoichiometry to plant–microbial–soil organic
matter transformations. Ecol Monogr 85(2):133–155
Zhang W, Mo J, Yu G, Fang Y, Li D, Lu X, Wang H (2008) Emissions of nitrous oxide from
three tropical forests in southern China in response to simulated nitrogen deposition. Plant Soil
306:221–236
Chapter 9
Climate-Induced Adaptations in Gluta
travancorica Bedd.: A Case Study
from the Western Ghats Kerala, India
After 25 Years
P. A. Jose, K. Anuraj, and S. Praveena
Abstract The Western Ghats of India are experiencing long periods of warming
and drying, affecting threatened plant species endemic to this area. These species
show adaptability to climate shifts through the timing of anthesis, flowering changes,
fruit senescence, and incidence of new pollinators. This study focuses on Gluta
travancorica Bedd. (Anacardiaceae), an endemic and threatened tree species occurs
in the evergreen and shola forests of the southern Western Ghats, India. The drying
of annual streams within the shola forests, combined with arid soil conditions result-
ing from insufficient summer showers, disrupts the synchronization of microcli-
mates crucial for optimal flowering. This condition also affected the natural
regeneration due to the recalcitrant behaviour of the seeds. Consequently, there was
a noticeable shift towards delayed and extended flowering, with subsequent fruit
aging aligning with the onset of the southwest monsoon, a strategy adapted to facili-
tate seed germination by the species. A notable adaptive response identified is the
occurrence of vivipary, a rare phenomenon in non-viviparous G. travancorica,
which is considered a genetic adaptive strategy reflecting environmental challenges
in the degraded shola ecosystems as its allied species are habituated in peat swamps
and tidal rivers of Malayan peninsula. The shift in anthesis timing from night to
daytime, extended stigma receptivity period, and new insect incidence were recorded
and treated as a biological adaptation to increase insect interactions and enhance the
reproductive efficiency of the species. The study’s findings highlight the adaptations
developed by G. travancorica as part of resilience to changing climate and micro-
habitat conditions in the shola forest ecosystems of Western Ghats, Kerala.
Keywords Adaptations · Endemic and threatened trees · Western Ghats Kerala,

India · Climate change · Resilience
P. A. Jose (*) · K. Anuraj · S. Praveena

Sustainable Forest Management Division, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, India
Ltd. 2024
188 P. A. Jose et al.
9.1 Introduction
Western Ghats India has been recognized under 36 biodiversity hotspots, eight hot-
test biodiversity hotspots, besides being ranked ten biogeographic regions in India
(Aravind et al. 2007; Merritt et al. 2019). The tropical wet evergreen forests, as the
major vegetation types occupied across the globe, are mostly confined to the Western
Ghats (Champion and Seth 1968). This forested area has to its credit 7402 flowering
plants, among which 5588 plants are indigenous to the region. Among the indige-
nous flora, 40% are endemic to the region (Nayar et al. 2014). These forests have
been stressed by long-term regional warming, and drying trends intensified due to
erratic weather conditions found to influence the habitat-specific endemic and
threatened trees, more precisely, their functional dynamics of the species.
During the last century, the forested biomes of the Western Ghats have experi-
enced heavy disturbances in terms of human interventions such as encroachments,
denudation of vegetation, or their thinning out to sparse covers. Climate change-
induced threats were identified as major physical constraints, accelerating faster
than ever. The forest cover of the Ghats has been reduced to less than 10% of its
original extent; consequently, the mutilation of natural habitats has become the pri-
mary cause of the reduction of endemic species. The region is also treated as a
threatened biodiversity hotspot, as climate change and deforestation are expected to
strongly affect rainforest cover and composition. According to Munoz et al. (2021),
in the absence of any action, the rainforest would disappear from the area by 2070
through a massive extinction. In addition, climate change can enhance species rarity
and the extinction risk of endemic trees that are specialized to specific rainfall
regimes related to monsoons. The change in microclimatic conditions experienced
due to the loss of forest cover has altered the natural dynamics of many species.
Considering the adverse impacts of weather change, tree populations undergo
various levels of adaptation. Firstly, species may seek more favorable environments,
underscoring the critical role of dispersal ability. Secondly, genetic adaptation to
new conditions in current locations may occur. Thirdly, trees may endure by accli-
mating to changing climates through phenotypic plasticity, where the same genetic
makeup can result in different physical characteristics. It is evident that climate
change significantly influences the population dynamics of species, leading to shifts
in the timing of critical biological events, alterations in reproductive processes, and
subsequent changes in ecological interactions. The adaptive strategies developed by
these species, such as shifts in reproductive timing, extended flowering periods,
senescence of fruits, and interactions with new pollinators, can be seen as manifes-
tations of their resilience to climate-induced disruptions.
Most biological constraints leading to the untimely endangerment of species
stem from erratic climatic conditions that existed over time in their microhabitats.
Even though the climate change process is slow in momentum, its repercussions on
biodiversity are faster. Long-term monitoring of the dynamics of tree populations
compared with past data can demonstrate the impulses on species and their micro-
habitats to develop suitable mitigation strategies in changing climate. A study on
9 Climate-Induced Adaptations in Gluta travancorica Bedd.: A Case Study… 189
population dynamics is an ideal tool for assessing climate change among plants.
The inter-annual variations in climatic conditions and interactions of biotic com-
munities, mainly by the insects and fruit dispersers, could make tree population
dynamics of great importance in addressing critical questions related to global mod-
elling, monitoring, and climate change (Singh et al. 2023). The insect-bird-animal
interactions are crucial in determining the biological events of pollination and dis-
persal apart from ecological adaptations.
The changing weather factors have significant consequences on the population
dynamics of species. The consequences are reflected in delay or advancement in
phenophases, changes in reproductive biology, and subsequent records of biotic
interactions. For the past few decades, studies have quantified the extent to which
phenophases in plants are responding to local changes in temperature and rainfall.
In the Indian subcontinent, most phenological studies concentrated on the phenol-
ogy of dry tropical forests. Only a few studies have been conducted on wet ever-
green forests (Menon 1993; Kannan 1994). The knowledge of mid-elevation forests
harboring many endemic flora and fauna is extremely limited (Henry et al. 1982).
According to the IPCC, roughly 20–30% of vascular plants are estimated to be at an
increasingly high risk of extinction as per the predicted rise in temperature above
the preindustrial levels (2–3 °C) (Fischlin et al. 2009). The phenology is a relevant
tool for assessing the influence of erratic weather changes on ecosystems (IPCC
2014). Even small climate changes would affect the phenological events such as
flowering and fruiting, which may significantly impact forest biodiversity.
This study re-examines the functional dynamics, specifically the phenology,
reproductive biology, and biotic interactions, of the Indian Red Wood tree, Gluta
travancorica (Anacardiaceae), an endemic and threatened species of the southern
Western Ghats, after 25 years in the previously studied habitats in light of erratic
climate change and climate-induced habitat threat factors. This is achieved by com-
paring temporal data gathered between 1996 and 1998 with datasets from the cur-
rent study conducted between 2019 and 2021, aiming to unravel the adaptations that
have evolved as part of the tree’s resilience to changing environmental conditions.
9.2 Target Species
Gluta travancorica Bedd., commonly known as Indian Red Wood, belongs to the
family Anacardiaceae. It is endemic to Travancore, Kerala, and neighboring Tamil
Nadu (Tirunelveli) areas in the southern Western Ghats of Peninsular India. Its habi-
tat encompasses dense, moist forests in evergreen and shola forests at elevations
between 400 and 1200 m above sea level (Jose 2001). In evergreen forests, it reaches
a height of 35–40 m along with a girth at breast height (GBH) up to 3.5 m, while in
shola forest habitats, it attains a more modest stature of 12–14 m and up to 1.25 m
in height and girth respectively. The timber has been reported for high durability
and appealing reddish heartwood, making it a sought-after resource for shipbuild-
ing, furniture crafting, turning, and carving (Anonymous 1956). Due to its
economic value and exclusive endemic status, species have been prioritized for con-
servation. (Anonymous 1991; World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1998). As of
assessments conducted by the IUCN (1998), G. travancorica is categorized under
the “Near Threatened” category.
9.3 Study Site
The study focused on the Ponmudi shola forests of Kerala, part of the Western
Ghats. The Ponmudi forests are situated between 8.7685 N latitude and 77.109 E
longitude and 1004 m asl in the Thiruvananthapuram district (Fig. 9.1).
9.4 Sampling Details
A total of 12 individuals of the species, exhibiting a range of 30–100 cm in girth at

breast height (GBH) and a height between 5–10 m, were monitored to gather phe-
nological data.
9.4.1 Phenology
We documented the phenological events at intervals of 15 days. Each chosen indi-

vidual was identified with acrylic paint, marking four main branches (one in each
cardinal direction) and tagging 5–6 secondary branches for ongoing monitoring.
The vegetative and reproductive phenophases were monitored and recorded with
binoculars (Broadhead et al. 2003; Sundarapandian et al. 2005).
9.4.2 Reproductive Biology
The study involved various aspects of floral biology. This included quantifying the
number of inflorescences per tree and the count of flowers per inflorescence.
Anthesis was recorded daily from mature floral buds of the inflorescences. From
each tree, five twigs were marked to count the opened flowers at a time interval of
1 h. on a single day. Further, we recorded the number of anthers per flower, the
ovules per ovary, the pollen-ovule ratio, pollen viability, etc. The average ovule
count was calculated by dissecting 20 flowers under a stereomicroscope. To esti-
mate the number of pollen grains per flower, three anthers were taken from five
flowers, and they were individually processed using a distilled water solution,
Fig. 9.1 Western Ghats of Kerala showing the study site

following established protocols (Shivanna and Rangaswamy 1992; Cruden 1977;

Sreekala et al. 2008; Jose and Pandurangan 2013).
9.4.3 Biotic Interactions
The vegetative phenology was monitored and recorded for flushing and herbivore
incidence at 15 days intervals, as described in the study by Murali and Sukumar
(1993). Insects that engaged in browsing activities during the peak flowering period
were monitored and categorized into pollinators (those making frequent visits) and
casual visitors (those visiting occasionally) following the methodology outlined by
Bawa and Hadley (1990). The behaviour of various predators about fruit/seed pre-
dation during the fruiting season was recorded using a high-resolution binocular, as
detailed in the work of Ganesh and Davidar (2005).
9.4.4 Climate
The climatological data of the study sites covering atmosphere temperature (day
and night—°C) and atmospheric humidity (day and night—%), and rainfall (mm)
falls in the flowering period (January–March) were sourced from nearby climate
stations. The average values of the respective period were presented (Jose 2001;
Chandrasekara 2004).
9.5 Temporal Analysis
9.5.1 Phenology
The phenology of the species was compared with past flowering periods to assess
the impact of climate change accurately. In the past, leaf flushing and flower bud
initiation were recorded starting in January, reaching peak flowering from February
to March (Table 9.1). It was noted that the warm-humid atmospheric conditions in
January, including summer showers (366.66 mm), relative humidity (day 70%;
night 85%), and atmospheric temperature (day 27 °C; night 20.66 °C), were found
optimum for flower bud initiation (Table 9.1). Ripe fruit senescence occurred from
December to January, spanning an 11-month fruit ripening period. Individual trees
rarely showed flowering in September–October, followed by fruit senescence in
July–August. Two fruiting episodes occurred during February–March (summer)
and July–August (monsoon), with corresponding regeneration. Despite these obser-
vations, the high degree of disturbances in habitats posed challenges to seedling
9
Table 9.1 Temporal analysis of various phenological events

Month
Climatic data duration Phenophage January February March April May June July August September October November December
Past data (1996–1998) Flushing √
Flowering √ √ √
Fruit √
Senescence √
Present data (2019–2021) Flushing √ √
Flowering √ √ √ √
Fruit
Senescence √ √ √
√ indicates occurrence of phenological events
Climate-Induced Adaptations in Gluta travancorica Bedd.: A Case Study…
193
Fig. 9.2 Temporal analysis: Climate data
survival (Jose 2001). Evident from these observations, the incidence of vivipary was
rarely noted among one population member during August.
In the present study period, phenophases were delayed by one month. Flushing
and flower bud initiation were recorded from February, reaching peak flowering in
March and extending into May. Fruit senescence occurred from March to May.
Weather factors such as reduced summer showers (325.88 mm), lower humidity
(day 65%; night 75%), and temperature variations (day 27.75 °C; night 21.17 °C)
were recorded (Fig. 9.2). Additionally, significant microhabitat changes, including
the drying of streams and anthropogenic interventions, were observed during the
present study period.
9.5.2 Reproductive Biology
In the past, the flowering process, or anthesis, was typically observed during night
time hours. Blooming commenced around 8:00 p.m. and continued until 8:00 a.m.,
with the peak anthesis occurring from 10:00 p.m. to 1:00 a.m. Stigma receptivity
lasted for 12–14 h. Pollen-ovule analysis indicated a ratio of 32,500:1 and high pol-
len fertility at 98%. However, despite the substantial number of flowers (3 lakh),
only 0.2% led to actual fruit production, with an average of 600 fruits per tree. The
current investigation highlights a significant shift in anthesis timing to the morning
between 9:00 a.m. and 12:30 p.m. Stigma receptivity has been extended by 2 h,
from 14 to 16 h. Additionally, there is a slight reduction in the pollen: ovule ratio
(31,200:1) and pollen fertility (91.1%), as detailed in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2 Temporal analysis: reproductive biology

P:O Pollen fertility Stigma receptivity
Past/present data Anthesis ratio (%) (h)
Past data (1996–1998) 10 p.m.–1 a.m. 32,500:1 98 12–14
Present data 9 a.m.–12.30 31,200:1 91.1 14–16
(2019–2021) p.m.
9.5.3 Biotic Interactions
Record of an additional pollinator, namely the wasp (Vespa cincta), was identified
in comparison to previously identified pollinators, including honeybees (Apis sp.),
beetles (Mimela sp.), ants (Camponotus sp.) and butterflies.
9.5.4 Climate
Climate data from the earlier study period (1996–1998) was juxtaposed with the
present study period (2019–2021). The current dataset is presented as average val-
ues of the respective period. The climate conditions of the past and present periods
exhibit discernible differences. Presently, there is a slight rise in both day and night
temperatures, 27–27.75 °C during the day and 20.66–21.17 °C at night. Conversely,
humidity levels have decreased, dropping from 70 to 65% during the day and from
85 to 75% at night. Additionally, the rainfall has decreased from 366.66 mm in the
past to 325.88 mm presently.
9.6 Insights into the Adaptive Strategies Evolved by

Gluta travancorica
The long-term data (1901–2000) on atmospheric temperature demonstrates a sig-

nificant increasing trend in atmospheric temperature with a steep increase during
1980–2000. According to IMD (2019) and (2020), annual mean surface air tem-
perature is considerably increased to +0.29 °C, and +0.36 °C, respectively, from
normal values. Parmesan and Yohe (2003) and Parmesan (2007) noticed shifts to
earlier flowering and climate warming. The studies conducted by Alvim and De
(1966), Scholes et al. (2015), and Lawson and Rands (2019), reported the signifi-
cant effect of rainfall and temperature on flowering.
The temporal climatic data reveal that erratic weather conditions, such as a
reduction in rainfall, atmospheric humidity, and an increase in temperature in situ,
have played a critical role in the phenophases of the species. The changes in the
microhabitat of shola forests have supplemented the altered phenology of the spe-
cies. The shola forests of Western Ghats are considered one of the finest ecosystems
in tropical forests, where the microclimate and habitat are optimum for its unique
biodiversity. The climatic and edaphic conditions are quite stable for the rhythmic
growth of the mountain/hill flora. The summer showers obtained in the past have led
to stable water flow throughout the year in the streams flowing inside sholas, which
subsequently maintained an increased humidity level, optimizing flower bud trig-
gering and subsequent natural seed regeneration. It is reported that fruit ripeness
positively correlated with rainfall, ensuring sufficient soil moisture for seed germi-
nation and seedling establishment (Sundarapandian et al. 2005). Jose (2001)
reported that the summer showers experienced during February–March triggered
gregarious flower bud initiation in the endemic tree, Ochreinauclea missionis.
The irregularity in rainfall patterns and decreased summer showers due to cli-
mate change have led to the arrest of water flow and soil drying, resulting in poor
natural regeneration as the seeds are sensitive to drying conditions. The delayed and
extended flowering behaviour could be treated as an ecological adaptation to enable
seed germination/seedling regeneration at the onset of South West monsoon months.
As per Borchert (1983), Van Schaik et al. (1993), and Diaz and Granadillo (2005),
the flowering phenology is more sensitive to seasonal rainfall and atmospheric tem-
perature. The unfavorable climatic conditions persist over time, leading to the evo-
lution of climate-resilient strategies in the form of delayed and extended flowering,
and the rare occurrence of viviparous behaviour, despite G. travancorica being a
non-viviparous and non-mangrove species of the Western Ghats.
The genus Gluta comprises approximately 30 species, primarily found in Asia,
with the majority inhabiting the Malayan Peninsula, such as Borneo, Sumatra,
Burma, Thailand, and Malaysia. While most species are concentrated in these
regions, individual occurrences have been noted in North Australia (New Guinea),
India (Western Ghats), and South Africa (Madagascar) (Van Steenis 1978). In India,
G. travancorica is the sole reported species in Western Ghats. The distribution pat-
tern of Gluta species across different continents suggests that the geological separa-
tion of landmasses and subsequent drift played a role in their vicariance. Geological
changes over time result in prolonged geographic isolation, leading to limited dis-
tribution and a narrowed gene pool for species. Consequently, altered environments
contribute to the loss of original adaptations, hindering opportunities for adaptive
radiation and the evolution of new pathways (Nayar 1980). The major stock of the
genus Gluta in Southeast Asia is confined to peat swamps, marshy places, tidal riv-
ers, and brackish to riverain forests, where viviparous seed germination is of definite
adaptive significance in the saline or aquatic environment. G. travancorica, having
derived from the very same stock, rarely shows vivipary, indicating its ancient rela-
tionship to the Malaysian species (Jose and Pandurangan 2013). The reflection of
vivipary in G.travancorica could be a genetically adaptive strategy of the species to
ensure its progenies in the harsh and degrading ecological niches similar to a man-
grove where the allied ten species of the genera are ecologically placed in the peat-
swamps, marshy places in the peninsular region of Malaya. The expression of
vivipary is a part of the species’ resilience towards changing climate in the highly
disrupted sholas.
The reproductive biological studies revealed marked variations when compared

to the past data of the species. Major changes were noted in anthesis time, stigma
receptivity period and pollen count of the species. The changes in rainfall patterns
could affect pollen degradation and transfer, thereby hindering the reproductive
efforts in many flowering plants (Corbet and Plumridge 1985; Jacquemart 1996;
Burke 2002; Sun et al. 2008). Hedhly et al. (2003) stated that increased temperature
hurts pollen germination and stigma receptivity. Most of the target species studied
have shown blooming/anthesis during evening hours, resulting in an extended
receptivity period. Based on the studies by Opler et al. (1976), the anthesis of tropi-
cal trees primarily depends on the rainfall. As per Gradziel and Weinbaum (1999),
the increased relative humidity reduces the anther dehiscence. According to
Williams (1970), the temperature has a significant role in the anthesis and subse-
quent pollen germination of tropical trees. The pollen count and xenogamous nature
of Vateria macrocarpa were reported by Sivaram (2015).
G.travancorica had biological records of peak anthesis from 10 p.m. to 1:00
a.m.; however, a shift in anthesis from night to morning hours was recorded during
the present study. The change in anthesis time is a biological adaptation of species
to facilitate more insect pollinators during the day time and subsequent increase in
reproductive efficiency, as the species recorded at 0.2%. The present study recorded
additional biotic incidence apart from the past data. The record of wasps being
found to be new insect pollinators after the shift in anthesis time supported the pol-
lination rate. The temporal change in flowering phenology is reported to alter biotic
interactions among plants (Liu et al. 2011; Marie and Amy 2022). Kudo and Ida
(2013) studied Corydalis ambigua, and reported that climate warming accelerated
the timing of flowering and insect pollinator emergence. The incidence of flower
visitors was increased due to changes in anthesis time or increased pollengrains as
reported in Knema attenuata, Canarium stictum, and Persea macrantha of southern
Western Ghats (Jose and Sreejith 2022). The shift in anthesis time and increased
pollen count are biological adaptations of a species to facilitate more insect pollina-
tors during the time and subsequently to increase reproductive efficiency. Increased
pollen counts also indicate xenogamy, thereby enhancing cross-pollination
(Rajkumar et al. 2017). The temporal variation in phenology may result from addi-
tional interactions in target spices. Crawley (1992) studied the relationships between
population dynamics and seed predators. Curran and Leighton (2000) studied 54
Dipterocarps and reported variation in seed predators concerning mast fruiting phe-
nology and intraspecific synchrony among the individuals.
9.7 Way Forward
Climate change and climate-induced habitat threats have the most alarming envi-
ronmental implications and affect diverse forest ecosystems at various scales.
Western Ghats, India’s immense plant diversity and specialized habitats are deterio-
rating due to changing climatic conditions and anthropogenic activities. Within the
realm of flora, monotypic taxa are particularly vulnerable to local climate changes,
experiencing isolation from the main distribution and being confined to distinct
niches. Consequently, this isolation leads to a loss of genetic variability, hindered
gene flow, and reduced adaptability.
The Gluta travancorica is no exception. It is separated from the mainland distri-
bution and habituated in the wet evergreen forests and sholas of the Western Ghats
of peninsular India, which have become endemic to the region. In the Kerala region
of the Western Ghats, the species’ populations are significantly declining, primarily
due to poor fruit sets and limited natural regeneration. Pre-reproductive age classes
are notably scarce within their distribution range, and the presence of albino seed-
lings indicates genetic drift. The rare occurrence of viviparous seed germination is
linked to the extensive degradation of microhabitats, mainly stemming from human
activities. The altered flowering phenology, characterized by delayed and extended
flowering, reflects a loss of the optimal microclimate for flowering, with consequen-
tial changes in reproductive biological functions.
Despite the vulnerabilities to climate change and habitat threats, the species
appears to be evolving adaptive strategies as part of its resilience to ensure the per-
sistence of a minimum viable population in its natural habitat, given concerns about
irregular summer showers and low atmospheric humidity affecting flowering and
natural regeneration. There is a need to consider effective watershed management in
sholas and evergreen niche forest management programmes. Anthropogenic inter-
ventions, such as civil works, have been identified as accelerators of habitat degra-
dation, stand depletion, and the increased risk of forest fires. Strict rules and
regulations are imperative to stop these activities.
In response to these challenges, it is crucial to take action promptly. Harvesting
fruits/seeds from existing viable populations and raising seedlings for species resto-
ration should be prioritized. Additionally, promoting the recruitment of seedlings in
degraded species populations could be a feasible strategy to protect existing popula-
tions and ensure sustainable resource-based utilization for future generations.
9.8 Conclusion
Many of the endemic and endangered trees of the Western Ghats of India are cur-
rently undergoing various stages of the rarity process within their habitats. This
process is primarily attributed to ecological, biological, anthropogenic, and notably
climate-induced habitat factors that have been accelerated and become critical in
recent decades. A few threatened species have been prioritized for study as part of
recovery programmes, focusing on generating data related to ecology, reproductive
biology, genetics, propagation methods, and restoration efforts. However, there is a
notable gap in research concerning the variations in weather factors on these spe-
cies, subsequent rarity processes, and the adaptive strategies they may be develop-
ing. This gap is primarily due to a lack of long-term data on these species. To address
this, understanding the functional dynamics of species at the population level
becomes a valuable tool for assessing the influence of climate change on forest
trees. This approach unveils crucial information about species’ phenology, repro-
ductive biology, and biotic interactions. The pioneering research on Gluta travanco-
rica, an endemic and threatened tree in the southern Western Ghats of India, stands
out as it represents a unique effort in this field. The population dynamics of this
species were thoroughly examined during 1996–1998 and re-evaluated during
2019–2021 in the same habitats. This reassessment considers changing climate sce-
narios and associated microhabitat changes, providing valuable insights into the
adaptive strategies developed by the species in response to environmental shifts.
The delayed and extended phenophases can be interpreted as ecological adapta-
tions that facilitate natural regeneration, overcoming the species’ long-term stress in
the currently thriving degraded shola ecosystems. The rare occurrence of vivipary is
a genetically linked adaptive strategy developed through an evolutionary process to
sustain a minimum number of seedling propagules in the harsh and unfavorable
microhabitat that existed over a long period. Vivipary is an adaptive strategy in most
allied species of G. travancorica habituated in the peat swamps and marshy places
in the Malayan peninsula. The shift in anthesis time from night to day hours and the
extended stigma receptivity period can be considered biological adaptations of the
species to attract more insect pollinators, thereby enhancing the reproductive effi-
ciency of the species.
The temporal analysis of the functional dynamics of G. travancorica in the shola
forests ecosystems of Western Ghats Kerala reveals the species’ sensitivity to cli-
mate change and associated habitat stress factors, further developing adaptive strat-
egies as part of species resilience.
Acknowledgments The authors sincerely thank the former and present Directors of Kerala Forest
Research Institute, Peechi, for their support and provision of facilities during the study. The authors
thank the Department of Biotechnology, New Delhi, for funding, and Kerala Forests and Wildlife
Department, Thiruvananthapuram, for permitting this study in the forests.
References
Alvim P, De T (1966) Factors affecting the flowering of cocoa tree. Cocoa Growers Growers
Bull 7:15–19
Anonymous (1956) The wealth of India (Raw materials), vol 4. CSIR, New Delhi
Anonymous (1991) Recommendations. In: Karunakaran CK (ed) The proceedings of the sympo-
sium on rare, endangered and endemic plants of the Western Ghats. Kerala Forest Department
(Wildlife Wing). Thiruvananthapuram, pp 16–19
Aravind NA, Tambat B, Ravikanth G, Ganeshaiah KN, Shaanker R (2007) Assessment report. In:
Seppälä R, Buck A, Katila P (eds) IUFRO world series, vol. 22. IUFRO, Vienna, p 53–100
Bawa KS, Hadley M (1990) Reproductive ecology of tropical Forest plants. Man and Biosphere
series, UNESCO & Parthenon Publishing Group, UK
Borchert R (1983) Phenology and control of flowering in tropical trees. Biotropica 15:81
Broadhead JS, Ong CK, Black CR (2003) Tree phenology and water availability in semi-arid agro-
forestry systems. For Ecol Manag 180:61–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(02)00602-3
Burke JJ (2002) Moisture sensitivity of cotton pollen: an emasculation tool for hybrid production.
Agron J 94:883–888. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2002.8830
Champion HG, Seth SK (1968) A revised survey of the forest types of India. Manager of
Publications. Government of India, New Delhi
Chandrasekara UM (2004) Assessing vulnerability and climate change impact on the vegetation
structure and composition in wet evergreen and shola forests of Kerala part of the Western
Ghats. Final project report no. 263. Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi
Corbet SA, Plumridge JR (1985) Hydrodynamics and the germination of oil-seedrape pollen. J
Agric Sci 104:445–451. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859600044154
Crawley MJ (1992) Seed predators and plant population dynamics. In: Fenner M (ed) Seeds: ecol-
ogy of regeneration. CABI International, London, pp 157–191
Cruden RW (1977) Pollen–ovule ratios: a conservative indicator of breeding system in flowering
plants. Evolution 31:32–46. https://doi.org/10.2307/2407542
Curran L, Leighton ML (2000) Vertebrate response to spatiotemporal variation in dehiscence in
apricot, peach, and almond. Hort Sci 34(2):322–325
Diaz M, Granadillo E (2005) The significance of episodic rains for reproductive phenology and
productivity in trees in semiarid regions of northwestern Venezuela. Trees 19:336–348. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s00468-004-0405-0
Fischlin A, Ayres M, Karnosky D, Kellomäki S, Louman B, Ong C, Palttner GK, Santoso H,
Thompson I (2009) Future environmental impacts and vulnerabilities. In: Seppälä R, Buck A,
Katila P (eds) Adaptation of forests and people to climate change: a global assessment report.
IUFRO world series, vol 22. IUFRO, Vienna, pp 53–100
Ganesh T, Davidar P (2005) Fruiting phenology and pre-dispersal seed predation in a rainforest in
southern Western Ghats, India. In: Dew L, Boubli JP (eds) Tropical fruits and frugivores: the
search for strong interactors, pp 137–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3833-X_8
Gradziel TM, Weinbaum SA (1999) High relative humidity reduces anther dehiscence in apricot,
peach, and almond. Hort Sci 34(2):322–325. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.34.2.322
Hedhly A, Hormaza J, Herrero M (2003) The effect of temperature on stigmatic receptiv-
ity in sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.). Plant Cell Environ 26:1673–1680. https://doi.
org/10.1046/j.1365-3040.2003.01085.x
Henry AN, Chandrabose M, Swaminathan MS, Nair NC (1982) Agasthymalai and its environs: a
potential area for biosphere reserve. J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 81:282–290
IPCC (2014) Climate change 2014: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part A: global and sec-
toral aspects. In: Field CB, Barros VR, Dokken DJ, Mach KJ, Mastrandrea MD, Bilir TE,
Chatterjee M, Ebi KL, Estrada YO, Genova RC, Girma B, Kissel ES, Levy AN, MacCracken
S, Mastrandrea PR, White LL (eds) Contribution of working group II to the fifth assess-
ment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1132 pp
IUCN (1998) IUCN red list categories and criteria, version 3.1. Gland
Jacquemart AL (1996) Selfing in Narthecium ossifragum (Melanthiaceae). Plant Syst Evol
203:99–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00985240
Jose PA (2001) A study on the population structure, dynamics and conservation of two rare and
endemic trees of Western Ghats of Kerala. Ph.D. thesis, Kerala University, Thiruvananthapuram
Jose PA, Pandurangan AG (2013) Vivipary in Gluta travancorica: its phytogeographic and evo-
lutionary significance. Nelumbo 55:89–93. https://doi.org/10.20324/nelumbo/v55/2013/72985
Jose PA, Sreejith KA (2022) Population dynamics of selected endemic and threatened trees in the
protected areas of Kerala: temporal analysis in the context of climate change. Final project
report no. 620. Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi
Kannan R (1994) Ecology and conservation of the great pied hornbill (Buceros bicornis) in the
Western Ghats of southern India. Ph.D. thesis, University of Arkansas, USA
Kudo G, Ida TY (2013) Early onset of spring increases the phenological mismatch between plants
and pollinators. Ecology 94:2311–2320. https://doi.org/10.1890/12-2003.1
Lawson DA, Rands SA (2019) The effects of rainfall on plant–pollinator interactions. Arthropod
Plant Interact 13:561–569
Liu Y, Reich PB, Li G, Sun S (2011) Shifting phenology and abundance under experimental warm-
ing alters trophic relationships and plant reproductive capacity. Ecology 92:1201–1207. https://
doi.org/10.1890/10-2060.1
Marie NF, Amy MI (2022) Pollinator-mediated reproductive consequences of altered co-
flowering under climate change conditions depend on abiotic context, climate change. Ecology
3:2666–9005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecochg.2021.100043
Menon SA (1993) Ecology and conservation of the endangered lion-tailed Macacque, Macaca
silenus, in the landscape mosaic of Western Ghats. Ph.D. thesis, Ohio State University, USA
Merritt M, Maldaner M, De Almeida A (2019) What are biodiversity hotspots? Front Young Minds
7:29. https://doi.org/10.3389/frym.2019.00029
Munoz F, Estopinan J, Bose R, Pélissier R, Vieilledent G (2021) Future impacts of climate change
and deforestation on endemic trees of Western Ghats, South India. In: On the edge of sixth
extinction in biodiversity hotspots: facts, needs, solutions and opportunities in Thailand and
adjacent countries
Murali KS, Sukumar R (1993) Leaf flushing phenology and herbivory in a tropical dry deciduous
forest, southern India. Oecologia 94:114–119. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00317311
Nayar MP (1980) Endemic flora of peninsular India and its significance. Bull Bot Surv India
22(1–4):12–23
Nayar TS, Beegam A, Sibi M (2014) Flowering plants of the Western Ghats, India, vol 1. Dicots.
https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.4197
Opler PA, Frankie GW, Baker HG (1976) Rainfall as a factor in the release, timing, and syn-
chronization of anthesis by tropical trees and shrubs. J Biogeogr 3:231–236. https://doi.
org/10.2307/3038013
Parmesan C (2007) Influences of species, latitudes and methodologies on estimates of phe-
nological response to global warming. Glob Change Biol 13:1860–1872. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01404.x
natural systems. Nature 421:37–42. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01286
Rajkumar K, Keshavanarayan P, Shubharani R, Sivaram V (2017) Studies on pollen biology and
stigma receptivity of Garcinia imberti Bourd. (Clusiaceae)—a critically endangered tree of
Western Ghats, Kerala. Int J Plant Reprod Biol 9(2):109–114
Scholes B, Scholes M, Lucas M (2015) Climate change briefings from southern Africa. Wits
University Press, Johannesburg
Shivanna KR, Rangaswamy NS (1992) Pollen biology—a laboratory manual. Narosa Publishing
House, New Delhi
Sivaram V (2015) Phenology and reproductive ecology of Vateria macrocarpa B.L. Gupta.
(Dipterocarpaceae)—a critically endangered tree species of Western Ghats, Kerala, India. Int
Adv Biol Res 5(4):402–410
Sreekala AK, Pandurangan AG, Ramasubbu R, Kulloli SK (2008) Reproductive biology of
Impatience coelotropis Fischer, a critically endangered balsam from the Southern Western
Ghats. Curr Sci 95:386–388
Sun J, Gong Y, Renner SS, Huang S (2008) Multifunctional bracts in the DoveTree Davidia invo-
lucrata (Nyssaceae: Cornales): rain protection and pollinator attraction. Am Nat 171:119–124
Sundarapandian S, Chandrasekaran S, Swamy P (2005) Phenological behaviour of selected
tree species in tropical forests at Kodayar in the Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, India. Curr Sci
88:805–810
Van Schaik CP, Terborgh JW, Wright SJ (1993) The phenology of tropical forests: adaptive signifi-
cance and consequences for primary consumers. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 24:353–377. https://
doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.24.110193.002033
Van Steenis CGGJ (1978) Flora Malesiana. ser. I, vol. 8. Part 3. Hou D (ed) Anacardiaceae.
National Herbarium Nederland. Sijthoff & Noordhoff lnternational Publishers, Alphen van der
Rijn. Vol. 1. Dicots, pp 395–548. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.4197
Williams RR (1970) Factors affecting pollination in fruit trees. In: Luckwill LC, Cutting CV (eds)
Physiology of tree crops. Academic, London, pp 193–207
World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1998) Gluta travancorica. The IUCN redlist of threatened
species, 1998. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.1998.RLTS.T38744A10147323.en
Chapter 10
Climate-Change Effects and Bud
Phenology in Trees: Insights from Studies
in Model Genus Populus
Sakshi Rathor, Shambhavi Yadav, Anugrah Tripathi, Shruti Godara,

Parminder Singh, and Ajay Thakur
Abstract The continuous change in global climate exerts a significant influence

on ecosystems globally. It is crucial to understand how tree species respond to these
changes and adapt to evolved environmental conditions. The genus Populus
includes various temperate tree species; hence, it is valuable for studying the bud
phenology of this genus in response to climate change. The bud-burst and bud-set
are critical phenomena that control the growing season’s duration and protect from
frost damage in temperate trees and shrubs. The timing of bud-burst and bud-set
varies within and among the species, and it is considered to be influenced by tem-
perature. Thus, the timing of bud emergence in temperate forests is vital for moni-
toring the impacts of climate change. The chapter reviews recent developments in
understanding how climate change influences bud phenology and underlying
genetic and physiological processes. Furthermore, it explores the ecological out-
comes of altered bud phenology, mainly focusing on the local ecosystem, species
composition, and biodiversity.
Keywords Climate-change · Photoperiod · Temperate forests · Populus
10.1 Introduction
Climate change is occurring at an accelerated pace, and the capacity of species to

adapt to these changes is also evolving rapidly (Fu et al. 2013). It is important to
understand the responses of various species to climate change to maintain the
S. Rathor · S. Yadav (*) · S. Godara · P. Singh · A. Thakur

A. Tripathi
Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Ltd. 2024
204 S. Rathor et al.
ecosystem’s functioning and conserve biodiversity. The continuously increasing

population, increased demands for resources, and altogether different anthropo-
genic activities are accelerating climate change, consequently causing altered envi-
ronments, shifted habitats of various plant species, and changes in rainfall patterns
and temperature (Radeloff et al. 2015). The altered patterns of temperature cause
shifts in the duration of the growing season and, subsequently, shifts in the timing
of various events in the life cycle of a tree to the season, which are referred to as
phenological shifts (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d).
Phenology is the study of various seasonal biological events in the life cycle of
perennial trees. Bud-phenology of temperate deciduous trees like Populus includes
bud formation in autumn to surpass the unfavorable winter season, bud break in the
spring season, and leaf development and growth in favourable summer season. The
phenomenon of bud-phenology is crucial in plants as it works as a regulator to
maximize the growing period and minimize frost damage (Joshi et al. 2020; Kumar
et al. 2020a, b, c). Bud-phenology is controlled by photoperiod and temperature.
Various molecular studies are being conducted to identify the genes that integrate
the bud phenology with day length and temperature.
The effect of climate change on photoperiod is not as significant as in the case of
temperature. The temperature continuously increases due to climate change, caus-
ing shifts in the growing season of various species and, consequently, in bud-
phenology. In this chapter, we reviewed the phenomenon of bud phenology and its
importance in plant growth and development, focusing on the impacts of climate
change on bud phenology and ecosystem functioning.
10.2 Bud Phenology in Trees
The term “phenology” has originated from the Greek word “phainomai” (to appear),
which is similar to the origin of the words ‘phenomena’ and ‘phenotype’. This term
was coined by Charles Morren in 1853. Phenology can be defined as the study and
understanding of the timing of cyclic seasonal biological events (Forrest and Miller-
Rushing 2010). Deciduous trees undergo a cycle of growth and dormancy every
year to survive through unfavorable conditions and regain growth as favorable con-
ditions prevail: bud-break or dormancy release in the spring season, growth and
development in the summer season, growth cessation at the end of summer, bud-set
and bud dormancy along with leaf senescence and abscission in winters, then again
same cycle begins (Fig. 10.1) (Fadón et al. 2020). The term dormancy can be defined
as the transient suspension in growth and development, and it is a highly regulated
process (Lang et al. 1987). Dormancy is further divided into three subtypes by Lang
et al. (1987) i.e., paradormancy, endodormancy and ecodormancy. Paradormancy is
characterized by the suppression of meristem growth caused by signals originating
from other plant organs; an example of paradormancy is apical dominance, where
the growth of axillary bud is inhibited by the apical bud (Lang et al. 1987).
Endodormancy refers to the condition where the growth of the meristem is restrained
10 Climate-Change Effects and Bud Phenology in Trees: Insights from Studies… 205
Fig. 10.1 Changes in the bud-phenology are associated with the changes in the seasons. The
plants undergo growth and development from May to July (summers), followed by growth-
cessation and bud set in August and September (summer ends). Leaf senescence and abscission
occur in October and November (autumn season). Bud dormancy is established in December to
January (winters) to surpass the unfavorable conditions of extreme cold. Bud-break, bud-burst, or
leafing out begins at the end of winter, from February to April, to initiate growth and development
by signals originating from within the meristem itself (Lang et al. 1987). The growth
cannot be resumed even under favourable conditions when endodormancy is estab-
lished. Thus, endodormancy must be broken before resuming growth, and a transi-
tion to ecodormancy is required. Ecodormancy is a state of dormancy regulated by
environmental factors like temperature, water stress, or nutrient deficiency (Lang
et al. 1987). Deciduous trees require a specific duration of non-freezing tempera-
tures to end dormancy, followed by warm conditions to initiate growth in the spring
season (Faust et al. 1997). Hence, the shift from endodormancy to ecodormancy and
from ecodormancy to bud-burst requires a specific amount of chilling, and this
amount varies among different species and cultivars (Howe et al. 2015; Lang et al.
1987). The timing of bud-burst may vary within individuals of the same population
in different microhabitats (Polgar and Primack 2011). This indicates the need to
select suitable cultivars according to the local climatic conditions of a region.
Phenology has broad implications for ecology and evolution, and its significance
extends notably to the agriculture sector(Forrest and Miller-Rushing 2010).
Deciduous trees use signals from their surroundings, such as photoperiod and
temperature, to regulate the timing of their growth and dormancy period (Shim et al.
2014). The bud set and dormancy release process depends upon the suppression of
growth inhibitors and activation of growth promoters (Kavas et al. 2019). The varia-
tions in environmental factors like changes in day length from long to short days or
decreases in temperature at the end of summers are perceived by plants through
some receptors. These receptors induce a change in the signaling cascade, which
leads to the activation or suppression of genes required for the bud set. A better
understanding of physiological mechanisms induced by temperature change and
photoperiodism, which impact bud phenology, will help in predicting the impact of
climate change on bud phenology (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c; Kumar and Singh 2020;
Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d; Dhyani et al. 2021).
10.2.1 Role of Temperature in Bud Phenology
Temperature is the key factor influencing bud-set and bud-burst timing in temperate
and boreal woody plants. The role of temperature conditions on bud phenology can
be separated into two parts: getting enough cold in the winter (chilling requirement)
and having warm weather in the spring that lets buds develop until they burst open
(Hunter and Lechowicz 1992). Chilling requirements differ among species (Morin
et al. 2009), and most species do not require freezing temperatures to meet their
chilling requirements (Polgar and Primack 2011). The plant receives a signal that it
is safe to start leaf development within the bud when it has received enough chilling
(Perry 1971). Following the fulfillment of chilling requirements, a specific duration
of warm temperature is necessary for the budburst (Heide 1993). Some studies on
Populus have shown that changes influence the timing of bud phenology in poplars
in temperature (Svystun et al. 2019). A night temperature of 13.5 °C and a short day
treatment resulted in a faster growth cessation than a colder night temperature of
3.5 °C (Rohde et al. 2011). This indicates that the warmer temperature during the
growth cessation is associated with an earlier onset of bud set (Rohde et al. 2011).
The correlation between temperature and bud phenology causes considerable fluc-
tuations in the timing of spring onset from one year to the next (Polgar and Primack
2011). The yearly temperature changes naturally cause differences in plant and bud
development timing from one year to another; however, human-induced global cli-
mate change has caused notable and consistent shifts in the start of spring world-
wide (Ibáñez et al. 2010; Parmesan 2006).
10.2.2 Role of Photoperiodism in Bud Phenology
The process of bud burst in temperate plants is believed to be influenced by the

photoperiod (Polgar and Primack 2011). Research conducted in the 1960s on
Norway spruce (Picea abies) affirms the significance of photoperiod in the bud
burst process (Heide 1974). Across a latitudinal gradient, populations of a particu-
lar species exhibit varying photoperiodic requirements. These species’ individuals
are called photoperiodic ecotypes of that species (Partanen 2004). The daylight
needed for plant growth increases as you go higher in the mountains or farther
north, where the growing season is shorter (Soolanayakanahally et al. 2013). Some
plants only undergo bud-burst when they get a certain amount of daylight, regard-
less of the high-temperature availability in the spring (Caffarra and Donnelly 2011).
Certain types of long-lived trees in mature forests depend on a mix of daylight
duration and temperature signals to start growing again after dormancy, e.g.,
American beech, some oak species, and hackberry (Caffarra and Donnelly 2011).
Bud phenology in poplar is controlled by photoperiodism (Azeez et al. 2014).
Various studies have shown that short days lead to cold hardiness in the poplar and
aid in survival under freezing conditions. At molecular levels, short days lead to a
change in the transcription of many genes, which are linked with different path-
ways like light signaling, circadian clock, dehydration (DEHYDRIN (DHN)) and
cold adaptation (COLD REGULATEDGENES (COR)) (Hoffman et al. 2010;
Karlberg et al. 2010). Short days also induce ethylene and abscisic acid (ABA)
signaling, which are the abiotic stress hormones and play important roles in pop-
lar’s bud-setting (Shi and Yang 2014). Thus, short days induce adaptation to winter
conditions (cold hardiness) by mediating the transcription of genes involving light
signaling and the circadian clock. Unlike temperature, which varies a lot from year
to year, the amount of daylight is entirely predictable and only depends on the loca-
tion and time of the year. It will stay the same even as the climate warms up
(Soolanayakanahally et al. 2013).
10.3 Genetic Control of Bud-Phenology in Trees with Special

Reference to Populus
Bud-phenology is an adaptation of perennial plants to survive in cyclically changing

seasons of their habitat. The molecular mechanisms that control bud-phenology in
trees have not been studied in detail in most trees. Populus is a temperate deciduous
species that exhibits seasonal growth and development changes. Populus tricho-
carpa is the first species whose complete genome has been sequenced and estab-
lished as a model system for forest tree studies (Tuskan et al. 2006). All
bud-phenology events are mediated at the molecular level by up-regulation and
down-regulation of different genes in response to certain environmental cues.
Understanding the genetic basis of various phases of bud phenology holds signifi-
cance for enhancing plant breeding and genetic improvement strategies (Dillen
et al. 2010).
10.3.1 Genes Involving in Growth Cessation
In Poplars, growth cessation begins at the end of the summer, responding to the
short-day signals sensed by phytochrome. Phytochromes are the photoreceptors that
play a crucial role in photoperiodism (response to changes in day length i.e., short
and long day length) and to set circadian rhythms. Three phytochrome (PHY) genes
are found in Poplars: PHYA, PHYB1, and PHYB2 (Howe et al. 1998). PHYA nega-
tively regulates growth cessation, as its overexpression prevents growth cessation,
and its down-regulation facilitates growth termination (Kozarewa et al. 2010).
PHYB2 also plays roles in growth-cessation and bud set (Ingvarsson et al. 2006).
The down-regulation of LATE ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL1 (PttLHY1),
PttLHY2, and TIMING OF CAB EXPRESSION1 via RNA interference delay
growth cessation and extend the growth period. At the same time, it reduces cold
hardiness and delay bud-burst, which means that PttLHY genes play a role in pro-
moting growth cessation and in bud-burst (Ibáñez et al. 2010). The overexpression
and RNAi-mediated down-regulation of FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) genes have
shown that FT triggers flowering, promotes growth season, or prevents growth ces-
sation and bud set in Populus (Hsu et al. 2006). There are two FT genes in Populus,
FT1, and FT2, in which the former is expressed at the dormancy stage in winter, and
the latter is expressed in the growing season during summers (Hsu et al. 2011). FT
is the target of the CONSTANS (CO) gene. Therefore CO/FT complex regulates the
duration of the growing season in Populus. FT forms complex with FD-like 1 (FD1),
which delays growth termination. FDL1 and FDL2 are two homologs of
FLOWERING LOCUS D (FD), a transcription factor in Arabidopsis that controls
flowering and FT. FT-FD complex targets Like AP1 (LAP1) gene, under short-day
conditions, expression of LAP1 is reduced to promote growth cessation (Azeez
et al. 2014). The target of LAP1 is AINTEGUMENTA-like 1, which activates the
genes’ cell cycle and cell division (Azeez et al. 2014). It indicates that cell cycles
halt under short-day conditions, which is the beginning of growth cessation (Ding
and Nilsson 2016).
Apart from different molecular level regulation, some phytohormones also play
role in growth cessation. It has been found that increased levels of Gibberellic acids
(GAs) also delayed growth cessation in hybrid aspen in an FT-independent manner
(Ding and Nilsson 2016).
10.3.2 Genes Involving in Bud-Set
This stage comes immediately after the growth cessation, and there is no time gap
between the two stages except for the difference in the temperature requirement
(Ding and Nilsson 2016; Rohde et al. 2011). This stage is characterized by the dif-
ferentiation of leaf primordial into bud scales (Ding and Nilsson 2016). Rohde et al.
(2002) have shown in Populus trichocarpa that a Poplar homolog of ABSCISIC
ACID-INSENSITIVE3 (PtABI3) is increased after the growth cessation and plays
a critical role in bud-set and bud dormancy. Along with this, the FDL1 gene also
promotes bud-set in Poplars.
10.3.3 Genes Involving in Bud Dormancy
The mutation in DORMANCY ASSOCIATED MADS-BOX (DAM) genes in

Prunus persica leads to continuous growth season and no bud dormancy. These
mutants are called ‘Evergreen’ (EVG) (Rodriguez-A et al. 1994). This study indi-
cates the role of DAM genes in bud set and dormancy. When DAM6 genes of Prunus
mume are overexpressed in hybrid aspen, it leads to faster growth cessation and bud
set (Sasaki et al. 2011).
10.3.4 Genes Involving in Bud-Break
Yordanov et al. (2014) used activation tagging in Populus to discover a new regula-
tor called EARLY BUD BREAK 1 (EBB1). EBB1 impacts the restarting of growth
and the emergence of buds. When EBB1 is expressed ectopically, it causes buds to
burst earlier than usual. On the other hand, when EBB1 is reduced, it results in a
postponement of bud emergence (Yordanov et al. 2014). EBB1 is mainly expressed
in the shoot’s apical meristem (SAM). Transcriptomic examination revealed that the
nearest poplar ortholog of one of the DAM genes exhibited significant and specific
down-regulation in transgenic plants with EBB1 overexpression. However, it
showed upregulation during the induction of dormancy. The reduction in DAM
genes may be essential for breaking dormancy and could be associated with the
early bud-break characteristics observed in transgenic plants with EBB1 overex-
pression (Yordanov et al. 2014).
10.4 Climate Change Effects on Bud Phenology
Phenology is crucial in influencing crop yield, population dynamics, evolutionary

changes, and how species evolve, as suggested by various studies (Anderson et al.
2013; Burghardt et al. 2015). Along with these benefits, it plays a key role in con-
trolling multiple ecosystem functions, such as how much they produce, the cycling
of carbon, water regulation, and nutrient cycling (Richardson et al. 2010). Observing
changes in the phenology is straightforward and probably the most influenced
aspect by climate change (Soolanayakanahally et al. 2013). In recent decades, it has
been noticed that in places at higher latitudes, the time available for plants to grow
has increased (Singh et al. 2010; Verma et al. 2021; Singh 2024). This is because
spring starts earlier, and autumn ends later (Myneni et al. 1997). Places with boreal
habitats at high latitudes are likely to undergo significant temperature shifts because
of climate change. The onset of growing seasons has been brought forward by
several days to weeks due to warmer springs, often resulting in cascading impacts
on ecosystem and community processes (Ellwood et al. 2013; Fahey 2016; Polgar
and Primack 2011).
In many temperate ecosystems, winter is changing faster than other seasons. This
includes more frequent extreme events that can have different, sometimes worse,
effects on the ecological cycles of that ecosystem than gradual changes in usual
weather conditions (Notaro et al. 2014; Smith 2011). Both the scale and occurrence
timing of extreme events influence ecological responses (Ladwig et al. 2019). For
instance, a highly cold event in spring can result in considerable harm, while simi-
larly extreme cold temperatures in winter might have limited effects on woody spe-
cies (Vitra et al. 2017). Furthermore, hot events in spring can induce a false spring,
leading to an incorrect perception of winter’s end and an earlier onset of the growing
season (Fahey 2016; Parmesan 2006).
On the other hand, if the weather stays very warm for a long time, it can make
plants start growing early, even bypassing their usual resting requirements like
exposure to cold or specific light conditions (Fahey 2016). If this occurs in winter,
the recently formed young plant tissues will likely get harmed when the usual cold
winter temperatures return (Ladwig et al. 2019). A study found how climate change
affects 677 plant and animal species, which showed that 62% experienced early
spring events like buds opening, flowers blooming, and migratory birds arriving
(Parmesan and Yohe 2003).
Warming during a certain period might make one type of plant species wait lon-
ger to start bud-burst, making their resting period deeper (Singh et al. 2018).
However, it may not have as much impact on another species (Malyshev 2020).
This might be because all species have different strategies of bud-burst for main-
taining a balance between productivity in the growing season and frost damage risk
during winters. The data collected over a long period is beneficial for measuring
changes in bud-burst timing (Polgar and Primack 2011). For instance, by analyzing
the data gathered at the IPG, researchers found that trees in northern Europe have
started growing leaves about one week earlier on average in the last 50 years
(Menzel 2000).
How plants react to climate change carries substantial implications for global
ecosystems. Modifications in the duration and timing of the growth period, coupled
with shifts in the habitat ranges of plant species, can have notable consequences on
ecosystem dynamics, influencing processes like carbon and water cycling, as well
as interactions between plants and animals (Parmesan 2006; Polgar and Primack
2011) (Fig. 10.2).
10.4.1 Altered Phenology Led Frost Damage
The higher likelihood of frost damage to trees and other plants due to increased
warming in spring was proposed as a potential concern related to global warming as
far back as the 1980s. In recent years, this foresight has become a reality (Polgar and
Fig. 10.2 The continuously changing climate of the world leads to changes in the phenology of
plants. The altered phenology causes negative impacts on different aspects of ecosystems and their
components
Primack 2011). In 2007, North America’s eastern and central areas saw hot March
weather, prompting an early emergence of leaves on plants (Sharma et al. 2019;
Rawat et al. 2020; Singh et al. 2022; Prakash et al. 2022). This was followed by
freezing temperatures in early April. The young leaves and flowers of woody plants
experienced severe damage from frost. This resulted in the immediate decline of
young growth. Although several trees generated new growth, the canopy never
achieved the level of development observed in previous years (Polgar and Primack
2011). Another important aspect is that, based on the existing developmental condi-
tions, the extent of damage caused to different species due to extreme conditions
varies extensively (Augspurger 2009). Many experts believe the frequency of severe
damage caused by late frost events might increase with climate warming (Linkosalo
et al. 2000).
10.4.2 Impacts of Altered Phenology

on Ecological Interactions
Plant phenology is essential for different plant species to coexist in communities

with many different plant species (Piao et al. 2019). This is because significant dif-
ferences in the timing of life cycle events help minimize competition for resources
among species (Piao et al. 2019). It also maintains the survival of different interde-
pendent species by synchronizing different developmental stages, feeding habits,
and migratory strategies. Thus, ecological imbalances exist among various groups
of interconnected organisms due to swift climate changes in different ecosystems
(Both et al. 2009). However, the impact of climate change varies in different species
and at different trophic levels (Both et al. 2009). The moment when trees start grow-
ing leaves influences the availability of food and shelter for various species, espe-
cially insects. Insects often prefer to feed on the young leaves of specific plant
species because, as they mature, they become more challenging and may contain
substances that make them unpleasant or harmful to plant-eating animals (Coyle

et al. 2010). Thus, a lack of synchronism between insect emergence and food avail-
ability leads to a decline in the population of these insects and, further, a decline in
the population of birds and mammals at high trophic levels that feed on these insects
(Both et al. 2009; Visser and Both 2005).
10.4.3 Impacts of Altered Phenology on Species Distribution

and Abundance
As Polgar and Primack (2011) have described in their review, if species that need
very little exposure to light and cold conditions continue to produce leaves earlier in
the spring, they might grow more in number and spread, becoming the predominant
species. This could lead to a change in the time when the entire forest starts growing
leaves. Alternatively, the failure of certain species to meet their chilling and photo-
period needs could noticeably impede the overall progress of leaf-out throughout
the entire forest (Morin et al. 2009).
The phenology is recognized as an inheritable characteristic with considerable
diversity within species and populations. This indicates that plants might have the
capacity to experience genetic alterations in reaction to changing conditions over
multiple generations. However, the current rate of warming is much higher than
the rate of adaptation of plants in the changed environment, which is causing a
shift in their distribution patterns and narrowing their limits (Kumar et al. 2017,
2020a, b, c; Joshi et al. 2021; Nirmal et al. 2021). These conditions allow various
invasive exotic species to flourish with different bud-burst timing and ultimately
eliminate native species (Polgar and Primack 2011). This is the major reason that
numerous non-native shrubs, like buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) and various
honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.) species, leaf out earlier and could be a contributing
factor to their substantial growth in northern American forests (Harrington
et al. 1989).
10.4.4 Impact of Altered Phenology on Ecosystem Functioning
The extended duration of the growing season can significantly influence ecosystem
functions, affecting processes such as CO2 absorption, tree growth, microclimatic
conditions, and water flow, among others (White et al. 1999). As bud-burst occurs
in deciduous trees, it reduces the availability of light, water, soil moisture, and evap-
oration from forest floors due to their thick canopy. This will further negatively
impact the growth of herbaceous plants (Tabacchi et al. 2000). Increased growing
season length will lead to an increased net amount of carbon sequestration in forests
(Richardson et al. 2010).
10.5 Future Prospective
Very few trees have been studied for the influence of climate change on bud phenol-
ogy, indicating a need to conduct more studies on various horticultural trees, forest
trees, and trees with high commercial values. Along with this, the most vital research
requirement is to investigate in detail how alterations in the timing of leaf emer-
gence will impact interactions among trophic levels and processes within ecosys-
tems. Hence, there is a need to understand how rising temperatures and earlier
leaf-out will influence the different fauna-flora living in different microhabitats in
forests and nutrient and hydrological cycles. Such studies must be conducted in
various regions that exhibit variations in weather, relief, soil, and vegetation.
10.6 Conclusions
The changing global climate, characterized by increasing temperatures, is causing

various modifications in forests worldwide. In this chapter, we reviewed the impacts
of changing climate on the bud-phenology of temperate deciduous trees. Phenology
is regulated by multiple environmental cues like photoperiod and temperature,
along with the various regulators at molecular levels. As the global temperature
increases due to warming events, the timing of different events in the phenology
cycle impacts. One notable change is the earlier bud-burst in spring and leafing of
deciduous trees and shrubs, a trend that is anticipated to persist in the world’s tem-
perate regions in the coming decades. Over an extended timeframe, certain tree
species could disappear from local areas and relocate their habitats due to the evolv-
ing climate conditions. These changes may look beneficial in recent times as the
period of growth is increasing due to early bud-burst. Still, these changes might
negatively affect the environment, ecosystem, and biodiversity in the long term.
Alterations in climate and leaf-out timing will also significantly impact tree-derived
products essential for society, including fruits, nuts, and timber.
References
Anderson JJ, Gurarie E, Bracis C, Burke BJ, Laidre KL (2013) Modeling climate change impacts
on phenology and population dynamics of migratory marine species. Ecol Model 264:83–97
Augspurger CK (2009) Spring 2007 warmth and frost: phenology, damage and refo-
liation in a temperate deciduous forest. Funct Ecol 23(6):1031–1039. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2009.01587.x
Azeez A, Miskolczi P, Tylewicz S, Bhalerao RP (2014) A tree ortholog of APETALA1 mediates
photoperiodic control of seasonal growth. Curr Biol 24(7):717–724
Both C, Van Asch M, Bijlsma RG, Van Den Burg AB, Visser ME (2009) Climate change and
unequal phenological changes across four trophic levels: constraints or adaptations? J Anim
Ecol 78(1):73–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2008.01458.x
Burghardt LT, Metcalf CJE, Wilczek AM, Schmitt J, Donohue K (2015) Modeling the influence
of genetic and environmental variation on the expression of plant life cycles across landscapes.
Am Nat 185(2):212–227. https://doi.org/10.1086/679439
Caffarra A, Donnelly A (2011) The ecological significance of phenology in four different tree spe-
cies: effects of light and temperature on bud burst. Int J Biometeorol 55(5):711–721. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s00484-010-0386-1
Coyle DR, Jordan MS, Raffa KF (2010) Host plant phenology affects performance of an inva-
sive weevil, Phyllobius oblongus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), in a northern hardwood forest.
Environ Entomol 39(5):1539–1544
Dillen SY, Rood SB, Ceulemans R (2010) Growth and physiology. In: Jansson S, Bhalerao R,
Groover A (eds) Genetics and genomics of Populus. Springer, New York
Ding J, Nilsson O (2016) Molecular regulation of phenology in trees-because the seasons they are
a-changin’. Curr Opin Plant Biol 29:73–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbi.2015.11.007
Ellwood ER, Temple SA, Primack RB, Bradley NL, Davis CC (2013) Record-breaking early flow-
ering in the eastern United States. PLoS One 8(1):e53788
Fadón E, Fernandez E, Behn H, Luedeling E (2020) A conceptual framework for winter dormancy
in deciduous trees. Agronomy 10(2):241
Fahey RT (2016) Variation in responsiveness of woody plant leaf out phenology to anomalous
spring onset. Ecosphere 7(2):e01209. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.1209
Faust M, Erez A, Rowland LJ, Wang SY, Norman HA (1997) Bud dormancy in perennial fruit
trees: physiological basis for dormancy induction, maintenance, and release. HortScience
32(4):623–629
Forrest J, Miller-Rushing AJ (2010) Toward a synthetic understanding of the role of phenology
in ecology and evolution. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 365(1555):3101–3112. https://doi.
org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0145
Fu YH, Campioli M, Deckmyn G, Janssens IA (2013) Sensitivity of leaf unfolding to experimental
warming in three temperate tree species. Agric For Meteorol 181:125–132
Harrington RA, Brown BJ, Reich PB (1989) Ecophysiology of exotic and native shrubs in southern
Wisconsin: I. Relationship of leaf characteristics, resource availability, and phenology to sea-
sonal patterns of carbon gain. Oecologia 80(3):356–367. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00379037
Heide OM (1974) Growth and dormancy in Norway spruce ecotypes (Picea abies) I. Interaction
of photoperiod and temperature. Physiol Plant 30(1):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-
3054.1974.tb04983.x
Heide OM (1993) Daylength and thermal time responses of budburst during dormancy release in
some northern deciduous trees. Physiol Plant 88(4):531–540. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-
3054.1993.tb01368.x
Hoffman DE, Jonsson P, Bylesjö M, Trygg J, Antti H, Eriksson ME, Moritz T (2010) Changes in diur-
nal patterns within the Populus transcriptome and metabolome in response to photoperiod vari-
ation. Plant Cell Environ 33(8):1298–1313. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3040.2010.02148.x
Howe GT, Bucciaglia PA, Hackett WP, Furnier GR, Cordonnier-Pratt M-M, Gardner G (1998)
Evidence that the phytochrome gene family in black cottonwood has one PHYA locus and
two PHYB loci but lacks members of the PHYC/F and PHYE subfamilies. Mol Biol Evol
15(2):160–175
Howe GT, Horvath DP, Dharmawardhana P, Priest HD, Mockler TC, Strauss SH (2015) Extensive
transcriptome changes during natural onset and release of vegetative bud dormancy in Populus.
Front Plant Sci 6:989. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2015.00989
Hsu C-Y, Liu Y, Luthe DS, Yuceer C (2006) Poplar FT2 shortens the juvenile phase and promotes
seasonal flowering. Plant Cell 18(8):1846–1861
Hsu C-Y, Adams JP, Kim H, No K, Ma C, Strauss SH, Drnevich J, Vandervelde L, Ellis JD,
Rice BM, Wickett N, Gunter LE, Tuskan GA, Brunner AM, Page GP, Barakat A, Carlson
JE, dePamphilis CW, Luthe DS, Yuceer C (2011) FLOWERING LOCUS T duplication coor-
dinates reproductive and vegetative growth in perennial poplar. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
108(26):10756–10761. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1104713108
Hunter AF, Lechowicz MJ (1992) Predicting the timing of budburst in temperate trees. J Appl Ecol
29:597–604
Ibáñez I, Primack RB, Miller-Rushing AJ, Ellwood E, Higuchi H, Lee SD, Kobori H, Silander
JA (2010) Forecasting phenology under global warming. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci
365(1555):3247–3260. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0120
Ingvarsson PK, García MV, Hall D, Luquez V, Jansson S (2006) Clinal variation in phyB2, a can-
didate gene for day-length-induced growth cessation and bud set, across a latitudinal gradient
in European aspen (Populus tremula). Genetics 172(3):1845–1853
degraded and non-degraded community forests in Terai region of Nepal. J For Environ Sci
of far-Western Nepal. Eurasian J Soil Sci 10(2):96–104. https://doi.org/10.18393/ejss.825066
Karlberg A, Englund M, Petterle A, Molnar G, Sjödin A, Bako L, Bhalerao RP (2010) Analysis of
global changes in gene expression during activity-dormancy cycle in hybrid aspen apex. Plant
Biotechnol 27(1):1–16
Kavas M, Kurt Kızıldoğan A, Balık Hİ (2019) Gene expression analysis of bud burst process in
European hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) using RNA-Seq. Physiol Mol Biol Plants 25(1):13–29.
Kozarewa I, Ibáñez C, Johansson M, Ögren E, Mozley D, Nylander E, Chono M, Moritz T, Eriksson
ME (2010) Alteration of PHYA expression change circadian rhythms and timing of bud set in
Populus. Plant Mol Biol 73(1–2):143–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11103-010-9619-2
Kumar N, Jeena N, Kumar A, Khairakpan R, Singh H (2021a) Comparative response of rice culti-
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021b) Adaptation and mitigation potential of roadside
ological traits during seasonal regimes. Urban Forestry Urban Green 58:126900. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
49(1):38–44
Ladwig LM, Chandler JL, Guiden PW, Henn JJ (2019) Extreme winter warm event causes
exceptionally early bud break for many woody species. Ecosphere 10(1):e02542. https://doi.
org/10.1002/ecs2.2542
Lang GA, Early JD, Martin GC, Darnell RL (1987) Endo-, para-, and ecodormancy: physiological
terminology and classification for dormancy research. HortScience 22(3):371–377
Linkosalo T, Carter TR, Häkkinen R, Hari P (2000) Predicting spring phenology and frost dam-
age risk of Betula spp. under climatic warming: a comparison of two models. Tree Physiol
20(17):1175–1182
Malyshev AV (2020) Warming events advance or delay spring phenology by affecting bud dor-
mancy depth in trees. Front Plant Sci 11:856
Menzel A (2000) Trends in phenological phases in Europe between 1951 and 1996. Int J
Biometeorol 44(2):76–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004840000054
Morin X, Lechowicz MJ, Augspurger C, O’Keefe J, Viner D, Chuine I (2009) Leaf phenology
in 22 north American tree species during the 21st century. Glob Chang Biol 15(4):961–975.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01735.x
Myneni RB, Keeling CD, Tucker CJ, Asrar G, Nemani RR (1997) Increased plant growth in the
northern high latitudes from 1981 to 1991. Nature 386(6626):698–702
Nirmal, Bakshi M, Singh H (2021) Effect of CO2 elevation on Shisham growth at nursery stage.
Indian J Hill Farm 34:272–276. issn: 0970-6429
Notaro M, Lorenz D, Hoving C, Schummer M (2014) Twenty-first-century projections of snowfall
and winter severity across central-eastern North America. J Clim 27(17):6526–6550
Ecol Evol Syst 37(1):637–669. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.37.091305.110100
Partanen J (2004) Dependence of photoperiodic response of growth cessation on the stage of
development in Picea abies and Betula pendula seedlings. For Ecol Manag 188(1–3):137–148
Perry TO (1971) Dormancy of trees in winter: photoperiod is only one of the variables which
interact to control leaf fall and other dormancy phenomena. Science 171(3966):29–36. https://
doi.org/10.1126/science.171.3966.29
Piao S, Liu Q, Chen A, Janssens IA, Fu Y, Dai J, Liu L, Lian X, Shen M, Zhu X (2019) Plant
phenology and global climate change: current progresses and challenges. Glob Chang Biol
25(6):1922–1940. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14619
Polgar CA, Primack RB (2011) Leaf-out phenology of temperate woody plants: from trees to
ecosystems. New Phytol 191(4):926–941. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03803.x
Radeloff VC, Williams JW, Bateman BL, Burke KD, Carter SK, Childress ES, Cromwell KJ,
Gratton C, Hasley AO, Kraemer BM, Latzka AW, Marin-Spiotta E, Meine CD, Munoz SE,
Neeson TM, Pidgeon AM, Rissman AR, Rivera RJ, Szymanski LM, Usinowicz J (2015) The
rise of novelty in ecosystems. Ecol Appl 25(8):2051–2068. https://doi.org/10.1890/14-1781.1
org/10.36808/if/2020/v146i2/151208
Richardson AD, Andy Black T, Ciais P, Delbart N, Friedl MA, Gobron N, Hollinger DY, Kutsch
WL, Longdoz B, Luyssaert S, Migliavacca M, Montagnani L, William Munger J, Moors E,
Piao S, Rebmann C, Reichstein M, Saigusa N, Tomelleri E et al (2010) Influence of spring and
autumn phenological transitions on forest ecosystem productivity. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol
Sci 365(1555):3227–3246. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0102
Rodriguez-A J, Sherman WB, Scorza R, Wisniewski M, Okie WR (1994) Evergreen’ peach, its
inheritance and dormant behavior. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 119(4):789–792
Rohde A, Bastien C, Boerjan W (2011) Temperature signals contribute to the timing of photoperi-
odic growth cessation and bud set in poplar. Tree Physiol 31(5):472–482
Rohde A, Prinsen E, De Rycke R, Engler G, Van Montagu M, Boerjan W (2002) PtABI3 impinges
on the growth and differentiation of embryonic leaves during bud set in poplar. The Plant Cell,
14(8):1885–1901
Sasaki R, Yamane H, Ooka T, Jotatsu H, Kitamura Y, Akagi T, Tao R (2011) Functional and expres-
sional analyses of PmDAM genes associated with endodormancy in Japanese apricot. Plant
Physiol 157(1):485–497
Shi Y, Yang S (2014) ABA regulation of the cold stress response in plants. In: Zhang D-P (ed)
Abscisic acid: metabolism, transport and signaling. Springer, Netherlands, pp 337–363. https://
doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9424-4_17
Shim D, Ko J-H, Kim W-C, Wang Q, Keathley DE, Han K-H (2014) A molecular framework for
seasonal growth-dormancy regulation in perennial plants. Hortic Res 1. https://academic.oup.
com/hr/article-abstract/doi/10.1038/hortres.2014.59/6428159:14059
on leaf pigments in five rice genotypes under field emergent circumstance. Int J Bioresour
Stress Manage 1:189–193
Singh H, Sharma R, Savita, Singh MP, Kumar M, Verma A, Ansari MW, Sharma SK (2018)
Adaptive physiological response of Parthenium hysterophorus to elevated atmospheric CO2
concentration. Indian Forester 144:1–14
uclim.2022.101183
Smith MD (2011) The ecological role of climate extremes: current understanding and future pros-
pects. J Ecol 99(3):651–655. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01833.x
Soolanayakanahally RY, Guy RD, Silim SN, Song M (2013) Timing of photoperiodic competency
causes phenological mismatch in balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera L.). Plant Cell Environ
36(1):116–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3040.2012.02560.x
Svystun T, Bhalerao RP, Jönsson AM (2019) Modelling Populus autumn phenology: the impor-
tance of temperature and photoperiod. Agric For Meteorol 271:346–354
Tabacchi E, Lambs L, Guilloy H, Planty-Tabacchi A-M, Muller E, Décamps H (2000) Impacts of
riparian vegetation on hydrological processes. Hydrol Process 14(16–17):2959–2976. https://
doi.org/10.1002/1099-1085(200011/12)14:16/17<2959::AID-HYP129>3.0.CO;2-B
Tuskan GA, Difazio S, Jansson S, Bohlmann J, Grigoriev I, Hellsten U, Putnam N, Ralph S,
Rombauts S, Salamov A, Schein J, Sterck L, Aerts A, Bhalerao RR, Bhalerao RP, Blaudez D,
Boerjan W, Brun A, Brunner A et al (2006) The genome of black cottonwood, Populus tricho-
carpa (Torr. & Gray). Science 313(5793):1596–1604. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1128691
Visser ME, Both C (2005) Shifts in phenology due to global climate change: the need for a yard-
stick. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 272(1581):2561–2569. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2005.3356
Vitra A, Lenz A, Vitasse Y (2017) Frost hardening and dehardening potential in temperate trees
from winter to budburst. New Phytol 216(1):113–123. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.14698
White MA, Running SW, Thornton PE (1999) The impact of growing-season length variability on
carbon assimilation and evapotranspiration over 88 years in the eastern US deciduous forest.
Int J Biometeorol 42(3):139–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004840050097
Yordanov YS, Ma C, Strauss SH, Busov VB (2014) EARLY BUD-BREAK 1 (EBB1) is a
regulator of release from seasonal dormancy in poplar trees. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
111(27):10001–10006. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1405621111
Chapter 11
Decadal Shift in the Vegetation Line
and Forest Loss in the Kinnaur District
of the Himachal Pradesh
Nidhi Kanwar, Jagdish Chandra Kuniyal, and D. C. Pandey
Abstract This study examines the shifting of the vegetation lines and forest loss in
the Kinnaur District, a part of the Western Himalayas, as a response to environmen-
tal and climate changes. The study analyzed the vegetation dynamics using Landsat
5 Thematic Mapper (TM) for 1990, Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus
(ETM+) data for 2008, and Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) for 2021.
Satellite images were analyzed using the NDVI technique in the RS & GIS environ-
ment of ERDAS Imagine and ArcGIS 9.3 to identify changes in vegetation lines.
ALOS Palsar DEM data was used. Besides, annual forest loss for 2001–2021 was
also determined using the Global Forest Change v1.6 dataset. The findings indicate
a significant upward shift in the vegetation line at an average rate 0.03 m/year in the
Kinnaur district over the past three decades (1990–2021), attributed to global warm-
ing. The shift in vegetation line has important implications for the region’s water
resources and environmental stability. Additionally, the study highlights the extent
of forest loss (0.48 km2 in 2000 and 0.14 km2 in 2021) in Kinnaur, driven by various
factors, including construction activities, air pollution, forest fires, and unsustain-
able practices. To mitigate the environmental and social consequences, sustainable
forest management and conservation strategies to protect and restore the fragile
ecosystems of the Kinnaur District are essential.
Keywords Shifting vegetation lines · Climate change · Forest loss · Western

Himalaya · NDVI
N. Kanwar
G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment, Almora, Uttarakhand, India
Department of Geography, DSB Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India
J. C. Kuniyal (*)
G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment, Almora, Uttarakhand, India
D. C. Pandey
Department of Geography, DSB Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India
Ltd. 2024
220 N. Kanwar et al.
11.1 Introduction
It is now widely accepted that species distribution shifts (e.g. Abies spectabilis,
Pinus wallichiana, and Betula utilis) occur at different altitudes, and these shifts are
expected to alter the makeup of communities in many terrestrial ecosystems
(Schickhoff et al. 2015; Tewari et al. 2017; Elsen et al. 2020; Joshi and Singh 2020).
These assertions are supported by dynamic global vegetation models and altitudi-
nal/latitudinal patterns of growth rate inferred from field observations (Rathore
et al. 2022; Devi et al. 2023). The shifts/redistributions are especially noticeable in
mountain ecosystems, where species can take refuge at different environmental gra-
dients over relatively short distances in response to changing climate and/or increas-
ing human interferences (Wolf et al. 2016; Gupta and Singh 2017; Kumar et al.
2021a, b, c). Understanding range shifts or the movement of biological assemblages
to higher elevations is crucial because topographic limits impose considerable
reductions in land available for establishment, thus drifting a particular species
toward local extinction (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c; Singh et al. 2022). Although the
significance of topography and land use in limiting species distributions is acknowl-
edged, substantial evidence is lacking on how these factors interact to influence
biodiversity change, particularly on broad spatial and temporal scales (Apurva et al.
2017; Joshi and Singh 2020; Auffret and Svenning 2022).
To shed more light into this and to delineate climate-induced perturbation, effec-
tive long-term monitoring plots (i.e., ILTER, ForestGeo-CTFS, GTOS and
GLORIA) have been established across the globe. For example, resurvey studies of
GLORIA summits established in the Kashmir Himalaya of the Indian Himalayan
region have highlighted increased cover of shrubs, graminoids, and forbs in the sub-
niveal and niveal zones (Hamid et al. 2020). Elsewhere, empirical evidence on cli-
mate change-driven shifts of plant communities in the Himalayan region are
reported, e.g. (1) in the last decade Alnus nepalensis, which is found between 900
and 1800 m asl has reached up to 2400 m asl; (2) invasive weeds such as Eupatorium
adenophorum have moved up to 2800 m asl (Chandra Sekar et al. 2012; Negi and
Rawal 2019), and (3) shifting apple cultivation to higher altitudes in Himachal
Pradesh (Kothawale and Rupa Kumar 2005). In the early 1980s, apples were culti-
vated between 1200 and 1500 m, which by the early 2000s had shifted to
1500–2000 m, and are now being cultivated at more than 3500 m elevation in
Himachal Pradesh (Sahu et al. 2020). Likewise, significant changes in the range of
Pinus roxburghi, Pinus wallichiana, Hippophaesalicifolia, and Rhododendron cam-
panulatum are reported from Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Arunachal
Pradesh (Panigrahy et al. 2010; Singh et al. 2018, 2021a, b). While, using remote
sensing data, Singh et al. (2012) reported an upward shift in tree line by 380–388 m
(between 1970 and 2006) in Uttarakhand, while, in the eastern Himalayas, the tree
line shift was estimated to be 110 m (Xu et al. 2009; Kumar et al. 2020). Similarly,
Roy and Rathore (2019) reported a significant reduction in their current distribution
range of Abies pindrow, Betula utilis, Juniperus recurva, Picea smithiana,
Rhododendron arboreum, Quercus semecarpifolia, and Taxus wallichiana under
11 Decadal Shift in the Vegetation Line and Forest Loss in the Kinnaur District… 221
different climate projection models in western Himalaya. This is a realistic scenario

for the Himalayan regions, where climate variability and anthropogenic pressures
are the most critical drivers for forest ecosystem vulnerability (Kumar et al. 2021a,
b, c; Singh et al. 2022). Previous studies have indicated that warming in this region
is greater than the global average (Shrestha et al. 2012). Thus, it is impacting tree
mortality, seed germination, and changing vegetation patterns, composition, phe-
nology, etc. For example, Shrestha et al. (2012) reported that temperature increases
during the growing seasons led to decreased vegetation productivity. In contrast,
Telwala et al. (2013) reported shifting of species by 23–998 m at a displacement rate
of 27.53 ± 22.04 m/decade. Also, significant changes have been reported in leaf
emergence, flower initiation, phenology, and growing seasons of several forest spe-
cies in the region (Tewari et al. 2016). Elsewhere, current evidence suggests that
global warming has had significant effects on vegetation over the past 20 years
(Zhang et al. 2011), especially in high-latitude areas of the Northern Hemisphere
(Xu et al. 2016). Because the effects of climate change are becoming more severe
than ever before, the adaptation techniques that are currently being implemented
need to be more holistic than incremental (Verma et al. 2020; Kumar et al. 2022).
Despite the increasing interest in climate change-oriented research in other parts of
the world, scientific reporting on the issue from the northwestern Himalayas is still
incomplete (Singh et al. 2021a, b; Singh and Kumar 2022). Therefore, the present
study attempts to assess the vegetation shift of major forest-type species in the cen-
tral Himalayas.
11.2 Study Area
The district Kinnaur is situated between 31°05′50″ N and 32°05′15″ N latitude and
77°45′0″ E and 79°00′35″ E longitude (Fig. 11.1). The tract is mainly mountainous.
The RiverSatluj drains the whole tract. The tract lies in the northwestern Himalayas.
The slopes range from moderate to steep and very steep to precipitous. Steep, rug-
ged and abrupt cliffs are prevalent in the upper catchment. According to Champion
and Seth (1968), the region is endowed with major five major forest types namely;
Subtropical Pine Forest, Himalayan Moist Temperate Forest, Himalayan Dry
Temperate Forest, Sub-Alpine, Moist Alpine and Dry Alpine.
11.3 Methodology
11.3.1 Shifting of Vegetation
Remote sensing data is beneficial for working out the temporal shifting of vegeta-
tion lines (Rawat et al. 2016; Sharma 2020). Because of examining the shifting of
vegetation in the Kinnaur District, Landsat satellite imageries of three different
Fig. 11.1 Map of the study area—Kinnaur District
years (i.e., 1990, 2008 and 2021) were acquired by Earth Explorer. Landsat 5 was
used in 1990 and has a Thematic Mapper (TM) sensor. The TM image consists of
seven spectral bands with a spatial resolution of 30 m for 1–5 and 7 bands. The
spatial resolution for band 6 (thermal infrared) is 120 m but is resampled to 30 m
pixels. TM on the Landsat 5 has proven useful in determining the amount of ice loss
on glaciers due to melting. Landsat 8 was used for 2021, and it has an operational
land imager and thermal infrared sensor (OLI and TIRS). The OLI and TIRS images
consist of nine spectral bands with a spatial resolution of 30 m and are useful for
coastal, aerosol, and cirrus cloud detection (Fig. 11.2). Besides, ALOS PALSAR
DEM having 12.5 m resolution was used to derive the average elevation of the veg-
etation line. DEM image helped in understanding the process of dynamics of vege-
tation in the Kinnaur over the last 31 years (1990–2021). Data calibration was also
performed on the satellite data to gain better results. Erdas Imagine software version
2014 was used to process satellite images. At first different image bands were
stacked to produce a false color composite. The Area of Interest (AOI) was calcu-
lated and the required image was extracted by subset of the image. The subset image
was then reprojected. The upper limit of the vegetation line was delineated using a
normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI = NIR − RED/NIR + RED) with
values ranging between 0.2 and 0.4 (http://www.earthobservatory. nasa.gov). After
displaying the NDVI imagery on the screen of the Arc map, NDVI Images were first
Fig. 11.2 Geographic location of the vegetation line based on NDVI values (0.2–0.4) in different
years in; (a) October 1990; (b) October 2008, and (c) October 2021
reclassified into vegetation and non-vegetation. To estimate vegetation line height,

the vegetation line for different years was overlaid on the DEM data, and then a
point shape file was created in arc-catalog, and digitization was done while keeping
the snapping mode on. After that, the digitized points over the vegetation line were
masked by the mask function from DEM data, so each point bears some height.
Then these points were exported into the Microsoft Excel sheet, and the average
height was estimated. The area of change from non-vegetation to vegetation was
calculated by superimposing the vegetation lines of different years.
11.3.2 Forest Loss and Net Deforestation Rates
Forest loss information was extracted from the Global Forest Change v1.6 dataset
to obtain records of annual forest loss for 2001 and 2021. The dataset provides a
binary data record of loss (1) or no loss (0) for each pixel of the study area, with a
spatial resolution of 30 m. The data includes all trees above 5 m in height.
In addition, net deforestation rates were calculated using the forest cover infor-
mation from FSI reports from 2001 to 2021. The annual rate of change in forest
cover was calculated by comparing the forest cover at different times. The annual
rate of forest change is calculated using the compound interest formula, as described
by FAO in 1995 (Reddy et al. 2013; Gupta et al. 2018). To rewrite the formula, this
could be understood as follows (11.1):
Annual rate of forest change ( r ) = 1 / ( t2 - t1 ) x ln a2  a1 (11.1)
where, a1 and a2 denote the forest cover estimates and t1 and t2, respectively, denoted
the time period. This formula calculates the percentage change in forest area over
some time, assuming a constant annual growth rate.
11.4 Results and Discussion
11.4.1 Shift in the Vegetation
The vegetation lines and spatial distribution of NDVI values (0.2–0.4) in 1990,
2008, and 2021 are shown in Fig. 11.2 (Kumar et al. 2020). The average elevation
of the vegetation line in Kinnaur district was 3164 m in 1990, ranging from 1526 m
to 4050 m. By 2008, the average height increased to 3227 m, ranging from 1907 m
to 4241 m. In 2021, the average elevation reached 3257 m, ranging from 1968 m to
4227 m (Fig. 11.3; Table 11.1). These data indicate an upward shift of the vegetation
line by approximately 63 m at a rate of 0.02 m/year during 1990–2008 and 30 m
during 2008–2021 (Table 11.2). Over the past 31 years (1990–2021), the vegetation
line in Kinnaur District has experienced a total upward shift of 93 m at an average
rate of 0.03 m/year (Table 11.2).
Notably, the elevation factor alone does not control the vegetation line; other fac-
tors such as aspect (Kank and Barancok 2005), slope steepness, and rockiness also
play significant roles in influencing vegetation growth and development. Figure 11.3
illustrates the spatial dynamics of the non-vegetative area that converted into the
vegetative area between 1990–2008 and 2008–2021. Due to this vegetation shift
Fig. 11.3 Temporal change in non-vegetative area to vegetative area in the Kinnaur district
between 1990 and 2021 (a) 1990–2008; (b) 2008–2021, and (c) 1990–2021
Table 11.1 Mean height of the vegetation at different time interval in the Kinnaur district
Year Average height (m) Minimum Maximum Standard deviation
1990 3164 1526 4050 ±410
2008 3227 1907 4241 ±434
2021 3391 1968 4227 ±359
from 1990 to 2021, approximately 65.04 km2 of non-vegetative area in the district
between elevations of 3164 m and 3257 m has transformed into vegetative area at an
average rate of 0.03 km2/year (Table 11.2). On the contrary, the non-vegetative area
transformed into vegetative at 0.06 km2/year during 1990–2008 and 0.008 km2/year
during 2008–2021 (Table 11.2) (Fig. 11.4).
11.4.2 Forest Loss and Deforestation
During the study period of 2000 to 2021, the forest area in Kinnaur witnessed a loss
of 0.48 km2 in 2000 and 0.142 km2 in 2018 (Fig. 11.5). Another study conducted on
the historical forest cover change over 5 years (2001–2005) in the region revealed a
Table 11.2 Shifting of vegetation during different time interval in Kinnaur district
Change from non-vegetative to
Shift of vegetation line vegetative area
Amount Rate of shift (m/ Rate (km/
Year Period (m) year) Area (km) year)
1990–2008 18 63 0.02 57.44 0.062
2008–2021 13 30 0.009 7.60 0.008
1990–2021 31 93 0.03 65.04 0.070
Fig. 11.4 Vegetation near Gufa trek route to Kinnar Kalish, in Kinnaur District
decreasing net deforestation rate of 2.01%, resulting in a loss of 50 km2 of forest

cover, with the Nichar block contributing a significant proportion of the loss
(Fig. 11.5). Between 2019 and 2021 net loss rate was of 0.077%. Pandit et al. (2007)
recorded—0.54 deforestation rate in the Indian Himalayas during 1970–2000
because of forest conversion due to ongoing human intervention (Table 11.3).
11.5 Conclusion
The results reveal a significant shift in vegetation lines and forest cover over three
decades (1990–2021). The vegetation line in the Kinnaur district has experienced a
notable shift towards higher elevations over the study period. The average height of
the vegetation line increased from 3164 m in 1990 to 3391 m in 2021. The change
occurred at an average rate of 0.03 m/year, with a cumulative shift of 93 m during
Fig. 11.5 Forest losses in Kinnaur District during 2001 & 2021
Table 11.3 Net deforestation rates in different periods in Kinnaur district

Time Area (km2) Percent deforestation
T1 T2 T2–T1 a1 a2 Net area loss/gain Net rate
2001 2005 4 647 597 −50 −2.011
2005 2009 4 597 602 5 0.209
2009 2011 2 602 600 −2 −0.166
2011 2013 2 600 606 6 0.497
2013 2015 2 606 604 −2 −0.165
2015 2017 2 604 623 19 1.549
2017 2019 2 623 646 23 1.813
2019 2021 2 646 645 −1 −0.077
the 31 years. The non-vegetative area in the Kinnaur between 3164 and 3257 m
elevation underwent a conversion into a vegetative area. Approximately 65.04 km2
of non-vegetative area transformed into vegetative cover during the study period,
with varying conversion rates in different time intervals. The Kinnaur district expe-
rienced forest losses, with a net deforestation rate of −2.01% from 2001 to 2005.
The forest area continued to change, with fluctuations in net deforestation rates in
subsequent periods. The years 2015–2017 and 2017–2019 saw significant forest
gains, but the overall trend indicates a net loss in forest cover. The observed shifts
in vegetation lines and forest cover are consistent with the potential impacts of cli-
mate change, aligning with broader studies on global environmental changes.
Effective conservation strategies, informed by accurate and timely data from remote
sensing technologies, are essential to mitigate the impacts of environmental changes
on these ecologically fragile mountain ecosystems.
References
Auffret AG, Svenning JC (2022) Climate warming has compounded plant responses to habitat
conversion in northern Europe. Nat Commun 13(1):7818
Champion HG, Seth SK (1968) A revised survey of forest types of India. Govt. of India Press,
New Delhi, p 404
Chandra Sekar K, Manikandan R, Srivastava SK (2012) Invasive alien plants of Uttarakhand
Himalaya. Proc Natl Acad Sci India Sect B Biol Sci 82:375–383
29(2):451–457
Elsen PR, Monahan WB, Merenlender AM (2020) Topography and human pressure in mountain
ranges alter expected species responses to climate change. Nat Commun 11(1):1974
Peltophorum africanum L. in new forest. Indian Forester 143:290–291
Hamid M, Khuroo AA, Malik AH, Ahmad R, Singh CP, Dolezal J, Haq SM (2020) Early evi-
dence of shifts in alpine summit vegetation: a case study from Kashmir Himalaya. Front Plant
Sci 11:421
Kank RJ, Barancok P (2005) Monitoring of climatic change impacts on alpine vegetation—first
approach. Ekologia (Bratislava) 24:411–418
Kothawale DR, Rupa Kumar K (2005) On the recent changes in surface temperature trends over
India. Geophys Res Lett 32(18)
(2020) Carbon mineralization and inorganic nitrogen pools under Terminalia chebula
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
49(1):38–44
org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120191
Negi GCS, Rawal RS (2019) Himalayan biodiversity in the face of climate change. In: Tropical
ecosystems: structure, functions and challenges in the face of global change, pp 263–277
Pandit MK, Sodhi NS, Koh LP, Bhaskar A, Brook BW (2007) Unreported yet massive deforesta-
tion driving loss of endemicbiodiversity in Indian Himalaya. Biodivers Conserv 16:153–163
Panigrahy S, Anitha D, Kimothi MM, Singh SP (2010) Timberline change detection using topo-
graphic map and satellite imagery. Trop Ecol 51(1):87–91
Rathore P, Roy A, Karnatak H (2022) Predicting the future of species assemblages under climate
and land use land cover changes in Himalaya: a geospatial modelling approach. Clim Change
Ecol 3:100048
Rawat JS, Kumar M, Viswas V, Rawat VS, Gahlaut N (2016) The impact of climate change on
the shifting of the vegetation line in the Indian Himalaya: a case study from the Kutiyangti
watershed. In: Chand R, Leimgruber W (eds) Globalization and marginalization in mountain
regions. Perspectives on geographical marginality, vol 1. Springer, Cham
Reddy CS, Dutta K, Jha CS (2013) Analysing the gross and net deforestation rates in India. Curr
Sci 105(11):1492–1500
Roy A, Rathore P (2019) Western Himalayan forests in climate change scenario. In: Remote sens-
ing of northwest Himalayan ecosystems, pp 265–283
Sahu N, Saini A, Behera SK, Sayama T, Sahu L, Nguyen VTV, Takara K (2020) Why apple
orchards are shifting to the higher altitudes of the Himalayas? PLoS One 15(7):e0235041
Schickhoff U, Bobrowski M, Böhner J, Bürzle B, Chaudhary RP, Gerlitz L, Wedegärtner R (2015)
Do Himalayan treelines respond to recent climate change? An evaluation of sensitivity indica-
tors. Earth Syst Dynam 6(1):245–265
Sharma P (2020) Shifting of vegetation and timber lines in Pinder watershed central Himalaya
using geospatial technology. Remote Sens Earth Syst Sci 3:35–43
Shrestha UB, Gautam S, Bawa KS (2012) Widespread climate change in the Himalayas and asso-
ciated changes in local ecosystems. PLoS One 7(5):e36741
Singh S, Singh H, Sharma SK, Nautiyal R (2021b) Seasonal variation in biochemical responses of
Singh CP, Panigrahy S, Thapliyal A, Kimothi MM, Soni P, Parihar JS (2012) Monitoring the alpine
treeline shift in parts of the Indian Himalayas using remote sensing. Curr Sci 102(4):559–562
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
Singh L, Kanwar N, Bhatt ID, Nandi SK, Bisht AK (2022) Predicting the potential distribution
of Dactylorhizahatagirea (D. Don) Soo-an important medicinal orchid in the west Himalaya,
under multiple climate change scenarios. PLoS One 17(6):e0269673
Singh P, Arya V, Negi GCS, Singh SP (2018) Expansion of Rhododendron campanulatum krumm-
holz in the treeline ecotone in Tungnath, Garhwal Himalaya. Trop Ecol 59(2):287–295
Singh SP, Bhattacharyya A, Mittal A, Pandey A, Tewari A, Latwal A, David B, Adhikari AS, Kumar
D, Negi GCS, Mir IA, Tamta KK, Sambhav K, Shekhar M, Phulara M, Manzoor M, Singh N,
Tewari P, Ranhotra PS, Singh P, Dhaila P, Sah P, Kumar R, Joshi R, Rawal RS, Rawal R, Singh
RD, Shah S, Sharma S, Nanda SA, Gumber S, Singh U, Reshi Z (2021a) Indian Himalayan
timberline ecotone in response to climate change—initial findings. Curr Sci 120(5):859–871
Telwala Y, Brook BW, Manish K, Pandit MK (2013) Climate-induced elevational range shifts and
increase in plant species richness in a Himalayan biodiversity epicentre. PLoS One 8(2):e57103
Tewari A, Bhatt J, Mittal A (2016) Influence of tree water potential in inducing flowering in
Rhododendron arboreum in the central Himalayan region. iForest-Biogeosciences and Forestry
9(5):842–846
Tewari A, Mittal A, Singh N (2017) Seed maturation timing in Quercus leucotrichophora A. camus
along an altitudinal gradient in Uttarakhand Himalaya. Environ Conserv J 18(3):53–59
Wolf A, Zimmerman NB, Anderegg WR, Busby PE, Christensen J (2016) Altitudinal shifts of the
native and introduced flora of California in the context of 20th-century warming. Glob Ecol
Biogeogr 25(4):418–429
Xu J, Grumbine RE, Shrestha A, Eriksson M, Yang X, Wang YUN, Wilkes A (2009) The melt-
ing Himalayas: cascading effects of climate change on water, biodiversity, and livelihoods.
Conserv Biol 23(3):520–530
Xu Y, Yang J, Chen Y (2016) NDVI-based vegetation responses to climate change in an arid area
of China. Theor Appl Climatol 126:213–222
Zhang G, Xu X, Zhou C, Zhang H, Ouyang H (2011) Responses of grassland vegetation to climatic
variations on different temporal scales in HulunBuir Grassland in the past 30 years. J Geogr
Sci 21:634–650
Chapter 12
Effects of CO2 Enrichment on Microbial
Community in Soils
Ritika Gupta, Shivam Kumar Gupta, Parul Bhatt Kotiyal, and Hukum Singh
Abstract It has been predicted that atmospheric CO2 concentrations will increase,
resulting in elevated temperatures and modified weather patterns. Climate change is
expected to impact microbial functioning by changing enzyme activity that may
alter mineralization processes and nutrient availability. The response of microor-
ganisms to rising atmospheric CO2 concentration is poorly understood.
Microorganisms in soil control the dynamics of plant nutrient availability and
organic matter decomposition. Microorganisms also significantly impact how eco-
systems adapt to changes in the global climate. Because the soil has a substantially
higher CO2 concentration than the atmosphere, elevated CO2 would indirectly affect
soil microorganisms through increased rates of rhizodeposition and root growth.
Hence, this chapter explores the response of soil microorganisms to CO2-enriched
climatic conditions better to understand the role of microorgnsms in climate change.
Keywords Climate change · CO2 · Soil microorganisms · Nutrient availability ·

Environmental parameters
12.1 Introduction
An area of interest in climate change research is the effects of fertilizing soil with
carbon dioxide (CO2) on microorganisms. Through modifications in root develop-
ment and rhizodeposition rates, elevated CO2 levels in the atmosphere can indirectly
impact soil microorganisms. Roots release organic compounds into the soil, known
as rhizome deposits, which serve as a food source for soil microorganisms. Higher
CO2 concentrations can promote rhizome deposit formation and root growth, giving
microorganisms access to more nutrients. Microbial biomass and activity may rise
as a result (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, 2021a, b, c, d; Manoj et al. 2021).
R. Gupta (*) · S. K. Gupta · P. B. Kotiyal · H. Singh

Forest Ecology and Climate Change Division, Forest Research Institute,
Ltd. 2024
232 R. Gupta et al.
Nonetheless, how soil microorganisms react to increased CO2 varies depending

on the microclimatic conditions, such as soil moisture. Microbial biomass and
activity have been observed to increase significantly in certain studies. The concen-
tration of atmospheric CO2 has increased due to anthropogenic activity, from
approximately 280 parts per million (ppm) at the start of the Industrial Revolution
to over 400 ppm. According to predictions, by 2050, the range of atmospheric CO2
concentrations is expected to be between 450 and 600 parts per million (ppm)
(Kattenburg et al. 1995). Studies on the effects of CO2 enrichment in terrestrial
ecosystems spanning more than 20 years have yielded a wealth of information and
improved understanding of a wide range of plant responses, including net primary
production, species abundance, community composition, and soil respiration (root
plus microbial respiration) (Poorter 1993; Curtis and Wang 1998; Edwards and
Norby 1999; Mooney et al. 1999; Zak et al. 2000a).
Furthermore, there has been a lot of discussion about the physical and chemical
makeup of plant matter as well as the decomposability of plant litter (Cotrufo et al.
1994; Cotrufo and Ineson 1995; King et al. 1997). However, belowground processes
in soils have received scant attention. Our understanding of how ecosystems respond
to global climate change is severely limited by the impacts of increasing CO2, which
are still primarily unknown. Furthermore, it is thought that those soil microbes may
serve as potential bio-monitors of the consequences of climate change or other eco-
system changes (Foissner 1999; Gupta and Singh 2017; Joshi et al. 2020; Kumar
et al. 2020a, b, c; Nautiyal et al. 2022). Microorganisms in soils are essential because
they control the dynamics of decomposing organic matter and the availability of
nutrients for plants. This allows ecosystems to adapt to changes in the global cli-
mate. Increased root growth and rhizodeposition rates would be the indirect effects
of elevated CO2 on soil microorganisms (Rogers et al. 1994; Rouhier et al. 1994;
Paterson et al. 1997; Sadowsky and Schortemeyer 1997). This is because soil has a
much higher concentration of CO2 than the atmosphere (Van Veen et al. 1991). As
such, plants’ responses to root dynamics, root exudates, and litter production and
decomposition are critical in understanding microbial responses. Similar to atmo-
spheric CO2, the O3 concentration in the troposphere has increased rapidly, from an
estimated pre-industrial level of 38 nmol mol−1 to the current level of 50 nmol mol−1,
a level that is already 25% higher than the threshold set for injury to sensitive plants
(Rouhier et al. 1994). According to Galloway et al. (2004), human activity has also
increased the amount of reactive N (such as N2O and NOx) in the atmosphere,
which has significantly accelerated the rate of atmospheric N deposition. According
to Galloway et al. (2004), global atmospheric N deposition is predicted to increase
to 195 Tg N year−1 in 2050, more than six times the amount in 1860.
Variations in soil types, microbial populations, and experimental settings could
cause the response’s variability. Elevated CO2 levels can affect soil microbial com-
munities’ variety, composition, biomass, and activity. Variations in the competition
for resources and nutrient availability can cause changes in the relative abundance
of various microbial species. The functioning of ecosystems and the cycling of
nutrients may be affected by these alterations in the composition of the microbial
community. The part soil microorganisms play in the nitrogen cycle is one
12 Effects of CO2 Enrichment on Microbial Community in Soils 233
significant feature of their reaction to increased CO2. The mechanisms of nitrifica-

tion and denitrification control nitrate leaching and soil nitrogen concentrations.
Research has indicated that increased CO2 levels may impact these processes.
However, the specific effects and their extent may differ. Greater CO2 levels can
speed up nitrification, increasing the Nitrogen available in the soil (Apurva et al.
2017; Joshi et al. 2020; Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d; Bisht et al. 2021).
On the other hand, nitrification or denitrification rates under conditions of
increased CO2 have not been found to change much in other research. Forecasting
and controlling the consequences of climate change on ecosystems requires an
awareness of how increased CO2 affects soil microorganisms (Savita et al. 2017;
Sharma et al. 2018). The cycling of nutrients, soil fertility, and ecosystem function
are all greatly aided by soil microbes. More investigation is required to determine
the mechanisms underlying soil microorganisms’ response and understand the long-
term consequences on soil health and ecosystem sustainability due to increased CO2
(Gupta et al. 2019; Kumar et al. 2019, 2021a, b, c, d; Singh and Kumar 2022).
12.2 Alteration in Soil Microbial Biomass Carbon

in Response to Increased CO2
Microbial biomass C has not shown a discernible response to increased CO2 in sev-
eral investigations (Jones et al. 1998; Kampichler et al. 1998; Niklaus 1998; Insam
et al. 1999; Hungate et al. 2000; Larson et al. 2002; Wiemken et al. 2001; Montealegre
et al. 2002; Mitchell et al. 2003). For instance, Wiemken et al. (2001) showed that
the treatments, including increased CO2 or nitrogen fertilizer, had no discernible
effect on the levels of carbon, a general indicator of microbial biomass, or chitin, a
marker of fungal biomass. Niklaus and Korner’s (1996) and Rouhier et al.’s (1994)
findings imply that microbial C responses to increased CO2 are unlikely to arise in
ecosystems with low nutrient levels. Schortemeyer et al. (1996) found that in the
rhizosphere of perennial ryegrass or white clover, the overall heterotrophic micro-
bial populations, represented by microbial C, remained constant in size even in the
presence of high CO2. A more recent study (Schortemeyer et al. 2000) found that
after 2 years of CO2 enrichment, microbial biomass in a natural Florida scrub habi-
tat did not increase. Insam et al. (1999) found that although total bacterial counts
were much more significant, high CO2 concentration had no discernible effect on
microbial biomass C, ergosterol levels, or fungal hyphal lengths in an artificial trop-
ical ecosystem with inadequate food availability. After 2.5 growing seasons, (Zak
et al. 2000b) discovered that microbial biomass in bulk soils with higher CO2 stayed
constant. Niklaus et al. (2001) examined soil C fluxes and ecosystem C partitioning
in grasslands subjected to elevated CO2 for 6 years. They demonstrated that whereas
C pools in bacteria and soil organisms remained the same, they rose by 23% and
24% in plants and surface litter, respectively. In contrast, many studies (Diaz et al.
1993; Zak et al. 1993; Dhillion et al. 1996; Pregitzer et al. 2000; Williams et al.
234 R. Gupta et al.
2000; Klamer et al. 2002) have documented an increase in soil microbial biomass
under high CO2. Zak et al. (1993) found that Populus grandidentata’s rhizosphere
and bulk soil had higher levels of microbial biomass C when CO2 levels were higher
than those in the surrounding air. Elevated CO2 caused an up to 80% increase in
microbial biomass C in an acidic grassland herbaceous community (Diaz et al.
1993). Dhillion et al. (1996) found that microbial biomass C was considerably
greater in soil from monocultures of Bromus madritensis, a common and occasion-
ally dominant annual grass in Mediterranean model environment plants grown
under elevated CO2. Soil microbial biomass C was higher under enhanced C than
ambient treatment in tallgrass prairie subjected to elevated CO2 for 8 years (Williams
et al. 2000). After 3 years of CO2 fumigation in the grassland ecosystem,
(Montealegre et al. 2002) observed that bacterial populations under white clover
grew by around 1.4 times. Additionally, in response to increased CO2, some study
groups discovered a rise in the extra-radical mycelium and short mycorrhizal roots
(Ineichen et al. 1995; Lewis and Strain 1996; Runion et al. 1997; Walker et al. 1997;
Wiemken et al. 2001).
12.3 Variations in Soil Microbial Nitrogen Biomass

in Response to Increased CO2
In N-limited habitats, plant production is heavily dependent on Nitrogen. Hence, it

is crucial to comprehend how increased CO2 affects microbial biomass N (Diaz
et al. 1993; Zak et al. 1993). Concerning soil microbial N, elevated CO2 can either
have no effect (Berntson and Bazzaz 1998; Niklaus 1998; Zak et al. 2000b) or a
favorable effect (Diaz et al. 1993; Zak et al. 1993; Niklaus 1998). For instance,
Niklaus (1998) found that increasing CO2 had no effect on microbial biomass C,
and it did increase microbial biomass N by 18%. The study conducted by Williams
et al. (2000) found that after 8 years of exposure to increasing CO2, soil microbial
biomass N in tall grass prairie was generally higher than that of ambient treatment
in the Mojave Desert, the impacts of increased CO2 on soil nitrogen dynamics were
studied by (Billings et al. 2004). They discovered that in dry soils with perennial
grass underneath, higher CO2 enhanced microbial biomass N. However, after sev-
eral years of treatment, Barnard et al. (2004a) showed that increased CO2 did not
affect microbial biomass N in four European grassland ecosystems. Insam et al.
(1999) discovered that in a simulated tropical habitat with high CO2 and low nutri-
ent levels, microbial biomass C grew by 27%, whereas microbial biomass N
declined somewhat.
The overall number of microorganisms did not differ between ambient and
increased CO2 treatments (O’Neill et al. 1987; Whipps 1985). The population of
nitrifiers was unaffected by the increased CO2 in nitrifier experiments (O’Neill et al.
1987; Schortemeyer et al. 1996). Nonetheless, some researchers have noted that
when CO2 is high, bacteria increases (Rogers et al. 1992; Runion et al. 1994; Insam
et al. 1999; Marley et al. 1999). Furthermore, it was shown by (Schortemeyer et al.
1996) that after 2 years of CO2 enrichment, the number of a particular species
increased twofold in a natural Florida scrub ecosystem, but the population as a
whole showed no change.
12.3.1 Effects of Increased CO2 on Soil Microbial Respiration
Numerous investigations have revealed that microbial respiration was noticeably

higher in conditions of elevated CO2 (Rogers et al. 1992; Runion et al. 1994;
Dhillion et al. 1996; Williams et al. 2000). For instance, Williams et al. (2000)
found that after 8 years of exposure to increased CO2, microbial respiration was
higher in tall grass prairie. However, it was observed by Tuchman et al. (2003) that
in stream ecosystems where Populus tremuloides seedlings were cultivated in
increased CO2 circumstances, microbial community respiration drastically
decreased by 36.8%. Larson et al. (2002) also reported similar results.
12.3.2 Effects of Increased CO2 on Soil Denitrification
Denitrification is one of the most significant processes for reintroducing Nitrogen

(N) from terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems to the atmosphere (Kaplan et al. 1979),
and it also mediates the release of the potent greenhouse gas N2O (Smart et al. 1997;
Baggs et al. 2003; Deiglmayr et al. 2004). It has been noted that under CO2 enrich-
ment, denitrifying activity dramatically increased in both field and controlled set-
tings. For instance, a more remarkable synthesis of N2O-N, a metabolite of
denitrification, was discovered by Ineson et al. (1998) beneath Lolium perenne
growing in conditions of high CO2 and N input. According to Rogers et al. (1992),
denitrifier activation through increased fine root growth and enhanced root exuda-
tion, as well as the creation of anaerobic conditions due to increased soil respiration
and soil water content, could be the cause of the higher denitrification rates under
elevated CO2 (Korner 2000; Zak et al. 2000a). Elevated CO2, however, has not been
shown to either increase or reduce denitrifying enzyme activity (DEA) and nitrify-
ing enzyme activity (NEA) (Barnard et al. 2004a, b; Matamala and Drake 1999).
Different responses have been noted based on sampling dates, even in the same
study (Billings et al. 2003).For instance, after 2.5 growing seasons, nitrification in
bulk soils with increased CO2 remained unchanged, according to research by Zak
et al. (2000b). The number of active nitrifying and denitrifying enzymes present in
four European grassland soils was somewhat affected by increased CO2 (Barnard
et al. 2004a). NEA significantly dropped in mono-specific grassland mesocosms
(Holcus lanatus and Festuca rubra) growing under high CO2, whereas DEA was less
sensitive to the same conditions (Barnard et al. 2004b). Potential denitrification
236 R. Gupta et al.
rates were demonstrated to be lower in soil cores from the ScirpusOlneyi population
subjected to increased CO2, according to Matamala and Drake (1999).
12.3.3 Effects of Increased CO2 on the Structure of Soil

Microbial Communities
Composition of the Microbial Community Information on the effects on soil micro-

bial community structure is minimal (Zak et al. 1996; Griffiths et al. 1998; Insam
et al. 1999; Marley et al. 1999; Wiemken et al. 2001; Klamer et al. 2002; Deiglmayr
et al. 2004), despite changes in soil microbial number, biomass, activity, and micro-
bial C and N in response to elevated CO2 have been shown in several studies (Diaz
et al. 1993; Zak et al. 1993; Rice et al. 1994; Dhillion et al. 1996). The examination
of phospholipid fatty acids (Zak et al. 1996; Montealegre et al. 2002) and several
molecular techniques have been used for microbial community structure (Griffiths
et al. 1998; Marley et al. 1999; Montealegre et al. 2000; Klamer et al. 2002;
Deiglmayr et al. 2004). For example, terminal-restriction fragment length polymor-
phism (TRFLP) analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region has been
used to determine the composition of fungal communities (Klamer et al. 2002).
Furthermore, additional investigations included PCR-based fingerprinting, DNA
hybridization, and % G + C base profiling (Griffiths et al. 1998; Montealegre et al.
2000). DNA restriction analysis (ARDRA) and colony hybridization were utilized
by Marley et al. (1999), whereas (Deiglmayr et al. 2004) performed PCR-RFLP
using primers for the narG gene. According to several studies (Mitchell et al. 2003),
changes in the quantity and/or type of plant material incorporated into the soil may
modify the composition of soil microbial communities due to elevated atmospheric
CO2. For instance, components or assemblages of bacterial communities may be
susceptible to shifts or changes caused by elevated CO2 in root region soil from
monocultures of Bromus madritensis, a common and occasionally dominant annual
grass in Mediterranean model ecosystems, according to the bacterial substrate utili-
zation assay conducted by Dhillion et al. in 1996. Jones et al. (1998) demonstrated
how increasing CO2 altered the makeup of soil fungus species in an experimental
setting. The isolates (Rhizobium strains) from plants grown under elevated CO2
were genetically distinct from those obtained from plants grown under ambient con-
ditions in a pasture ecosystem of the Swiss FACE experiment, according to
Montealegre et al.’s 2000 genomic DNA fingerprinting study using Polymerase
Chain Reaction (PCR). These findings suggest that increased atmospheric CO2 may
change the makeup of the soil’s microbial community (Kumar et al. 2019, 2022;
Singh et al. 2020). Furthermore, increased ambient CO2 impacts root nodule symbi-
onts’ capacity for competition, which most likely causes a subset of these strains to
nodulate white clover. The makeup of the microbial community in the rhizosphere
soil of white clover plants grown in ambient or high CO2 was investigated using
PLFA analysis (Montealegre et al. 2002). They stated that following 3 years of CO2
fumigation, there was a shift in the composition of the soil microbial community.
According to (Lekkerkerk et al. 1990), several species reacted strongly to variations
in CO2 content. Nevertheless, other research has not demonstrated that increased
CO2 concentrations change the makeup of the microbial community. The microbial
community composition of soil did not alter much, according to (Zak et al. 1996).
Ringelberg et al. (1997) found that gram-negative bacteria and actinomycetes barely
slightly changed in response to increased CO2. Using large-scale DNA methods,
Griffiths et al. (1998)) showed that under both ambient and high CO2, the rhizo-
sphere microbial communities of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and ryegrass were
86% comparable. Using phospholipid fatty acid analysis (PLFA) patterns and com-
munity-level physiological profiles (CLPP), Insam et al. (1999) discovered in an
artificial tropical ecosystem that increased CO2 did not affect the shift in the bacte-
rial community.
The general and rhizospheric soil microbial diversity of soil samples taken from
various Sikkim and Uttaranchal Himalaya elevations have been studied (Pandey
et al. 2006). The rhizosphere effect exerted by ecologically important tree species of
the Himalayas has also been reviewed in this chapter. The microbial population of
the three groups, bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi, decreased along the increasing
altitude. In the case of bacteria and actinomycetes, a sharp and statistically signifi-
cant decline (P < 0.05) above 1600 m was recorded. The fungal population appeared
to be more sensitive to the altitudinal changes. The fungal counts decreased signifi-
cantly (P < 0.05) at Chamgaon (1600 m).
On the other hand, exciting results were obtained in the case of three specific
groups of bacteria. The population of pigmented bacteria at 1600 and 1900 m alti-
tudes was almost two times higher than their respective population at 1200 m.
However, another group of one of the dominant bacterial species belonging to the
genus Bacillus did not show much variation in terms of counts, probably on account
of its endospore-forming ability.
The short-term effects will be highly variable and shaped by local environmental
conditions. At the same time, in the longer term, global warming will strongly affect
soil microorganisms and nutrient-cycling functions, both directly and indirectly.
The latitudinal gradient studies revealed that the significant differences in climatic
conditions at the sampled sites strongly influenced microbial community structure,
diversity, abundance, and functions. In addition, vegetation cover was observed to
exert a strong effect, indicating that indirect effects of global warming through veg-
etation expansion may lead to significant ecosystem responses (Kumar et al. 2020a,
b, c, 2021a, b, c, d; Kumar and Singh 2020; Dhyani et al. 2021). Microcosm studies
highlighted that fungi and bacteria respond differently to increasing temperature
and changes in freeze-thaw cycle frequency. These experiments also showed that
several functional genes involved in the N-cycle were more sensitive to freeze-thaw
cycle frequency changes than to temperature increases. Field warming experiments
showed that the short-term responses of soil organisms and associated functions to
warming of a few degrees were highly dependent on local environmental condi-
tions. Significant responses were only recorded in moist, nutrient-rich Antarctic
238 R. Gupta et al.
environments, while few responses were observed in nutrient- or water-limited

environments and the more temperate soils.
Drigo et al. (2008) examined the current state of the art concerning the effects of
elevated atmospheric CO2 on soil microbial communities, focusing on microbial
community structure. Based on the existing information, we conclude that the main
effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 on soil microbiota occur via plant metabolism
and root secretion, especially in C3 plants, thereby directly affecting the mycorrhi-
zal, bacterial, and fungal communities near the root. There is little or no direct effect
on the microbial community of the bulk soil. Rosch and Bothe (2009) also studied
the diversity of total, nitrogen-fixing, and denitrifying bacteria in acid forest soil and
found that proteobacteria and actinobacteria dominated. An immediate nitrogen
shift in the microbiological population was found due to an altered C/N ratio. Cheng
(2010) conducted a long-term field study in a no-till wheat-soybean system was
used to test this hypothesis that high N availability mediates microbial responses to
CO2-enhancement of C availability and exerts a major control over organic C turn-
over. Results show that N availability critically influenced soil microbial responses
to elevated CO2 but not O3. Elevated CO2 significantly increased, but O3 reduced
above-ground residue mass and residue N inputs (Singh and Verma 2013; Yadav
et al. 2019; Verma et al. 2020; Singh et al. 2020). However, only elevated CO2 sig-
nificantly affected soil microbial parameters. While it only had marginal effects on
microbial respiration in the first 2 years, elevated CO2 significantly stimulated
microbial biomass and decomposition in the third and fourth years when N avail-
ability increased, likely due to CO2-stimulation of symbiotic N2 fixation in soybeans.
These results suggest that high N availability in many agricultural soils may
accelerate organic C turnover and limit the potential of C sequestration in agroeco-
systems under future CO2 scenarios (Joshi and Singh 2020; Kumari and Singh
2018). The second one proposed that the CO2 enhancement of arbuscular mycor-
rhizal (AM) fungi facilitates organic C decomposition and subsequent plant N
uptake, but elevated O3 offsets the CO2 effect. Results from field and microcosm
investigations show that increased CO2 and N inputs, which stimulate AM fungus,
significantly increased the breakdown of organic C. Results from stable isotope
(d15N) analyses also indicate elevated CO2 increased mycorrhizal-mediated plant N
acquisition from decomposing organic residues. However, the magnitude of mycor-
rhizal-mediated plant N uptake under elevated CO2 varied significantly among dif-
ferent AM fungal species. These findings directly challenge the current view that the
CO2-stimulation of mycorrhizal fungi could increase soil C sequestration. These
findings also imply that increased CO2 may change the AM fungal community com-
position and the feedback loop of responses from plants and ecosystems.
Yergeau et al. (2012) studied that due to severe abiotic limitations, Antarctic soils
represent simplified systems where microorganisms are the principal drivers of
nutrient cycling. This relative simplicity makes these ecosystems particularly vul-
nerable to perturbations, like global warming, and the Antarctic Peninsula is among
the most rapidly warming regions on the planet. However, the consequences of the
ongoing warming of Antarctica on microorganisms and the processes they mediate
are unknown. Here, we show similar responses in microbial communities to 3 years
of experimental field warming (+0.5 to 2 °C) across diverse sub-Antarctic and

Antarctic habitats using 16S rRNA gene pyrosequencing and qPCR. Specifically,
we found significant increases in the abundance of fungi and bacteria and in the
Alpha proteobacteria-to-acidobacteria ratio, which could increase soil respiration.
Furthermore, shifts toward generalist bacterial communities following warming
weakened the linkage between the bacterial taxonomic and functional richness.
Geo-chip microarray analyses also revealed significant warming effects on func-
tional communities, specifically in the N-cycling microorganisms. Their results
demonstrate that soil microorganisms across sub-Antarctic and Antarctic environ-
ments can respond consistently and rapidly to increasing temperatures.
12.4 Conclusion
Numerous studies with conflicting results have shown that the effects of elevated
CO2 levels on the biomass and activity of soil microorganisms are a complex phe-
nomenon that depends on the environment. The carbon (C) and Nitrogen (N) con-
tent of microbial biomass has fluctuated in response to increased CO2 in certain
studies, while increases and decreases have been observed in others. The reactions
seem to be influenced by the habitat type, interactions between plants and microbes,
and availability of nutrients. Microbial biomass carbon shows contradictory trends:
while some research claims no change or even a decline with increasing CO2, others
note an increase. Microbial biomass nitrogen responses also exhibit variability, with
some studies reporting beneficial effects and others finding no discernible change.
Studies also varied in their effects on microbial respiration; some claim enhanced
activity in settings of increasing CO2, while others show declines. A critical step in
the nitrogen cycle is denitrification, which reacts inconsistently to increased CO2.
Some studies indicate no significant effects, or perhaps a decrease, in denitrifying
activity, while others report an increase. The impact on the composition of the soil
microbial population also varies; some studies using phospholipid fatty acid analy-
sis and molecular techniques report significant changes, while others report no
changes.
Moreover, it reported that plant-microbe interactions, root exudates, and changes
in nutrient availability may mediate the effects of rising CO2 concentration on soil
microbial populations. The variety and composition of microbial communities may
change by CO2 concentration, affecting nutrient cycling and ecosystems’ general
well-being. The biomass and activity of soil microorganisms respond to elevated
CO2 in different and context-specific ways. The range of results highlights how
critical it is to fully understand the interdependent factors influencing microbial
responses in various environments. The studies should consider the importance of
specific microbial groups, plant-microbe interactions, and nutrient availability to
predict how rising CO2 levels would affect soil microbial communities and ecosys-
tem processes more precisely.
240 R. Gupta et al.
References
Baggs EM, Richter M, Cadisch G, Hartwig UA (2003) Denitrification in grass swards is increased
under elevated atmospheric CO2. Soil Biol Biochem 35:729–732
Barnard R, Barthes L, Le Roux X, Harmens H, Raschi A, Soussana JF, Winkler B, Leadley PW
(2004a) Atmospheric CO2 elevation has little effect on nitrifying and denitrifying enzyme
activity in four European grasslands. Glob Change Biol 10:488–497
Barnard R, Barthes L, Le Roux X, Leadley PW (2004b) Dynamics of nitrifying activities, denitri-
fying activities, and nitrogen in grassland mesocosms as altered by elevated CO2. New Phytol
162:365–376
Berntson GM, Bazzaz FA (1998) Regenerating temperate forest mesocosms in elevated CO2:
belowground growth and nitrogen cycling. Oecologia 113:115–125
Billings SA, Schaeffer SM, Zitzer S, Evans RD (2003) Trace N gas losses and N mineralization
in an intact Mojave Desert ecosystem with elevated CO2. Soil Biol Biochem 34:1777–1784
Billings SA, Schaeffer SM, Evans RD (2004) Soil microbial activity and N availability with ele-
vated CO2 in Mojave Desert soils. Global Biogeochem Cycles 18:GB1011
ogy: principles and practices. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 85–103
Cheng L (2010) Soil microbial responses to climate change factors: impacts on soil carbon and
nitrogen dynamics. A Ph.D. dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of North Carolina
State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States
Cotrufo MF, Ineson P (1995) Effects of enhanced atmospheric CO2 and nutrient supply on the
quality and subsequent decomposition of the fine roots of Betula pendula Roth. and Picea
sitchensis (Bong.) Carr. Plant Soil 170:267–277
Cotrufo MF, Ineson P, Rowland AP (1994) Decomposition of tree leaf litter grown under elevated
CO2: effect of litter quality. Plant Soil 163:121–130
Curtis PS, Wang X (1998) A meta-analysis of elevated CO2 effects on woody plant mass, form, and
physiology. Oecologia 113:299–313
Deiglmayr K, Philippot L, Hartwig UA, Kandeler E (2004) Structure and activity of the nitrate-
reducing community in the rhizosphere of Lolium perenne and Trifolium repens under long-
term elevated atmospheric p CO2. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 49:445–454
Dhillion SS, Roy J, Abrams M (1996) Assessing the impact of elevated CO2 on soil microbial
activity in a Mediterranean model ecosystem. Plant Soil 187:333–342
Terminalia arjuna under elevated CO2 levels in open top chamber condition. J Appl Nat Sci,
Diaz S, Grime JP, Harris J, McPherson E (1993) Evidence of a feedback mechanism limiting plant
response to elevated carbon dioxide. Nature 364:616–617
Drigo B, Kowalchuk GA, Van Veen JA (2008) Climate change goes underground: effects of
elevated atmospheric CO2 on microbial community structure. Biology and fertility of soils
44:667–678
Edwards NT, Norby RJ (1999) Belowground respiratory response of sugar maple and red maple
saplings to atmospheric CO2 enrichment and elevated air temperature. Plant Soil 206:85–97
Foissner W (1999) Soil protozoa as bioindicators: pros and cons, methods, diversity, representative
examples. Agric Ecosyst Environ 74:95–112
Galloway JN, Dentener FJ, Capone DG, Boyer EW, Howarth RW, Seitzinger SP et al (2004)
Nitrogen cycles: past, present, and future. Biogeochemistry 70:153–226
Griffiths BS, Ritz K, Ebblewhite N, Paterson E, Killham K (1998) Ryegrass rhizosphere micro-
bial community structure under elevated carbon dioxide concentrations, with observations on
wheat rhizosphere. Soil Biol Biochem 30:315–321
145(6):509–515
Hungate BA, Jaeger CH III, Gamara G, Chapin SF II, Field CB (2000) Soil microbiota in two
annual grasslands: responses to elevated atmospheric CO2. Oecologia 124:589–598
Ineichen K, Wiemken V, Wiemken A (1995) Shoots, roots, and ectomycorrhizal formation of pine
seedlings at elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide. Plant Cell Environ 18:703–707
Ineson P, Taylor K, Harrison AF, Poskitt J, Benham DG, Tipping E, Woof C (1998) Effects of
climate change on nitrogen dynamics in upland soils.1. A transplant approach. Glob Change
Biol 4(2):143–152
Insam H, Baath E, Berreck M, Frostegård A, Gerzabek MH, Kraft A, Schinner F, Schweiger P,
Tschuggnall G (1999) Responses of the soil microbiota to elevated CO2 in an artificial tropical
ecosystem. J Microbiol Methods 36:45–54
Jones TH, Thompson LJ, Lawton JH, Bezemer TM, Bardgett RD, Blackburn TM, Bruce KD,
Canon PF, Hall GS, Harley SE, Howson G, Hones CG, Kampichler C, Kandler E, Richie DA
(1998) Impacts of rising atmospheric carbon dioxide on model terrestrial ecosystems. Science
280:441–443
degraded and non-degraded community forests in Terai region of Nepal. J For Environ Sci
Kampichler C, Kandeler E, Bardgett RD, Jones TH, Thompson J (1998) Impact of elevated atmo-
spheric CO2 concentration on soil microbial biomass and activity in a complex, weedy field
model ecosystem. Glob Change Biol 4:335–346
Kaplan W, Valiela I, Teal JM (1979) Denitrification in a salt marsh ecosystem. Limnol Oceanogr
24:726–734
Kattenburg A, Giorgi F, Grassl H, Meehl GA, Mitchell JBF, Stouffer RJ, Tokioka T, Weaver AJ,
Wigley TML (1995) Climate models—projections of future climate, p 290–349
King JS, Thomas RB, Strain BR (1997) Morphology and tissue quality of seedling root systems of
Pinus taeda and Pinus ponderosa as affected by varying CO2, temperature, and nitrogen. Plant
Soil 195:107–119
Klamer M, Roberts MS, Levine LH, Drake BG, Garland JL (2002) Influence of elevated CO2 on
the fungal community in a coastal scrub oak forest soil investigated with terminal-restriction
fragment length polymorphism analysis. Appl Environ Microbiol 68:4370–4376
Korner C (2000) Biosphere responses to CO2 enrichment. Ecol Appl 10:1590–1619
Kumar A, Dwivedi GK, Tewari S, Jaipaul SVK, Singh H, Kumar P, Kumar N, Kausal R (2020b)
Soil organic carbon pools under Terminalia chebula Retz. based agroforestry system in
Himalayan foothills, India. Curr Sci 118:1098–1103. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v118/
i7/1098-1103
242 R. Gupta et al.
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
49(1):38–44
org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120191
Larson JL, Zak DR, Sinsabaugh RL (2002) Extracellular enzyme activity beneath temperature
trees growing under elevated carbon dioxide and ozone. Soil Sci Soc Am J 66:1848–1856
Lekkerkerk LJA, van de Geijn SC, van Veen JA (1990) Effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 levels
on the carbon economy of a soil planted with wheat. In: Bouwman AF (ed) Soils and the green-
house effect. Wiley, New York, pp 423–429
Lewis JD, Strain BR (1996) The role of mycorrhizas in the response of Pinus taeda seedlings to
elevated CO2. New Phytol 133:431–443
agement. In: Forest resources resilience and conflicts. Academic. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-
0-12-822931-6.00024-1
Marley L, Hartwig UA, Aragno M (1999) Influence of an elevated atmospheric CO2 content on soil
and rhizosphere bacterial communities beneath Lolium perenne and Trifolium repens under
field conditions. Microb Ecol 38:39–49
Matamala R, Drake BG (1999) The influence of atmospheric CO2 enrichment on plant-soil nitro-
gen interactions in a wetland plant community on the Chesapeake Bay. Plant Soil 210:93–101
Mitchell EAD, Gilbert D, Buttler A, Amblard C, Grosbernier P, Gobat JM (2003) Structure of
microbial communities in Sphagnum peatlands and effect of atmospheric carbon dioxide
enrichment. Microb Ecol 46:187–199
Montealegre CM, van Kessel C, Blumenthal JM, Hur HG, Hartwig UA, Sadowsky MJ (2000)
Elevated atmospheric CO2 alters microbial structure in a pasture ecosystem. Glob Change Biol
6:475–482
Montealegre CM, van Kessel C, Russelle MP, Sadowsky MJ (2002) Changes in microbial activity
and composition in a pasture ecosystem exposed to elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide. Plant
Soil 243:197–207
Mooney HA, Canadell J, Chapin FS, Ehleringer JR III, Korner C, McMurtrie RE, Parton WJ,
Pitelka LF, Schulze E-D (1999) Ecosystem physiology responses to global change. In: Walker
B, Steffen W, Canadell J, Ingram J (eds) The terrestrial biosphere and global change. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, pp 141–189
Niklaus PA (1998) Effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 on soil microbiota in calcareous grassland.
Glob Change Biol 4:451–458
Niklaus PA, Korner C (1996) Responses of soil microbiota of a late successional alpine grassland
to long-term CO2 enrichment. Plant Soil 184:219–229
Niklaus PA, Wohlfender M, Siegwolf R, Korner C (2001) Effects of six years atmospheric CO2
enrichment on plant, soil, and soil microbial C of a calcareous grassland. Plant Soil 233:189–202
O’Neill EG, Luxmoore RJ, Norby RJ (1987) Elevated atmospheric CO2 effects on seedling growth,
nutrient uptake, and rhizosphere bacterial populations of Linodendrontulipilera L. Plant Soil
104:3–11
Pandey A, Trivedi P, Kumar B, Palni LS (2006) Characterization of a phosphate solubilizing and
antagonistic strain of Pseudomonas putida (B0) isolated from a sub-alpine location in the
Indian central Himalayas. Curr Microbiol 53:102–107
Paterson E, Hall JM, Rattray EAS, Griffiths BS, Ritz K, Killham K (1997) Effect of elevated CO2
on rhizosphere carbon flow and soil microbial processes. Glob Change Biol 3:363–377
Poorter H (1993) Interspecific variation in the growth response of plants to an elevated ambient
CO2 concentration. Vegetatio 104(105):77–97
Pregitzer KS, Zak DR, Maziasz J, DeForest J, Curtis PS, Lussenhop J (2000) Interactive effects
of atmospheric CO2 and soil-N availability on fine roots of Populus tremuloides. Ecol Appl
10:18–13
Rice CW, Garcia FO, Hampton CO, Owensby CE (1994) Soil microbial response in tall grass
prairie to elevated CO2. Plant Soil 165:67–74
Ringelberg DB, Stair JO, Alameida JS, Norby RJ, O’Neill EG, White DC (1997) Consequences of
rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels for the belowground microbiota associated with white
oak. J Environ Qual 26:409–503
Rogers HH, Prior SA, O’Neill EG (1992) Cotton root and rhizosphere responses to free air CO2
enrichment. Crit Rev Plant Sci 11:251–263
Rogers HH, Runion GB, Krupa SV (1994) Plant responses to atmospheric CO2 enrichment with
emphasis on roots and the rhizosphere. Environ Pollut 83:155–189
Rosch C, Bothe H (2009) Diversity of total, nitrogen-fixing, and denitrifying bacteria in an acid
forest soil. Eur J Soil Sci 60:883–894
Rouhier H, Billes G, El Kohen A, Mousseau M, Bottner P (1994) Effect of elevated CO2 on car-
bon and nitrogen distribution within a tree (Castanea sativa Mill.)-soil system. Plant Soil
162:281–292
Runion GB, Curl EA, Rogers HH, Backman PA, Rodriguez-Kabana R, Helms BE (1994) Effects
of free-air CO2 enrichment on microbial populations in the rhizosphere and phyllosphere of
cotton. Agric For Meteorol 70:117–130
Runion GB, Mitchell RJ, Rogers HH, Prior SA, Counts TK (1997) Effects of nitrogen and water
limitation and elevated atmospheric CO2 on ectomycorrhiza of longleaf pine. New Phytol
137:681–689
Sadowsky MJ, Schortemeyer M (1997) Soil microbial responses to increased concentrations of
atmospheric CO2. Glob Change Biol 3:217–224
Schortemeyer M, Hartwig UA, Hendrey GR, Sadowsky MJ (1996) Microbial community changes
in the rhizospheres of white clover and perennial ryegrass exposed to free air carbon dioxide
enrichment (FACE). Soil Biol Biochem 28:1717–1724
Schortemeyer M, Dijkstra P, Johnson DW, Drake BG (2000) Effects of elevated atmospheric CO2
concentration on C and N pools and rhizosphere processes in a Florida scrub oak community.
Glob Change Biol 6:383–391
244 R. Gupta et al.

Singh H, Kumar N, Kumar M, Singh R (2020) Modelling habitat suitability of western trago-
region, in response to climate change. Clim Risk Manage 29:100241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
crm.2020.100241
tus and research needs. In: Rani S, Kumar R (eds) Climate change. Springer climate. Springer,
Cham, pp 223–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
Smart DR, Ritchie K, Stark JM, Bugbee B (1997) Evidence that elevated CO2 levels can indirectly
increase rhizosphere denitri. er, activity. Appl Environ Microbiol 63:4621–4624
Tuchman NC, Wahtera KA, Wetzel RG, Teeri JA (2003) Elevated atmospheric CO2 alters leaf litter
nutritional quality for stream ecosystems: an in situ leaf decomposition study. Hydrobiologia
495:203–211
Van Veen JA, Liljeroth E, Lekkerkerk LJA, van de Geijn SC (1991) Carbon fluxes in plant-soil
systems at elevated atmospheric CO2 levels. Ecol Appl 1:175–181
Verma S, Kumar N, Verma A, Singh H, Siddique KHM, Singh NP (2020) Novel approaches to mit-
igate heat stress impacts on crop growth and development. Plant Physiol Rep 25(4):627–644.
Walker RF, Geisinger DR, D.W., Johnson, and J.T. Ball. (1997) Elevated atmospheric CO2 and soil
N fertility effects on growth, mycorrhizal colonization, and xylem water potential of juvenile
ponderosa pine in a field soil. Plant Soil 195:25–36
Whipps JM (1985) Effects of CO2 -concentrations on growth, carbon distribution, and loss of
carbon from the roots of maize. J Exp Bot 36:645–651
Wiemken V, Laczko E, Ineichen K, Boller T (2001) Effects of elevated carbon dioxide and nitro-
gen fertilization on mycorrhizal fine roots and the soil microbial community in Beech-Spruce
ecosystems on siliceous and calcareous soil. Microb Ecol 42:126–135
Williams MA, Rice CW, Owensby CE (2000) Carbon dynamics and microbial activity in tallgrass
prairie exposed to elevated CO2 for 8 years. Plant Soil 227:127–137
Yadav SK, Singh H, Nautiyal R, Ginwal HS, Ansari SA, Barthwal S (2019) Modulation of mor-
pho-physiological responses in Populus deltoides by elevated carbon dioxide and temperature.
For Sci 66:105–118. https://doi.org/10.1093/forsci/fxz048
Yergeau E, Bokhorst S, Kang S, Zhou J, Greer CW, Aerts R, Kowalchuk GA (2012) Shifts in soil
microorganisms in response to warming are consistent across a range of Antarctic environ-
ments. ISME J 6(3):692–702. https://doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2011.124
Zak DR, Pregitzer KS, Curtis PS, Teeri JA, Fogel R, Randlett DL (1993) Elevated atmospheric
CO2 and feedback between carbon and nitrogen cycles. Plant Soil 151:105–117
Zak DR, Ringelberg DB, Pregitzer KS, Randlett DL, White DC, Curtis PS (1996) Soil microbial
communities beneath Populus granddentata grown under elevated atmospheric CO2. Ecol Appl
6:57–262
Zak DR, Pregitzer KS, King JS, Holmes WE (2000a) Elevated atmospheric CO2, fine roots and the
response of soil microorganisms: a review and hypothesis. New Phytol 147:201–222
Zak DR, Pregitzer KS, Curtis PS, Holmes WE (2000b) Atmospheric CO2 and the composition and
function of soil. Ecol Appl 10:47–59
Chapter 13
The Soil-Climate Nexus in Forest
Ecosystems
Varsha Pandey and Deepak Kumar
Abstract Forest ecosystems are central to the global carbon cycle, playing a cru-
cial role in climate regulation and the preservation of biodiversity. The intricate
relationship between soil characteristics and climate dynamics within these ecosys-
tems is essential for understanding their resilience and response to environmental
changes. Forests serve as vital carbon sinks, absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide
through photosynthesis and retaining it within plant biomass and organic material in
the soil. Soil plays a crucial role in storing and cycling carbon while mitigating
climate change’s effects on forest ecosystems. Climate variables such as tempera-
ture, precipitation, and atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations influence soil
properties, including temperature profiles, moisture levels, nutrient availability, and
microbial activity. Such alterations may result in changes to soil carbon storage and
the release of greenhouse gases, affecting the overall carbon equilibrium within
forests. Additionally, forest soils serve as habitat for a diverse array of organisms,
many of which are sensitive to changes in temperature and moisture. Alterations in
soil conditions due to climate change can disrupt these intricate ecological relation-
ships, potentially leading to forest composition and structure shifts. Moreover,
changes in forest cover and land use can further exacerbate the effects of climate
change on soils, posing challenges for conservation efforts. Understanding the soil-
climate nexus in forest ecosystems is vital for informed forest management and
climate mitigation strategies. This knowledge can inform sustainable land use prac-
tices, reforestation efforts, and the development of climate-resilient forest manage-
ment plans. It also underscores the importance of preserving intact forest ecosystems
to maintain their role as carbon sinks and biodiversity hotspots in a changing cli-
mate. The soil-climate nexus in the forest ecosystem has significant implications for
carbon circulation, biodiversity, and climate control. Continued research in this field
is essential for addressing the challenges posed by climate change and fostering the
resilience and long-term sustainability of forest ecosystems worldwide.
V. Pandey (*)
School of Agricultural Sciences, GD Goenka University, Gurugram, Haryana, India
D. Kumar
School of Agriculture, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ltd. 2024
246 V. Pandey and D. Kumar
Keywords Soil · Nexus · Climate · Forest ecosystems · Resilience
13.1 Introduction
Forest ecosystems represent intricate networks of biological, physical, and chemical

interactions that thrive within wooded areas, showcasing remarkable biodiversity
and playing a pivotal role in global ecological balance (Perry et al. 2008). These
ecosystems encompass a diverse array of flora, fauna, microorganisms, and abiotic
components that harmoniously coexist, contributing to the overall health and func-
tionality of the environment. Forests offer essential ecosystem benefits, such as oxy-
gen production, carbon sequestration, water purification, soil erosion prevention,
and habitat provision (Singh and Verma 2013a, b; Yadav et al. 2019a, b; Verma et al.
2020; Singh et al. 2020). They also contribute to human well-being by offering
recreational opportunities, cultural significance, and resources like timber, medici-
nal plants, and food (Ciccarese et al. 2012) (Table 13.1). However, these ecosystems
face numerous challenges, such as deforestation, habitat fragmentation, climate
change, invasive species, and unsustainable land use practices.
The intricate relationship between soil and climate within forest ecosystems is a
multifaceted and dynamic interplay that governs these natural habitats’ health,
diversity, and resilience. ‘The Soil-Climate Nexus in Forest Ecosystems’ represents
a symbiotic association with profound implications for ecological balance and sus-
tainability (Rajpar et al. 2022). At the heart of this nexus lies the soil, a living,
breathing entity that serves as the foundation for the intricate web of life in forests.
The soil’s composition, structure, and nutrient content play pivotal roles in deter-
mining plant life growth, health, and biodiversity within these ecosystems (Banwart
et al. 2019). Different types of soil, ranging from rich loamy soils to nutrient-poor
Table 13.1 Ecosystem services provided by forests

Ecosystem Service Description
Carbon Absorbing and storing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, mitigating
Sequestration climate change by reducing greenhouse gases.
Biodiversity Providing habitats for diverse plant and animal species, supporting
Conservation ecosystems and preserving genetic diversity.
Air and Water Filtering air pollutants and capturing sediment and pollutants,
Purification improving air and water quality.
Timber and Providing wood, timber, and forest resources essential for construction,
Resources fuel, and various human necessities.
Soil Health Preventing erosion, enhancing soil fertility, and nutrient cycling,
Maintenance contributing to agricultural productivity.
Climate Regulation Influencing local and global climates by regulating temperature,
humidity, and precipitation patterns.
Recreation and Offering spaces for recreation, ecotourism, and leisure activities,
Tourism promoting physical and mental well-being.
13 The Soil-Climate Nexus in Forest Ecosystems 247
sandy soils, significantly influence the distribution of flora, shaping the unique char-
acteristics of diverse forest biomes worldwide.
Furthermore, the climate substantially influences the soil and the flora it supports
(VanderPutten et al. 2013). Precipitation patterns, temperature fluctuations, and
other climatic variables directly impact soil moisture, nutrient availability, and the
decomposition of organic matter. The relationship between soil and climate extends
beyond mere physical and chemical interactions. It shapes ecological processes
such as nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, and water retention (Kumar et al.
2020a, b, c, d, e, 2021a, b, c, d, e; Kumar and Singh 2020; Dhyani et al. 2021). The
soil’s ability to sequester carbon and regulate greenhouse gas emissions is pro-
foundly influenced by climatic factors, influencing global carbon cycles and climate
change dynamics.
Moreover, this nexus significantly influences the ability of forest ecosystems to
withstand environmental disruptions like wildfires, storms, or human activities.
Grasping the relationship between soil properties, climate factors, and their impact
on resilience is crucial for deploying efficient forest management strategies and
conservation efforts.
By comprehensively examining the soil-climate interplay within forest ecosys-
tems, this study strives to deepen our understanding of these complex relationships
and harness this knowledge to foster the long-term health and sustainability of our
planet’s invaluable forested landscapes.
13.2 Forest Ecosystems in the Global Carbon Cycle
Forests are crucial in the global carbon cycle, serving as significant carbon sinks,
influencing climate regulation, and supporting biodiversity conservation (Malhi
et al. 2002). Understanding their role involves examining carbon sequestration, cli-
mate regulation, and biodiversity conservation within forest ecosystems.
13.2.1 Carbon Sequestration in Forests
Carbon sequestration in forests is fundamental to the Earth’s carbon cycle. Forests

are pivotal in mitigating climate change. They function as significant carbon sinks,
drawing in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) via photosynthesis and retaining it
within trees, vegetation, and soils (Gorte 2009; Sedjo and Sohngen 2012). This
process aids in controlling the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere, offsetting human-
induced emissions and contributing to climate stability.
• Carbon Storage: Trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) during photosyn-
thesis and store carbon in their biomass. Forests comprising various tree species
accumulate substantial amounts of carbon over their lifetimes (Yadav et al.

2019a, b; Singh et al. 2021; Singh 2024).
• Soil Carbon: Forests also store carbon in their soils. Fallen leaves, branches, and
decomposing organic matter contribute to soil organic carbon, which can persist
for extended periods.
• Biomass and Growth: As trees grow, they continuously absorb CO2 and store
carbon in their trunks, branches, and leaves, thereby removing carbon from the
atmosphere.
• Old-Growth Forests: Older forests tend to store more carbon due to biomass
accumulation over time.
13.2.2 Role in Climate Regulation
• Carbon Sink: Forests act as significant carbon sinks, absorbing CO2 from the
atmosphere and mitigating its concentration, which helps regulate global climate
patterns (Singh et al. 2010, 2022; Singh and Verma 2013a, b).
• Albedo Effect: The canopy of trees can affect the Earth’s albedo, reflecting sun-
light and reducing heat absorption, thus regulating local and global
temperatures.
• Water Cycle: Forests influence regional precipitation patterns by transpiring
water vapor into the atmosphere, contributing to the formation of clouds and
rainfall.
• Extreme Weather Mitigation: Forests offer protection against severe weather
occurrences like floods, storms, and landslides, reducing their severity by stabi-
lizing soil and absorbing excess water.
13.2.3 Importance for Biodiversity Conservation
• Habitat Diversity: Forests harbor an incredible diversity of plant and animal spe-
cies. Different forest layers (canopy, understory, forest floor) support distinct
habitats, fostering biodiversity.
• Species Interdependence: Complex relationships among species within forests
support ecological balance. Interconnected food webs, symbiotic relationships,
and nutrient cycling contribute to biodiversity.
• Genetic Diversity: Forests often contain a vast array of genetic variations within
species, which is vital for adaptation to environmental changes and the resilience
of ecosystems.
• Ecosystem Services: Forest ecosystems provide crucial ecosystem services such
as pollination, nutrient cycling, water purification, and disease control, benefit-
ing wildlife and human communities.
Conserving and sustainably managing forests is critical for upholding equilibrium

in the global carbon cycle, controlling climate patterns, and safeguarding biodiver-
sity (Beedlow et al. 2004). Protection of old-growth forests, reforestation efforts,
and responsible land-use practices are crucial for harnessing the complete capabili-
ties of forests as a remedy for climate change while protecting the diverse array of
life they nurture (Smith et al. 2014).
13.3 Soil Properties and Carbon Storage in Forests
13.3.1 Soil as a Carbon Sink
Soil is a critical carbon sink, playing a significant part in the earth’s carbon cycle.
Within forest ecosystems and beyond, soil is a reservoir for storing organic carbon
derived from decomposed plant material, microbial activity, and other organic
inputs (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, d, e, 2021a, b, c, d, e; Manoj et al. 2021). This
process of carbon storage in soil, known as soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration,
involves a complex interplay of biological, chemical, and physical processes (Lal
2018). Fallen leaves, twigs, roots, and other organic debris from vegetation continu-
ally contribute to organic matter input into the soil. Soil microorganisms, crucial
agents in the decomposition process, break down this organic material. During
decomposition, a portion of the carbon is released back into the atmosphere as car-
bon dioxide (CO2). At the same time, the remaining fraction becomes stabilized in
the soil as soil organic matter (SOM) (Lal 2015). Factors like soil texture, mineral
composition, moisture, temperature, and vegetation type influence the rate of car-
bon storage and turnover in soil.
Moreover, the interplay among soil, forest biomass, and microbial communities
shapes the amount and quality of carbon retained in the soil. Recognizing soil’s role
as a reservoir for carbon is imperative in tackling climate change. Preserving and
augmenting soil carbon storage capacity through sustainable land management
practices and conservation endeavors are essential for counteracting the escalating
levels of atmospheric CO2 and their consequences on the ecosystem.
Soil is the third largest global carbon reservoir, which is fundamental in sustain-
ing life on Earth. It is an essential resource for supporting life, especially in agricul-
tural ecosystems. Within the realm of soil, carbon is a significant component, with
soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil inorganic carbon (SIC) constituting the primary
elements. The estimated quantity of SOC is approximately 1550 petagrams (1 pet-
agram = 1015 g = 1 billion metric tones = 1 gigatonnes), while SIC is estimated to
range from 750 to 950 petagrams down to a depth of 1 m (Batjes 1996; Lal 2016).
However, variations in these amounts may occur based on factors such as the rate of
photosynthetic carbon fixation and the subsequent decay rate. According to
Professor Rattan Lal of Ohio State University, about 2700 Gt of carbon is stored in
soils worldwide. This is considerably more than the combined total of 780 Gt in the
atmosphere and 575 Gt in the biomass. India’s total soil carbon sequestration poten-
tial is 39.3–49.3 Tg C year−1.
13.3.2 Dynamics of Carbon Storage and Turnover
Carbon storage and turnover dynamics encompass the intricate processes by which
carbon moves through various reservoirs in the Earth’s biosphere, lithosphere,
hydrosphere, and atmosphere (Hobbie et al. 2000). This intricate cycle involves the
continuous carbon exchange between pools and is governed by biological, chemi-
cal, and physical mechanisms.
13.3.2.1 Dynamics of Carbon Storage
• Carbon Inputs: The carbon cycle initiates with carbon entering the biosphere.
This involves plants absorbing carbon dioxide (CO2) through photosynthesis,
transforming atmospheric carbon into organic compounds within their tissues
(Sharma and Singh 2021; Raturi et al. 2022).
• Biomass Accumulation: Plants retain carbon within various parts of their struc-
ture, such as roots, stems, leaves, and fruits. Forests, notably, accumulate signifi-
cant quantities of carbon in their biomass as they mature (Kumar et al. 2020a, b,
c, d, e; Phukon et al. 2022).
• Soil Organic Carbon (SOC): Organic matter from plant litter, roots, and other
organic inputs enters the soil. Microbial decomposition breaks down this organic
matter, releasing some carbon into the atmosphere as CO2, while the remaining
fraction becomes stabilized in the soil as soil organic carbon.
• Oceanic Carbon Storage: The oceans play a significant role in carbon storage.
Marine organisms incorporate carbon into their bodies, and carbon dioxide dis-
solves into the ocean, forming bicarbonate ions. This dissolved inorganic carbon
can be stored in the ocean for extended periods.
13.3.2.2 Dynamics of Carbon Turnover
• Respiration: The release of carbon back into the atmosphere occurs through res-
piration. This process involves plants, animals, and microorganisms breaking
down organic matter for energy, releasing CO2 as a byproduct.
• Decomposition: The breakdown of organic matter by microbes in soil and water
plays a vital role in the carbon cycle. This process entails the breakdown of intri-
cate organic compounds into simpler forms, resulting in the release of CO2.
• Plant Respiration: Plants also respire, releasing CO2 during cellular processes,
including metabolism and growth.
• Carbon Transfer Between Pools: Carbon moves between different reservoirs. For
instance, carbon in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants during photosynthesis
and then transferred to soils through litterfall and root turnover (Sharma et al.
2019). Carbon can also be released back into the atmosphere through forest fires,
human actions such as deforestation, and the decomposition of organic matter.
13.3.2.3 Factors Influencing Dynamics
• Environmental Conditions: Temperature, moisture, and nutrient availability sig-

nificantly influence the rate of decomposition and carbon turnover. Warmer and
wetter conditions generally lead to faster decomposition rates.
• Soil Properties: Soil type, texture, pH, and microbial activity affect the rate of
carbon storage and turnover in soils.
• Human Activities: Anthropogenic activities, such as deforestation, land-use
changes, and the burning of fossil fuels, significantly impact the carbon cycle,
leading to alterations in carbon storage and turnover rates.
Understanding the dynamics of carbon storage and turnover is crucial for compre-
hending the impacts of human activities on the carbon cycle and the environment
(Horwath 2007; Chang et al. 2022). It also plays a critical role in formulating strate-
gies for mitigating climate change by enhancing carbon sequestration and reducing
carbon emissions.
13.3.3 Interactions with Biomass and Soil Organic Matter
The interactions among biomass, soil organic matter (SOM), and soil properties in
forest ecosystems are critical determinants of carbon storage dynamics (Ramesh
et al. 2019). Forest biomass, comprising trees, vegetation, and roots, continually
contributes organic matter to the forest floor through litterfall and root turnover.
This organic input is a primary carbon source for soil organic carbon content. As
this biomass undergoes decomposition facilitated by soil microorganisms, a fraction
of the carbon becomes stabilized in the soil as SOM. Soil characteristics, encom-
passing texture, structure, pH, and nutrient availability, play a substantial role in
determining the quantity and quality of carbon storage (Silver et al. 2000). With
their higher surface area and binding capacity, clay-rich soils tend to retain more
organic matter.
Additionally, soil pH and nutrient levels impact microbial activity and decompo-
sition rates, affecting carbon turnover (Leifeld et al. 2013). The interaction between
soil minerals and organic compounds plays a role in protecting soil organic carbon
from decomposition. Additionally, the variety and vitality of soil microbial com-
munities impact decomposition rates, the formation of soil organic matter, and the
overall potential for carbon storage in forest soils. Grasping these intricate relation-
ships is essential for implementing efficient forest management approaches focused
on bolstering carbon sequestration in forests (Apurva et al. 2017; Joshi et al. 2020;
Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e; Bisht et al. 2021). This, in turn, aids in combating
climate change and maintaining the well-being of ecosystems.
13.4 The Impact of Climate Variables on Forest Soil
The impact of climate variables on forest soil is profound, influencing various

aspects of soil dynamics, moisture levels, and carbon cycling within forest
ecosystems.
13.4.1 Temperature Profiles and Soil Dynamics
Temperature profiles significantly influence soil dynamics within forest ecosys-

tems, playing a crucial role in shaping various biological, chemical, and physical
processes in soil (Binkley and Fisher 2019).
13.4.1.1 Temperature Effects on Soil Dynamics
13.4.1.1.1 Microbial Activity
• Decomposition Rates: Temperature profoundly impacts microbial activity,

affecting the rate at which organic matter decomposes. Warmer temperatures
generally accelerate decomposition, leading to faster turnover of organic
material.
• Mineralization: Higher temperatures can enhance mineralization processes,
breaking organic matter into inorganic forms and releasing nutrients vital for
plant growth.
13.4.1.1.2 Soil Respiration
• Carbon Release: Temperature influences soil respiration rates, which involve the
release of carbon dioxide (CO2) from soil. Increased temperatures often increase
soil respiration rates as microbial activity intensifies, releasing more CO2 into the
atmosphere.
13.4.1.1.3 Nutrient Cycling
• Nitrogen Dynamics: Temperature affects nitrogen cycling in soils, impacting

processes like nitrification and denitrification, which are crucial for nitrogen
availability to plants.
• Phosphorus Availability: Temperature influences phosphorus mineralization,
affecting its availability for plants.
13.4.1.1.4 Soil Organisms
• Microbial Communities: Temperature gradients within the soil affect soil micro-
organisms’ distribution, abundance, and activity. Different microbial populations
thrive at specific temperature ranges, impacting decomposition rates and nutrient
cycling.
13.4.1.2 Thermal Gradient in Soils
• Depth-Dependent Impact: Soil temperature profiles vary with depth. The topsoil
experiences more significant temperature fluctuations compared to deeper lay-
ers. This thermal gradient influences biological processes across soil horizons.
• Seasonal Variations: Changes in temperature throughout the year influence soil
temperature profiles. Seasonal fluctuations impact microbial activity, with
warmer seasons often leading to increased decomposition rates.
• Climate Zones: Different climate zones experience varying temperature ranges,
influencing soil dynamics accordingly. For instance, colder regions with lower
temperatures may have slower decomposition rates and nutrient cycling than
warmer climates.
13.4.1.3 Management Implications
Understanding the relationship between temperature and soil dynamics is crucial

for forest management:
• Climate Change Impacts: Changes in temperature patterns resulting from cli-
mate change can disrupt soil microbial communities, nutrient cycling, and car-
bon storage in forests.
• Sustainable Practices: Sustainable forest management strategies should consider
temperature effects on soil processes when planning for carbon sequestration,
nutrient management, and maintaining soil health.
Temperature profiles play a fundamental role in shaping the functioning of forest
soils (Zhou et al. 2016; Saxe et al. 2001). Observing temperature variations, com-
prehending their effects on soil dynamics, and adopting suitable management
approaches are vital for maintaining robust forest ecosystems and optimizing their
capacity as carbon reservoirs amidst a shifting climate.
13.4.2 Influence of Precipitation on Moisture Levels
The interaction between precipitation and moisture levels plays a pivotal role in
shaping temperature profiles and soil dynamics within forest ecosystems, forming a
critical aspect of the soil-climate nexus (Krishnan et al. 2006; Campo and Merino
2016). Precipitation is a primary source of moisture input to the soil, directly
impacting its physical, chemical, and biological attributes. The quantity, intensity,
and temporal distribution of precipitation events profoundly influence moisture
availability within the soil matrix. Adequate rainfall fosters higher soil moisture
content, facilitating enhanced microbial activity, nutrient cycling, and root growth.
This, in turn, modulates the soil’s temperature profiles by regulating its thermal
conductivity and heat capacity (Medhi et al. 2021).
Moreover, the frequency and duration of dry spells or drought conditions induced
by insufficient precipitation can significantly alter soil moisture dynamics.
Prolonged droughts lead to decreased soil moisture levels, causing a rise in soil
temperature due to reduced evaporative cooling and increased thermal conductivity
in drier soil. Fluctuations in temperature influence microbial communities and
enzymatic functions, thereby changing the rates of organic matter decomposition
and the availability of nutrients.
Furthermore, precipitation, such as rain or snow, also impacts soil moisture and
temperature dynamics. Snowfall acts as a seasonal reservoir, gradually releasing
moisture as it melts, affecting soil moisture content and temperature regimes during
thawing periods. Additionally, changes in precipitation patterns due to climate
change, including alterations in the timing, intensity, and distribution of rainfall, can
disrupt traditional moisture and temperature profiles within forest soils, potentially
impacting ecosystem functions and services (Gupta and Singh 2017; Joshi et al.
2020; Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, d, e; Nautiyal et al. 2022). Understanding the intri-
cate interplay between precipitation, moisture levels, and subsequent temperature
variations is fundamental in comprehending the dynamic nature of forest ecosys-
tems (Kumar et al. 2018a, b). It highlights the crucial need for holistic management
approaches that consider projected changes in precipitation patterns and their effects
on soil moisture levels and temperature. This is essential for fostering the resilience
and long-term sustainability of forest ecosystems amidst the challenges posed by
climate change.
13.4.3 Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations and Carbon Cycling
Atmospheric concentrations of CO2 have a significant impact on the carbon cycle

within forest ecosystems, contributing to the complex relationship between soil,
climate, and vegetation (Lal et al. 2021). Elevated CO2 levels directly influence the
processes of photosynthesis and respiration in plants, affecting how carbon is
assimilated and distributed within forest vegetation. Higher atmospheric CO2 con-
centrations often increase plant growth and productivity, leading to more remark-
able litter falls and organic matter accumulation on the forest floor (Singh et al.
2017a, b; Singh 2021). The interaction between vegetation, soil, and atmospheric
CO2 levels is critical for carbon sequestration and soil dynamics. During photosyn-
thesis, plants absorb CO2 from the air and convert it into organic carbon compounds,
some eventually transferred to the soil through leaf litter, root exudates, and decom-
posing plant material (Horwath 2007). Consequently, soil organic carbon content
increases, influencing soil structure, nutrient availability, and microbial activities.
Furthermore, altered CO2 concentrations can affect microbial communities
within the soil, impacting decomposition rates and the turnover of organic matter
(Singh et al. 2014, 2018). Higher CO2 levels can stimulate microbial activity, poten-
tially accelerating the decomposition of organic material and releasing stored car-
bon into the atmosphere as CO2 or methane (Lorenz et al. 2018). This intricate
balance between vegetation’s carbon input and soil decomposition determines for-
est ecosystems’ net carbon storage capacity.
Understanding the relationship between atmospheric CO2 concentrations and
carbon cycling in forest ecosystems is crucial for predicting the long-term dynamics
of carbon sequestration and storage (Gough et al. 2008). Changes in CO2 levels,
whether due to natural variability or anthropogenic activities, can significantly
influence the capacity of forests to act as carbon sinks. Consequently, this under-
scores the importance of forest conservation and management strategies that focus
on enhancing carbon sequestration potential by preserving and restoring forest eco-
systems, ensuring their resilience against shifting atmospheric CO2 concentrations,
and contributing to global efforts in mitigating climate change (Singh et al. 2017a,
b; Verma et al. 2021).
13.5 Ecological Consequences: Soil as a Habitat
Within forest ecosystems, the soil functions as a vibrant habitat teeming with an
astonishing diversity of organisms crucial for ecosystem functioning. This biodiver-
sity, comprising microorganisms, fungi, insects, and other fauna, forms a complex
network of interactions that directly and indirectly influence soil health and resil-
ience. The soil habitat is intimately connected to climate dynamics (Voroney 2007).
Variations in temperature and precipitation patterns profoundly affect soil condi-
tions, shaping soil organisms’ distribution, abundance, and behavior. For example,
rainfall intensity or frequency alterations can affect soil moisture, a crucial factor
for the survival and functioning of soil biota (Gupta et al. 2018; Kumar et al. 2018a,
b, 2021a, b, c, d, e; Singh and Kumar 2022).
Additionally, temperature fluctuations influence metabolic rates and life cycles
of soil organisms, altering the dynamics of the soil ecosystem. This intricate habitat
provides essential services within forest ecosystems.Soil organisms are vital for
nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, and soil structure formation
(KoshilaRavi et al. 2019; Neemisha and Sharma 2022). They play vital roles in
carbon sequestration and regulating greenhouse gas emissions, thereby impacting
the carbon balance in forest soils, a crucial aspect in mitigating climate change.
However, this habitat is susceptible to climate change and human activity disrup-
tions. Climate-related disturbances, such as extreme weather events or prolonged
droughts, can significantly alter the soil’s physical and chemical properties, impact-
ing the diversity and functioning of soil organisms (Ummenhofer and Meehl 2017).
Furthermore, human interventions, such as deforestation or unsustainable land
management practices, can lead to soil degradation, compromising its habitat qual-
ity and reducing biodiversity.
Preserving the soil habitat within forest ecosystems becomes imperative within
the soil-climate nexus. Sustainable forest management practices that prioritize soil
health and biodiversity conservation are essential. Strategies like reforestation, min-
imizing soil disturbance, and adopting agroecological approaches aid in safeguard-
ing soil biodiversity, enhancing ecosystem resilience, and maintaining vital
ecosystem services. Understanding and protecting the soil as a habitat within forest
ecosystems are fundamental steps in mitigating the impacts of climate change and
ensuring the sustained health and functionality of these intricate ecological systems.
13.5.1 Biodiversity in Forest Soils
Biodiversity in forest soils is a captivating tapestry of life, encompassing an aston-

ishing array of organisms from microscopic bacteria and fungi to larger inverte-
brates like earthworms and insects (Dupouey et al. 2002; Sánchez 2023). Table 13.2
provides a broad overview of the diverse elements contributing to biodiversity
within forest soils, showcasing the variety of microbial, faunal, plant, and genetic
components and their functions in preserving soil vitality, facilitating nutrient
cycling, and ensuring the overall functionality of ecosystems. These diverse inhabit-
ants form intricate networks that drive essential ecological processes.
Microorganisms, crucial for nutrient cycling and the decomposition of organic mat-
ter, play a vital role in ensuring the availability of important elements for plant
growth and overall ecosystem functionality (Saccá et al. 2017). Earthworms, along-
side various invertebrates, actively contribute to shaping soil structure, promoting
improved water infiltration and aeration.
Additionally, these organisms establish symbiotic relationships, such as mycor-
rhizal associations, which assist in plant nutrient uptake (Tedersoo et al. 2020).
Table 13.2 Overview of the diverse elements contributing to biodiversity within forest soil
Aspect of Biodiversity Description
Microbial Diversity – Diverse array of bacteria, fungi, and archaea
– Plays vital roles in cycling nutrients and decomposing organic
matter.
Faunal Diversity – Includes various invertebrates like worms, insects
– Contributes to soil structure and nutrient cycling
– Soil-dwelling mammals and amphibians also present
Plant and Root – Vast diversity of plant species and root structures
Diversity
– Different root systems impact soil stability and aeration
– Influences organic matter input and nutrient cycling
Genetic Diversity – Genetic variations within microbial and plant species
– Affects ecosystem resilience and adaptability
Functional Diversity – Varied functional roles of organisms in soil processes
– Impacts nutrient availability and ecosystem functions
Climate intricately influences this biodiversity; changes in temperature and mois-

ture levels can significantly alter the composition and functioning of soil organisms,
potentially disrupting critical ecosystem processes. Preserving this intricate web of
life is paramount.
Sustainable forest management practices that minimize soil disturbance and pro-
tect diverse habitats are imperative for safeguarding soil biodiversity ensuring forest
ecosystems’ resilience and vitality in the face of environmental changes and human
pressures.
13.5.2 Sensitivity of Organisms to Climate-Induced Changes
The organisms residing in forest soils exhibit varying degrees of sensitivity to

climate-induced changes. Certain species have specific tolerances to temperature,
moisture, and other environmental factors. Elevated temperatures or prolonged
drought conditions can stress or even endanger sensitive soil organisms, leading to
their abundance and distribution shifts. This sensitivity isn’t uniform across all spe-
cies; some may adapt, while others might struggle to survive, potentially altering
the composition and functioning of the soil ecosystem. Additionally, changes in
CO2 levels can also affect soil organisms, influencing their metabolic rates, growth
patterns, and interactions with other species.
13.5.3 Disruption of Ecological Relationships
Climate-induced changes can disrupt the intricate ecological relationships within

forest soils. Soil organisms often rely on complex symbiotic interactions, such as
mycorrhizal associations between fungi and plant roots or predator-prey relation-
ships among organisms (Bonkowski et al. 2009). Any alterations in environmental
conditions can disturb these relationships. For instance, temperature and moisture
level alterations could influence the symbiotic relationships essential for plant nutri-
ent absorption, potentially affecting their vitality and well-being. Furthermore,
variations in the population dynamics of soil organisms resulting from climate shifts
may disturb food webs and nutrient flows, causing cascading effects on the entire
forest ecosystem.
Understanding how soil organisms respond to climate variations and their inter-
connectedness within forest ecosystems is vital for anticipating and addressing
potential disruptions. Safeguarding soil biodiversity and ecological connections is
imperative for sustaining the resilience and functionality of forest soils amid ongo-
ing climate variability and change. Conservation efforts and sustainable land man-
agement practices that prioritize the protection of soil habitats can help mitigate the
adverse effects of climate-induced alterations on soil biodiversity and ecosystem
functioning.
13.6 Challenges Posed by Forest Cover Changes

and Land Use
Forest cover alterations and land use practices pose significant challenges that affect
soil dynamics, climate interactions, and overall ecosystem health.
13.6.1 Impact of Forest Cover Alterations
Changes in forest cover, including deforestation, forest fragmentation, and affores-

tation efforts, profoundly impact soil-climate interactions. Deforestation disrupts
the intricate balance within ecosystems, leading to soil erosion, loss of biodiversity,
and alterations in microclimate conditions. Reduced forest cover decreases the
capacity of ecosystems to sequester carbon, contributing to increased atmospheric
CO2 levels. Moreover, modifications in forest cover affect rainfall patterns, leading
to changes in soil moisture regimes and potentially altering temperature profiles.
These modifications directly influence soil fertility, erosion susceptibility, and over-
all ecosystem resilience, impacting the intricate soil-climate nexus.
13.6.2 Land Use Effects on Soil-Climate Dynamics
Land use practices, such as agriculture, urbanization, and industrial activities, influ-
ence soil-climate dynamics within forest ecosystems. Intensive agriculture and
improper land management practices often lead to soil degradation, compaction,
and loss of organic matter. This, in turn, disrupts soil structure, nutrient cycling, and
water retention capabilities, adversely affecting the soil’s ability to regulate tem-
perature and moisture (Kumar et al. 2017, 2020a, b, c, d, e; Joshi et al. 2021; Nirmal
et al. 2021). Urbanization and industrialization alter land surfaces, increasing
impervious surfaces, altering local climates, and affecting soil microclimates. These
alterations challenge the soil-climate nexus’s natural functioning, impacting ecosys-
tem services and exacerbating climate-related risks.
13.6.3 Challenges for Conservation Efforts
Conserving the soil-climate nexus in forest ecosystems faces multifaceted chal-

lenges (Gambella et al. 2021). Balancing human needs with conservation efforts
necessitates sustainable land management practices prioritizing soil health and eco-
system integrity. Implementing conservation strategies that mitigate deforestation,
promote reforestation, and minimize soil disturbance is crucial (Nolan et al. 2018).
However, achieving this balance requires addressing socioeconomic factors, ensur-
ing community involvement, and fostering policy frameworks that incentivize sus-
tainable land use practices. Furthermore, effectively responding to and lessening the
effects of climate change on soil processes requires holistic strategies that blend
conservation efforts, land-use planning, and measures to enhance climate resilience.
Addressing the challenges posed by forest cover changes and land use practices
within the context of the soil-climate nexus in forest ecosystems necessitates holis-
tic approaches. Striking a balance between human activities and ecosystem conser-
vation is vital to preserving soil health, biodiversity, and the intricate interactions
between soil and climate. It requires concerted efforts across multiple sectors to
foster sustainable practices that uphold the integrity and resilience of forest ecosys-
tems amidst ongoing environmental changes.
13.7 Preserving Intact Forest Ecosystems

in a Changing Climate
Maintaining undisturbed forest ecosystems in changing climates is essential for

safeguarding the delicate balance of the soil-climate nexus. Forests are crucial for
regulating climate, capturing carbon, and conserving biodiversity. However, the
impacts of climate change present significant threats to these ecosystems. The
soil-climate nexus within forest ecosystems involves a complex interplay between

soil health, carbon sequestration, and climate regulation (Lal et al. 2021; Khan et al.
2021). Healthy forest soils act as carbon sinks, storing significant amounts of car-
bon and helping alleviate the effects of greenhouse gas emissions.
Additionally, they support diverse microbial communities essential for nutrient
cycling and ecosystem resilience. However, climate change-induced shifts, such as
rising temperatures, changes in precipitation, and extreme weather occurrences, risk
can disrupt this delicate balance. Rising temperatures and prolonged droughts can
lead to soil degradation, decreased water retention, and increased susceptibility to
erosion (Lal 2012). These alterations influence soil fertility and hinder the forests’
capacity to sequester carbon efficiently.
Preserving intact forest ecosystems is crucial in mitigating these challenges.
Conservation efforts must prioritize protecting old-growth forests and minimizing
deforestation and degradation. Restoring depleted forest areas through reforestation
and sustainable land management practices is equally important. Employing meth-
ods that improve soil health, like agroforestry, mulching, and fostering diverse veg-
etation, can enhance the resilience of forest soils to climate change pressures
(Khangura et al. 2023). Moreover, encouraging community engagement and incor-
porating indigenous knowledge in forest management practices can offer valuable
insights into sustainable strategies that have been honed over generations.
Collaboration among governments, conservation organizations, and local commu-
nities is essential to establish policies that safeguard intact forest ecosystems while
considering the diverse needs of stakeholders (Boiral and Heras-Saizarbitoria 2017).
13.7.1 Role of Intact Forests as Carbon Sinks
Intact forests play a crucial role as carbon sinks, absorbing atmospheric carbon
dioxide through photosynthesis and storing it in trees, soils, and other vegetation
(Table 13.3). Forest soils, in particular, harbor substantial carbon stocks, represent-
ing a significant component of global carbon sequestration (Scharlemann et al.
2014). The intricate soil-climate nexus in intact forests facilitates the sequestration
and storage of carbon. Healthy soils, characterized by their diverse microbial popu-
lations and organic material, facilitate carbon retention, thus mitigating atmospheric
emissions. Preserving intact forests, therefore, becomes critical in combating cli-
mate change by maintaining these substantial carbon sinks and minimizing carbon
emissions (Watson et al. 2018).
Table 13.3 Multifaceted Role Description

contributions of intact forests
Carbon – Absorption of atmospheric
as crucial carbon sinks
Sequestration CO2 through photosynthesis
– Storage of carbon within
biomass (trees, plants)
– Soil carbon storage through
organic matter buildup
Climate – Mitigates climate change by
Regulation capturing CO2
– Helps stabilize the global
carbon cycle
Biodiversity – Provides habitat for diverse
Conservation flora and fauna
– Preserves genetic diversity
and ecological balance
Ecosystem – Supports water regulation,
Services soil fertility
– Provides resources and
sustains livelihoods
Buffer Against – Helps regulate temperature
Extremes extremes and weather
– Protects against natural
disasters like floods
13.7.2 Biodiversity Hotspots and Climate Resilience
Intact forests often serve as biodiversity hotspots, hosting a diverse array of species,
both above and below ground (Sloan et al. 2014). The intricate soil biodiversity
within these ecosystems contributes to their resilience against climate variations.
Numerous soil organisms play essential roles in nutrient cycling, maintaining soil
fertility, and enhancing ecosystem resilience.Additionally, intact forests’ genetic
diversity gives species a better chance of adapting to changing environmental condi-
tions (Ledig 1988). The complex relationships between soil biodiversity, forest veg-
etation, and climate dynamics establish a resilient ecosystem that can better
withstand the impacts of climate change.
13.7.3 Implications for Conservation Policies
Preserving intact forest ecosystems within the soil-climate nexus demands compre-
hensive conservation policies (Steenwerth et al. 2014). Policies to conserve these
ecosystems must prioritize protecting soil health, biodiversity, and carbon seques-
tration capacities. This involves strategies that restrict deforestation, support refor-
estation efforts, and encourage sustainable land management practices. Implementing
policies integrating scientific knowledge about soil-climate interactions and ecosys-

tem resilience is crucial (Muñoz-Rojas 2018). Additionally, ensuring the involve-
ment of the local community’s indigenous knowledge and fostering international
collaborations are vital aspects of effective conservation policies for intact forests.
Safeguarding intact forest ecosystems within the soil-climate nexus holds multi-
faceted benefits (Gane 2007). They act as significant carbon sinks, harbor rich bio-
diversity, and exhibit resilience in the face of climate change. Formulating and
implementing conservation policies that recognize the intricate relationships
between soil, climate, and biodiversity are imperative. By prioritizing intact forests
and their soil ecosystems, conservation efforts can contribute significantly to miti-
gating climate change, preserving biodiversity, and ensuring the sustainability of
these critical ecosystems for future generations.
13.8 Conclusion
The intricate relationship between soil properties and climate dynamics in forests is
crucial for understanding environmental resilience. Forests act as vital carbon sinks,
mitigating climate change by absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide. However,
climate-induced changes in soil conditions can disrupt ecosystems, impacting bio-
diversity and ecosystem health. Despite challenges, there are opportunities.
Understanding the soil-climate connection enables informed forest management
and climate strategies. Given their role in carbon sequestration and biodiversity con-
servation, preserving intact forest ecosystems is vital. Continued research is essen-
tial for addressing climate change challenges and ensuring the long-term
sustainability of forests.
References
Banwart SA, Nikolaidis NP, Zhu YG, Peacock CL, Sparks DL (2019) Soil functions: connecting
earth’s critical zone. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 47:333–359
Batjes NH (1996) Total C and N in soils of the world. Eur J Soil Sci 47:151–163
Beedlow PA, Tingey DT, Phillips DL, Hogsett WE, Olszyk DM (2004) Rising atmospheric CO2
and carbon sequestration in forests. Front Ecol Environ 2(6):315–322
Binkley D, Fisher RF (2019) Ecology and management of forest soils. John Wiley & Sons
ogy: principles and practices. CRC Press Taylor and Francis, pp 85–103
Boiral O, Heras-Saizarbitoria I (2017) Managing biodiversity through stakeholder involvement:
why, who, and for what initiatives? J Bus Ethics 140(3):403–421
Bonkowski M, Villenave C, Griffiths B (2009) Rhizosphere fauna: the functional and structural
diversity of intimate interactions of soil fauna with plant roots. Plant Soil 321:213–233
Campo J, Merino A (2016) Variations in soil carbon sequestration and their determinants along
a precipitation gradient in seasonally dry tropical forest ecosystems. Glob Chang Biol
22(5):1942–1956
Chang X, Xing Y, Wang J, Yang H, Gong W (2022) Effects of land use and cover change (LUCC) on
terrestrial carbon stocks in China between 2000 and 2018. Resour Conserv Recycl 182:106333
Ciccarese L, Mattsson A, Pettenella D (2012) Ecosystem services from forest restoration: thinking
ahead. New For 43:543–560
Dupouey JL, Dambrine E, Laffite JD, Moares C (2002) Irreversible impact of past land use on
forest soils and biodiversity. Ecology 83(11):2978–2984
Gambella F, Quaranta G, Morrow N, Vcelakova R, Salvati L, Gimenez Morera A, Rodrigo-
Comino J (2021) Soil degradation and socioeconomic systems’ complexity: uncovering the
latent nexus. Land 10(1):30
Gane M (2007) Forest strategy: strategic management and sustainable development for the forest
sector. Springer Science & Business Media
Gorte RW (2009) Carbon sequestration in forests. DIANE Publishing
Gough CM, Vogel CS, Schmid HP, Curtis PS (2008) Controls on annual forest carbon storage: les-
sons from the past and predictions for the future. Bioscience 58(7):609–622
Peltophorum africanum L. in New Forest. Indian Forester 143:290–291
Hobbie SE, Schimel JP, Trumbore SE, Randerson JR (2000) Controls over carbon storage and
turnover in high-latitude soils. Glob Chang Biol 6(S1):196–210
Horwath W (2007) Carbon cycling and formation of soil organic matter. In: Soil microbiology,
ecology and biochemistry. Academic, pp 303–339
of Far-Western Nepal. Eurasian J Soil Sci 10(2):96–104. https://doi.org/10.18393/ejss.825066
Khan N, Jhariya MK, Raj A, Banerjee A, Meena RS (2021) Soil carbon stock and sequestration:
implications for climate change adaptation and mitigation. In: Ecological intensification of
natural resources for sustainable agriculture, pp 461–489
Khangura R, Ferris D, Wagg C, Bowyer J (2023) Regenerative agriculture—a literature review on
the practices and mechanisms used to improve soil health. Sustainability 15(3):2338
KoshilaRavi R, Anusuya S, Balachandar M, Muthukumar T (2019) Microbial interactions in soil
formation and nutrient cycling. In: Mycorrhizosphere and pedogenesis, pp 363–382
Krishnan P, Black TA, Grant NJ, Barr AG, Hogg ETH, Jassal RS, Morgenstern K (2006) Impact
of changing soil moisture distribution on net ecosystem productivity of a boreal aspen forest
during and following drought. Agric For Meteorol 139(3–4):208–223
organic carbon pools under Terminalia chebula Retz. based agroforestry system in Himalayan
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021c) Adaptation and mitigation potential of road-
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021d) Impact of plant functional traits on infiltration
49(1):38–44
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021e) Modulation of plant functional traits under essen-
Kumar A, Tewari S, Singh H, Singh I, Anand R, Kumar D, Pandey R (2018b) Impact of different
Kumar M, Padalia H, Singh H (2020d) Remote sensing for mapping invasive alien plants: oppor-
heat stress response. 3 Biotech 7, 205. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-017-0856-9
Kumar P, Singh R, Singh H, Chand T, Bala N (2020e) Assessment of soil carbon dioxide efflux and
dence on forests to safeguard forests in rainfed areas of India. In: Nature-based solutions for resil-
ient ecosystems and societies, pp 289–306. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4712-6_17
Kumar M, Rawat SPS, Singh H, Ravindranath NH, Kalra N (2018a) Dynamic forest vegetation
models for predicting impacts of climate change on forests: an Indian perspective. Indian J For
41(1):1–12
Kumar N, Kumar A, Jeena N, Singh R, Singh H (2020c) Factors influencing soil ecosystem and
Lal R (2012) Climate change and soil degradation mitigation by sustainable management of soils
and other natural resources. Agric Res 1:199–212
Lal R (2015) Soil carbon sequestration in agroecosystems of India. J Indian Soc Soil Sci 63:125–143
Lal R (2016) Soil health and carbon management. Food Energy Secur 5(4):212–222
Lal R (2018) Digging deeper: a holistic perspective of factors affecting soil organic carbon seques-
tration in agroecosystems. Glob Chang Biol 24(8):3285–3301
Lal R, Monger C, Nave L, Smith P (2021) The role of soil in regulation of climate. Philos Trans R
Soc B 376(1834):20210084
Ledig FT (1988) The conservation of diversity in forest trees: why and how should genes be con-
served? Bioscience 38(7):471–479
Leifeld J, Bassin S, Conen F, Hajdas I, Egli M, Fuhrer J (2013) Control of soil pH on turnover of
belowground organic matter in subalpine grassland. Biogeochemistry 112:59–69
Lorenz K, Lal R, Lorenz K, Lal R (2018) Soil carbon stock. In: Carbon sequestration in agricul-
tural ecosystems, pp 39–136
Malhi Y, Meir P, Brown S (2002) Forests, carbon and global climate. Philos Trans R Soc London,
Ser A 360(1797):1567–1591
management. In: Forest resources resilience and conflicts, Academic, Elsevier, doi: https://doi.
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
Medhi K, Bhardwaj R, Laxmi R (2021) Climate change with its impacts on soil and soil microbi-
ome regulating biogeochemical nutrient transformations. In: Climate change and the microbi-
ome: sustenance of the ecosphere, pp 95–138
Muñoz-Rojas M (2018) Soil quality indicators: critical tools in ecosystem restoration. Curr Opin
Environ Sci Health 5:47–52
Neemisha, Sharma S (2022) Soil enzymes and their role in nutrient cycling. In: Structure and func-
tions of pedosphere. Springer Nature Singapore, Singapore, pp 173–188
Indian J Hill Farm 34:272–276. ISSN: 0970-6429
Nolan RH, Drew DM, O’Grady AP, Pinkard EA, Paul K, Roxburgh SH et al (2018) Safeguarding
reforestation efforts against changes in climate and disturbance regimes. For Ecol Manag
424:458–467
Perry DA, Oren R, Hart SC (2008) Forest ecosystems. JHU Press
Rajpar MN, Baig MB, Behnassi M, Reed MR (2022) Impacts of climate change on biodiversity
resources, especially forests and wildlife distribution. In: The food security, biodiversity, and
climate nexus. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 55–85
Ramesh T, Bolan NS, Kirkham MB, Wijesekara H, Kanchikerimath M, Rao CS et al (2019) Soil
organic carbon dynamics: impact of land use changes and management practices: a review.
Adv Agron 156:1–107
Saccá ML, Barra Caracciolo A, Di Lenola M, Grenni P (2017) Ecosystem services provided
by soil microorganisms. In: Soil biological communities and ecosystem resilience. Springer
International Publishing, pp 9–24
Sánchez JA (2023) Nature’s tapestry: uncovering the beauty and importance of biodiversity.
Universidad de los Andes
Saxe H, Cannell MG, Johnsen Ø, Ryan MG, Vourlitis G (2001) Tree and forest functioning in
response to global warming. New Phytol 149(3):369–399
Scharlemann JP, Tanner EV, Hiederer R, Kapos V (2014) Global soil carbon: understanding and
managing the largest terrestrial carbon pool. Carbon Manag 5(1):81–91
Sedjo R, Sohngen B (2012) Carbon sequestration in forests and soils. Annu Rev Resour Econ
4(1):127–144
Silver WL, Neff J, McGroddy M, Veldkamp E, Keller M, Cosme R (2000) Effects of soil tex-
ture on belowground carbon and nutrient storage in a lowland Amazonian forest ecosystem.
Ecosystems 3:193–209
Singh H, Verma A (2013a) Physiological responses of rice cultivars to various nitrogen levels. Int
J Agric Environ Biotechnol 6(3):383–388
mechanisms toward vehicular emissions. Urban Clim 44:101,183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
uclim.2022.101183
on leaf pigments in five rice genotypes under field emergent circumstance. Int J Bio-resour
productivity of Acacia auriculiformis under CO2-enriched environment. Industr Crops Prod
210(2024):118,186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2024.118186
Singh H, Verma A (2013b) Characterization and screening of high nitrogen efficient rice genotype
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
Sloan S, Jenkins CN, Joppa LN, Gaveau DL, Laurance WF (2014) Remaining natural vegetation
in the global biodiversity hotspots. Biol Conserv 177:12–24
Smith P, Bustamante M, Ahammad H, Clark H, Dong H, Elsiddig EA, et al. (2014) Agriculture,
forestry and other land use (AFOLU). In: Climate change 2014: mitigation of climate change.
Contribution of working group III to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel
on climate change. Cambridge University Press, pp. 811–922
Steenwerth KL, Hodson AK, Bloom AJ, Carter MR, Cattaneo A, Chartres CJ et al (2014) Climate-
smart agriculture global research agenda: scientific basis for action. Agric Food Secur 3(1):1–39
Tedersoo L, Bahram M, Zobel M (2020) How mycorrhizal associations drive plant population and
community biology. Science 367(6480):eaba1223
Ummenhofer CC, Meehl GA (2017) Extreme weather and climate events with ecological rel-
evance: a review. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 372(1723):20160135
VanderPutten WH, Bardgett RD, Bever JD, Bezemer TM, Casper BB, Fukami T et al (2013)
Plant–soil feedbacks: the past, the present and future challenges. J Ecol 101(2):265–276
brassinosteroid signalling: understanding brassinosteroids mediated stress responses through
Verma S, Kumar N, Verma A, Singh H, Siddique KHM, Singh P (2020) Novel approaches to miti-
gate heat stress impacts on crop growth and development. Plant Physiol Reports 25:627–644.
Voroney RP (2007) The soil habitat. In: Soil microbiology, ecology and biochemistry. Academic,
pp. 25–49
Watson JE, Evans T, Venter O, Williams B, Tulloch A, Stewart C et al (2018) The exceptional value
of intact forest ecosystems. Nat Ecol Evol 2(4):599–610
Zhou J, Deng YE, Shen L, Wen C, Yan Q, Ning D et al (2016) Temperature mediates continental-
scale diversity of microbes in forest soils. Nat Commun 7(1):12,083
Chapter 14
Forest Ecosystem Adaptation to Climate
Change: Morphological and Physiological
Responses
Apurva Yadav, N. K. Bohra, and Hukum Singh
Abstract Forest ecosystems are pivotal in maintaining global biodiversity and pro-
viding numerous ecological services. However, they face several obstacles due to
human activities and changing climatic conditions. Climate change is causing shifts
in temperature and precipitation patterns, altering environmental conditions that
forests have adapted to over millennia. Forest ecosystems demonstrate a remarkable
capacity for adaptation through morphological and physiological mechanisms in
response to changing climatic conditions. Morphological responses include tree
growth patterns, phenology, and canopy structure adjustments. Shifts in leaf phenol-
ogy, budburst, and flowering times reflect the influence of climate change on forest
ecosystem functioning. Trees adapt morphologically by modifying their root sys-
tems and canopy architecture to cope with changing climatic variability, such as
fluctuations in water availability and increased temperatures. Physiological
responses involve changes in the photosynthetic and respiratory processes of forest
species. Shifts in carbon and nutrient cycling, as well as water-use efficiency, indi-
cate the dynamic responses of trees to climate change. These physiological adapta-
tions enable forest ecosystems to remain resilient in changing environmental
conditions. Understanding the interplay between morphological and physiological
responses is essential for predicting the overall capacity of forest ecosystems to
adapt to a changing climate. Hence, this chapter provides a comprehensive over-
view of how forest ecosystems adapt to climate change through the adaptive
responses of morphological and physiological behaviors. It explores the various
mechanisms through which forests adjust to changing climatic conditions, encom-
passing both morphological changes in their physical structures and physiological
adjustments in their biological processes.
Keywords Adaptive resilience · Climate change · Morphology · Physiology ·

Phenology · Forest ecosystem
A. Yadav (*) · N. K. Bohra

ICFRE-Arid Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
H. Singh
Plant Physiology Discipline, ICFRE-Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Ltd. 2024
270 A. Yadav et al.
14.1 Introduction
Climate change has emerged as an increasingly important global issue. Rising tem-
peratures, shifting precipitation patterns, and increased frequency and severity of
extreme weather events substantially impact forest ecosystems. Amidst the constant
flux of our planet’s climate, forest ecosystems stand resilient yet face an array of
dynamic environmental changes (Singh et al. 2023). How forests adapt to climate
change may help mitigate the adverse effects of climate change. This chapter encap-
sulates a comprehensive exploration of the intricate responses exhibited by diverse
forest species amidst the profound shifts in global abiotic factors. Researchers,
driven by a pursuit of understanding, have embarked on a profound journey unravel-
ing the nuanced ways in which these species navigate and adapt to the evolving
landscape (Gupta and Singh 2017; Joshi and Singh 2020; Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c;
Nautiyal et al. 2022).
This exploration delves deep into the heart of the forest realm, seeking to deci-
pher the multifaceted reactions of trees and their ecosystems. The focus extends to
unraveling the complex interplay between heightened atmospheric CO2 levels, surg-
ing temperatures, and the intricate dance with restricted water resources. Each of
these factors becomes a stage for investigation as researchers aim to uncover the
effects and adaptive strategies embraced by various forest species. Hence, under-
standing the mechanisms employed to confront and adapt to these global alterations
is necessary (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c; Manoj et al. 2021).
This chapter unravels the intricate tapestry of forest responses to these shifting
abiotic parameters, which may enhance scientific understanding and provide valu-
able insights into the adaptive capacity of these ecosystems. These insights stand as
guideposts in the ongoing search for sustainable forest management and conserva-
tion strategies, ensuring the resilience and vitality of these invaluable natural land-
scapes in the face of an ever-evolving environment. This chapter will discuss forest
ecosystems’ morphological and physiological adaptive responses to changing cli-
matic variability such as temperature, precipitation, etc.
14.2 Morphological Responses
Amidst the intricate interplay of forest life and climate fluctuations lies an under-
stated yet extraordinary narrative—the tale of morphological responses. Trees, the
steadfast guardians of these landscapes, undergo subtle yet pivotal transformations
in response to the ever-shifting environmental tapestry. These nuanced adaptations
portray nature’s resilience, illustrating the dynamic strategies forests employ to har-
monize with an evolving climate. Morphological responses encompass the physical
metamorphosis witnessed within trees and forest ecosystems amidst changing envi-
ronmental cues. These adaptations materialize as shifts in spatial distribution,
growth pattern alterations, leaf traits, and other structural adjustments. They embody
14 Forest Ecosystem Adaptation to Climate Change: Morphological and Physiological… 271
tangible expressions of nature’s endeavor to synchronize with an ever-evolving cli-

mate canvas.
Among these responses is the migration of tree populations driven by changing
climatic conditions. As temperatures rise and precipitation patterns alter, certain
species traverse landscapes, searching for habitats that offer more favorable cli-
mates. However, these shifts often herald fragmented habitats or the loss of entire
forests, reshaping the topography of ecosystems and influencing biodiversity.
Climate fluctuations leave a lasting imprint on tree growth rates. While elevated
temperatures may initially spur growth, intensified droughts can curtail these rates,
affecting tree structures and ecosystem functions. Such fluctuations reshape forest
landscapes, influencing carbon sequestration potential and the overall health of eco-
systems (Gupta et al. 2019; Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c; Singh 2021a, b; Devi et al.
2023). Changes in leaf characteristics serve as a testament to trees’ response mecha-
nisms. They adjust their foliage by altering leaf size or shape to optimize resource
utilization or alleviate environmental stresses from changing climates. These adap-
tations signify nature’s ingenious ways of fine-tuning physiological processes to
flourish amidst environmental and climatic cues.
Some species exhibit remarkable adaptability, swiftly adjusting their physical
traits to new environmental norms. Others rely on inherent genetic predispositions
or specialized adaptations, illustrating the diverse array of strategies forests employ
to withstand the challenges posed by climate change. As global climates undergo
unprecedented transformations, unraveling the intricacies of morphological
responses within forest ecosystems becomes an imperative pursuit. Exploring the
interplay between climate-induced alterations and trees’ physical adaptations pro-
vides invaluable insights into forest resilience. It guides conservation practices, fos-
tering the preservation of these vital ecosystems amidst the uncertainties of a
changing climate.
14.3 Shifts in Spatial Distribution
The concept of “Shifts in Spatial Distribution” captures an intriguing chapter in

morphological responses on the large canvas of forest ecosystems. These changes
represent the complex modifications and adaptations seen in the geographic distri-
bution of tree species, signifying a continuing story of nature’s reaction to the con-
stant environmental change. As steadfast protectors of natural environments, trees
quietly migrate subtly yet significantly, changing the basic features of forests. This
story describes the nuanced dance between trees and their changing environments
in an engaging way. These geographical adjustments, which range from minor spe-
cies repositioning to more significant structural changes within ecosystems, reflect
the robust mechanisms operating in the face of changing climate trends. They dem-
onstrate the ability of forests to adapt, telling a tale of survival techniques ingrained
in the very topography and providing critical insights into the resilience of these
ecosystems in light of climate change.
272 A. Yadav et al.
14.3.1 Factors Influencing Shifts in Spatial Distribution
Several factors contribute to the variations in the spatial distribution of trees caused
by climate change. The primary driver is temperature. Trees may struggle to adapt
to the new, warmer conditions as temperatures increase. Some species may be
unable to withstand the heat and experience dieback or decline, leading to local
extinctions. Precipitation patterns also play a critical part in shifting the spatial dis-
tribution of trees. Changes in rainfall amounts and distribution can lead to altered
soil moisture conditions, affecting the survival and growth of trees. Increased
drought conditions can harm certain tree species, causing them to migrate to more
favorable locations with better access to water resources.
Furthermore, extreme weather occurrences, like hurricanes, storms, and wild-
fires, can significantly impact the geographical distribution of trees. These events
can cause extensive damage and result in the loss of tree populations. In some cases,
the severity of the damage can disrupt the natural regeneration process, inhibiting
the recovery and growth of forest ecosystems.
14.3.2 Migration to Higher Elevations and Latitudes
As temperatures increase, trees may move to higher altitudes or latitudes with more
favorable conditions for survival and reproduction. This migration is known as
upslope or poleward migration, respectively. Upslope migration involves trees mov-
ing to higher elevations in search of cooler temperatures. With their diverse micro-
climates and temperature gradients, mountainous regions allow tree species to find
suitable habitats at higher elevations. This upward migration will enable trees to
escape the rising temperatures and maintain their optimal climate conditions.
However, there are limits to how far and fast upslope migration can occur, and tree
populations can face challenges due to limited land availability and restrictions
caused by human activities. Poleward migration, in contrast, involves tree popula-
tions moving towards higher latitudes with colder temperatures. This shift is par-
ticularly noticeable in regions closer to the poles, where the effect of climate change
is more pronounced. Tree species traditionally confined to certain latitudes may
extend their range towards the north as temperatures increase. This movement can
modify the composition of forest ecosystems and potentially lead to the displace-
ment of native species by new invaders.
14.3.3 Fragmentation and Disappearance of Forests
Climate change can lead to changes in the spatial distribution of trees and the frag-
mentation and disappearance of forests. As temperatures rise, forests may become
more susceptible to pests, diseases, and wildfires, leading to extensive tree mortality
and forest destruction. In some cases, the severity and frequency of such distur-
bances increase beyond the forest ecosystems’ ability to recover, leading to forest
loss. Additionally, changes in climatic conditions can render certain regions unsuit-
able for forest growth. Areas that were once capable of supporting forests may
become too dry or experience more frequent and severe droughts. Conversely, areas
that were historically too cold for trees to thrive may become suitable habitats due
to warming temperatures. These changes in climatic suitability can lead to shifts in
the range and extent of forest ecosystems, with particular forests disappearing
entirely from their current locations.
14.3.4 Implications and Challenges
The changes in the location of trees caused by climate change significantly impact
how ecosystems work, the variety of life, and the advantages that forests offer.
Forests are vital in storing carbon, regulating the climate, purifying water, and keep-
ing various plant and animal species alive. Changes in the spatial distribution of
trees can disrupt these ecosystem processes and services, with cascading impacts on
other organisms and human communities reliant on forest resources (Kumar et al.
2017, 2020a, b, c; Joshi et al. 2021; Nirmal et al. 2021). Understanding and manag-
ing these shifts in spatial distribution pose significant challenges. Monitoring and
modeling approaches can help predict and track these changes, aiding in developing
effective adaptation strategies for forest management. Collaboration among scien-
tists, policymakers, and local communities is essential to address the complexities
and uncertainties associated with the shifting spatial distribution of trees and to
ensure the long-term resilience and sustainability of forest ecosystems in the wake
of climate change.
Shifts in the spatial distribution of trees are a prominent response of forest eco-
systems to climate change. Tree populations migrate to more favorable locations as
temperatures rise and weather patterns shift. Upslope migration to higher elevations
and poleward migration to higher latitudes are observed as trees seek suitable cli-
matic conditions. These changes in forest landscape can cause negative impacts and
lead to forest fragmentation and even the disappearance of entire forests.
Understanding and managing these changes is vital to ensure the conservation and
sustainable management of forest ecosystems in an era of rapid climate change.
274 A. Yadav et al.
14.4 Change in Growth Rates
Environmental conditions regulate tree growth and are an important component of

forest ecosystems. Trees provide not only habitat for animal species but also the raw
materials for the human-made environment. Therefore, any impact on tree growth
due to climate change can broadly affect natural systems and human society. Amidst
the intricate web of climate change’s influence on forests, the metamorphosis in tree
growth rates emerges as a prominent morphological response. This shift, intricately
entwined with evolving temperature patterns, changing precipitation dynamics, and
an array of climatic stressors, weaves a multifaceted narrative of resilience and
adaptability in these natural systems.
14.4.1 Temperature Influence on Growth Dynamics
As the global climate changes, tree growth rates may be affected in several ways.
Firstly, warming temperatures can increase tree growth rates. Temperature fluctua-
tions exert a significant influence on tree growth rates. Deslauriers et al. (2014) and
Allen et al. (2010) underscore the intricate relationship between temperature varia-
tions and tree growth. Elevated temperatures, particularly during the growing sea-
son, often foster heightened growth, which is evident in increased radial increment
and height growth in certain species. However, this response is nuanced, as pro-
longed heat stress can curtail growth, impacting forest productivity and health.
Warmer temperatures directly influence the rate of metabolic activity, including
photosynthesis and respiration rates, which are the critical processes of tree growth.
The longer growing seasons in many regions due to warmer temperatures can also
provide more time for trees to allocate resources to growth (Smith et al. 2008).
In addition, higher concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO) due to
fossil fuel emissions can promote photosynthesis and thus affect tree growth
(Ainsworth and Long 2005). It has been reported that a rise in CO concentrations is
one reason behind some trees’ enhanced growth (Phillips et al. 2017). However, the
relationship between temperature and tree growth is not always linear. Drought fre-
quency and intensity accompany warming, influencing tree growth and develop-
ment. Water availability is critical for plant growth, and with warming temperatures,
drought stress may lead to water stress in trees, reducing growth rates and vitality
(Allen et al. 2010).
14.4.2 Precipitation Variability and Growth Responses
Variations in precipitation patterns have a significant impact on growth rates.

Climate-induced precipitation changes also influence water availability by influenc-
ing tree growth rates. In regions where precipitation has decreased, less water is
available for tree growth, reducing soil moisture and decreasing nutrient uptake.
This hinders the carbon assimilation process, retarding the growth of trees (Adams
et al. 2009). At the same time, increased precipitation may promote tree growth
rates in the short term; however, excessive moisture can lead to fungal or bacterial
infections, affecting both tree health and growth (Lahr et al. 2015). Research by Liu
et al. (2019) and van der Maaten et al. (2015) emphasizes the impact of water avail-
ability on tree growth. Increased drought frequency or prolonged dry spells can
stunt growth rates, particularly in species reliant on consistent water access.
Conversely, regions experiencing heightened precipitation might witness temporary
growth surges, potentially altering long-term forest structural dynamics.
14.4.3 Adaptive Mechanisms
Extreme weather events caused by climate change can substantially influence tree
growth rates, with long-term repercussions. Storm damage to trees from high winds
or lightning can lead to branch loss or uprooting, reducing the photosynthetic ability
of the tree as the crown size gets smaller. Heatwaves can also cause physiological
stress in trees, reducing their growth rates (Sala et al. 2010). Diversity thrives within
forest communities concerning responses to changing growth dynamics. Some spe-
cies exhibit remarkable phenotypic plasticity, dynamically adjusting growth rates
harmoniously with climatic shifts. Others, constrained by specific environmental
niches, demonstrate limited adaptability, leading to disparities in growth responses.
Understanding these variations aids in predicting the adaptive capacity of forests
and the potential shifts in species composition under ongoing climatic fluctuations.
14.4.4 Implications for Forest Structure and Functionality
The alteration in growth rates, a fundamental aspect of forest dynamics, reverber-

ates across the ecosystem’s structure and functionality. Growth patterns might trig-
ger species composition shifts, influencing forest biodiversity and ecosystem
services. Furthermore, altered growth rates can significantly impact carbon seques-
tration capacities, ultimately shaping the forest’s role in mitigating climate change-
induced challenges.
Understanding the complex link between increasing growth rates and climatic
factors is critical as climate change continues to impact natural landscapes.
276 A. Yadav et al.
Understanding these differences provides insights into forest adaptation and devis-
ing conservation and management strategies that bolster the resilience of these cru-
cial ecosystems amidst an uncertain climatic future.
14.5 Alterations in Leaf Size and Shape
A notable morphological response emerges in leaf size and shape adaptations

among tree species in the dynamic interplay between climate change and forest
ecosystems. These adaptations, intricately influenced by temperature fluctuations,
precipitation variability, and an array of climatic stressors, weave a vibrant tapestry
of resilience and adaptation in these crucial ecosystems.
14.5.1 Temperature’s Influence on Leaf Morphology
Temperature fluctuations intricately shape leaf size and shape adaptations. Lenz
et al. (2013) and Royer et al. (2005) illuminate the profound relationship between
temperature variations and leaf morphology. Elevated temperatures can prompt leaf
size adjustments, leading to surface area variations (Singh and Verma 2013a, b;
Yadav et al. 2019a, b; Verma et al. 2020; Singh et al. 2020a, b). Moreover, leaves
may develop intricate shapes in response to temperature changes, potentially
enhancing their light interception or thermal regulation capacities, thus optimizing
resource utilization amidst climatic shifts.
14.5.2 Precipitation Dynamics and Leaf Adaptations
Shifts in precipitation patterns significantly shape leaf morphology. Studies by

Chitwood et al. (2014) and Mott and Peak (2013) underscore the impact of water
availability on leaf traits. Increased water stress due to drought conditions often
prompts alterations in leaf size, resulting in smaller leaves with reduced surface
area, a strategy aimed at minimizing water loss through transpiration. Conversely,
larger leaves may evolve in regions experiencing heightened precipitation to capi-
talize on increased moisture availability, aiding in efficient resource uptake and
photosynthesis.
14.5.3 Species-Specific Leaf Responses
Diverse responses in leaf size and shape manifest among tree species. Some exhibit
remarkable phenotypic plasticity, swiftly adjusting leaf morphology in response to
environmental cues. Constrained by genetic factors or specific ecological niches,
others might showcase limited adaptability. Understanding these species-specific
responses is pivotal in predicting the trajectory of forest canopies’ leaf characteris-
tics under ongoing climatic shifts.
14.5.4 Implications for Ecosystem Functionality
The alterations in leaf size and shape hold significant implications for ecosystem
functionality. Changes in leaf traits can profoundly impact a tree’s physiological
performance, influencing photosynthetic efficiency, transpiration rates, and overall
resource utilization. Furthermore, variations in leaf morphology can significantly
influence herbivore browsing behavior, nutrient cycling, and microbial activity
within forest ecosystems, thereby shaping the overall ecosystem dynamics.
As climate change shapes environmental landscapes, comprehending the intri-
cate relationship between altering leaf traits and climatic variables remains crucial.
These nuanced adaptations provide valuable insights into the adaptive strategies of
forests and devising conservation and management strategies that fortify the resil-
ience of these critical ecosystems amidst an ever-changing climatic panorama.
14.6 Physiological Responses
The beating heart of forest ecosystems lies in the symphony of physiological

responses, a complex interplay orchestrating nature’s adaptation to the ceaseless
cadence of climate change (Yadav et al. 2019a, b; Singh 2024). Within this vibrant
tapestry of life, trees stand as resilient maestros, conducting a harmonious yet intri-
cate arrangement of metabolic adaptations amidst a landscape evolving under shift-
ing climates. These responses, woven into the fabric of tree biology and intricately
intertwined within the forest’s interconnected web, serve as the metabolic compass
guiding survival strategies in an era of environmental tumult. As climate patterns
redefine landscapes, trees choreograph a magnificent metabolic ballet—a nuanced
interplay of adjustments echoing the biochemical corridors of photosynthesis, tran-
spiration, and nutrient assimilation.
Against the backdrop of a transforming planet, trees fine-tune their metabolic
orchestra to harmonize with changing climatic rhythms. Shifts in temperature
regimes, altered precipitation cycles, and the surge in extreme weather events
orchestrate a symphony of responses within tree physiology. From the delicate
278 A. Yadav et al.
modulation of photosynthetic rates, the engine driving energy production, to the

rhythmic cadence of transpiration, trees engage in a delicate balancing act to opti-
mize water usage and maintain essential processes under varying environmental
cues. Nutrient uptake mechanisms, intricately linked to soil conditions and water
availability, undergo a meticulous recalibration, ensuring the orchestration of vital
biochemical pathways vital for growth and survival. Trees deploy adaptive mecha-
nisms within the biochemical confines of chloroplasts and xylem vessels. The sub-
tleties of chlorophyll activity, the essence of photosynthesis, respond dynamically
to temperature fluctuations and altering light regimes. Transpiration regulates water
balance while facilitating nutrient uptake through the root-soil interface. These
physiological ballets are further enriched by the nuanced interplay of hormonal sig-
nals, enzymatic reactions, and osmotic adjustments, shaping the metabolic land-
scape of forest resilience.
Unveiling the intricacies of these physiological responses unravels the sym-
phonic complexity underpinning forest resilience. Every adjustment in metabolic
harmony represents an evolutionary response—a survival strategy etched into the
biological fabric of trees (Singh et al. 2017, 2018, 2020a, b). Therefore, understand-
ing these nuances illuminates the molecular intricacies of adaptation and charts the
path toward informed conservation and management strategies, which is vital for
safeguarding these ecosystems in an epoch characterized by climatic uncertainty.
This exploration peels back the layers of the intricate physiological responses
ingrained within forest ecosystems, shedding light on the symphony of metabolic
adaptations that define trees’ resilience amidst the dynamic interplay of changing
climates.
14.6.1 Photosynthesis
At the heart of the intricate web of forest ecosystems lies the marvel of photosyn-
thesis—an ancient alchemy that sustains life by transforming sunlight into the fun-
damental currency of energy. As climate change redefines environmental landscapes,
comprehending the nuanced intricacies of photosynthesis is crucial in deciphering
the complex link between trees and their changing habitats (Singh and Verma 2013a,
b). Photosynthesis serves as the foundational process through which trees harness
the radiant energy of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohy-
drates, producing oxygen as a byproduct (Singh 2021a, b). This vital metabolic
engine not only fuels the growth and development of trees but also underpins the
entire trophic structure of forest ecosystems, providing sustenance for countless
organisms.
The looming specter of climate change casts a profound shadow on the dynamics
of photosynthesis within forest ecosystems. Changes in temperature regimes, alter-
ing precipitation patterns, and the increased prevalence of extreme weather events
offer many concerns. Elevated temperatures can accelerate photosynthetic rates, yet
prolonged heat stress can impair this delicate process. Changes in precipitation may
alter water availability, impacting photosynthetic efficiency and carbon assimila-

tion. Photosynthesis stands as the cornerstone of forest vitality, profoundly influenc-
ing ecosystem functionality. Beyond fueling tree growth, it shapes carbon cycling,
regulates atmospheric oxygen levels, and influences nutrient dynamics within forest
soils. Perturbations in photosynthetic activity can cascade through the ecosystem,
affecting biodiversity, productivity, and the capacity of forests to sequester carbon,
thereby shaping their role in mitigating climate change. Forest ecosystems exhibit
diverse adaptations in response to changing photosynthetic dynamics. Some species
demonstrate plasticity, modulating photosynthetic rates or altering leaf characteris-
tics to cope with fluctuating environmental conditions. Others exhibit specialized
biochemical pathways or employ mechanisms to minimize water loss, enabling
them to endure periods of stress. Understanding these species-specific responses is
critical in predicting how forests might navigate climate-induced challenges.
In an era of unprecedented climatic upheaval, comprehending the intricate work-
ings of photosynthesis and its sensitivity to climatic shifts becomes central to con-
servation and management strategies. Safeguarding forest resilience may involve
diverse approaches, including sustainable land management, genetic conservation
of resilient species, and creating forest corridors to facilitate species migration. As
we venture into an era characterized by rapid climatic transformations, unraveling
the intricate dynamics of photosynthesis within forest ecosystems is an urgent prior-
ity. By exploring the interaction of climate change and this vital process, we pave
the way for informed conservation strategies, nurturing the resilience and vitality of
forests amidst an uncertain climatic future.
14.6.2 Temperature Dynamics and Photosynthetic Rates
The impact of elevated temperatures on photosynthesis is a subject of intense

research. Way and Oren (2010) and Sage and Kubien (2007) highlight the tempera-
ture sensitivity of critical enzymes involved in photosynthesis, including Rubisco.
As temperatures soar, these enzymes can become less efficient, leading to a reduc-
tion in photosynthetic rates. Ainsworth and Long (2005) have underscored the sen-
sitivity of photosynthesis to rising temperatures. Elevated heat alters enzymatic
reactions critical for photosynthesis, impairing the efficiency of carbon fixation pro-
cesses. Consequently, forest canopies experience reduced photosynthetic rates,
impacting trees’ growth, productivity, and carbon sequestration potential and ulti-
mately influencing the broader ecosystem dynamics.
The metabolic balancing act within leaves becomes increasingly challenging as
temperatures surge. Yamori et al. (2014) underscores how high temperatures can
disrupt the delicate balance between light-dependent and light-independent reac-
tions, affecting the overall efficiency of photosynthesis. Understanding these subtle
molecular reactions is critical for forecasting how different tree species will fare
under the rising temperatures caused by climate change.
280 A. Yadav et al.
14.6.3 Water Stress and the Photosynthetic Dilemma
Alterations in precipitation patterns, a hallmark of climate change, contribute to

water stress in trees (Rawat et al. 2020). This stress compels leaves to regulate their
stomatal conductance to conserve water, inadvertently impeding the influx of car-
bon dioxide—a prerequisite for photosynthesis. The dynamic relationship between
water availability and photosynthesis is explored in studies such as McDowell et al.
(2018), elucidating the complex mechanisms trees employ to cope with water stress
while maintaining essential physiological functions emphasizing the critical role of
adequate hydration in sustaining optimal gas exchange and photosynthetic activity.
Rowland et al. (2015) explore how certain tree species possess inherent adaptations
that enable them to maintain efficient photosynthesis even in water-limited condi-
tions. These findings hint at the potential for identifying and cultivating resilient
genotypes in forest management strategies.
14.6.4 Species-Specific Responses
Forests showcase species-specific responses to these climatic shifts. For instance,

the red spruce (Picearubens) in the northeastern United States exhibits resilience to
increased temperatures, as evidenced by Adams et al. (2009). Moreover, the iconic
California redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens) reveal remarkable adaptability to
maintain photosynthetic activity under water-stressed conditions.
14.6.5 Adaptive Traits and Emerging Strategies
The complicated interaction between climatic change and photosynthesis displays

various adaptive features among tree species. Kremer et al. (2012) and Aitken et al.
(2008) explore the genetic variations that confer resistance or tolerance to changing
climatic conditions. This knowledge becomes a cornerstone for forest managers,
providing insights on prospective techniques for improving the adaptive ability of
endangered forest ecosystems, such as aided migration or selective breeding.
McDowell and Allen (2015) and Niinemets (2010) not only unravel the mysteries of
photosynthetic responses but also pave the way for the development of sustainable
forest management practices. In harnessing this knowledge, the scientific commu-
nity may strengthen the knowledge to preserve the vitality and resilience of forest
ecosystems, ensuring their survival in the face of an ever-changing climate.
14.6.6 Transpiration
In the intricate realm of forest ecosystems, transpiration emerges as a crucial hydro-

logical phenomenon, shaping the delicate balance of water exchange within trees
and profoundly influencing the resilience and dynamics of these essential environ-
ments. As climate change imposes its profound effects, understanding the nuanced
intricacies of transpiration becomes pivotal in deciphering the evolving relationship
between trees and their changing habitats. Transpiration, a crucial facet of the forest
hydrological cycle, embodies water movement from roots through the tree’s vascu-
lar system and ultimately into the atmosphere via stomata—microscopic pores pri-
marily found on leaves. This vital process drives the upward movement of water and
dissolved nutrients from roots to foliage, facilitating critical metabolic operations
and sustaining tree thermoregulation.
The impending threat of climate change has an unmistakable impact on the
dynamics of transpiration within forest ecosystems. Changes in precipitation pat-
terns, elevated temperatures, and humidity level fluctuations threaten the delicate
balance of water exchange (Sharma and Singh 2021). Rising temperatures intensify
transpiration rates, potentially exacerbating water stress in trees. Furthermore,
changes in precipitation regimes pose uncertainties, impacting water availability
and influencing transpirational water loss. Transpiration plays a crucial role in the
water dynamics of entire ecosystems, affecting their overall water balance and dis-
tribution. As trees transpire, they substantially impact local and regional climates,
modulating humidity levels and influencing rainfall patterns. Variations in transpira-
tion rates can significantly alter soil moisture, the availability of nutrients, and
atmospheric gas composition, echoing through the ecosystem to shape plant distri-
bution, wildlife habitats, and overall resilience.
Forest ecosystems display a rich tapestry of adaptations in response to changing
transpiration dynamics. Some species exhibit remarkable adaptability, adjusting
stomatal conductance or modifying leaf characteristics to cope with shifting water
availability. Others rely on deep root systems or specialized physiological mecha-
nisms to endure periods of water stress. Deciphering these species-specific responses
is integral in anticipating how forests might navigate the ongoing as humanity grap-
ples with the impacts of a changing climate. Comprehending the intricate workings
of transpiration and its sensitivity to climatic shifts becomes central to conservation
and management strategies. Initiatives focused on safeguarding forest resilience
may encompass sustainable water resource management, restoration practices, and
preserving diverse ecosystems capable of adapting to fluctuating transpiration
dynamics.
282 A. Yadav et al.
14.6.7 Temperature and Transpiration Dynamics
Climatic shifts, particularly escalating temperatures, substantially influence transpi-

ration rates within forests. Allen et al. (2010) elucidate the relationship between
temperature and transpiration, highlighting how rising temperatures accelerate tran-
spiration rates. This acceleration can provoke water stress in trees, especially when
combined with changes in precipitation regimes, eventually compromising forest
health and resilience.
14.6.8 Humidity and Transpirational Water Loss
Changes in humidity levels exert a profound effect on transpiration. Reduced

humidity intensifies transpiration rates, exacerbating water loss from trees. Sharma
et al. (2018) emphasize the significant role of atmospheric moisture in regulating
transpirational water loss, demonstrating its implications for forest water dynamics
under changing climatic conditions.
14.6.9 Species-Specific Adaptations
Trees exhibit a remarkable spectrum of adaptive strategies to manage varying tran-

spiration demands. Certain species demonstrate inherent resilience through nuanced
morphological and physiological adaptations. Specific trees possess the capacity to
adjust their leaf structures, stomatal behavior, and hydraulic conductivity in response
to environmental cues. Li et al. (2017) illustrate how diverse tree species intricately
modulate transpiration rates, preserving water during stressful periods and flexibly
adapting to changing climatic scenarios.
14.6.10 Ecosystem Resilience and Management Strategies
A holistic comprehension of transpiration’s role in ecosystem health is imperative.

The interplay between transpiration and forest resilience is a focal point of current
research. The study exploring the impact of transpiration on watershed dynamics
underscores the broader implications of altered water cycling within forest ecosys-
tems (Jiménez-Rodríguez et al. 2022). Additionally, forest management practices,
such as selective planting of drought-tolerant species or conservation of riparian
habitats, emerged as viable techniques to balance transpirational dynamics during
climate change. Understanding the subtle dynamics of transpiration under changing
climatic circumstances is critical for maintaining forest ecosystems’ water balance
and resilience. Integrating scientific knowledge into adaptive forest management

practices can mitigate the effects of shifting transpiration rates, preserving these
essential ecosystems’ long-term viability and survival in the face of climate change.
14.7 Nutrient Uptake
The complex interaction between climate change and nutrient uptake stands as a
cornerstone in understanding the resilience of forest ecosystems. As global climatic
patterns shift, altering precipitation regimes and temperatures, the dynamics of
nutrient availability in forest soils undergo a profound transformation, influencing
tree growth, productivity, and adaptability. At the heart of every thriving forest eco-
system lies a complex yet delicate web of nutrient cycles, orchestrating vital ele-
ments’ perpetual exchange and recycling. From towering canopies to the rich
understory, every leaf, root, and microorganism partakes in this intricate symphony,
essential for sustaining life and fostering resilience within forests. Nutrient cycles
embody the dynamic processes through which essential elements such as carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and others move and transform within forest eco-
systems. These cycles encompass biological, geological, and chemical interactions,
interlinking diverse ecosystem components, including living organisms, soils,
waterways, and the atmosphere.
Climate change has a considerable impact on the nutrient cycles inside forests.
Climate change impacts nutrient availability, cycling, and use through changes in
temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events. While often subtle,
these changes carry profound implications for forest ecosystems’ health, resilience,
and functioning. The carbon cycle reigns supreme among the fundamental nutrient
cycles, serving as the cornerstone of forest vitality. Carbon, captured through pho-
tosynthesis, forms the backbone of organic matter, regulating climate and driving
essential biological processes. However, the intricate balance of carbon exchange
among the atmosphere, vegetation, soils, and microbial communities is susceptible
to disruptions induced by climate change. Beyond carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus
cycles are pivotal for forest health. Nitrogen, crucial for protein synthesis and
growth, cycles through organic matter, soils, and the atmosphere, while phosphorus,
integral for energy transfer and cell structure, navigates through soils, waterways,
and biota. Climate-induced shifts in these cycles can cascade through ecosystems,
affecting productivity, biodiversity, and nutrient availability.
Unraveling the nuances of nutrient cycles under the sway of climate change
requires meticulous research, monitoring, and predictive models. Understanding
how these cycles respond to shifting climate patterns is crucial for devising effective
conservation and management strategies to preserve forest resilience, biodiversity,
and ecosystem services. As we navigate an era marked by rapid climate transforma-
tions, comprehending the intricate dynamics of nutrient cycles within forests
becomes an urgent imperative. Exploring the correlation between climate change
284 A. Yadav et al.
and these crucial processes reveals opportunities for preserving the complicated
web of life within forests, ensuring their sustainability for future generations.
14.7.1 Precipitation Shifts and Nutrient Availability
Changes in precipitation patterns, with increased frequency and intensity of extreme

weather events such as droughts or heavy rains, directly impact nutrient availability.
Schimel et al. (2007) and McDowell et al. (2018) elucidate how these shifts affect
the solubility and transport of essential soil nutrients. Droughts can render nutrients
less accessible as dry conditions hinder microbial activity responsible for nutrient
cycling. Significant rainfall episodes might cause leaching, removing critical miner-
als from the soil profile. These alterations in nutrient availability pose tremendous
challenges to tree growth and ecosystem functionality.
14.7.2 Temperature and Nutrient Cycling
Elevated temperatures, a hallmark of climate change, wield a dual-edged influence

on nutrient cycling within forest ecosystems. Melillo et al. (2011) and Vitousek
et al. (2010) underscore how increased temperatures accelerate biological pro-
cesses, intensifying microbial decomposition rates and organic matter turnover.
This acceleration initially augments nutrient availability, promoting enhanced tree
growth. However, if not balanced by an adequate supply of organic matter or replen-
ishment of nutrients, it can eventually lead to nutrient depletion, hindering the sus-
tained productivity and health of forests.
14.7.3 Nutrient Demand and Tree Adaptations
Forest tree species exhibit a spectrum of adaptations in response to changing nutri-

ent availability. Reich and Oleksyn (2008) showcase trees’ diverse coping strategies
for nutrient limitations. Some species display heightened root exploration, expand-
ing their reach in search of nutrients, while others exhibit physiological adaptations,
such as altered nutrient allocation or enhanced nutrient use efficiency. Understanding
these species-specific responses becomes pivotal in predicting the resilience of vari-
ous forest ecosystems to changing nutrient dynamics induced by climate change.
14.7.4 Human Interventions and Sustainable Management
Acknowledging the crucial role of nutrient availability in forest sustainability, sci-

entists explore innovative interventions to mitigate nutrient imbalances exacerbated
by climate change. Nordin et al. (2018) and Finzi et al. (2015) delve into targeted
fertilization regimes, biochar applications to enhance soil nutrient retention, and
implementing sustainable land management practices. These treatments seek to
repair and sustain nutrient-rich soils, which are critical to the resilience and produc-
tivity of forest ecosystems in the face of changing climate conditions.
As ongoing research unravels the complex connection between climate change
and nutrient uptake in forests, it becomes evident that informed management and
policy decisions are crucial. The insights gleaned not only shed light on the weak-
ness of these ecosystems but also pave the way for sustainable strategies aimed at
conserving the delicate balance of nutrients necessary for the long-term health and
adaptability of forests in an ever-evolving world.
14.8 Conclusion
The interplay of morphological and physiological responses within forest ecosys-

tems exemplifies nature’s resilience and adaptability in a changing climate. The
intricate adaptations trees and their ecosystems exhibit depict an ongoing evolution-
ary symphony, where each adjustment resonates with the rhythm of environmental
change. Trees demonstrate a spectrum of adjustments, from subtle shifts in their
geographic distribution to alterations in growth patterns and fine-tuning of leaf
traits. These adaptations sculpt ecosystems and influence biodiversity dynamics,
fundamentally shaping the essence of these habitats. Physiological responses within
forest ecosystems narrate a tale of metabolic adjustments essential for survival.
Photosynthesis, the ancient alchemy converting sunlight into life’s energy currency,
lies at the heart of forest vitality. However, as climate change disrupts temperature
dynamics and precipitation patterns, the delicate equilibrium of this fundamental
process is perturbed. While elevated temperatures may initially accelerate photo-
synthesis, prolonged heat stress threatens its efficiency. Concurrently, changes in
precipitation directly impact water availability, disturbing the delicate balance
within trees. The hydrological rhythm of forests, including transpiration, dynami-
cally responds to changing climatic cues, influencing water exchange and shaping
the resilience of these intricate ecosystems. The quest to comprehend these nuances
delves deep into the heart of forest adaptations. From the subtle intricacies of tem-
perature dynamics impacting photosynthesis to the complex interplay between tran-
spiration and ecosystem resilience, each facet unravels layers of adaptation
intricately woven into the fabric of forest ecosystems. These insights offer profound
lessons about adaptation, resilience, and the delicate balance within these habitats.
In an era marked by unprecedented climatic transformations, deciphering the
286 A. Yadav et al.
intricacies of morphological and physiological responses becomes a guiding beacon

for our understanding. Integrating these scientific insights into adaptive strategies
emerges as the cornerstone for nurturing the resilience and vitality of forests in the
face of climate change.
References
Adams HD, Guardiola-Claramonte M, Barron-Gafford GA, Villegas JC, Breshears DD, Zou CB
et al (2009) Temperature sensitivity of drought-induced tree mortality portends increased
regional die-off under global-change-type drought. Proc Natl Acad Sci 106(17):7063–7066
Ainsworth EA, Long SP (2005) What have we learned from 15 years of free-air CO2 enrichment
(FACE)? A meta-analytic review of the responses of photosynthesis, canopy properties, and
plant production to rising CO2 concentrations. New Phytol 165(2):351–372
Aitken SN, Yeaman S, Holliday JA, Wang T, Curtis-McLane S (2008) Adaptation, migration or
extirpation: climate change outcomes for tree populations. Evol Appl 1(1):95–111
Allen CD, Macalady AK, Chenchouni H, Bachelet D, McDowell N, Vennetier M, Cobb N (2010)
A global overview of drought and heat-induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change
risks for forests. For Ecol Manag 259(4):660–684
Chitwood DH, Kumar R, Ranjan A, Pelletier JM, Townsley BT, Ichihashi Y, Sinha NR (2014)
Light-induced indeterminacy alters shade-avoiding tomato leaf morphology. Plant Physiol
166(4):2030–2041
Deslauriers A, Beaulieu M, Balducci L, Giovannelli A, Gagnon MJ, Rossi S, DeCáceres M (2014)
Impact of warming and drought on carbon balance related to wood formation in black spruce.
Ann Bot 114(2):335–345
29(2):451–457
Finzi AC, Abramoff RZ, Spiller KS, Brzostek ER, Darby BA, Kramer MA, Phillips RP (2015)
Rhizosphere processes are quantitatively important components of terrestrial carbon and nutri-
ent cycles. Glob Chang Biol 21(5):2082–2094
Jiménez-Rodríguez CD, Sulis M, Schymanski S (2022) Exploring the role of bedrock repre-
sentation on plant transpiration response during dry periods at four forested sites in Europe.
Biogeosciences 19(14):3395–3423
nity forests: A comparative analysis of soil organic carbon stock in community managed forests
Kremer A, Ronce O, Robledo-Arnuncio JJ, Guillaume F, Bohrer G, Nathan R, Schueler S (2012)
Long-distance gene flow and adaptation of forest trees to rapid climate change. Ecol Lett
15(4):378–392
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
49(1):38–44
Lahr EC, Rotella SJ, Coleman TW, Winters RK (2015) Climate change and forest diseases: a diag-
nostic methodology for assessing forest health. Environ Manag 56(4):1047–1056
Lenz TI, Wright IJ, Westoby M (2013) Interrelations among pressure–volume curve traits across
species and water availability gradients. Physiol Plant 149(1):44–53
Li Y, Li H, Li Y, Zhang S (2017) Improving water-use efficiency by decreasing stomatal con-
ductance and transpiration rate to maintain higher ear photosynthetic rate in drought-resistant
wheat. Crop Journal 5(3):231–239
Liu H, Shao M, Liang Z, Wu X, Chen X, Zhao W (2019) Effects of drought on stem radial growth
of four dominant tree species in a subtropical forest in China. Forests 10(1):30
van der Maaten E, van der Maaten-Theunissen M, Bouriaud O (2015) Climate growth relation-
ships at different stem heights in Pinussylvestris: a new tool for forest monitoring? For Ecol
Manag 354:77–85
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
McDowell NG, Allen CD (2015) Darcy’s law predicts widespread forest mortality under climate
warming. Nat Clim Chang 5(7):669–672
McDowell NG, Allen CD, Anderson-Teixeira K, Brando P, Brienen R, Chambers J et al (2018)
Drivers and mechanisms of tree mortality in moist tropical forests. New Phytol 219(3):851–869
Melillo JM, Butler S, Johnson J, Mohan J, Steudler P, Lux H, Vario C (2011) Soil warming, carbon-
nitrogen interactions, and forest carbon budgets. Proc Natl Acad Sci 108(23):9508–9512
Mott KA, Peak D (2013) Testing a vapor-phase model of stomatal responses to humidity. Plant
Cell Environ 36:936–944
Niinemets Ü (2010) Responses of forest trees to single and multiple environmental stresses from
seedlings to mature plants: past stress history, stress interactions, tolerance, and acclimation.
For Ecol Manag 260(10):1623–1639
Nordin A, Strengbom J, Forsum Å, Ericson L, Näsholm T (2018) Various forms of organic nitro-
gen in soil solution—a question of analytical choice? Soil Biol Biochem 121:204–211
288 A. Yadav et al.
Phillips RP, Brzostek E, Midgley MG, Matkins JJ (2017) The mycorrhizal associated nutrient
economy: a new framework for predicting carbon-nutrient couplings in temperate forests. New
Phytol 214(1):9–12
org/10.36808/if/2020/v146i2/151208
Reich PB, Oleksyn J (2008) Climate warming will reduce the growth and survival of scots pine
except in the far north. Ecol Lett 11(6):588–597
Rowland L, da Costa ACL, Galbraith DR, Oliveira RS, Binks OJ, Oliveira AAR et al (2015)
Death from drought in tropical forests is triggered by hydraulics not carbon starvation. Nature
528(7580):119–122
Royer DL, Wilf P, Janesko DA, Kowalski EA, Dilcher DL (2005) Correlations of climate and plant
ecology to leaf size and shape: potential proxies for the fossil record. Am J Bot 92(7):1141–1151
Sage RF, Kubien DS (2007) The temperature response of C3 and C4 photosynthesis. Plant Cell
Environ 30(9):1086–1106
Sala A, Piper F, Hoch G (2010) Physiological mechanisms of drought-induced tree mortality are
far from being resolved. New Phytol 186(2):274–281
Schimel JP, Balser TC, Wallenstein M (2007) Microbial stress-response physiology and its impli-
cations for ecosystem function. Ecology 88(6):1386–1394
Sharma R, Singh H, Kaushik M, Nautiyal M, Singh O (2018) Adaptive physiological response
carbon partitioning and biomass production of Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal grown under
elevated CO2 regimes 3. Biotech 8(6). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-018-1292-1
Singh H (2021a) An integrated approach considering physiological and biophysical based indica-
Singh H (2021b) Process-based carbon sequestration study in relation to the energy-water-carbon
pp 336–361
potential species for abatement of urban air pollution. 3 Biotech 7(61):1–10. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s13205-017-0690-0
crm.2020.100241
Singh H, Kumar N, Singh R, Kumar M (2023) Assessing the climate change impact on the
habitat suitability of the range restricted bird species (Catreus wallichii) in the Indian
Himalayan ecosystem. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30:121,224–121,235. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11356-023-30789-x
Smith MD, Michaletz ST, Johnson EA (2008) Fourier analysis of tree growth: Fourier processing
of tree-ring series for signal extraction and climate analysis. Tree Physiol 28(7):953–964
Vitousek PM, Porder S, Houlton BZ, Chadwick OA (2010) Terrestrial phosphorus limitation:
mechanisms, implications, and nitrogen-phosphorus interactions. Ecol Appl 20(1):5–15
Way DA, Oren R (2010) Differential responses to changes in growth temperature between trees
from different functional groups and biomes: a review and synthesis of data. Tree Physiol
30(6):669–688
Yamori W, Hikosaka K, Way DA (2014) Temperature response of photosynthesis in C3, C4,
and CAM plants: temperature acclimation and temperature adaptation. Photosynth Res
119(1–2):101–117
Chapter 15
Mechanisms of Natural Adaptation
in Forests
Tushal Srivastava, Garima Mishra, Shailesh Pandey, Rajendra K. Meena,

Rama Kant, and Maneesh S. Bhandari
Abstract Forests are one of the world’s most valuable resources. They are particu-
larly prone to the specific effects of changing climate, such as increasing tempera-
ture, changing precipitation patterns, frequency and intensity of extreme weather,
and shifting climatic zones. Forest ecosystems rely on various natural mechanisms
to adapt, such as genetic variations among species, phenotypic plasticity, seed dis-
persal, species migration, etc. The genetic variation allows individual trees to pos-
sess adaptive traits, which could be advantageous in response to changing climatic
conditions. Trees adjust their physical and physiological traits, acknowledging envi-
ronmental signs. Tree species have developed methods to disperse seeds across
large distances. This enables them to colonize new locations that may give better
habitat circumstances when the environment changes. Owing to the rapid change in
the climatic conditions within a few decades, there exists a sudden shift within the
native range of some species as they have shifted towards the higher altitude or lati-
tude where they get suitable conditions to thrive. Some forest ecosystems also have
evolved in the presence of periodic wildfires. Certain tree species have developed
adaptations, viz., fire-resistant bark or the requirement for periodic fires to release
seeds and stimulate regeneration. Forest ecosystems exhibit resilience by employ-
ing a blend of innate adaptation mechanisms to address shifts in their surroundings.
Ecosystem resilience refers to a system’s ability to withstand disruptions, adjust to
evolving circumstances, and restore its functions and structure following distur-
bances while retaining its integrity. It is crucial to emphasize that anthropogenic
disturbances, including deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and climate disrup-
tion, can interrupt these natural adaptation mechanisms and pose significant chal-
lenges to forest ecosystems. Conservation efforts, sustainable management of
T. Srivastava · G. Mishra · R. K. Meena · R. Kant · M. S. Bhandari (*)

Genetics and Tree Improvement Division, ICFRE-Forest Research Institute,
S. Pandey
Forest Pathology Discipline, Division of Forest Protection, ICFRE-Forest Research Institute,
Ltd. 2024
292 T. Srivastava et al.
forests, and measures to mitigate environmental change are essential to support and
enhance these natural adaptation mechanisms in forests.
Keywords Forests · Climate change · Deforestation · Diversity · Adaptation ·

Conservation
15.1 Introduction
Forests, covering 30–43% of the Earth’s land surface, are essential for supplying
essential resources such as timber and energy, thus making substantial economic
contributions to diverse regions worldwide (Pan et al. 2013; Yadav et al. 2019).
Furthermore, forests offer diverse services, serving as habitats for wildlife,
facilitating water purification, sequestering carbon, and actively participating in
climate mitigation efforts(Singh and Kumar 2022). The notable influence of for-
ests on the global carbon cycle and their contribution to mitigating changing
climate has sparked considerable scientific and policy attention toward under-
standing forest characteristics and distribution patterns and assessing current
and potential carbon dynamics within these environments (Nabuurs et al. 2010;
Singh 2024).
Climate shift condition is universally recognized as a significant threat, with
anthropogenic activities like the combustion of fossil fuels and deforestation con-
tributing to the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels from 320 ppm
to the current 412 ppm (Singh et al. 2017; NASA 2019). The increase leads to an
unprecedented global average surface temperature (Singh et al. 2018). Changes in
precipitation patterns, nitrogen deposition, and the frequency of extreme climatic
events are expected to impact tree growth and forest dynamics, influencing carbon
accumulation in forest ecosystems (Zuidema et al. 2013; Singh and Verma 2013a,
b). Understanding the cumulative effects of climate change, encompassing factors
like global warming, elevated CO2 levels, and altered precipitation, is crucial for
accurately predicting carbon dynamics within forests (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c).
Beyond just an increase in mean air temperature, there is a growing frequency of
extreme climatic events such as heat waves, frosts, severe droughts, and floods in
various regions (Christensen et al. 2007). Climate variable is a complex interplay
involving alterations in the occurrence and severity of multiple factors, extending
beyond a simple rise in mean air temperature (Joshi et al. 2020). This complexity
leads to diverse impacts on different hierarchical levels of ecosystems, creating cas-
cading effects and intricate feedback across processes from the molecular to the
entire ecosystem (Fig. 15.1).
The impacts of changing climate on forests manifest in a combination of positive
and negative consequences. Positive impacts, such as increased forest growth and
improved water use efficiency in response to elevated CO2, contrast with adverse
effects like reduced growth due to the combined influence of climate change and O3
(Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c). These effects are subject to variation, influenced by
15 Mechanisms of Natural Adaptation in Forests 293
Fig. 15.1 The effects of escalating atmospheric CO2 concentrations, rising temperatures, and
increased aridity on various organizational levels from the molecular to the ecosystem. The princi-
pal processes influenced at each level are outlined, drawing inspiration from the insights of Ziska
and Bunce (2006) regarding how plants respond to elevated CO2
factors like nitrogen availability in the soil and species composition, and may
evolve. High atmospheric CO2 can boost tree growth and net primary productivity
(NPP), which is contingent upon plant nitrogen conditions and specific species, and
these impacts can evolve (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c). The atmospheric nitrogen depo-
sition significantly influences forest growth under natural conditions. Higher
nitrogen and CO2 levels may interact with various other environmental factors,
including environmental radiation and precipitation, to affect the physiology of
trees, carbon distribution, and carbon absorption by ecosystems (Joshi et al. 2021).
Considering the pivotal role of forest ecosystems, numerous scientific papers
over recent decades have delved into the effects of changing climate on these eco-
systems (Deng et al. 2012). Numerous studies have comprehensively reviewed cli-
mate change effects on forest ecosystems at different spatial scales, covering regions
like Europe and the USA and specific forest types such as tropical and boreal forests
(Gupta et al. 2019).
Forests are often considered highly adaptable to climate change, with various
physiological, genetic, and evolutionary factors thought to contribute to the resil-
ience of keystone species amidst evolving environmental conditions (Dhyani et al.
2021). However, it is crucial to recognize that adapting to future climates may
require the simultaneous evolution of multiple traits, a process constrained by exist-
ing correlations between traits. Moreover, climate change is just one of several envi-
ronmental challenges imposed on natural ecosystems by human activities (Kumar
et al. 2021a, b, c). The combined impact of climate change with habitat loss, frag-
mentation, soil degradation, pollution, and the introduction of exotic species signifi-
cantly reduces the regeneration and long-term survival prospects of many forest
species (Valladares 2004). Despite understanding the vital role of biotic interactions
among co-occurring plants, animals, and microorganisms in ecosystem functioning,
our knowledge of these interactions and their sensitivity to global change remains
limited.
Drawing from the comprehensive details about the climate disruption adaptabil-
ity in forest-based ecosystems, key questions related to genetic adaptive traits are:
• What are the primary factors that contribute to the ability of forest trees and
plants to withstand the challenges posed by climate change?
• Are there specific metabolic activities that allow certain tree species to withstand
climate variations better in their natural habitats?
• How do forest species’ responses to global climate change vary, and how does
this difference affect overall forest adaptation?
• What are the key challenges forest species face in adapting to future climates?
The preceding discussion elucidates that not all species respond equally to global
climate change. Thus, the effects of global climate disruption on communities can
be more extensive and complex than individual species, as described under the fol-
lowing heads.
15.2 Genetic Variation and Phenotypic Plasticity
The importance of genetic variation, mainly additive genetic variance within a spe-
cies, resides in its function as the cornerstone for selecting genotypes in its popula-
tions and species (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c). This process enables them to respond
and adapt to environmental alterations (Schaberg et al. 2008). Long-term genetic

improvement programs utilizing artificial selection have showcased the potential for
evolutionary change, highlighting the significance of genetic approaches for refor-
estation amidst rapid climate shifts. It is crucial to prioritize preserving diversity
within species. Amid rapid environmental shifts, it is imperative to acknowledge
that forest ecosystems’ genetic diversity and adaptive potential largely hinge on the
in situ genetic variation within each species population. Populations may endanger
going extinct if environmental changes occur more often than they can adjust or
migrate.
Importantly, genetic diversity dictates the core eco-physiological tolerances of a
species, affecting the interactions between different species competing for resources
(Manoj et al. 2021). Together with dispersal means, these factors are the founda-
tional factors of potential species reactions to climate variables, encompassing
adaptation and migration (Davis and Shaw 2001). In forest tree species, intra-
specific variation plays a significant role in explaining the extensive geographic
ranges of many species, e.g., Picea glauca and Pinus sylvestris, encompassing large
spatial environmental variability. Intra-specific genetic variability structured
in locally adapted populations, combined with phenotypic plasticity, ensures a spe-
cies’ ability to accommodate spatial and temporal environmental heterogeneity
(Kumar et al. 2017; Phukon et al. 2022). The balance between these evolutionary
strategies varies among tree species, with Pinus contorta, Pinus pinaster, and
Prunus serotina, showing strong evidence of intra-specific genetic variability asso-
ciated with climate gradient.
Regarding climate shift, both intra-specific genetic variability and phenotypic
plasticity are crucial in determining the fate of present and future forests. Intra-
specific genetic variability, serving as the raw material for evolution, plays a vital
role in the adaptation capacity of species toward future climates through natural
selection (Jump et al. 2009; Singh et al. 2021). Mainly, adaptive genetic variability
provides the means for natural resource managers and conservationists to imple-
ment assisted migration and climate-smart seed movement for reforestation and
restoration, aligning genotypes with changing climates (Singh et al. 2020).
Additionally, phenotypic plasticity, particularly related to maintaining the stability
of fitness traits, i.e., adaptive phenotypic plasticity, plays a decisive role in the fate,
for example, tree survival, growth, and fecundity, of the existing forests (Singh et al.
2010; Alfaro et al. 2014).
The experiments generally used in crops to assess populations from a species’
natural range in uniform environments are valuable tools in perennial forestry spe-
cies to understand specific variations and quantify genetic diversity and phenotypic
plasticity at the local or regional level (Singh and Verma 2013a, b). When grown in
such common environments, the correlation between fitness-related traits and the
native range is often interpreted as evidence of genetic adaptation to climate change
(Singh et al. 2021). Nevertheless, it is essential to note that neutral evolutionary
processes, sometimes related to post-glacial recolonization routes, can also result in
impartial genetic differences associated with environmental gradients (López-
Goldar et al. 2019). Conducting multiple common garden experiments across the
globe for cosmopolitan species like Populus and Eucalypts allows for the quantifi-
cation of phenotypic plasticity in forestry species (Schwinning et al. 2022). Notably,
it covers a range of ecological conditions that are instrumental in recognizing envi-
ronmental drivers linked with intra-specific adaptive genetic variation. Further, it
assists in differentiating adaptive from non-adaptive phenotypic plasticity and
assesses trait relationships involved in trade-offs, maximizing fitness (Willi and Van
Buskirk 2022).
Evaluating tree populations across common environments, i.e., genotype and
environment (G × E) interaction, revealed differences in genetic variations known
as provenance tests, is done without competition (Sharma and Singh 2021). These
tests use seeds from native populations across the species’ natural distribution
range, measuring fitness-related traits like survival, growth, and vegetative bud phe-
nology (Sáenz-Romero et al. 2017). Established to enhance forest productivity and
study intraspecific genetic variation, provenance tests have become crucial for
understanding population-specific behaviors that change climate. They underscore
the necessity of incorporating intraspecific genetic variation in predictions of spe-
cies distributions (Prasad and Leites 2022).
Provenance studies act as climate change experiments by assuming that seeds
from natural populations produce saplings genetically adapted to their climate of
origin (Prakash et al. 2022). This enables the assessment of spatial climate change
effects, measured as the climatic difference between the test site and the provenance
of the population. Studies based on the reanalysis of provenance trials provide
insight into the role of genetic adaptation to climate, particularly in range-wide or
regional contexts. Range-wide studies comprehensively examine species’ evolu-
tionary strategies to cope with spatial climate variability, especially at range mar-
gins with limiting conditions. Additionally, they provide a framework for evaluating
phenotypic plasticity across large climatic gradients.
Plasticity encompasses various phenotypic responses to the environment occur-
ring at different time scales, potentially reversible or irreversible, and could be
adaptive. In rapidly changing environments, populations narrowly adapted with low
plasticity in crucial traits may face a higher risk of extinction (Kumari and Singh
2018). However, knowledge about the plasticity of keystone species, especially
long-lived ones, is limited. Global climate change should favor elevated levels of
phenotypic plasticity in plants. Still, the simultaneous changes in multiple abiotic
and biotic factors related to global climate shifts may impose restrictions on plas-
tic’s response to the environment.
The complexity arising from simultaneous effects and interactions among differ-
ent species and factors may explain the coexistence of species with varying levels of
plasticity, challenging the conception that plastic phenotypic responses to global
climate variables are always adaptive (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c). Global climate
shifts could change phenotypic integration, influencing features, for instance, the
uncoupling of growth, foliage dynamics, and cone production induced by mid-term
climatic variability in a Scots Pine population at its southern range (Martínez-

Alonso et al. 2007). Consequently, global climate change may induce differential
plastic responses in co-occurring species and influence features like phenotypic
integration, affecting certain traits’ plasticity.
Apart from individual-level ad-hoc plastic changes in an organism’s life, there is
another type of change at the genetic level induced by rapid climate change (Kumar
et al. 2019a, b). Numerous studies indicate that phenotypic plasticity is not the sole
mechanism species employ to cope with climate change, and for some plants, it might
not even be the most crucial one. Over the past few years, consistent documentation
has shown that rapid climate change has resulted in heritable and genetic variations in
plant populations. It is most likely that plants with short lifespans and large population
sizes will adapt to altered growing seasons and persist (Franks et al. 2007). The com-
plex interplay of phenotypic plasticity and genetic variation in forest ecosystems
underscores their remarkable adaptability to environmental changes. It highlights the
importance of preserving and understanding the vast genetic resources that contribute
to the resilience and dynamic nature of these vital native habitats.
15.3 Seed Dispersal
The capability of plants to migrate over long distances through seed dispersal is
particularly crucial in the context of rapid environmental changes (Kumar et al.
2019a, b). Despite morphological traits indicating adaptations for short-distance
dispersal, most, if not all, species exhibit the capability for wide-range seed disper-
sal. Habitat suitability plays a significant role in long-distance migration, suggest-
ing that drastic habitat suitability changes due to swift climate change scenarios
may lead to more repeatable and noticeable migration events. When facing an
ambiguous future, among the most effective approaches is diversification, as no
single strategy is universally applicable, and this principle extends to the formula-
tion of strategies for the management of forests (Millar et al. 2007).
In biology, preserving species and genetic variability is essential for preparing
for potential environmental changes, aligning with the resilience theory. Species
adapt to change via two main mechanisms: dispersion through vegetative propa-
gules or seeds toward more favorable environments or altering gene frequencies to
favor genotypes better suited to the altered circumstances (Reusch et al. 2005). The
differences in migration rates between what is predicted and observed during the
repopulation of northern temperate forests after glacial setbacks may stem from
undervaluing the frequency and impact of long-distance dispersal events (Sharma
et al. 2019). Even with these discoveries, worries remain that numerous tree species
may not be able to migrate and adapt quickly enough to keep up with the anticipated
pace of global warming.
Pollen, seed dispersal, and gene frequency changes can happen concurrently and
interact in adaptation. For example, the process of dispersal frequently promotes
gene flow among tree populations that are highly fragmented, which serves to
uphold genetic variation within these populations. This helps prevent genetic drift
and the loss of diversity through inbreeding in small or isolated populations (Farwig
et al. 2008).
Seed dispersal can occur via various methods such as wind, water, or animals
like birds and mammals. Operational forestry experiences have shown that seeds
can be dispersed over unexpectedly long distances in a relatively shorter time frame.
Light-seeded species like conifers, with semi-serotinous cones, are well adapted for
long-distance dispersal over snow and ice. Wind dispersal over snow may also
explain conifers’ rapid post-glacial migration rates with non-serotinous cones.
However, long-distance seed dispersal of typically wind-dispersed conifers could
also occur through birds.
In contrast, large or heavy-seeded species may face challenges in traversing
landscapes, particularly in highly fragmented environments. Despite these chal-
lenges, forest species, such as oaks (Quercus spp.) and American beech (Fagus
grandifolia), can exhibit rapid and widespread dispersal with the assistance of cer-
tain animal species. Forest species sustain their genetic diversity and long-term
resilience to environmental changes over distances and timeframes by colonizing
appropriate habitats through seed and pollen dispersal. However, anthropogenic
alterations to landscapes and gene pools may have diminished this capacity, and
population fragmentation can potentially negatively influence the genetic and repro-
ductive status of the populations.
Genetic diversity alone must be complemented by diversity at the species level,
especially by groups such as pollinators (e.g., insects, bats, and birds) and seed-
dispersing organisms (e.g., various birds and mammals), as they play a crucial role
in the long-term resilience of forest ecosystems. These associated species groups
are essential for forest tree species to effectively adapt to climatic changes through
seed dispersal, pollination, and gene flow. These processes are instrumental in
maintaining genetic diversity and ensuring reproductive success within populations.
Gene flow among populations aids in alleviating the adverse effects of inbreeding
depression on growth, reproduction, and survival in small and segregated popula-
tions within highly segmented landscapes. Specifically, local populations at the
edges of the geographical range play a crucial role in bolstering forest resilience
amidst global climate shifts. Importantly, these distinct communities frequently act
as an ideal seed source, enabling populations to shift in response to environmental
alterations.
It can be inferred that populations at the geographic range margins have experi-
enced physiological stresses while existing at the limits of their eco-physiological
tolerances. Through natural selection and a degree of genetic isolation, such popula-
tions may have adapted and developed unique traits (highlighted in the next sub-
head) that enhance their importance as unique genetic reservoirs for adaptation and
resilience to environmental changes.
15.3.1 Important Traits of Seed Dispersal
Various traits considerably contribute to seed dispersal patterns, exhibiting variabil-

ity at the sub-individual level and influencing plant fitness through different envi-
ronmental pathways (Snell et al. 2019). While specific traits depend on dispersal
modes (e.g., anemochory vs. epizoochory) and life-history strategies, they are gen-
erally classified into three main types: traits associated with movement, phenology,
and longevity. The plasticity of movement-related traits, such as attractiveness to
frugivores, attachment to dispersers, or aerodynamics, is evident. Still, plants also
exhibit variations in phenology (timing of propagule production) and longevity
(length of dormancy on the plant or ground), with consequential effects on seed
dispersal and, consequently, plant fitness (Beckman et al. 2018).
Importantly, traits influencing abiotic seed dispersal are closely tied to seed or
plant structure. Seed morphology influences the dispersal process, plant height
affects dispersal distance, seed mass determines the descent rate for wind-dispersed
species (Teller et al. 2014), and plants’ density affects the Arabidopsis thaliana’s
dispersion range. Both phenotypic plasticity and genetic variation contribute to
reduced dispersal at the range limits of Cakile edentula (LaRue et al. 2018). In epi-
zoochorous species, the type of attachment affects the likelihood of hitching a ride
on a passing animal. Due to their heteromorphic seeds, certain species that rely on
epizoochory and wind dispersal can utilize a variety of dispersion vectors (Martorell
and López 2014). In endozoochorous systems, a complex set of traits may influence
movement as plants respond to a dynamic community of frugivores, employing
various traits to attract them, including pulp: seed ratio, color, volatiles, fruit size,
fruit shape, seed size, and shape, etc.
There is compelling evidence indicating that fruits exhibit plastic responses to
environmental conditions. For instance, in cherry tomatoes, nutritional quality
changed with temperature. Variations in soil water availability and nutrient levels in
a desert shrub influenced the size of fruit and seeds, nutritional content, and pulp-
to-seed ratio (Lotan and Izhaki 2013). In a small Mediterranean Olive (Olea euro-
paea) tree, fruit weight and seed number were correlated with rainfall and
temperature. While evidence supports the plasticity of fruit and seed traits in
response to abiotic environments, examples of rapid changes in fruit traits in
response to changing biotic environments are limited, except in seed size due to a
shifting frugivore community (Galetti et al. 2013).
Nevertheless, the rapid alteration of fruit size through artificial selection is a
crucial aspect of the domestication of tree species. It is likely more common than
documented in the literature (Frary et al. 2000). Rather than changing physical
traits, plants might adjust the timing of propagule production or ripening in response
to changing environments. Variations in temperature and precipitation have been
shown to affect flowering time (Jordan et al. 2015), and some epigenetically regu-
lated areas have been linked with earlier flowering or seed production. The timing
of fruit/seed production and abscission in plants may also react to environmental
aspects. Ethylene is a key regulator associated with the timing of ripening and
abscission in wild species. Similar to the situation observed in Costa Rica, the fruit
maturation frequency was correlated with the rate of frugivore visits, suggesting
that fruit tended to ripen more quickly with higher rates of frugivore visitation
(Yakovlev et al. 2012).
In response to a changing biotic or abiotic environment, plants may rely less on
spatial dispersal and more on temporal dispersal. In conditions of decreased dis-
persion, plants may survive longer if they possess traits linked to seed longevity in
the crown or underground seed bank. Other factors like late-season precipitation
induce extended seed dormancy, revealing dimorphic features in annual grass
Aegilops triuncialis (Dyer 2017). The phenotypic traits, such as seed hardness,
physical protection, chemical protection, flesh quantity, and susceptibility to
microbial attack, often trade off with traits related to movement (e.g., attractive-
ness to dispersers).
15.4 Forest Regeneration
Climate plays a significant role in the recruitment of plants (Adler and Hille Ris
Lambers 2008). Fundamental drivers for a plant’s distribution, such as temperature
and water supply (mainly through precipitation), influence seed dormancy and ger-
mination. As a result, climate changes and other environmental factors, such as land
use, which affect ecological signals, will unavoidably influence plant recruitment
and demography (Baeten et al. 2010).
The initial stages of tree development are expected to be more vulnerable to cli-
mate variables than mature stages, representing a significant bottleneck to induc-
tion. Seedling appearance typically aligns with seasonal environmental changes.
While some species germinate shortly after dispersal, others undergo delayed ger-
mination due to dormancy awaiting a favorable condition, ensuring seedlings’ sur-
vival, growth, and eventual reproduction. Anticipated alterations in ecological
signals could affect seed regeneration in varying ways, inhibiting, delaying, or facil-
itating the process depending on the species. Effects at the level of individual organ-
isms have cascading consequences on populations and communities, leading to
complex relations and results.
For example, facilitation has the potential to alter the spatial arrangement of
recruitment as influenced by seedling emergence (Batllori et al. 2009); however, its
contribution to certain species varies geographically for seedling establishment.
Comprehending regeneration under the influence of climate disruption is essential
for modeling vegetation flux (de Frenne et al. 2010). Nevertheless, the broader
impact of climate change on plant renaissance has been largely neglected, and
details are mentioned in the following sub-heads.
15.4.1 Abiotic Constraints Related to Seed Dormancy
Upon reaching maturity, seeds can either be non-dormant, meaning they germinate
under a broad range of conditions, or dormant, which can manifest as either indicating
they do not germinate at all or only doing so under specific environmental conditions
(Fig. 15.2). In the case of most species, seeds display either non-dormancy or dor-
mancy, which attributed to biological inhibition approaches. Warm stratification, cold
stratification, and hot, dry conditions represent effective methods through which
moisture and temperature interact over time to surpass this physiological barrier.
Interestingly, while one set of situations may trigger dormancy for some species,
another set may persuade dormancy. The seasonal modulation in conditions results
in cyclical dormancy for seeds covered under the soil (seedbed). For instance,
warmer temperatures break dormancy, but colder temperatures trigger dormancy in
winter annual plants (Benech-Arnold et al. 2000). Temperature and moisture cues,
including exposure to heat and the cold-hot cycle, can also alleviate physical seed
dormancy. Several ecological signals initiate germination in non-dormant seeds
(Fig. 15.2). It is important to note that germination and dormancy break are
Fig. 15.2 Factors influencing germination, other factors being the most susceptible to climate
change (Walck et al. 2011)
individual processes. Consequently, changing climate will influence these processes

independently.
Variability exists between species within their temperature requirements for cool
and moist conditions, encompassing narrow to wide temperature ranges. Alterations
in winter severity and duration can potentially affect different species, causing some
seeds to remain dormant while leaving others unaffected. For instance, Empetrum
nigrum seeds exposed to diverse winter climates exhibited consistent germination
rates, suggesting adaptability to future stratification conditions. Although many spe-
cies generally have a large temperature array for germination post-cold stratifica-
tion, those with specific requirements may face challenges in changing climate.
Species depending on daily temperature fluctuations as germination cues may
encounter difficulties with changing temperature patterns.
Winter warm spells, notably if rain removes snow cover, might lead to seedling
mortality or induce a return to dormancy, causing an interruption in spring seedling
emergence (Walck et al. 2011). Even brief exposures to specific conditions can
diminish germination and trigger secondary dormancy in non-germinated seeds of
annuals. Conversely, certain species, like Tundra vegetation comprising Cerastium
alpinum, might remain unaffected by summer heat pulses if temperatures exceed
the germination range.
15.4.2 Forest Regeneration Under Variation in Temperature
Temperate forests, boreal forests, Tundra, and Steppes experience seasonal changes
primarily dictated by temperature, ranging from hot to cool summers and mild to
freezing winters (Walter and Breckle 2002). Growing seasons vary across latitudes,
with shorter periods in tundra and longer durations in a few parts of southern tem-
perate forests, extending up to 8 months. Low evaporation, snowmelt, inadequate
drainage in tundra and boreal forests, or sufficient year-round precipitation in tem-
perate forests prevent distinct dry seasons. Exceptions occur in steppes, where arid-
ity differs significantly (up to 5 months), and in polar deserts.
The subalpine and alpine forests occur specifically in mountain regions for tem-
perate and tropical regions. Alpine forests undergo more significant daily tempera-
ture variation, experience deeper snowfall, and face a higher drought risk than
Arctic forests. Boreal forests are colder and receive less precipitation than subalpine
regions. Some species emerge directly after dispersal. Spring emergence is common
due to low temperatures preventing germination after autumn dispersal or requiring
cold stratification over winter (Shimono and Kudo 2005).
Tundra species require elevated temperatures for sprouting, whereas certain tem-
perate and boreal species display sprouting below freezing, with emergence occur-
ring beneath snow or shortly after snow melting (Phartyal et al. 2009). Alternatively,
some species require higher temperatures for germination, which leads to their
emergence in the summer season. Few temperate species exhibit autumn germina-
tion, with seeds being either non-dormant by maturity or non-dormant following
warm stratification (Kahmen and Poschlod 2008). In exceptional instances, temper-

ate species with intricate dormancy patterns may necessitate warm stratification
before cold stratification or two separate cold stratification periods to facilitate ger-
mination. (Walck et al. 2005).
Significant warming is anticipated in these ecosystems, particularly in boreal
forests and Arctic tundra, especially during winter. Within boreal forests, winter soil
moisture varied from low (Asia) to high (Europe and North America), with maxi-
mum variability recorded in summer (increasing to decreasing from Asia and across
North America to Europe). Among temperate regions, the soil moisture content is
anticipated to increase slightly in spring and winter (except for a decrease observed
in southeastern Australia) and be highly uneven in summer and autumn (Meehl
et al. 2007). Consequently, with increasing temperature, soil moisture will likely
increase mainly during winter in these ecosystems; however, it might vary consider-
ably in summer and spring. These anticipated changes in soil moisture and tempera-
ture may affect autumn germination, which relies on summer post-ripening and
autumn emergence.
Other notable consequences of changing climate are the early melting of ice and
snow, reducing the snow layer (Mc Cabe and Wolock 2010). This has implications
for frost infiltration, meltwater availability, and thermal protection favoring seed-
lings. The lack of snow insulation can result in more profound and colder soil frost
during winter. Laboratory-simulated colder winter soils, coupled with summer
warming, have been shown to prompt earlier germination in several Tundra species,
potentially enhancing their establishment with prolonged growing seasons (Milbau
et al. 2009). Extensive degradation of permafrost may benefit the initiation of cer-
tain species like high-ground Picea glauca and P. mariana on permafrost sites
in Alaska.
Interestingly, changing climate could increase snow cover in certain circum-
stances. Over recent decades, elevated snowpack levels, accompanied by increased
precipitation, have been observed at higher altitudes, which remain consistently
under freezing during winter (Stewart 2009). Climate disruption might also lead to
stronger snowfall events. The intentional enhancement of snow on the ground to
create better snowstorms has been discovered to worsen the incursion of foreign
forbs in a varied grassland area, e.g. Meadow (Blumentha et al. 2008).
Germination patterns in certain species, such as frost-tolerant annuals, exhibit
occurrences in both spring and autumn within temperate areas (Cici and Van Acker
2009). In the case of numerous yearly Papaver species from warmer climates,
autumn emergence is observed, while species from cooler climates exhibit spring
emergence. Predictions associated with climate disruption suggest a change from
predominantly spring to autumn appearance (Karlsson and Milberg 2007). The
impacts of warming on seed vernalization, where cold stratification stimulates or
accelerates the formation of floral primordia, could influence monocarpic perenni-
als and winter annuals. Experiments conducted in laboratory settings simulating
warming have demonstrated a reduction in growth and reproduction in three preva-
lent arable weeds. In species exhibiting mixed germination timing, where some seed
germination takes place in autumn whereas others do so in spring, warmer
conditions in winter might facilitate the survival of seeds germinating in autumn

that would otherwise perish due to cold conditions. (Gosling et al. 2009).
15.5 Species Migration
Species migration in forests is a dynamic process shaped by many ecological fac-

tors, with changing climate as a significant catalyst. As temperature and environ-
mental conditions shift, plant species within forests undergo migration to more
suitable habitats, seeking to adapt and ensure their survival. Altitudinal shifts, where
species move to higher elevations to escape warming temperatures, and range
expansions or contractions are common responses. The mechanisms of seed disper-
sal, facilitated by wind, animals, and water, play a crucial role in colonizing new
areas. Human-induced habitat fragmentation necessitates the establishment of eco-
logical corridors to maintain connected pathways for migration. Ultimately, species
migration in forests, whether triggered by climate change or other ecological pres-
sure, plays a vital role in shaping the composition and resilience of ecosystems
over time.
In order to make predictions about the possibility of current movement, estimates
of past species migration patterns depend frequently on paleobotanical and genetic
information. Studies spanning the last 25,000 years examining range shifts in cor-
relation with global climatic cycles use pollen records and chloroplast DNA
(cpDNA) analysis to reconstruct the latitudinal and altitudinal tree migrations from
habitats and shelter beneath glaciers (Petit et al. 2004). Initial pollen records sug-
gested post-glacial migration rates up to 200 m per year. However, cpDNA evi-
dence, revealing low-density refugial populations of angiosperm trees farther north
than previously believed, has led to revised estimates, now suggesting a migration
rate of less than 100 m per year (McLachlan et al. 2007). The inception of small
founder populations and the phenotypic plasticity and longevity of most tree species
may allow for their persistence until sufficient genetic variation is introduced via.
Long-distance pollen flow. This process facilitates the establishment of large, genet-
ically variable populations that are viable and locally adapted (Mimura and
Aitken 2007).
Considering the possibility of facilitated migration, where new populations are
founded as new environments become accessible, the mass of these populations
may not necessarily require being large. In a few cases, especially at high latitudes
or elevations, complex colonization might have already led to colonies of stunted
individuals, which could develop into straight tree forms and be reproductively
capable of warming climate (Gamache 2005). These colonies, historically tolerating
harsh conditions, could serve as nuclei for range extension through the dispersal of
seed as climates develop into more favorable.
Latitudinal and altitudinal tree lines, where climate is predicted to be a principal
limiting factor, are often examined to identify probable changes in species range.
Certain localized studies indicate advancements in elevation, increased diameter
and height growth, and higher density of tree species. However, other studies, such
as a study of vegetation in northern Canada, illustrate partial to no forest expansion
despite regional warming, suggesting possible factors like barriers to seed dispersal,
lack of seed sources, and poor soil conditions influencing the observed slow move-
ment that was analyzed using infrared satellite imaging.
15.5.1 Models to Predict Habitat Shift
Researchers increasingly employ global circulation models (GCMs) and species

distribution models (SDMs) to predict climate disruption-driven habitat shifts for
various taxa (Singh et al. 2023). SDMs are founded on the premise that ecological
conditions mainly determine the realized niches of species. However, these models
aim to forecast the future preferred range distribution of species by transferring cur-
rent distribution associated ecological parameters onto maps representing potential
climate circumstances (Pearson and Dawson 2003). While most SDMs rely on
occurrence or absence data for species allocations and interpolate temperature and
precipitation from existing weather station data, the sophistication of these models
is rapidly growing as the field widens (Guisan et al. 2006).
Mechanistic models, incorporating physiological data like flowering phenology
to predict a species’ range, are also emerging (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c). However,
these models require a thorough consideration of the physiological traits of the spe-
cies, leading to a limited number of published models to date. It is concerning to
observe that tree migration rates in response to past climate changes have been
comparatively slow, possibly less than 100 m annually (Chuine et al. 2000). This is
especially true in light of model predictions that, in scenarios involving climate
disruption, rapid migration will be required to keep up with current climates. High-
latitude biomes, experiencing extreme warming toward the poles, are anticipated to
require unprecedentedly rapid tree migration rates.
Nevertheless, under climate change scenarios, model projections for the migra-
tory ability of five tree species in the United States indicate extremely low odds of
dispersal beyond 10–20 km from present species limits by 2100. Regardless of the
density of forests in the anticipated migration area, species with low abundances
near the range boundary are estimated to have reduced migration potential. Recent
advancements in modeling, including community models and machine learning
methods, have outperformed initial versions of SDMs. On the other hand, non-
climatic elements such as biotic interactions, life cycle traits, and range fragmenta-
tion that differentiate between a species’ realized and basic niches are currently
underappreciated in most techniques (Guisan and Thuiller 2005). Although these
factors greatly influence a species’ migration ability, future habitat and actual spe-
cies distributions may diverge significantly.
Moreover, future climates may introduce novel multivariate conditions, chal-
lenging predicting species’ presence or absence based on current distributions (Devi
et al. 2023). Most existing SDMs have life history and population genetics
limitations, lacking consideration for population distinctions within the species dis-
tribution range. These models often neglect factors like differential adaptation, cen-
tral-peripheral population structure, local adaptation, and genetic diversity levels.
Insufficient attention is paid to differences in gene flow between locations with the
range of the species or distinctions among populations at the leading and trailing
edges. Population distinctiveness for characteristics associated with confined cli-
mate adaptability implies that individual populations’ climatic envelopes are prob-
ably substantially narrower than those deduced from species-level ranges and
climate models. In specific models, the flowering time, based on phenology, is
employed to determine SDM accuracy, although other attributes may have more
genetic diversity than flowering timing. However, genetic diversity between popula-
tions might not be essential for effective SDMs.
Compared to center populations, species on the periphery of their ecosystem
often face increased levels of abiotic stress and fierce competition from other spe-
cies, resulting in decreased reproductive ability and fewer individuals (Aitken et al.
2008). From the calculation, it is advisable to exclude sink populations, which
mainly rely on seed and pollen contributions from source populations. The acces-
sibility of propagules and the successful range of dispersion might also be limited
by competition from nearby species and decreased reproductive success in new
habitats. When transplanted to southern conditions, lodgepole pines (Pinus con-
torta) populations exhibited reduced strobili development compared to populations
native to those habitats. (Hannerz et al. 2001).
Species and comprehensive ecological information are lacking, potentially
resulting in overestimations of migration speed (Apurva et al. 2017). Despite their
potential limitations, SDMs are crucial for estimating the worldwide consequences
of changing climate, estimating loss rates, and identifying key conservation regions
for tree species. Many argue that comparatively long lifespans and uncommon
mutations may enhance the accuracy of future species distribution projections,
especially for species with long lifespans, like trees. According to worldwide
research that evaluated possible geographic shifts in the climatic contexts of plant
species, 3%–38% of species might go extinct by 2050 under scenarios of mild
change in the climate (Aitken et al. 2008).
Wider protected areas featuring a variety of topographies are predicted to support
a more significant number of species compared to smaller, lower reserves, espe-
cially in cases where movement across the conservation area is permitted. Although
populations may adjust to modest variations in the climate by shifting relatively
close between micro-sites, including gradient, aspect, or altitude, the predicted pat-
terns of climate shift are likely to exceed the degree of regional variation in the
environment in several scenarios. Considering that the flexibility of most tree spe-
cies seems inadequate to compensate for the current rate of change in the environ-
mental conditions, the alternative is to leverage the capability of trees for
microevolutionary change (Fig. 15.3) (Jackson 2006). However, even microevolu-
tion and local adaptation are insufficient to offset the pace of change, leading to the
local extinction of many species or their migration to higher elevations or latitudes
at rapid rates: 6.1 m and 6.1 km per decade, respectively.
Fig. 15.3 A complicated situation arises when factors contributing to global change interact with
plant development and survival. Sudden climate change is the catalyst for a variety of changes in
the environment that place complex and contradictory competition on trees. The ideas regarding
habitat fragmentation and the influence of changing climate on genetic diversity and local adapta-
tion originate from the findings of Jump and Peñuelas (2005)
The shift of species extent towards higher latitudes carries significant implica-
tions. How species respond to changing environments predominantly influences
how populations at the boundaries of their ranges react (Hampe and Petit 2005).
Whereas considerable focus is on the expanding edge, the less-explored southern
limits of species ranges have garnered insufficient attention. The increasing recog-
nition of the pivotal role played by rear-edge populations situated at low latitudes is
emerging (Jump et al. 2006). Indeed, populations in low-latitude areas often hold
disproportionate importance for the survival and evolution of forest species, dis-
playing distinct ecological features, dynamics, and conservation requirements com-
pared to populations in other range components.
15.6 Future Perspectives and Conclusions
Facilitating natural adaptation in forests requires a holistic and forward-thinking

approach that considers ongoing and anticipated changes in environmental condi-
tions. Here are several future perspectives to promote and support natural adaptation
in forests:
• Implementing adaptive management practices in forests is crucial to consider the
anticipated impacts of changing climate.
• Establishing and preserving ecological corridors is essential to allow for the free
movement of species across the landscapes.
• In situations where natural migration might face obstacles, contemplating aided
movement or managed relocation of species to more suitable habitats can serve
as a strategy.
• Emphasizing genetic conservation efforts for keystone species within forests
ensures the preservation of diverse genetic material.
• Employing cutting-edge remote sensing technologies, including satellite imag-
ery, LIDAR scanning, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), can offer invalu-
able data for monitoring forest health and detecting temporal changes.
It could be concluded that the intricate interplay of genetic variation, phenotypic
plasticity, seed dispersal, regeneration mechanisms, and species migration collec-
tively underscores the resilience of forests to environmental changes. This dynamic
suite of adaptive strategies allows forest ecosystems to navigate evolving condi-
tions, ensuring biodiversity and sustaining the vitality of these critical habitats.
Genetic diversity provides the raw material for evolutionary shifts, while pheno-
typic plasticity allows individual organisms to adjust to changing climatic condi-
tions. Seed dispersal mechanisms foster the establishment of new colonies,
promoting biodiversity and ensuring ecosystem robustness. Regeneration processes,
from seedling establishment to mature trees, contribute to the continuous renewal of
forest landscapes. Species migration facilitates the dynamic adjustment of ecosys-
tems in reaction to broader environmental changes. Therefore, these interconnected
aspects underscore the adaptive capacity of forests, emphasizing the importance of
holistic conservation strategies to sustain their vitality in the face of ongoing envi-
ronmental transformations.
References
Adler PB, Hille Ris Lambers J (2008) The influence of climate and species composition on the
population dynamics often prairie forbs. Ecology 89:3049–3060
Aitken SN, Yeaman S, Holliday JA, Wang T, Curtis-McLane S (2008) Adaptation, migration or
extirpation: climate change outcomes for tree populations. Evol Appl 1(1):95–111
Alfaro RI, Fady B, Vendramin GG, Dawson IK, Fleming RA, Sáenz-Romero C, Lindig-Cisneros
RA, Murdock T, Vinceti B, Navarro CM, Skrøppa T, Baldinelli G, El-Kassaby YA, Loo J (2014)
The role of forest genetic resources in responding to biotic and abiotic factors in the con-
text of anthropogenic climate change. For Ecol Manag 333:76–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foreco.2014.04.006
Baeten L, De Frenne P, Verheyen K, Graae BJ, Hermy M (2010) Forest herbs in the face of global
change: a single-species-multiple-threats approach for Anemonenemorosa. Plant Ecol Evol
143:19–30
Batllori E, Camarero JJ, Ninot JM, Gutiérrez E (2009) Seedling recruitment, survival and facilita-
tion in alpine Pinus uncinata tree line ecotones. Implications and potential responses to climate
warming. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 18:460472
Beckman NG, Bullock JM, Salguero-Gómez R (2018) High dispersal ability is related to fast life-
history strategies. J Ecol 106:1349–1362
Benech-Arnold RL, Sanchez RA, Forcella F, Kruk BC, Ghersa CM (2000) Environmental control
of dormancy in weed seed banks in soil. Field Crop Res 67:105–122
Blumentha LD, Chimner RA, Welker JM, Morgan JA (2008) Increased snow facilitates plant inva-
sion in mixed grass prairie. New Phytol 179:440–448
Christensen JH, Hewitson B, Busuioc A, Chen A, Gao X, Held I et al (2007) Regional cli-
mate projections. Contribution of working group I to the fourth assessment report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. In: Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z,
Marquis M, Averyt KB, Tignor M, Miller HL (eds) Climate Change 2007: the physical science
basis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, pp 847–943
Chuine I, Belmonte J, Mignot A (2000) A modelling analysis of the genetic variation of phenology
between tree populations. J Ecol 88:561–570
Cici SZH, Van Acker RC (2009) Are view of the recruitment biology of winter annual weeds in
Canada. Can J Plant Sci 89:575–589
Davis MB, Shaw RG (2001) Range shifts and adaptive responses to quaternary climate change.
Science 292:673–679
De Frenne P, Graae BJ, Kolb A et al (2010) Significant effects of temperature on the reproductive
output of the forest herb anemone nemorosaL. For Ecol Manag 259:809–817
Deng Q, Hui D, Zhang D et al (2012) Effects of precipitation increase on soil respiration: a three
year field experiment in subtropical forests in China. PLoS One 7(7):e41493. https://doi.
org/10.1371/journal.pone.0041493
29(2):451–457
Dyer AR (2017) The seed ecology of Aegilops triuncialis: linking trait variation to growing condi-
tions. Seed Sci Res 27:183–198
Farwig N, Braun C, Boehning-Gaese K (2008) Human disturbance reduces genetic diversity of an
endangered tropical tree, Prunus Africana (Rosaceae). Conserv Genet 9:317–326
Franks SJ, Sim S, Weis AE (2007) Rapid evolution of flowering time by an annual plant in response
to a climate fluctuation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:1278–1282
Frary A, Nesbitt TC, Grandillo S, Knaap E, Cong B, Liu J, Meller J, Elber R, Alpert KB, Tanksley
SD (2000) Fw2.2: a quantitative trait locus key to the evolution of tomato fruit size. Science
289:85–88
Galetti M, Guevara R, Côrtes MC, Fadini R, Von Matter S, Leite AB, Labecca F, Ribeiro T,
Carvalho CS, Collevatti RG, Pires MM, Guimarães PR Jr, Brancalion PH, Ribeiro MC,
Jordano P (2013) Functional extinction of birds drives rapid evolutionary changes in seed size.
Science 340:1086–1090
Gamache I (2005) Latitudinal response of sub arctic tree lines to recent climate change in eastern
Canada. J Bio Geogr 32:849–862
Gosling PG, Mc Cartan SA, Peace AJ (2009) Seed dormancy and germination characteristics
of common alder (Alnus glutinosa L.) indicate some potential to adapt to climate change in
Britain. Forestry 82:573–582
Guisan A, Thuiller W (2005) Predicting species distribution: offering more than simple habitat
models. Ecol Lett 8:993–1009
Guisan A, Lehmann A, Ferrier S, Austin M, Overton JMC, Aspinall R, Hastie T (2006) Making
better bio geographical predictions of species distributions. J Appl Ecol 43:386–392
Hampe A, Petit RJ (2005) Conserving biodiversity under climate change: the rear edge matters.
Ecol Lett 8:461–467
Hannerz M, Aitken SN, Ericsson T, Ying CC (2001) Inheritance of strobili production at genetic
correlation with growth in lodge pole pine. For Genet 8:323–330
Jackson ST (2006) Forest genetics in space and time. New Phytol 171(1):1–3
Jordan CY, Ally D, Hodgins KA (2015) When can stress facilitate divergence by altering time to
flowering? Ecol Evol 5:5962–5973
Jump AS, Peñuelas J (2005) Running to stand still: adaptation and the response of plants to rapid
climate change. Ecol Lett 8:1010–1020
Jump AS, Hunt JM, Penuelas J (2006). Rapid climate change‐related growth decline at the south-
ern range edge of Fagus sylvatica. Global change biology 12(11):2163–2174
Jump AS, Marchant R, Peñuelas J (2009) Environmental change and the option value of genetic
diversity. Trends Plant Sci 14(1):51–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2008.10.002
Kahmen S, Poschlod P (2008) Does germination success differ with respect to seed mass and
germination season? Experimental testing of plant functional trait responses to grass land man-
agement. Ann Bot 101:541–548
Karlsson LM, Milberg P (2007) A comparative study of germination ecology of four Papaver taxa.
Ann Bot 99:935–946
org/10.1007/s13205-019-1700-1
Kumar N, Jeena N, Kumar N, Gangola S, Singh H (2019b) Phytoremediation facilitating enzymes:

tion technologies. Academic, Elsevier, Cambridge, MA, pp 289–306
Kumar A, Dwivedi GK, Tewari S, Jaipaul SVK, Singh H, Kumar P, Kumar N, Kausal R (2020b) Soil
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Bisht S, Kumar N (2021c) Relationship of physiological plant func-
LaRue EA, Holland JD, Emery NC (2018) Environmental predictors of dispersal traits across a
species’ geographic range. Ecology 99:1857–1865
López-Goldar X, Villari C, Bonello P, Borg-Karlson AK, Grivet D, Sampedro L, Zas R (2019)
Genetic variation in the constitutive defensive metabolome and its inducibility are geographi-
cally structured and largely determined by demographic processes in maritime pine. J Ecol
107(5):2464–2477. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13159
Lotan A, Izhaki I (2013) Could abiotic environment shape fleshy fruit traits? A field study of the
desert shrub Ochradenus baccatus. J Arid Environ 92:34–41
management. In: Forest resources resilience and conflicts, Academic, Elsevier. doi: https://doi.
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
Martínez-Alonso C, Valladares F, Camarero JJ, López Arias M, Serrano M, Rodríguez JA (2007)
The uncoupling of secondary growth, cone and litter production by intradecadal climatic vari-
ability in a Mediterranean Scots Pine Forest. For Ecol Manag 253:19–29
Martorell C, López MM (2014) Informed dispersal in plants: Heterosperma pinnatum (Asteraceae)
adjusts its dispersal mode to escape from competition and water stress. Oikos 123:225–231
Mc Cabe GJ, Wolock DM (2010) Long-term variability in northern hemisphere snow cover and
associations with warmer winters. Clim Chang 99:141–153
McLachlan JS, Hellmann JJ, Schwartz MW (2007) A frame work for debate of assisted migration
in an era of climate change. Conserv Biol 21:297–302
Meehl GA, Stocker TF, Collins WD et al (2007) Global climate projections. In: Solomon S, Qin D,
Manning M et al (eds) Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. Contribution of work-
ing group I to the 4th assessment report of the inter governmental panel on climate change.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 747–845
Milbau A, Graae BJ, Shevtsova A, Nijs I (2009) Effects of a warmer climate on seed germination
in the sub arctic. Ann Bot 104:287–296
Millar CI, Stephenson NL, Stephens SL (2007) Climate change and forests of the future: managing
in the face of uncertainty. Ecol Appl 17:2145–2151
Mimura M, Aitken SN (2007) Increased selfing and decreased effective pollen donor number in
peripheral relative to central populations in Picea sitchensis (Pinaceae). Am J Bot 94:991–998
Nabuurs GJ, Hengeveld GM, Werf DC et al (2010) European forest carbon balance assessed with
inventory based methods—an introduction to a special section. For Ecol Manag 260:239–240
NASA (2019). https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2915/the-atmosphere-getting-a-handle-on-carbon-
dioxide/#:~:text=The%20concentration%20of%20carbon%20dioxide,it%20was%20near%20
370%20ppm
Pan YD, Birdsey RA, Phillips OL et al (2013) The structure, distribution, and biomass of the
world’s forests. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 44:593–622
Pearson RG, Dawson TP (2003) Predicting the impacts of climate change on the distribution of
species: are bio climate envelope model useful? Glob Ecol Biogeogr 12:361–371
Petit RJ, Bialozyt R, Garnier-Gere P, Hampe A (2004) Ecology and genetics of tree invasions: from
recent introductions to quaternary migrations. For Ecol Manag 197:117–137
Phartyal SS, Kondo T, Baskin JM, Baskin CC (2009) Temperature requirements differ for the two
stages of seed dormancy breaking Aegopodium podagraria (Apiaceae), a species with deep
complex morphophysiological dormancy. Am J Bot 96:1086–1095
in Open Top Chambers. Int J Environ Agric Biotechnol 7(5):149–159
Prasad A, Leites L (2022) Ecological analysis of intraspecific variability of eastern white pine
(Pinus strobus) under climate change by combining provenance and demographic data. Landsc
Ecol 37(1):109–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-021-01333-4
Reusch TBH, Ehler A, Hammerli A, Worm B (2005) Ecosystem recovery after climatic extremes
enhanced by genetic diversity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:2826–2831
Sáenz-Romero C, Lamy JB, Ducousso A, Musch B, Ehrenmann F, Delzon S, Cavers S, Chałupka
W, Dağdaş S, Hansen JK, Lee SJ, Liesebach M, Rau HM, Psomas A, Schneck V, Steiner W,
Zimmermann NE, Kremer A (2017) Adaptive and plastic responses of Quercus petraea popula-
tions to climate across Europe. Glob Chang Biol 23(7):2831–2847. https://doi.org/10.1111/
gcb.13576
Schaberg PG, DeHayes DH, Hawley GJ, Nijensohn SE (2008) Anthropogenic alterations of
genetic diversity within tree populations: implications for forest ecosystem resilience. For Ecol
Manag 256:855–862
Schwinning S, Lortie CJ, Esque TC, DeFalco LA (2022) What common-garden experi-
ments tell us about climate responses in plants. J Ecol 110(5):986–996. https://doi.
org/10.1111/1365-2745.13887
Shimono Y, Kudo G (2005) Comparisons of germination traits of alpine plants between fell field
and snow bed habitats. Ecol Res 20:189–197

org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
Singh H, Verma A, Kumar M, Sharma R, Gupta R, Kaur M, Negi M, Sharma SK (2017)
Snell RS, Strickland C, Sullivan LL, Giladi I, Hastings A, Holbrook K, Jongejans E, Kogan O,
Rudolph J, Zwolak R, Beckman NG, Schupp E, Cavazos BR, Fricke E, Rogers HS, Loiselle BA,
MontañoCentellas F, Carvalho CS, Jones LR, Lichti NI, Lustenhouwer N, Schreiber S (2019)
Consequences of intraspecific variation in seed dispersal for plant demography, communities,
evolution, and global change. AoB Plants 11:plz016. https://doi.org/10.1093/aobpla/plz016
Stewart IT (2009) Changes in snow pack and snow melt runoff for key mountain regions. Hydrol
Process 23:78–94
Teller BJ, Campbell C, Shea K (2014) Dispersal under duress: can stress enhance the performance
of a passively dispersed species? Ecology 95:2694–2698
Valladares F (ed) (2004) Ecología del bosque Mediterranean un mundocambiante. Organismo
Autónomo de Parques Nacionales. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid
Walck JL, Baskin JM, Baskin CC, Hidayati SN (2005) Defining transient and persistent seed
banks in species with pronounced seasonal dormancy and germination patterns. Seed Sci Res
15:189–196
Walck JL, Hidayati SN, Dixon KW, Thompson KEN, Poschlod P (2011) Climate change and plant
regeneration from seed. Glob Chang Biol 17(6):2145–2161
Walter H, Breckle SW (2002) Walter is vegetation of the earth: the ecological systems of the geo-
biosphere, 4th edn. Springer, Berlin
Willi Y, Van Buskirk J (2022) A review on trade-offs at the warm and cold ends of geographi-
cal distributions. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 377(1848):20210022. https://doi.org/10.1098/
rstb.2021.0022
Yakovlev I, Fossdal CG, Skrøppa T, Olsen JE, Jahren AH, Johnsen Ø (2012) An adaptive epigene-
tic memory in conifers with important implications for seed production. Seed Sci Res 22:63–76
Ziska LH, Bunce JA (2006) Plant responses to rising atmospheric carbon dioxide. In: Morison
JIL, Morecroft MD (eds) Plant growth and climate change. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Kundli,
pp 17–47
Zuidema PA, Baker PJ, Groenendijk P et al (2013) Tropical forests and global change: filling
knowledge gaps. Trends Plant Sci 18:413–419
Chapter 16
Carbon Sequestration Potential of Forests
and Forest Soils and Their Role in Climate
Change Mitigation
M. Jagadesh, Munmun Dash, Santosh Kumar Singh, Aradhna Kumari,

Vinod Kumar Garg, and Aparna Jaiswal
Abstract Carbon sequestration in forests and forest soils holds paramount signifi-
cance in the context of climate actions and mitigation. This chapter highlights the
potential of forests and forest soils in sequestering carbon and climate change miti-
gation. In efforts to lower greenhouse gas emissions, forest ecosystems’ carbon cap-
ture and storage process gains potential interest. It involves comprehensively
understanding forest types and assessing their capacity to sequester atmospheric
carbon dioxide. Further, this chapter explores the mechanisms of forest soils con-
tributing to carbon sequestration and the impact of land use change on these pro-
cesses. Additionally, this study highlights the importance of sustainable forest
management practices, afforestation, and reforestation initiatives in enhancing car-
bon sequestration potential. Therefore, measuring a forest’s ability to sequester car-
bon can offer important information about methods for mitigating climate change.
This improves scientific understanding of the relationship between soil and forests
and their role in climate action.
Keywords Carbon Sequestration · Forest Ecosystems · Sustainable Forest

Management · Afforestation and Reforestation · Forest Soil Carbon Storage
M. Jagadesh and Munmun Dash have contributed equally to this work.
M. Jagadesh · M. Dash
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
S. K. Singh
Department of Soil Science, Dr Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa,
Samastipur, Bihar, India
A. Kumari (*) · V. K. Garg · A. Jaiswal
College of Agriculture, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Ganj Basoda,
Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh, India
Ltd. 2024
316 M. Jagadesh et al.
16.1 Introduction
Climate change is one of humanity’s most alarming issues in the twenty-first century
(Abumhadi et al. 2012; Kumari et al. 2022, 2023). The increased concentration of
greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide (CO2), has led
to a hike in global temperatures and a host of associated environmental issues (Kumar
2018; Jagadesh et al. 2024b). Strategies that lessen the effects of climate change are
desperately needed to meet this problem (Kumari et al. 2022, 2023). One such strat-
egy is the enhancement of carbon sequestration in ecosystems (Patni et al. 2022;
Kumari et al. 2023); in this regard, forests and forest soils play a pivotal role.
It has long been understood that forests serve as essential carbon sinks, absorbing
and storing CO2 from the atmosphere. (Lorenz 2010; Patni et al. 2022). Forests are
a complex and dynamic system comprising trees, shrubs, understory vegetation, and
the soil beneath them. The complex interplay between these elements establishes
the capacity of forests to sequester carbon(Lorenz 2010; Apurva et al. 2017). This
two-page introduction explores the vital role of forests and forest soils in climate
change mitigation, their ability to sequester carbon, and the mechanisms underlying
this process. Through photosynthesis, trees and other vegetation capture atmo-
spheric CO2 and convert it into organic matter stored as biomass (Lal 2008; Kumari
et al. 2022). Forests are estimated to store over 80% of the Earth’s terrestrial bio-
mass carbon, with organic carbon in soil (SOC) making up a significant portion of
this carbon stock.
Forests influence the global carbon cycle by affecting the carbon exchange
between the terrestrial biosphere and the atmosphere. Forest ecosystems release
carbon into the atmosphere through respiration and decomposition. Still, under
healthy forest conditions, carbon is stored at a higher rate than its release rate (Bravo
et al. 2017; Gupta et al. 2018). According to Bonan, undamaged forests are essential
for reducing climate change because they retain more carbon than they emit. Harris
et al. found that reforestation can significantly contribute to carbon sequestration,
potentially offsetting a substantial portion of anthropogenic CO2 emissions.
Various factors, including climate, tree species, forest age, and management
practices, influence the sequestration potential of forests. Moreover, disturbances
such as wildfires, insect infestations, and deforestation can profoundly impact the
balance in the carbon of forest ecosystems. Houghton et al. underscored the signifi-
cance of understanding the impact of disturbances on forest carbon dynamics, espe-
cially concerning climate change. Soil organic matter primarily comprises decaying
plant and animal material, microbial biomass, and humus. It is a dynamic pool that
stores and releases carbon depending on various environmental factors, such as tem-
perature, moisture, and land use (Gross and Harrison 2019; Devi et al. 2023).
Jobbágy and Jackson highlighted the significance of SOC in regulating the Earth’s
carbon cycle and climate. Soil carbon sequestration occurs through litter decompo-
sition and root exudation, which contribute to the formation of stable soil organic
matter (Lajtha et al. 2014; Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c). In addition, the mycorrhizal
16 Carbon Sequestration Potential of Forests and Forest Soils and Their Role… 317
fungi, which form symbiotic relationships with plants, can enhance soil carbon
sequestration. Agroforestry and reforestation programs often emphasize soil health
and carbon sequestration as part of their objectives. Lal (2004) discussed how sus-
tainability in land management can promote carbon sequestration in forest biomass
and soils. Understanding the potential of forest soils to sequester carbon is crucial,
as it underscores the significance of preserving intact forest ecosystems that enhance
carbon storage in soils.
Forests and forest soils are crucial in the fight against climate change as they
serve as vital carbon-sequestering pools. Their capacity to capture and store carbon,
which influences the global carbon cycle, makes them indispensable tools for miti-
gating climate change. However, it is essential to consider the multifaceted factors
changing carbon sequestration in forests and soils, from tree species to management
practices, to maximize their potential in climate change mitigation. In the following
sections, this chapter will delve deeper into the mechanisms governing carbon
sequestration in forests and forest soils, their challenges, and the strategies to
enhance their role in combating climate change (Gupta and Singh 2017; Joshi and
Singh 2020; Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c; Nautiyal et al. 2022).
16.2 Forests as Carbon Sinks
Carbon sequestration is similar to nature’s imposing a timeout on excessive carbon

dioxide (CO2). It revolves around enduring carbon storage to combat global warm-
ing from escalating the greenhouse effect (Tienhaara 2018). Briefly, sequestering
carbon dioxide is a highly effective and intelligent approach to solving the carbon
mystery. It is essential for reducing the effects of climate change and preserving a
stable world temperature (Lal 2004).
Forests capture carbon photosynthesis, where plants absorb CO2 from the air,
convert it into carbon-based compounds, and store it in their biomass and soils.
This inherent capability makes forests significant contributors to mitigating cli-
mate change by effectively locking away carbon. Because they absorb more car-
bon via photosynthesis than they release through respiration, forests are an
important sink of carbon (Lorenz 2010; Gupta et al. 2019). This surplus carbon is
stored in plants and soil, reducing the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere.
Forests store carbon in their parts, such as trunks, branches, leaves, and roots. The
longevity of this carbon storage contributes to the extended CO2 removal from the
air. Forest soils hold a significant reservoir of carbon. The decomposition of
organic matter, such as fallen leaves and dead plants, contributes to soil carbon.
Healthy forest ecosystems maintain a balance, with the decomposition process
matched by new growth, ensuring a net carbon accumulation (Kumar et al. 2021a,
b, 2020a, b, c).
Forests’ role in carbon sequestration is intertwined with biodiversity. Diverse
ecosystems often exhibit greater resilience to disturbances, promoting the sus-
tained growth of plants and vegetation that, in turn, enhances carbon capture (De
Deyn et al. 2008; Jagadesh et al. 2023). Sustainable forest management is pivotal
in optimizing carbon sequestration. Practices such as afforestation (planting trees
in areas without forests) and reforestation (replanting trees in deforested or
degraded areas) contribute to expanding the carbon sequestration capacity of for-
ests. Recognizing the significance of forests in the carbon cycle, conservation
efforts, afforestation initiatives, and responsible forestry practices are integral
components of global climate change strategies. Preserving and restoring forests
not only aids in lowering the emission of greenhouse gases but also fosters the
overall health of ecosystems and biodiversity (Kumar and Singh 2020; Kumar
et al. 2017).
There are many different kinds of forests, each with unique qualities, and differ-
ent factors, including tree species, temperature, and management techniques,
affect how much carbon can be sequestered by various types of forests (Huang
et al. 2020; Kumari and Singh 2018). Understanding the characteristics and seques-
tration capacities of different forest types is pivotal in effective conservation and
management strategies that leverage the unique strengths of each ecosystem in
mitigating climate change (Singh and Kumar 2022). Tropical rainforests are excep-
tionally efficient carbon sinks due to the rapid growth and high biomass of diverse
tree species, which are crucial in the global carbon cycle. Temperate forests com-
prising deciduous and coniferous trees contribute significantly to carbon seques-
tration (Prakash et al. 2022; Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c). Deciduous trees shed leaves,
contributing to soil carbon, while coniferous trees often have dense biomass.
Boreal forests store substantial amounts of carbon in their soils and vegetation
(Kumar et al. 2018). The cold temperatures slow down decomposition, leading to
the accumulation of organic matter. Mangroves are highly efficient carbon seques-
ters, with the trees and the surrounding soils playing a role (Phukon et al. 2022).
Their ability to thrive in saline conditions contributes to their resilience. Because
of their rich and varied plant life, temperate rainforests, like their tropical counter-
parts, have a great potential for sequestering carbon (Gordon et al. 2018). Deciduous
trees contribute to soil carbon through leaf litter, while evergreen trees provide
consistent carbon storage through their biomass (Manoj et al. 2021; Savita
et al. 2017).
16.3 Forest Soils: A Hidden Carbon Reservoir
Soil carbon dynamics refer to the complex processes that govern the movement and
transformation of carbon within the soil environment. This intricate interplay
involves the input, decomposition, and storage of organic matter, influencing the
soil’s overall carbon content and stability (Singh et al. 2023a, b). Organic matter,
derived from plant and animal residues, is the primary source of carbon input into
the soil. This includes fallen leaves, roots, crop residues, and other organic matter.
Organic matter input significantly impacts soil carbon dynamics (Fageria 2012;
Joshi et al. 2021). High-quality organic inputs, such as fresh plant material, contrib-
ute to more rapid carbon turnover. Soil microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi,
are crucial in decomposing organic matter (Khatoon et al. 2017). They transform
intricate organic molecules into more basic forms, releasing carbon dioxide (CO2)
as a byproduct. Microbial decomposition rates are influenced by soil temperature
and moisture levels. Warmer and moister conditions generally accelerate decompo-
sition processes (Lee et al. 2014).
Decomposed organic matter undergoes a transformation process known as humi-
fication and forms a stable organic compound called humus. Humus is more resis-
tant to further decomposition, contributing to the long-term carbon storage in the
soil (De Nicola et al. 2014). This process enhances soil structure and fertility. Living
plant roots release compounds known as root exudates into the soil. This process is
called rhizodeposition, which occurs when plant roots die or are shed (Pausch and
Kuzyakov 2018). Root exudates provide a carbon source for soil microorganisms,
fostering symbiotic relationships. This interaction influences nutrient cycling and
carbon storage. Organic matter, particularly humus, acts as a binding agent, promot-
ing the formation of stable soil aggregates. Soil aggregation enhances carbon stabil-
ity by protecting organic matter from rapid decomposition (Verchot et al. 2011),
which contributes to forming soil organic carbon pools. Human activities, such as
agricultural practices and land-use changes, can significantly affect soil carbon
dynamics. For example, tillage may accelerate organic matter decomposition, lead-
ing to soil carbon loss of ~60–90 Pg globally (Hussain et al. 2021). Sustainable land
management practices, such as cover cropping and reduced tillage, can help pre-
serve and improve SOC (Singh et al. 2022).
Healthy forest soils are reservoirs of essential nutrients like nitrogen, phospho-
rus, and potassium. Nutrients released through the decomposition of organic matter
contribute to the nutrition of plants and other vegetation, supporting their growth
and development. Forest soils, especially those rich in organic matter, have high
water retention capacity. Well-developed organic horizons contribute to soil aggre-
gation and stability, enhancing resistance to erosion and compaction and maintain-
ing a porous structure that facilitates water infiltration and root growth (Osman and
Osman 2013). The structure and composition of healthy forest soils support a vari-
ety of plant roots, fostering diverse plant species.
16.4 Factors Affecting the Sequestration of Carbon in Soils
The ability of soils to sequester and store carbon over time is determined by several
factors that impact soil carbon sequestration. Comprehending these variables is cru-
cial for executing efficacious tactics to augment soil carbon sequestration (Kumar
et al. 2021a, b). Tillage and monoculture are two intensive farming techniques that
can hasten the breakdown of organic matter and lower soil carbon levels (Purwanto
and Alam 2020). Reduced tillage and cover crops are two examples of sustainable
land management techniques that can improve carbon sequestration. The type of
forest composition strongly influences the amount of organic matter produced in an
ecosystem. In general, higher-biomass ecosystems—like forests—contribute more
to carbon sequestration in soil than lower-biomass ecosystems (Selmants et al.
2014). Soil carbon dynamics are influenced by climate factors, particularly tem-
perature and moisture. While moisture levels impact microbial function, warmer
temperatures often result in more significant microbial activity and breakdown. A
higher percentage of clay in the soil means it can hold onto organic matter longer,
improving carbon sequestration. Well-developed organic horizons in the soil pro-
mote carbon sequestration by providing a favorable environment for organic matter
accumulation. The activity and diversity of microbial communities influence the
carbon turnover rates in the soil (Jagadesh et al. 2024a, b). Living plant roots release
organic compounds known as root exudates into the soil, contributing to soil organic
carbon. The interactions between plants and soil microbes influence carbon cycling
in the rhizosphere (Sharma et al. 2018; Jagadesh et al. 2024b).
Changes in land cover, such as deforestation or afforestation, can significantly
impact soil carbon. Deforestation often leads to carbon loss, while afforestation
contributes to carbon sequestration (Czimczik et al. 2004). The land’s topography
impacts soil erosion, affecting the distribution of organic matter. Erosion is more
likely to occur on steeper slopes, which impacts carbon sequestration (Stacy et al.
2015). Anthropogenic disturbances, such as mining and construction, can disrupt
soil structure and SOC, which leads to negative carbon sequestration.
16.5 Threats to Forest Carbon Sequestration
Deforestation poses a severe threat to biodiversity. Deforestation releases stored

carbon into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change and global warming.
Reforestation—the planting of natural vegetation to restore ecosystems—and affor-
estation—the planting of trees in deforested or degraded areas—are crucial to
reducing the effects of deforestation. Agroforestry and ethical logging are two
examples of sustainable land use techniques that balance ecological preservation
and human needs (Singh et al. 2023a, b, 2018).
Climate change has significant and far-reaching impacts on forests, affecting
their structure, composition, and overall health (Singh et al. 2020). These impacts
result from shifts in temperature, precipitation patterns, and the frequency and
intensity of extreme weather events. Some plant species may migrate to higher ele-
vations or latitudes in response to rising temperatures, leading to changes in the
composition of forest ecosystems (Feeley et al. 2012) (Fig. 16.1).
Fig. 16.1 Impact of anthropogenic practices on forest soil management
16.6 Forest Management Practices and Policies

for Enhanced Carbon Sequestration
16.6.1 Forest Carbon Offset Programs
Programs for forest carbon offsets are intended to mitigate global warming by pre-
serving, reforesting, or sustainably managing forests to absorb and store CO2 (von-
Hedemann et al. 2020). These programs aim to offset greenhouse gas emissions by
sequestering carbon in forests, which are significant carbon sinks. Protecting exist-
ing forests from deforestation or degradation is a fundamental component of carbon
offset programs. This prevents the release of stored carbon and maintains the eco-
system’s capacity to sequester additional carbon. Sustainable logging practices and
responsible land management contribute to maintaining healthy forests and preserv-
ing their carbon stocks.
Forest carbon offset programs generate carbon credits, representing a specific
amount of CO2 the forest project removes or avoids releasing into the atmosphere
(Galik and Jackson 2009). These credits can be traded in carbon markets, allowing
companies or individuals to purchase them to reduce emissions by ~50%. This cre-
ates a financial incentive for investing in forest conservation and restoration. Forest
carbon offset programs often adhere to voluntary carbon standards, such as the
Verified Carbon Standard (VCS) or the Gold Standard for the Global Goals. These
standards ensure the credibility and quality of carbon offset projects. Projects
undergo third-party verification to confirm that the claimed emissions reductions or
carbon sequestration are accurate and meet the specified standards. Ensuring the
permanence of carbon sequestration is a challenge, as forests can face threats such
as wildfires and land-use changes. Programs must address the risk of carbon
leakage, where emissions are displaced from one area to another due to land use or
management changes.
16.6.2 REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation

and Forest Degradation)
An international framework called REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation

and Forest Degradation) was created to combat climate change by incentivizing
developing nations to cut back on emissions caused by deforestation and forest
degradation (Minang and Van Noordwijk 2013). Reforestation, increasing forest
carbon reserves, and sustainable forest management are all included in the initia-
tive’s efforts. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions, especially carbon dioxide (CO2),
from deforestation and forest degradation in developing nations is the main objec-
tive of REDD+. The “+” signifies a broader approach beyond deforestation reduc-
tion. Implementing robust monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV) systems to
track changes in forest cover, carbon stocks, and emissions (Plugge et al. 2011).
Establishing a reference level against which emission reductions or removals can be
measured. REDD+ provides financial incentives to countries based on their verified
results in reducing emissions and enhancing carbon stocks. This involves payments
for verified emission reductions or removals. REDD+ activities can affect both mar-
ket and non-market approaches. Market-based mechanisms allow trading emissions
reductions or removals in carbon markets (Streck 2020). Climate finance instru-
ments, such as the Green Climate Fund and bilateral agreements, are common fund-
ing sources for REDD+ (Norman and Nakhooda 2015). Wealthy nations and
international organizations fund REDD+ to help developing countries implement
initiatives that lower emissions and improve forest preservation. Ensuring the per-
manence of emission reductions is a challenge, as factors like wildfires and changes
in land use can reverse the gains achieved through REDD+ activities. Determining
accurate reference levels and baselines is complex and requires careful consider-
ation of historical emissions and future scenarios. Countries develop national strate-
gies or action plans outlining how to implement REDD+ activities, including
policies, measures, and monitoring systems.
16.7 Conclusion
Conclusively, trees and forest soils have a powerful carbon storage capacity that can
help battle climate change worldwide. These ecosystems act as valuable carbon
sinks, actively collecting and storing atmospheric CO2, minimizing the effects of
greenhouse gas emissions. Recognizing the importance of forests in climate change
mitigation, it is evident that protecting, restoring, and managing these key
ecosystems are critical components of any comprehensive approach. Furthermore,

sustainable land-use planning and incentives for responsible forestry practices can
considerably improve the long-term success of carbon sequestration programs. As
we reach climate targets, public awareness and education are critical in gaining sup-
port for forest conservation activities. Involving local communities and indigenous
peoples in these efforts ensures that conservation policies are environmentally
sound, socially inclusive, and egalitarian. The carbon storage potential of trees and
forest soils provides a practical and natural response to climate change. Hence, it is
necessary to acknowledge the critical role and take determined, collaborative action
to harness the potential of forest ecosystems to create a more sustainable and resil-
ient future for the Earth. The preservation and restoration of our forests must be
essential components of a comprehensive and environmentally sensitive strategy to
achieve effective climate change mitigation.
References
Abumhadi N, Todorovska E, Assenov B, Tsonev S, Vulcheva D, Vulchev D, Atanasova L, Savova

S, Atanassov A, Keith W (2012) Agricultural research in 21st century: challenges facing the
food security under the impacts of climate change. Bulgarian J Agr Sci 18(6):801–818
Bravo F, del Río M, Bravo-Oviedo A, Ruiz-Peinado R, del Peso C, Montero G (2017) Forest
carbon sequestration: the impact of forest management. In: Managing forest ecosystems: the
challenge of climate change, pp 251–275
Czimczik CI, Mund M, Schulze E-D, Wirth C (2004) Effects of reforestation, deforestation, and
afforestation on carbon storage in soils. In: The carbon balance of forest biomes, pp 319–330
De Deyn GB, Cornelissen JHC, Bardgett RD (2008) Plant functional traits and soil carbon seques-
tration in contrasting biomes. Ecol Lett 11(5):516–531
De Nicola C, Zanella A, Testi A, Fanelli G, Pignatti S (2014) Humus forms in a Mediterranean area
(Castelporziano reserve, Rome, Italy): classification, functioning and organic carbon storage.
Geoderma 235:90–99
29(2):451–457
Fageria NK (2012) Role of soil organic matter in maintaining sustainability of cropping systems.
Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 43(16):2063–2113
Feeley KJ, Rehm EM, Machovina B (2012) Perspective: the responses of tropical forest species to
global climate change: acclimate, adapt, migrate, or go extinct? Front Biogeogr 4(2)
Galik CS, Jackson RB (2009) Risks to forest carbon offset projects in a changing climate. For Ecol
Manag 257(11):2209–2216
Gordon CE, Bendall ER, Stares MG, Collins L, Bradstock RA (2018) Aboveground carbon
sequestration in dry temperate forests varies with climate not fire regime. Glob Chang Biol
24(9):4280–4292
Gross CD, Harrison RB (2019) The case for digging deeper: soil organic carbon storage, dynam-
ics, and controls in our changing world. Soil Syst 3(2):28
Huang L, Zhou M, Lv J, Chen K (2020) Trends in global research in forest carbon sequestration:
a bibliometric analysis. J Clean Prod 252:119908
Hussain S, Hussain S, Guo R, Sarwar M, Ren X, Krstic D, Aslam Z, Zulifqar U, Rauf A, Hano
C (2021) Carbon sequestration to avoid soil degradation: a review on the role of conservation
tillage. Plan Theory 10(10):2001
Jagadesh M, Selvi D, Thiyageshwari S, Srinivasarao C, Kalaiselvi T, Lourdusamy K,
Kumaraperumal R, Allan V (2023) Soil carbon dynamics under different ecosystems of Ooty
region in the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot of India. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 23(1):1374–1385
Jagadesh M, Selvi D, Thiyageshwari S, Kalaiselvi T, Allan V, Dash M, Lourdusamy K,
Kumaraperumal R, Raja P, Surendran U (2024a) Exploration of microbial signature and carbon
footprints of the Nilgiri Hill Region in the Western Ghats global biodiversity hotspot of India.
Appl Soil Ecol 194:105176
Jagadesh M, Dash M, Kumari A, Singh SK, Verma KK, Kumar P, Bhatt R, Sharma SK (2024b)
Revealing the hidden world of soil microbes: Metagenomic insights into plant, bacteria, and
fungi interactions for sustainable agriculture and ecosystem restoration. Microbiological
Research 285:127764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micres.2024.127764
of Far-Western Nepal. Eurasian
Khatoon H, Solanki P, Narayan M, Tewari L, Rai J, Hina Khatoon C (2017) Role of microbes
in organic carbon decomposition and maintenance of soil ecosystem. Int J Chem Stud
5(6):1648–1656
Kumar A (2018) Global warming, climate change and greenhouse gas mitigation. In: Biofuels:
greenhouse gas mitigation and global warming: next generation biofuels and role of biotech-
nology, pp 1–16
Kumar N, Singh H, Sharma SK (2020c) Antioxidants: responses and importance in plant defense
system. In: Sustainable agriculture in the era of climate change, pp 251–264. doi: https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-3-030-45669-6_11

(2021b) Biomass accumulation and carbon stocks in different agro forestry system prevalent
i6/1083-1088
Kumari A, Lakshmi GA, Krishna GK, Patni B, Prakash S, Bhattacharyya M, Singh SK, Verma KK
(2022) Climate change and its impact on crops: a comprehensive investigation for sustainable
agriculture. Agronomy 12(12):3008. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12123008
Kumari A, Dash M, Singh SK, Jagadesh M, Mathpal B, Mishra PK, Pandey SK, Verma KK (2023)
Soil microbes: a natural solution for mitigating the impact of climate change. Environ Monit
Assess 195(12):1436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11988-y
Lajtha K, Bowden RD, Nadelhoffer K (2014) Litter and root manipulations provide insights into
soil organic matter dynamics and stability. Soil Sci Soc Am J 78(S1):S261–S269
Lal R (2004) Soil carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change. Geoderma 123(1–2):1–22
Lal R (2008) Sequestration of atmospheric CO2 in global carbon pools. Energy Environ Sci
1(1):86–100
Lee H, Fitzgerald J, Hewins DB, McCulley RL, Archer SR, Rahn T, Throop HL (2014) Soil mois-
ture and soil-litter mixing effects on surface litter decomposition: a controlled environment
assessment. Soil Biol Biochem 72:123–132
Lorenz K (2010) Carbon sequestration in forest ecosystems. Springer
management. In: Forest resources resilience and conflicts, Academic, Elsevier. doi: https://doi.
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
Minang PA, Van Noordwijk M (2013) Design challenges for achieving reduced emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation through conservation: leveraging multiple paradigms at
the tropical forest margins. Land Use Policy 31:61–70
Norman M, Nakhooda S (2015) The state of REDD+ finance. Center for Global Development
Working Paper, pp 378
Osman KT, Osman KT (2013) Physical properties of forest soils. Forest soils: properties and man-
agement, pp 19–44
Patni B, Bhattacharyya M, Kumari A et al (2022) Alarming influence of climate change and com-
promising quality of medicinal plants. Plant Physiol Rep 27:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s40502-021-00616-x
Pausch J, Kuzyakov Y (2018) Carbon input by roots into the soil: quantification of rhizodeposition
from root to ecosystem scale. Glob Chang Biol 24(1):1–12
Plugge D, Baldauf T, Köhl M (2011) Reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degrada-
tion (REDD): why a robust and transparent monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) sys-
tem is mandatory. In: Climate change–research and technology for adaptation and mitigation,
pp 155–170
Purwanto BH, Alam S (2020) Impact of intensive agricultural management on carbon and nitrogen
dynamics in the humid tropics. Soil Sci Plant Nutr 66(1):50–59
Selmants PC, Litton CM, Giardina CP, Asner GP (2014) Ecosystem carbon storage does not vary
with mean annual temperature in Hawaiian tropical montane wet forests. Glob Chang Biol
20(9):2927–2937
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
uclim.2022.101183
Singh H, Kumar N, Singh R, Kumar M (2023a) Assessing the climate change impact on the
habitat suitability of the range restricted bird species (Catreus wallichii) in the Indian
Himalayan ecosystem. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30:121,224–121,235. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11356-023-30789-x
Stacy EM, Hart SC, Hunsaker CT, Johnson DW, Berhe AA (2015) Soil carbon and nitrogen ero-
sion in forested catchments: implications for erosion-induced terrestrial carbon sequestration.
Biogeosciences 12(16):4861–4874
Streck C (2020) Who owns REDD+? Carbon markets, carbon rights and entitlements to REDD+
finance. Forests 11(9):959
Tienhaara K (2018) Green Keynesianism and the global financial crisis. Routledge
Verchot LV, Dutaur L, Shepherd KD, Albrecht A (2011) Organic matter stabilization in soil aggre-
gates: understanding the biogeochemical mechanisms that determine the fate of carbon inputs
in soils. Geoderma 161(3–4):182–193
vonHedemann N, Wurtzebach Z, Timberlake TJ, Sinkular E, Schultz CA (2020) Forest policy and
management approaches for carbon dioxide removal. Interface Focus 10(5):20200001
Chapter 17
Biogeochemical Interactions and Soil
Parameters: With Reference to Climate
Change
Parul Bhatt Kotiyal and Ritika Gupta
Abstract The spatial arrangement of soil, comprised of diverse organic and inor-
ganic components, delineates a complex interface vital for biogeochemical pro-
cesses. These processes at soil interfaces are pivotal in providing essential ecosystem
services, including plant production and water quality regulation. The biogeochemi-
cal cycle encompasses ecosystem inputs and outputs, intricately linked to hydro-
logical fluxes and chemical weathering phenomena. Soil-plant interactions,
characterized by microbial-plant competition for nutrients and internal nutrient
translocation within vegetation, are integral to this cycle. Forest ecosystems heavily
depend on litterfall and decomposition, processes influenced by seasonal climate
variations, to facilitate energy and material movement. Litterfall periodically
enriches the forest floor with organic matter, serving as a primary nutrient source
alongside rain wash and the geochemical cycle, enhancing soil physical properties.
Since the industrial era, carbon dioxide concentrations have surged from 280 ppm
in the late 1700s to 414 ppm in 2021, marking a 48% increase primarily attributable
to human activities. Changes in land use are poised to directly and indirectly impact
soil processes, thereby influencing terrestrial ecosystems and socioeconomic activi-
ties. Climate change models predict substantial temperature, precipitation, radia-
tion, and CO2 concentration alterations, exerting profound effects on terrestrial
ecosystems. The interaction of UV-B radiation with climate change can nonlinearly
impact biogeochemical cycles. Climate change also influences ecological systems
through shifts in species ranges, altered biodiversity, changes in life cycle timings,
and modifications in forest development patterns. Given these dynamics, soil min-
eralogical studies are critical in managing forest production amidst climate change.
This chapter inferred that soil, their biogeochemical cycles, and climate change are
interconnected, profoundly influencing ecosystem functioning and necessitating
effective management strategies.
P. B. Kotiyal (*) · R. Gupta

Forest Ecology and Climate Change Division, Forest Research Institute,
Ltd. 2024
328 P. B. Kotiyal and R. Gupta
Keywords Biochemical interactions · Biogeochemical cycles · Climate change ·

Soil organic carbon
17.1 Introduction
Because of human activities, atmospheric CO2 concentration has increased from

about 280 parts per million (ppm) at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution to
over 380 ppm at the current time. The spatial organization of soil, consisting of vari-
ous organic and inorganic components and creatures, defines a vast, intricate, and
diverse interface (Apurva et al. 2017). The growth of the soil depends on biogeo-
chemical activities at soil interfaces, which are also the main drivers of critical eco-
system services, including plant productivity and water quality. The research on
biogeochemical interfaces aims to obtain a mechanistic understanding of the archi-
tecture of these interfaces in soils and the complex interactions and interdependen-
cies of the physical, chemical, and biological processes (Devi et al. 2023). The key
issues are finding the factors affecting the design of biogeochemical interfaces,
describing the behavior of organic compounds in soil, and establishing a mechanis-
tic connection between processes occurring at the molecular and/or organism level
and phenomena occurring at the aggregate level (Gupta et al. 2019a, 2019b).
Implementing this requires integrating the fields of soil physics, chemistry, and
biology (Totsche et al. 2010). Geological studies help in understanding the ecologi-
cal status of forest growth and examining various issues, such as declines in growth,
quality, loss of vigor, and mortality in forest crops, which are frequently caused by
nutrient deficiencies and other soil-forming factors, the majority of which are con-
nected to mineralogical composition (Kumar et al. 2020a, 2020b, 2020c, 2020d).
Well-known forest products include lumber, fuel wood, and raw materials for manu-
facturing products (Kumar et al. 2018). Forest ecosystems generate products and
services and protect soil and water, lessen the risk of flooding, clean the air, store
carbon, support biodiversity, and offer recreational and aesthetic benefits (Kumar
et al. 2022). The decomposition and fall of litter are essential components of the
biogeochemical cycle in any ecosystem, including forest ecosystems. Seasons and
climate significantly impact the pattern of litterfall and decomposition, which are
vital energy and material transfers in an ecosystem necessary for the upkeep of
ecological processes (Kumar et al. 2021a, 2021b, 2021c, 2021d). Organic matter is
periodically or permanently added to the forest floor by litter fall. Litter is the pri-
mary source of nutrients added to the soil, aside from rain-washing and the geo-
chemical cycle, and it significantly improves the physical properties of the soil
(Joshi et al. 2021). Consequently, the amount of nutrients in the soil is increased
dramatically by the breakdown of the litter that accumulates on the forest floor
(Gupta et al. 2019a, 2019b). Compared to other forms of litter, including twig litter,
leaf litter has substantially higher nutritional contents and biomass, contributing
significantly to the cycling of nutrients.
17 Biogeochemical Interactions and Soil Parameters: With Reference to Climate Change 329
In all monocultures, the distribution of soil profile features revealed a gain in clay
content and accessible P but a loss in total potassium (K) and phosphorus (P) when
compared with natural Sal (Singh et al. 2010). Because of faster mineralization of
leftover organic matter and gradation of soil nutrients as the monoculture became
older than a monoculture that had been in place for 20 years, the soil under a 5-year
monoculture was less depleted. Climate change is predicted to affect agroecosys-
tems in food-insecure places, including reduced crop yields and food production.
Changes in soil quality, the prevalence of diseases, and pests are only a few of the
many factors influencing this potential reduction in food output (Singh et al. 2022).
Aspects of soil quality that can impact food production include the amount of bio-
mass turned into organic matter, changes in soil temperature regimes, and adjust-
ments to soil hydrology and water relations (Singh 2021). Climate change may lead
to lower or higher soil water content at critical points in the growing season (Sharma
et al. 2018). Additional possible effects on soils include an increased danger of soil
erosion, a shift in agricultural practices that may have detrimental downstream
effects on soil qualities, and a rise in mudflows and landslides due to an increased
frequency of high-intensity rainfall events (Nautiyal et al. 2022). In some places,
increasing biomass production may somewhat counterbalance these consequences.
The relationship between biogeochemical processes and soil growth, the relation-
ship between biochemical processes and microbial diversity, the effect of land use
and climate change on the soil organic carbon (SOC) pool, and the relationship
between soil minerals, organic matter, microbes, and soil quality are all covered in
this review (Kumar et al. 2020a, 2020b, 2020c, 2020d). Climate change will influ-
ence various soil properties and processes, affecting terrestrial ecosystems and asso-
ciated socioeconomic activities (Nirmal et al. 2021). Underlying ecosystem inputs
and outputs is the intricate interplay of these mechanisms, which form biogeochem-
ical cycles (Kumar et al. 2020a, 2020b, 2020c, 2020d). Because these cycles are
vital to hydrologic fluxes and chemical weathering, they substantially affect soil-
plant interactions, nutrient transfer within vegetation, and the overall health of ter-
restrial ecosystems.
The phrase “biogeochemical cycle” highlights the interdependence of the litho-
sphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere, underscoring the dynamic charac-
ter of Earth’s systems (Dhyani et al. 2021). These closed-loop systems enable the
recycling of essential chemicals and nutrients necessary for the survival of living
organisms. Nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and carbon are the vital elements
entwined into the biogeochemical cycle structure (Sharma and Singh 2021). It is
essential to comprehend soil development in the context of soil, the dynamic envi-
ronment in which these cycles occur. Long-term leaching has sculpted these soils,
which show clear division into A and B horizons and indicate noncalcareous ori-
gins, acidic reactions, heavy textures, and high levels of organic matter, nitrogen,
and traded calcium. Soil is a three-phase mixture of solid, liquid, and gaseous ele-
ments that contain inorganic solid materials such as clay minerals, quartz, and other
oxides. A complex mixture of resistant components formed from biomass makes up
the “soil organic matter” (SOM), the organic matter woven into the soil. According
to Bronick and Lal (2005), flocculation, cementation, and binding processes
coordinate the rearranging of primary soil constituents into micro aggregates during
the soil formation process. These microaggregates then combine with roots and
hyphae to temporarily form macroaggregates, forming a hierarchical structure with
complex structural and functional links. Soil microorganisms, which mainly depend
on soil organic matter (SOM) and organic matter inputs, are essential for mediating
aggregation formation and temporal stability. Interaction and occlusion of organic
matter inside soil aggregates are important regulators of residence duration, SOM
turnover, and the overall biogeochemical carbon cycle (Lützow et al. 2006).
17.2 Biochemical Process and Microbial Diversity
There is no doubt that microorganisms have a significant impact on the fertility of

the soil. These helpful microorganisms contribute to soil fertility and aid in breaking
down hazardous waste and other contaminants (Singh et al. 2017). The soil life is
responsible for multiple transformations that alter plant nutrients into easily acces-
sible forms and create and stabilize suitable soil structures for luxuriant plant growth
(Yadav et al. 2019). Carbon dioxide, organic materials, and enzymes all contribute
to these changes. Two classes are used to group the soil organisms: The soil’s fauna
and flora. Microbes cycle the basic ingredients of life (O2, N2, C, S, and H2): The
number of microbes worldwide is incredible (Kumar et al. 2020a, 2020b, 2020c,
2020d). Approximately 90% of the biomass on Earth without cellulose and more
than 60% of the biomass with cellulose are represented by 50 quadrillion metric
tonnes of 5 1031 microorganisms. Microorganisms in soil regulate the dynamics of
organic matter breakdown and plant nutrition availability, which is a critical factor
in how ecosystems respond to variations in the global climate.
In a field experiment that involved 3 years of artificially enhancing soil tempera-
ture warming using open-top chambers at three field locations, (Yergeau 2008) stud-
ied the responses of soil microbial communities and functions and suggested that
Antarctic soil microorganisms and related processes will be significantly impacted
by global warming. Even while soil microorganisms and the nitrogen cycle will be
substantially affected by the long-term effects of global warming, these effects will
vary greatly and be determined by regional environmental conditions. Latitudinal
gradient studies demonstrated that microbial communities’ structure, diversity,
abundance, and functions were significantly impacted by the notable climate
changes at the numerous sites under investigation. Furthermore, it was discovered
that the amount of vegetation cover had a substantial effect, indicating that the indi-
rect consequences of global warming through an increase in vegetation may have a
major ecological impact. According to microcosm studies, the responses of bacteria
and fungi to temperature increase and changes in the frequency of freeze-thaw
cycles differ. Land use activities substantially impact the size and activity of soil
microbial communities, particularly those associated with agriculture and forestry.
Important soil properties like pH, soil quality, amount, and distribution of organic
matter, as well as nutrient cycling, may be impacted by long-term nitrogen
fertilization (Kumar et al. 2021a, 2021b, 2021c, 2021d). The microbes and enzymes
in the soil can occasionally be significantly impacted by inorganic nitrogen fertil-
izer. Because they aid in biotransformation, which affects soil output, changes in
soil microorganisms impact soil productivity. Drigo et al. (2008) assessed the state
of the art regarding the effects of rising atmospheric CO2 on soil microbial com-
munities, focusing on microbial community structure. Increased atmospheric CO2
significantly influences the soil microbiota, mainly through plant metabolism and
root secretion (especially in C3 plants), which immediately affects the bacterial,
fungal, and mycorrhizal communities near the roots. There is little to no impact on
the microbial population that makes up most of the soil. The impacts on soil micro-
bial activity could be predicted more accurately. The significant ecological effects
of Himalayan tree species on the rhizosphere have been identified by Pandey
et al. (2006).
The populations of the three types of microbes—bacteria, actinomycetes, and
fungi—decreased with elevation. Above 1600 m, a rapid and statistically significant
decrease in bacteria and actinomycetes was observed. The fungus population
appeared to be more responsive to changes in altitude. At Chamgaon (1600 m), the
fungal numbers (P 0.05) reduced considerably. Nonetheless, three specific bacterial
taxa yielded some interesting findings. The pigmented bacterial populations were
almost twice higher at 1600 and 1900 m than at 1200 m. But, due to its ability to
create endospores, another group of one of the major Bacillus species did not show
significant variation in numbers. This claim that high N availability facilitates
microbial responses to CO2-enhanced C availability and exerts substantial control
over organic carbon turnover was tested by(Cheng et al. 2010) in long-term field
research in a no-till wheat-soybean system. The findings demonstrate that N avail-
ability, but not O3, significantly impacted soil microbial reactions to increasing CO2.
While O3 dramatically decreased the above-ground residue mass and residue N
inputs, elevated CO2 significantly increased both. However, only high CO2 levels
had a real impact on the soil microbial characteristics. When N supply rose in the
third and fourth years, increased CO2 considerably accelerated microbial biomass
and decomposition. This is likely because elevated CO2 levels encouraged symbi-
otic N2 fixation in soybeans, which had minor effects on microbial respiration in the
first 2 years.
Even if one or more species go extinct, microorganisms capable of assuming
their tasks will continue to exist in the ecosystem (Jurburg and Salles 2015).
Nevertheless, this ability is limited, and biodiversity loss negatively impacts it. As a
result, the soil ecosystem’s stability is upset. Human agricultural practices directly
affect the soil’s characteristics, especially the soil microbiome’s composition and
function. A consequence of heavy soil tillage is a possible decrease in the species
diversity of soil microorganisms. According to some researchers, the functionality
of soil, including its fundamental biochemical processes, may be significantly
impacted by even a slight (20%) loss of biodiversity. Positive relationships between
various soil microorganisms and the activities involved in the nitrogen cycle and
respiration serve as evidence (Colombo et al. 2016; Wagg et al. 2014).
17.3 Effect of Climate and Land Use Changes on SOC Pool
Land use and management practices significantly influence the dynamics of soil
organic carbon and carbon flux from the soil, according to (Tian et al. 2002). Land
use and vegetation cover changes impact several soil properties, including the soil
organic carbon pool and the transfer of atmospheric CO2 to terrestrial landscapes.
Disturbances, productivity, decay rates, and kind of forest can considerably change
the carbon content of forest soils (Kumar et al. 2021a, 2021b, 2021c, 2021d). Soil
organic carbon (SOC) can be a critical component of land management strategy,
particularly for forested areas. Improved silvicultural-managed woods can help
maintain and increase optimal levels of SOC (Kumar and Singh 2020). This is espe-
cially important when restoring damaged ecosystems through plantation growth and
management, as this has a major impact on mitigating climate change. Anthropogenic
activity affects soil organic carbon. Wan et al. (2011) used the RothC model to rec-
reate the change in SOC in upland soils at 626 original 50 km grids under the B2
and A2 climate scenarios across the subsequent decades in China. Based on
HadCM3, the regional climate model Providing Regional Climates for Impacts
Studies (PRECIS) projects future climate data under the B2 and A2 scenarios. The
simulation results showed that SOC will generally drop over the following decades,
with the rate of decline rising over time, if no extra organic material (such as the
application of organic manure or the return of straw) is used in China. The simula-
tions produced the following results: (i) Most of China’s regions, particularly the
north, will see a decrease in SOC; the southwestern and central areas of the country
observed an increase in SOC. Under both the B2 and A2 climatic scenarios, the
SOC rate decrease in northern China was more extensive than in southern China.
(ii) Under the B2 scenario, the rate of SOC change over time was negligible in the
early twenty-first century and considerable in the late 21st. On the other hand, under
the A2 scenario, the SOC change rate over time remained rather consistent.
In northern China, the percentage decrease (decrease rate divided by its funda-
mental value in the 1980s) of SOC under the B2, A2, and 2020 scenarios was
approximately 5.5%, 12%, and 15% by 2020, 2050, and 2080, respectively; in
southern China, the percentage decrease was approximately 2.3%, 7.7%, and 10.9%
under the B2 scenario and 3.3%, 4.5%, and 5.5% under the A2 scenario. (iii) Under
the typical conventional tillage without organic material amendment under B2 sce-
nario in China, upland soils would lose organic carbon by 2.7 t C/ha, 6.0 t C/ha, and
7.8 t C/ha at the 0–30 cm depth by 2020, 2050, and 2080, respectively. These losses
would account for roughly 4.2%, 9.3%, and 12.1%, respectively, of the basic SOC
of the 1980s in the upland soils. In China, the A2 scenario would decrease SOC by
2.9 t C/ha, 6.8 t C/ha, and 8.2 t C/ha by 2020, 2050, and 2080, respectively. This
would account for around 4.5%, 10.5%, and 12.7% of the 1980s SOC decline
caused by conventional tillage and management techniques. The topsoil is rapidly
depleted by anthropogenic disturbances such as farming and changes in land usage.
It is imperative to conduct a comprehensive investigation into the effects of climate
change, incorporating insights from the domains of soil, plant, ecosystem, and
climate studies. The SOCRATES terrestrial carbon cycling model validates the need
for more consideration of soils in assessing the full impact of climate change and
the development of quantifiable mitigation strategies, with realistic estimates of
changes in SOC storage in response to climate change over the next century. The
temperature response, as indicated by the Q10 value, refers to the physiological
response, including enzyme configuration and substrate availability. Knorr et al.
(2005) found that apparent pool turnover rates for soils from an undisturbed forest
location in eastern Amazonia are not affected by temperature, and they also got
evidence that non-labile soil organic carbon was more temperature-sensitive than
labile soil organic carbon. The results of Q10 levels and the climatic projections are
linked, indicating that microbial activity may be promoted more at northern lati-
tudes than lower latitudes.
However, few studies have addressed the role of temperature changes in pool and
microbial activities on soil organic matter biomass, although temperature changes
may be necessary (Dilly et al. 2003). In addition, the thawing of permafrost soil
(24% of exposed land) in the Northern Hemisphere represents a further threat
because Erosion processes will occur, and captured gases may evolve into the atmo-
sphere. However, few studies have addressed the role of temperature changes on
soil organic matter pool and microbial biomass and activities, although temperature
changes may be significant (Dilly et al. 2003).
Soil texture, drainage conditions, slope, and aspect vary with land use and regu-
late the fate of soil organic carbon (SOC) (Awasthi 2005). Anthropogenic activities
have altered land-use changes (LUC) in the past century at a very rapid rate, chang-
ing the evolution of livelihood (Hurtt et al. 2006; Liu et al. 2005a, 2005b; Liu and
Tian 2010; Tian et al. 2014). At a rate of 13 million hectares (mha) each year, defor-
estation has been associated with the conversion of forest land (FL) into different
land use (LU) systems, such as barren land (BL), cultivated land (CL), grassland
(GL), horticultural land (HL), and plantation land (PL) (FAO 2006). In some cases,
this has resulted in a decline in soil quality, which lowers the potential for actual
productivity (Wei et al. 2014; Nath et al. 2018). According to reports from interna-
tional studies, LUC led to soil deterioration caused by intense use, unlevel ground,
changing climatic conditions, and other factors (Abera and Wolde-Meskel 2013;
Kumar et al. 2017, 2021a,b,c,d). Land use change alters the system’s ability to act
as a carbon source or sink (Abera and Wolde-Meskel 2013; De Blécourt et al. 2013;
Fan et al. 2016; Guillaume et al. 2015; Iqbal and Tiwari 2016). It is well established
that FL into various LUC results in loss of soil organic carbon (SOC) and biodiver-
sity (Ahrends et al. 2015; De Blécourt et al. 2013; Guillaume et al. 2015; Nath et al.
2018). To better understand the connections between human activities, climate sys-
tems, and ecosystems and to develop government policies, it is crucial to quantify
the effects of LUC (Arora and Boer 2010).
Several studies detecting the impact of management and LUC in soil carbon
pools is anticipated to be more sensitive than total SOC (Rakshit et al. 2018; Meetei
et al. 2020; Padbhushan et al. 2020). The Primary mechanism of the terrestrial car-
bon cycle is a microbial activity in the soil. The ratio of microbial biomass carbon
(MBC) to soil organic carbon (SOC), known as the microbial quotient (MQ), is used
to assess the Eco physiological health of soil microorganisms. The Nature and qual-
ity of the microbial activity in the soil are estimated by MQ value. This can also be
inferred from the usefulness of MQ, which has been demonstrated by many studies
on the topic (Anderson and Domsch 2010; Padbhushan et al. 2021). These studies
illustrate the importance of using MQ to evaluate or monitor the influence of short-
or long-term changes in soil biological state caused by management and other sys-
tem-level interventions. Soil disturbances may change the characteristics of soil and
SOC stocks (Paul et al. 2002). A soil indicator called carbon dioxide equivalent
(CO2 eq) emission tells us how much carbon is being lost from SOC reserves into
the atmosphere. These factors have been discovered to change in changing LU sys-
tems worldwide through meta-analysis studies (Don et al. 2011). Therefore, under-
standing the effects of soil carbon pools, MQ, and CO2 eq emission in a changing
LU system is facilitated by this knowledge.
According to the Population Division of the United Nations Department of
Economic and Social Affairs, India is now the second-most populated nation in the
world. It is predicted to surpass China by 2025. India’s population grew from 200 to
1400 million between 1980 and 2020 (Tian et al. 2014). This population expansion
and economic growth have resulted in a considerable change in LUs. Over a total
area of 329 mha, India has total SOC stocks of approximately 20.67 Pg (soil depth
0–30 cm) and 63.19 Pg (soil depth 0–150 cm). The information is condensed into
five categories corresponding to India’s physiographic regions: Northern Mountains,
Great Plains, Peninsular India, Peninsular Plateau, Coastal Plains, and Islands.
With annual per-capita CO2 emissions of 1.94 tonnes, less than half the average
of 4.8 tonnes, India is ranked 20th globally (Ritchie and Roser 2019). India is ranked
third with 7% of global CO2 emissions (www.iea.orgiea). Except for China, India
has lower per-capita CO2 emissions than the other global leaders. India had an
18 mha decline in FL between 1880 and 2019 (from 89 mha to 71 mha) and a
49 mha increase in CL between 1880 and 2019 (from 92 mha to 141 mha) as a result
of the conversion of FL, GL, and BL into CL (Tian et al. 2014). These transforma-
tions have resulted in a notable reduction in SOC stocks, which has affected ecosys-
tem health and soil quality. Despite the minimal shift, the FL area increased from
21.5% to 23.7%, and the CL area increased from 61.1% to 60.4%. Through lower-
ing deforestation, correcting deforestation through replanting, and expanding affor-
estation through the construction of forests in new regions, government actions in
recent years have helped reduce India’s deforestation rate (Don et al. 2011). The
government’s initiatives to increase the amount of forest cover to achieve the long-
term objective of securing 33% of the total FL cover make this evident. However,
the net emissions and removals of CO2 from the FL increased (from −18 × 104
gigatons to −11 × 104 gigatons) between 2000 and 2017, while the net emissions
and removals of CO2 from the CL and GL were constant and positively oriented.
Turning FL into LUs such as BL, CL, HL, and PL significantly reduced SOC stocks,
whereas under GL, no significant effect was observed. Compared to FL, the per-
centage decrease in SOC stocks for BL, CL, GL, HL, and PL was 34.0%, 41.2%,
1.5%, 33.5%, and 47.9%, respectively (Fig. 17.1). SOC stock prices generally dis-
played a declining trend across all LUs. At a soil level of 0–15 cm, SOC stocks
considerably decreased over FL in BL (−31.9%), CL (−38.3%), HL (−38.0%), and

PL (−30.2%), but GL (5.7%) showed no appreciable change. (Picture 1). Similar to
this, SOC stocks in BL (−41.4%), CL (−44.6%), HL (−31.2%), and PL (−67.1%)
decreased significantly over FL at soil levels of 15–30 cm; however, the little change
for GL (−17.3%) was not statistically significant. At 30–45 cm soil depths, SOC in
GL decreased significantly (−14.2%) compared to the top two soil layers, whereas
the change in HL (−10.3%) was not statistically significant. There was a consider-
able change in SOC in PL (−67.2%), CL (−47.6%), and BL (−35.9%) over the FL.
17.4 Soil Quality in Relation to the Biogeochemical Process
Soil quality is the capacity of the soil to function within the ecosystem and land use
boundaries to sustain biological productivity and maintain environmental quality,
hold and release nutrients and water, promote and sustain root growth, respond to
management, and resist degradation (Manoj et al. 2021). A crucial component of
forestry is maintaining soil fertility. On-the-ground plant matter and animal manure
break down and release nutrients into the soil solution. These nutrients may undergo
additional removal of nutrients from constant processes caused by trees, leaching,
erosion, and inorganic changes, which may be made possible by soil microorgan-
isms. The fertile soil can provide plants with all the necessary nutrients. Therefore,
the interaction between plants and soil, i.e., plant development in proportion to the
soil, includes soil fertility. However, soil quality can be deduced by examining the
physicochemical and biological characteristics of the soil that act as quality indica-
tors (Brejda and Moorman 2001). Individual measures may not accurately describe
the state of soil quality or integrate soil quality indicators based on the combination
of soil attributes. Acidity, integrated soil quality indicators alkalinity, salinity, and
nutrient status are the chemical aspects of soil fertility most important to land man-
agement. However, soil fertility is not always correlated with the nutrients present
because other factors may restrict plant growth. Understanding the soil and plant
analysis methods is necessary to evaluate the connection between soil nutrient lev-
els and soil chemical fertility.
To find the soil’s natural capacity to supply nutrients for plant growth, it is vital
to understand the chemical qualities of the soil’s pH, organic carbon content, and
accessible plant nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium (Nirmal
et al. 2021). Estimating the soil’s chemical properties at a specific place can be very
helpful in determining the soil’s capacity to hold nutrients and choose the best spe-
cies for the area. Most soil properties that affect fertility, such as pH and susceptibil-
ity to compaction, are influenced by the components of the original parent rock.
Clay content, pH, organic carbon, accessible nutrients, CEC, microbial population,
and parent material all play a major role in soil fertility. Subsequent events, such as
plant growth and fertilizer input, alter the properties and fertility of the soil. The
soil’s geology and climate impact are changed by subsequent events, such as plant
growth and the soil characteristics of inland valleys.
The soil stores, releases, and cycles various elements and nutrients. These bio-
geochemical processes enable nutrients to be released into the atmosphere or water,
maintained in the soil, or transformed into forms that plants can use. They function
similarly to the water cycle. Nutrient cycling can be assessed by tracking soil
response, fertility, and organic matter indicators. Fertility indicators, including min-
eral nitrogen and nitrogen that may mineralize and soil nitrate, soil test phosphorus,
potassium, sulphur, calcium, magnesium, boron, and zinc, can be evaluated.
Indicators of organic matter include soil enzymes, particle organic matter, microbial
biomass carbon, total organic carbon, C:N ratio, breakdown, and total organic mat-
ter. Soil pH is one of the indications of soil response.
In agroecosystems, soil quality has a dual function because it is crucial for high
production and the environment (Ding et al. 2013; Jónsson et al. 2016). The ability
of the soil to break down organic matter and release nutrients from it is a definition
of soil quality of the soil to break down organic matter and irrigation plays a signifi-
cant role in agronomic practices used in an orchard that is capable of affecting soil
fertility and quality (Sofo et al. 2014; Dal Ferro et al. 2016). From one perspective,
it is crucial for fruit growth and the preservation of soil flora and microbiota (Miller
et al. 2005). On the other hand, irrigation can adversely affect the environment due
to CO2 emissions and nitrate leaching if not adequately planned (Montanaro et al.
2012). These effects include soil mineralization and respiration increases, resulting
in declines in soil organic carbon and nutrients. Irrigation can significantly affect the
rates of N and C mineralization and, consequently, the quality of the soil in terms of
mobility, growth, nutrient uptake, and respiration (Graf et al. 2014; Sofo et al.
2014). The soil fertility depends on various physicochemical, microbiological, and
biochemical factors.
Nevertheless, the most enlightening and trustworthy sources must be chosen, as
it is impossible to consider them all (Gil-Sotres et al. 2005). However, several soil
biochemical characteristics are vulnerable to minor alterations (Wallenstein and
Vilgalys 2005; Muscolo et al. 2015).
Soil quality and stress resistance are two fundamental requirements of soil fertil-
ity, and the use of biochemical markers closely related to soil microbial dynamics
may be crucial. These indicators should be a measure that offers accurate and
simple-to-understand information, and seasonal and positional fluctuations should
not impact them as this may make it difficult to detect changes brought on by dis-
turbances, damage, or environmental stresses (Arshad and Martin 2002).
17.5 Soil Organic Matter and Microbial Interactions
The kind and quantity of minerals affect the soil’s texture, pH, color, nutrient
reserve, pace of weathering, and other crucial soil characteristics, affecting how
plants and soil interact. The terrestrial ecosystem is organized around soil. Whether
they are minerals, organic matter, or bacteria, their colloidal and particulate ele-
ments are not independent entities; instead, they constantly interact. These elements
interact to regulate biogeochemical processes, including the production of short-
range ordered metal oxides, catalysis of humic substance synthesis, stability and
activity of enzymes, mineral transformation, aggregate turnover, and biogeochemi-
cal cycling of transformation pollutants. Future studies should also focus on how
species composition, biodiversity, and the sustainability of the terrestrial ecosystem
are impacted by the interactions among minerals, organic matter, and microbes
(Huang et al. 2005).
Studies of minerals are critical in forestry, where long-term tree growth is heav-
ily dependent on minerals in the soil as a source of nutrients. The fertility potential
in the current accelerated program of producing large-scale plantations, mainly of
fast-growing species, depends significantly on the soil’s mineralogical makeup. The
underlying parent material is crucial in deciding whether or not plantations are pros-
perous, particularly when considering multiple rotations in a given year under vari-
ous climatic circumstances. The primary source of plant nutrition is the weathering
of minerals. The mineralogy of soils and their parent material significantly impacts
the reserve and availability of nutrients. Determining the soil characteristics that
show changes in soil quality is crucial because they could eventually be used as soil
quality indicators for evaluating the sustainability of production. Creating and using
a soil quality index would offer a way to assess how soil qualities have changed
across the landscape.
The microbial immobilization of nutrients and the mineralization of nutrients
from bacterial biomass by predators are significantly influenced by the plants, espe-
cially in the presence of bacteria in the rhizosphere. Mineralization and plant growth
may become disconnected from one another when these soil processes are dis-
rupted, which can lead to nutrient loss from the system and problems for the sys-
tems that nutrients enter. Understanding the soil’s physical, chemical, biological,
and mineralogical properties is essential for determining its fertility status and rec-
ommending management strategies for different types of land. An example of how
the presence of organisms such as Leptospirillum ferrooxidans can speed up multi-
step electrochemical reactions is the faster breakdown of arsenopyrite. Different
organisms can be found depending on the mineral substrate, with oxyhydroxides
being the most reactive. Understanding molecular interactions is necessary for a
proper understanding of such redox processes. Genetic research on pertinent crea-
tures and mineral surfaces advances knowledge, as demonstrated by our experimen-
tal and computational studies of iron oxides such as magnetite, which react with
simple organic molecules and exhibit various behaviors. Bacterial biofilm forma-
tion is preceded by mineral-organic interactions, which can lead to local geochemi-
cal conditions that result in mineral precipitation.
17.6 Biogeochemical Cycling Vis-à-Vis

Environmental Change
Biogeochemical cycle mechanisms are crucial for establishing or degrading forests

because they regulate the effects of natural and human activities on forest ecosys-
tems over a broad range of spatial and temporal scales (Dahlgren 2006). It is mainly
unknown how environmental changes affect the interconnections of the C, N, and P
biogeochemical cycles and how these biogeochemical processes influence how eco-
systems respond to environmental changes. Adding more C and N to the forest
ecosystem decreases relative P availability by increasing CO2 and atmospheric N
deposition. Increases in C:P and N:P ratios in soil organic substrates and altered
biogeochemical cycles of C, N, and P are the results of this. These changes may
change the composition and function of the soil microbial community, affecting the
aboveground species’ composition and growth and controlling how the ecosystem
reacts to elevated CO2 and N deposition. Fire takes away the soil’s C and N content,
leaving P. Relative P availability can be raised by reducing the C:P and N:P ratios
and changing the chemical composition of soil organic P. This may impact the soil
microbial community’s composition and activity and the aboveground forest’s
growth and species composition.
Land-use change impacts not just the previously mentioned changes in soil C,
nutrient availability, and stoichiometric balance but also the composition and activ-
ity of the soil microbial community, which in turn impacts the activities of the
above-ground ecosystem. Interactive biogeochemical cycling processes probably
govern forest ecosystem responses to environmental change. Ongoing natural and
anthropogenic environmental changes, such as increased atmospheric CO2 and N
deposition, fires, and land-use change, significantly affect the ecosystem’s below-
ground processes. The interconnections between environmental changes are quite
complex and frequently coincide. Numerous disciplinary techniques, including soil
chemistry, microbial ecology, plant physiology, and molecular biology, should be
used to thoroughly investigate the mechanisms governing the biogeochemical regu-
lation of ecosystem responses to environmental changes.
17.7 Interaction Between Climate Changes and UV-B

Impacts on Terrestrial Biogeochemical Cycling
The temperature, precipitation, radiation reaching the Earth’s surface, and increases
in atmospheric CO2 concentration are all predicted to significantly alter in the future,
according to climate change models. These variables are crucial to terrestrial eco-
systems (Phukon et al. 2022). There are many instances where complicated, non-
additive interactions between climate change and UV-B can cause non-linear
modifications in the behavior of biogeochemical cycles. A species’ sensitivity to
climatic change and its involvement in the element cycle may be moderated or
enhanced by changes in biological systems brought on by UV radiation. Additionally,

climate change, such as earlier spring snowmelt, may expose more species and bio-
geochemical processes to the risk of UV-B damage.
17.7.1 Carbon Pools and Fluxes in Soils
In particular, in northern woods and tundra, where global warming is magnified, and
in peatlands and wetlands, where carbon storage is most prominent, climate warm-
ing will decrease carbon pools in soils if the climate change unalters moisture levels
(Raturi et al. 2022). The process included increased rates of microbial decomposi-
tion and increased carbon transport, such as CO2 from drier regions and CO2 and
CH4 from wetter areas. Methane reacts with hydroxyl radicals to produce water
vapour in the stratosphere, making it a critical greenhouse gas and source of hydro-
gen. As a result, polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) may be more susceptible to
ozone loss when CH4 levels are higher. Higher UV-B levels should increase carbon
storage in soils where nutrients are particularly limiting to plant growth by changing
the quality of the litter and influencing decomposer organisms. Higher UV-B levels,
however, might neutralize or even reduce the amount of carbon stored in soil in
specific settings. According to (Paul et al. 2002), any changes in carbon storage will
be minimal, suggesting little alterations won’t matter. Since peat bogs, northern
boreal forests, and tundra hold most of Earth’s carbon, even slight carbon storage
changes, there might be a significant regional impact.
The specific plant species present determines how much CH4 is released into the
atmosphere in wetland environments, such as rice paddies. If the world experiences
an average warming of 2 °C, worldwide methane emissions are anticipated to rise
by 45%. According to Niemi et al., any adverse effects of UV on the activities of
plants that efficiently transport CH4 to the atmosphere may play a significant role in
lessening the impact of heat on CH4 emissions. Increased UV-B plays a vital role in
warming coupled with decreased soil carbon storage during warming in drier habi-
tats with high UV-B because of photodegradation of litter and decreased litter gen-
eration due to increased water stress. Examples of such ecosystems include desert
regions. On the other hand, heat will boost carbon storage because microbial activ-
ity constrained by water will be reduced. The unknown are the equilibriums between
these intricate interactions.
17.8 Future Intervention/Research Needs
Geological, soil, and microbiological studies are prerequisites for a successful

afforestation program providing essential nutrients that enrich the soil. The relative
efficiency of this mode of soil enrichment cannot be established unless geological
and soil studies are conducted at different sites. This is borne out by the fact that, in
low biologically active sites, weathering of minerals becomes a critical process.

Therefore, integrated geology, soil, and microbiology studies should be undertaken
to understand the biogeochemical interactions within the ecosystem.
17.9 Conclusion
Climate is a fundamental determinant of the physical environment for all living

organisms, exerting an active influence on their habitats. Climate change, a global
phenomenon, is disrupting ecosystem functioning and processes. These disruptions
manifest through various effects, including shifts in species ranges, altered biodi-
versity, changes in life cycle timings, modified growth patterns of forest species,
and shifts in ecosystem boundaries, alongside other biotic and abiotic stressors.
Addressing the distribution of degraded lands and maintaining the productivity of
natural forests are now paramount priorities for community well-being and ecosys-
tem restoration efforts. In mountain forests, where external inputs such as fertilizers
and water are limited, the soil’s mineralogical composition is crucial in determining
forest biomass productivity. Thus, understanding the link between mineralogy and
productivity is essential for effective forest management, particularly in low-input,
low-output biomass production systems. In response to a growing public interest in
understanding the impacts of management decisions on soil quality and ecosystem
sustainability, there is an increasing need for soil property assessments. Soil quality
encompasses evaluating soil processes and characteristics concerning its ability to
function as a healthy ecosystem component. Assessing soil quality helps identify
problem areas, discern differences between management systems, and measure the
sustainability of land and soil management practices both presently and in the
future. Consequently, maintaining and enhancing soil quality is a primary concern
for sustainable ecosystem management.
References
Abera G, Wolde-Meskel E (2013) Soil properties and soil organic carbon stocks of tropical andosol
under different land uses. Open J Soil Sci 03:153–162. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojss.2013.33018
Ahrends A, Hollingsworth PM, Ziegler AD, Fox JM, Chen H, Su Y (2015) Current trends of rub-
ber plantation expansion may threaten biodiversity and livelihoods. Glob Environ Change
34:48–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.06.002
Anderson T-H, Domsch KH (2010) Soil microbial biomass: the eco-physiological approach. Soil
Biol Biochem 42(12):2039–2043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2010.06.026
Arora VK, Boer GJ (2010) Uncertainties in the 20th century carbon budget associated with land use
change. Glob Chang Biol 16:3327–3348. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02202.x
Arshad MA, Martin S (2002) Identifying critical limits for soil quality indicators in agro-ecosys-
tems. Agric Ecosystems Environ 88:153–160
Awasthi KD (2005) Land use change effects on soil degradation, carbon and nutrient stocks and
greenhouse gas emission in mountain watersheds. Ph.D. thesis, Norwegian University of Life
Science, Abs, Norway, pp 118
Brejda JJ, Moorman TB (2001) Identification and interpretation of regional soil quality factors for
the central high plains of the mid-western USA, pp 535–540
Bronick CJ, Lal R (2005) Soil structure and management: a review. Geoderma 124:3–22
Cheng L, Booker FL, Burkey KO, Tu C, Rufty TW, Shew HD, Fiscus EL, Hu S. (2010) Carbon
and nitrogen co-dependence of soil microbial responses to elevated atmospheric CO2 and O3
in a wheat-soybean agroecosystem. The 95th Ecological Society of America annual meeting,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, August 1–6
Colombo F, Macdonald CA, Jeffries TC, Powell JR, Singh BK (2016) Impact of forest man-
agement practices on soil bacterial diversity and consequences for soil processes. Soil Biol
Biochem 94:200–210
Dahlgren RA (2006) Biogeochemical processes in soil and ecosystems: from landscape to molecu-
lar scale. J Geochem Explore 88:186–189
Dal Ferro N, Cocco E, Lazzaro B, Berti A, Morari F (2016) Assessing the role of Agri-environmental
measures to enhance the environment in the Veneto region, Italy, with a model-based approach.
Agric Ecosyst Environ 232:312–325
De Blécourt M, Brumme R, Xu J, Corre MD, Veldkamp E (2013) Soil carbon stocks decrease fol-
lowing conversion of secondary forests to rubber (Hevea Brasiliensis) plantations. PLoS One
8:e69357. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069357
29(2):451–457
Dilly O, Blume H-P, Munch JC (2003) Soil microbial activities in Luvisols and Anthrosols during 9
years of region-typical tillage and fertilization practices in northern Germany. Biogeochemistry
65:319–339
Ding GC, Piceno YM, Heuer H, Weinert N, Dohrmann AB, Carrillo A, Andersen GL, Castellanos
T, Tebbe CC, Smalla K (2013) Changes of soil bacterial diversity as a consequence of agricul-
tural land use in a semi-arid ecosystem. PLoS One 8:e59497
Don A, Schumacherw J, Freibauer A (2011) Impact of tropical land-use change on soil
organic carbon stocks—a meta-analysis. Glob Change Biol 17:1658–1670. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02336.x
Drigo B, Kowalchuk GA, Van Veen JA (2008) Climate change goes underground: effects of ele-
vated atmospheric CO2 on microbial community structure and activities in the rhizosphere.
Biol Fertil Soils 44:667–679
Fan S, Guan F, Xu X, Forrester D, Ma W, Tang X (2016) Ecosystem carbon stock loss after land
use change in subtropical forests in China. Forests 7:142. https://doi.org/10.3390/f7070142
FAO (2006). http://faostat.fao.org/. Accessed 24 Sep 2020
Gil-Sotres F, Trasar-Cepeda C, Leirós MC, Seoane S (2005) Different approaches to evaluating
soil quality using biochemical properties. Soil Biol Biochem 37:877–887
Graf DRH, Jones CM, Hallin S (2014) Intergenomic comparisons highlight modularity of the
denitrification pathway and underpin the importance of community structure for N2O emis-
sions. PLoS One 9:e114118
Guillaume T, Damris M, Kuzyakov Y (2015) Losses of soil carbon by converting tropical Forest to
plantations: erosion and decomposition estimated by δ 13 C. Glob Change Biol 21:3548–3560.
https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12907
Gupta SK, Ram J, Singh H (2019a) Relationship between leaf area index and atmospheric cooling
Gupta SK, Singh H, Ram J (2019b) Need for a novel paradigm in forestry research: perspectives
145(6):509–515
Huang PM, Kuang MW, Chiu WCY (2005) Soil mineral–organic matter–microbe interactions:
impacts on biogeochemical processes and biodiversity in soils. Pedobiologia 49:6609–6635
Hurtt GC, Frolking S, Fearon MG, Moore B, Shevliakova E, Malyshev S et al (2006) The under-
pinnings of land-use history: three centuries of global gridded land-use transitions, wood-
harvest activity, and resulting secondary lands. Glob Chang Biol 12(7):1208–1229. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01150.x
Iqbal S, Tiwari SC (2016) Soil organic carbon pool under different land uses in Achanakmar
Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve of Chhattisgarh, India. Curr Sci 110:771–773
Jónsson JOG, DavíÐsdóttir B, Jónsdóttir EM, Kristinsdóttir SM, Ragnarsdóttir KV (2016) Soil
indicators for sustainable development: a transdisciplinary approach for indicators develop-
ment using expert stakeholders. Agric Ecosyst Environ 232:179–189
Jurburg SD, Salles JF (2015) Functional redundancy and ecosystem function—the soil microbiota
as a case study. In: Lo YH, Blanco JA, Roy S (eds) Biodiversity in ecosystems—linking struc-
ture and function (red.). InTech, London, p 2949
Knorr W, Prentice IC, House JI, Holland EA (2005) Long-term sensitivity of soil carbon towarm-
ing. Nature 433:298–301
Kumar U, Shahid M, Tripathi R, Mohanty S, Kumar A, Bhattacharyya P et al (2017) Variation
of functional diversity of soil microbial community in sub-humid tropical rice-rice cropping
system under long-term organic and inorganic fertilization. Ecol Indic 73:536–543. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.10.014
i7/1098-1103
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021a) Impact of plant functional traits on infiltration
49(1):38–44

(2021c) Biomass accumulation and carbon stocks in different agro forestry system prevalent
i6/1083-1088
Kumar A, Padbhushan R, Singh YK, Kohli A, Ghosh M (2021d) Soil organic carbon under various
land uses in Alfisols of eastern India. Indian J Agric Sci 91(7):975–979
matic, physiological, and anatomical trait modulations. Environ Pollut 313:120,191. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120191
Liu M, Tian H (2010) China’s land cover and land use change from 1700 to 2005: estimations from
high-resolution satellite data and historical archives. Glob Biogeochem Cycles 24:GB3003.
https://doi.org/10.1029/2009gb003687
Liu J, Tian HQ, Liu M, Zhuang D, Melillo JM, Zhang Z (2005a) China’s changing landscape dur-
ing the 1990s: large-scale land transformations estimated with satellite data. Geophys Res Lett
32:L02405. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004gl021649
Liu J, Liu M, Tian H, Zhuang D, Zhang Z, Zhang W et al (2005b) Spatial and temporal patterns of
China’s cropland during 1990-2000: an analysis based on Landsat TM data. Remote Sensing
Environ 98:442–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2005.08.012
Lützow MV, Kögel‐Knabner I, Ekschmitt K, Matzner E, Guggenberger G, Marschner B, Flessa H
(2006) Stabilization of organic matter in temperate soils: mechanisms and their relevance under
different soil conditions–a review. Eur J Soil Sci 57(4):426–445
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
Meetei TT, Kundu MC, Devi YB (2020) Long-term effect of rice-based cropping systems on pools
of soil organic carbon in farmer’s field in hilly agroecosystem of Manipur, India. Environ
Monit Assess 192:209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-020-8165-x
Miller AE, Schimel JP, Meixner T, Sickman JO, Melack JM (2005) Episodic rewetting enhances
carbon and nitrogen release from chaparral soils. Soil Biol Biochem 37:2195–2204
Montanaro G, Dichio B, Briccoli Bati C, Xiloyannis C (2012) Soil management affects carbon
dynamics and yields in a Mediterranean peach orchard. Agric Ecosyst Environ 161:46–54
Muscolo A, Settineri G, Attinà E (2015) Early warning indicators of changes in soil ecosystem
functioning. Ecol Indic 48:542–549
Nath AJ, Brahma B, Sileshi GW, Das AK (2018) Impact of land use changes on the storage of soil
organic carbon in active and recalcitrant pools in a humid tropical region of India. Sci Total
Environ 624:908–917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.199
Padbhushan R, Sharma S, Rana DS, Kumar U, Kohli A, Kumar R (2020) Delineate soil charac-
teristics and carbon pools in grassland compared to native forestland of India: a meta-analysis.
Agronomy 10:1969. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10121969
Padbhushan R, Sharma S, Kumar U, Rana DS, Kohli A, Parmar B et al (2021) Meta-analysis
approach to measure effect of integrated nutrient management on crop performance, microbial
activity and carbon stocks in Indian soils. Front Environ Sci 9:724702
Pandey A, Trivedi P, Kumar B, Chaurasia B, Palni LMS (2006) Soil microbial diversity from
Himalaya: need for documentation and conservation. National Biodiversity Authority, Chennai,
Tamilnadu
Paul KI, Polglase PJ, Nyakuengama JG, Khanna PK (2002) Change in soil carbon following affor-
estation. For Ecol Manag 168:241–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-1127(01)00740-x

Rakshit R, Das A, Padbhushan R, Sharma RP, Sushant S, Kumar S (2018) Assessment of soil qual-
ity and identification of parameters influencing system yield under long-term fertilizer trial. J
Indian Society Soil Sci 66:166–171. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-0228.2018.00021.x
Ritchie H, Roser M (2019) CO2 and greenhouse gases emissions. Published online at Our World
in Data.org
org/10.1007/s13205-017-0690-0
uclim.2022.101183
Sofo A, Ciarfaglia A, Scopa A, Camele I, Curci M, Crecchio C, Xiloyannis C, Palese AM (2014)
Soil microbial diversity and activity in a Mediterranean olive orchard using sustainable agricul-
tural practices. Soil Use Manag 30:160–167
Tian H, Melillo JM, Kicklighter DW (2002) Regional carbon dynamics in monsoon Asia and
implications for the global carbon cycle. Glob Planet Chang 37:201–217
Tian H, Banger K, Bo T, Dadhwal VKB (2014) History of land use in India during 1880-2010:
large-scale land transformations reconstructed from satellite data and historical archives. Glob
Planet Change 121:78–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2014.07.005
Totsche KU, Rennert T, Gerzabek MH, Knabner IK, Smalla K, Spiteller M, Vogel HJ (2010)
Biogeochemical interfaces in soil: the interdisciplinary challenge for soil science. J Plant Nutr
Soil Sci 173:88–99. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.200900105
Wagg C, Bender SF, Widmer F, van der Heijden MG (2014) Soil biodiversity and soil community
composition determine ecosystem multifunctionality. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111:52665270
Wallenstein MD, Vilgalys RJ (2005) Quantitative analyses of nitrogen cycling genes in soils.
Pedobiologia 49:665–672
Wan Y, Lin E, Xiong W, Li Y, Guo L (2011) Modeling the impact of climate change on soil organic
carbon stock in upland soils in the 21st century in China. Agric Ecosyst Environ 141(1–2):23–31
Wei X, Shao M, Gale W, Li L (2014) Global pattern of soil carbon losses due to the conversion of
forests to agricultural land. Sci Rep 4:4062. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep04062
Yergeau E (2008) Effects of global warming on Antarctic soil microorganisms and associated
functions. Ph.D Thesis. Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam—with Dutch and French summary.
ISBN: 978-90-9023151-8
Chapter 18
Climate Change Impacts on Wetland
Ecosystem Functioning with Special
Reference to Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Asha Raturi, Aasheesh Raturi, and Hukum Singh
Abstract Wetlands encompass diverse ecosystems, comprising approximately

5%–8% of the Earth’s land surface. These distinct habitats are renowned for their
wide range of living forms and are crucial in supplying the ecological services
required for human well-being. Among their notable contributions is the capacity to
sequester carbon, influencing global greenhouse gas fluxes and contributing signifi-
cantly to climate regulation. Despite their ecological importance, wetlands face
challenges from ongoing climate change, characterized by increasing temperatures
and altered hydrology. These changes threaten wetlands’ biogeochemistry and over-
all functioning, potentially undermining their ability to provide critical services.
This shift in environmental conditions may compromise the effectiveness of wet-
land forests as carbon sinks, leading to a transition from carbon sequestering to
carbon-emitting sources. This chapter delves into examining the impact of microcli-
matic variables on greenhouse gas emissions within wetland ecosystems, exploring
potential repercussions and considering available strategies for emission reduction.
Keywords Wetlands · Greenhouse gases · Soil moisture · Air temperature ·

Wetland functioning
Abbreviations
BH Billion hectares
GHG Greenhouse gas
ha Hectare
MH Million hectares
Mkm2 Million square kilometres
Mt Million tons
A. Raturi (*) · H. Singh

ICFRE-Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
A. Raturi
Dolphin PG Institute of Bio-Medical and Natural Sciences, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Ltd. 2024
346 A. Raturi et al.
PgC Petagram carbon
18.1 Introduction
A wetland represents a distinctive ecosystem characterized by seasonal or perma-

nent water presence. Its unique attributes make wetlands easily distinguishable from
other water bodies or landforms based on water levels and the types of plants thriv-
ing within. Specifically, wetlands are regions where the water table remains consis-
tently near the surface for a significant duration each year, supporting the growth of
aquatic plants. Wetlands cover only 5%–8% of the Earth’s land surface, yet they
represent a substantial 20%–30% global carbon pool, amounting to 2500 PgC
(Mitsch et al. 2013). Wetlands have the highest carbon density relative to all other
terrestrial ecosystems, emphasizing their pivotal contribution to global biogeo-
chemical cycles, carbon dynamics, and climate change. These ecosystems, crucial
for humanity and nature, play a vital role in the broader environmental context
(Salimi et al. 2021).
The climate change and global warming crisis are commonly attributed to recent
fluctuations in greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere. GHGs
contribute to the “greenhouse effect,” propelling anthropogenic climate change by
absorbing and releasing infrared radiation, thus trapping solar warmth within the
Earth’s atmosphere (Ventura 2014). Wetlands function as important carbon sinks,
absorbing and storing substantial amounts of carbon dioxide, which can aid in regu-
lating greenhouse gas emissions (Raturi et al. 2022).
Preserving and restoring wetlands is crucial for maintaining these carbon stocks
by preventing the release of stored carbon into the atmosphere (Joshi et al. 2020).
Unfortunately, wetlands are experiencing degradation, with 87% having vanished
globally in the last 300 years and 54% disappearing since 1900 (Anonymous n.d.-
a). Their significance in addressing climate change cannot be overstated, as wet-
lands provide many ecological services that the world relies on. Characterized by
diverse vegetation and aquatic environments, wetlands support a rich variety of life.
Their unique conditions and functions are pivotal in the global climate system. The
capacity to sequester carbon underscores the importance of wetlands as crucial car-
bon sinks, mitigating the impacts of greenhouse gas emissions and contributing to
climate stability (Yadav et al. 2019a, b).
The global community grapples with the challenges of climate change due to
factors such as escalating population density, widespread urbanization, and exten-
sive industrialization. Among the greenhouse gases contributing to global warming,
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) pose significant
threats. Additionally, human-produced water vapor (H2O), hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) play typical roles as contributors (Pachauri
and Reisinger 2007). Ricke and Caldeira (2014) highlighted that the most substan-
tial temperature increases within a decade after introducing a CO2 pulse into the
atmosphere. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projects that,
18 Climate Change Impacts on Wetland Ecosystem Functioning with Special… 347
depending on scenarios, a notable percentage of CO2 released by 2100 will persist

in the atmosphere for over 1000 years, impacting up to 40 generations. Consequently,
it is highly advised that cutting greenhouse gas emissions becomes a paramount
priority for the well-being of both current and future generations (Yadav et al.
2019a, b).
Protecting undisturbed wetlands (peatlands) and restoring them is imperative to
attain a carbon-neutral future (Kumar et al. 2019). This approach will also safeguard
biodiversity and preserve other vital ecosystem services. Peatlands constitute
approximately 400 MH, representing about 3% of the Earth’s total land area.
Roughly 65 MH, accounting for 15% of the known peatland, have been drained,
primarily for agricultural and forestry purposes. This drained peatland contributes
to about 4% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Suppose current practices
persist without substantial protection and restoration efforts. In that case, emissions
levels from drained peat swamps are anticipated to make up 12%–41% of the
remaining GHG emission budget needed to limit global warming to less than 1.5 °C
by 2100 (Convention on Wetlands 2021).
18.2 Classification of Wetland Ecosystem
Wetlands have various names worldwide: swamps, bogs, marshes, mires, fens, etc.
They are found worldwide, apart from Antarctica and in all climates, from the trop-
ics to the tundra. Cowardin (1979) initially classified five types of wetlands on the
ground of its hydrological, ecological, and geological aspects are;
(i) Marine (coastal wetlands including rock shores and coral reefs)
(ii) Estuarine (including deltas, tidal marshes, and mangrove swamps)
(iii) Lacustrine (wetlands associated with lakes)
(iv) Riverine (wetlands along rivers and streams)
(v) Palustrine (marshes, swamps, and bogs) (National Wetland Atlas 2011).
One of the basic classification schemes recognizes four distinct types of wetlands
(Keddy 2010):
(i) Fen: A fen is a wetland community where the predominant plants are grasses
and sedges with roots in shallow peat, frequently with significant water move-
ment. An example is peatlands.
(ii) Marsh: A type of wetland community where the predominant vegetation is
herbaceous, typically emerging through water and rooted in hydric soils but
not peat. Example: Cattail marshes (Typha sp.) and Reed beds (Phragmites)
(iii) Swamp: Trees with roots in hydric soils but not peat predominate in this wet-
land community. Example: Mangrove swamps and freshwater swamps
(iv) Bog: A wetland community dominated by Sphagnum moss, sedge, Ericaceous
shrubs, or evergreen trees rooted in deep peat.
Furthermore, artificial wetlands, such as ponds of shrimp and fish, farms, and irri-
gated fields encompassing rice paddies, salt pans, reservoirs, dams, gravel pits,
wastewater treatment ponds, and canals, also contribute to the landscape of wet-
lands. The Ramsar convention has embraced a Ramsar Classification of wetland
type. It separates wetlands into three primary divisions with 42 subdivisions (Ramsar
Convention on Wetlands 2016). The three divisions are;
(i) Marine and coastal wetlands
(ii) Inland wetlands, and,
(iii) Human-made wetlands.
18.3 Worldwide Distribution of Wetlands
The estimate by Mitsch and Gosselink (2007) places the total area of wetlands on
Earth between 7 and 10 Mkm2. This considerable expanse represents a significant
portion of Earth’s land area, comprising approximately 5–8%. Wetland coverage is
increased to more than 12 Mkm2 by including lakes, rivers, and coastal marine
water bodies (up to 6 m deep) in the broader Ramsar definition. However, recent
estimates from the Convention on Wetlands (2021) shed further light on the world-
wide importance of wetlands. According to this assessment, the worldwide wetland
area is estimated to be at least 1.5–1.6 BH.
18.4 Functioning of Wetland Ecosystem
Even though the wetland environment serves several functions for all living things,
it generally falls into four major categories (De Groot 1992). These are listed below
(Fig. 18.1):
1. Regulation explains how ecosystems control vital ecological procedures and
systems for maintaining life on Earth. For example, regulation balances the con-
centration of CO2 and O2 gases in the atmosphere, prevents runoff and floods,
controls sediment, produces biomass, recycles organic matter, protects migra-
tion and nursery habitats, and maintains biological diversity (Sharma et al. 2018).
2. Carrier: refers to the area or appropriate substrate required for human actions
like living, recreation, and agriculture. Soil and rainfall are needed for growing
crops, human habitation, energy conversion, recreation and tourism, and nature
protection.
3. Production: refers to the natural resources provided by nature, including food,
fodder, fertilizers, genetic resources, medicinal resources, fuel and energy, clean
water for drinking, and raw produce for construction.
Fig. 18.1 Wetland ecosystem functioning and possible impacts of climate change
4. Information: Explain how natural ecosystems maintain mental health by sup-

plying cognitive development and aesthetic, cultural, spiritual, religious, scien-
tific, and educational information.
However, Christensen et al. (1996) summarised the above categories into three, i.e.,
processes, goods, and services.
Processes include hydrological reserves, biological production, biogeochemical
processes, and biological diversity.
Goods: comprise foodstuff, building supplies, herbal medicines, and touring.
Services include climate regulation, air and water purification, and pollution
detoxification.
When wetlands are drained or altered for different purposes, numerous properties,
processes, and functions undergo simultaneous modifications, frequently with
unknowable consequences.
18.5 Impact of Climate Change on Wetland Ecosystem
The changing climate globally influences living and non-living entities directly or
indirectly. The following are the impacts (which have happened or are anticipated)
of climate change on the wetland ecosystem(Singh and Kumar 2022).
18.5.1 Loss of Regenerative Capacity of Plants
Vegetation becomes a relic when it cannot regenerate. Mature plants are less vulner-
able to environmental extremes than young ones. The number of extinct foundation
species worldwide is rising. If disturbance wipes out adult vegetation, these species
could be ready for a sudden decline. Some signs indicate that freshwater wetlands
at their boundaries may collapse, with relict species’ extinction being a major indi-
cator. As a result, wetland ecosystems are confronted with numerous difficulties
(Moomaw et al. 2018; Singh et al. 2022).
18.5.2 Change in Phenology and Species Distribution
In northern regions, vegetation structure undergoes a complete transformation as

permafrost thaws. Climate change also affects the phenology, physiology, and dis-
tribution of regional and invasive species within communities. Reduced winter
snowfall and early snowmelt affect northern freshwater wetlands, changing the fre-
quency and extent of streams (Malhotra and Roulet 2015; Kumar et al. 2021a,
b, c, d).
18.5.3 Soil Carbon Loss
Activities like drainage, peat extraction, and other disturbances reduce the amount
of carbon in the soil (Page and Baird 2016). Significant hydrological alterations
may result in substantial atmospheric carbon losses. Although the conversion of
natural wetlands to agricultural land results in an overall reduction in soil organic
carbon, the impact of radiative forcing from conversion wetlands hinges on the rela-
tive changes in the levels and trends of the two primary greenhouse gases, CO2 and
CH4 (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d). The conversion of wetlands to cropland results in
a significant overall increase in atmospheric radiative forcing, regardless of a
decrease in CH4 emissions after wetland drainage (Petrescu et al. 2015).
18.5.4 Land Use Change
The extent to which wetlands’ ability to store carbon has been altered by land use
and how this has affected those changes. As it significantly affected the structure
and function of wetland areas. Due to this, many wetland ecosystems might not
have their self-regulating feedback mechanisms, making them more vulnerable to
synthesizing organic C pools (Petrescu et al. 2015). Wetland habitats have played a
significant role in the evolution and survival of human cultures throughout recorded
history. From the dawn of civilization, many cultures have learned to coexist peace-
fully with wetlands and have profited economically from their proximity, while
some cultures swiftly drained them. Several major cities worldwide are located on
what were once wetlands. The extensive drainage or transformation of coastal wet-
lands is prevalent, especially for agricultural purposes. From 1970 to 2015, 35% of
the overall global mangrove area was cleared and subjected to drainage (Fennessy
and Lei 2018). Wetland depletion is significantly influenced by aquaculture, with
mangrove forests being converted into shrimp ponds, which, in turn, part in the
emission of CO2. Because of climate change and the explosive growth of agricul-
ture, the world’s wetland area has shrunk dramatically in recent years. This increase
harms wetlands’ environmental services (Cai et al. 2023).
18.5.5 Loss of Biodiversity, Habitat, and Extinction

of Endemic Species
Loss of services results from biodiversity loss, which lowers human welfare. All the
wetlands are predicted to experience habitat loss made worse by climate change, in
contrast to rainforests, which rank second among ecosystems affected (45.3%)
(Canning and Waltham 2021). Climate change may alter the hydrology, and events
like temperature increases, droughts or floods, and a rise in CO2 may further impair
the wetland ecosystem function (Kumar et al. 2018). These changes may affect
essential ecosystem services and processes, such as water quality, wildlife habitat,
carbon storage, and biodiversity support. This may increase the difficulty of manag-
ing and restoring wetlands and raise the possibility of the extinction of endemic
species (Junk et al. 2013).
18.5.6 Coastal Squeeze
Rising sea levels are anticipated to be the greatest threat to mangroves due to cli-
mate change. This will increase the “coastal squeeze” and cause wetland areas to be
lost, especially in regions encircled by urbanized uplands. Warming allows vegeta-
tion and animal species to shift poleward, which can change these water habitats,
affect their capacity to store carbon in coastal ecosystems, and, in some cases, liber-
ate CO2 from the coastal ecosystem’s carbon sink (Moomaw et al. 2018).
18.5.7 Saline Intrusion
Raising the salinity in an estuary’s upstream regions would reduce the biomass
deposition that serves as a nursery ground for freshwater plant species. Spartina
alterniflora, smooth cordgrass and species that form the foundation of salt marshes
on the western Atlantic experienced decreased growth during exposure to higher
salinities and grew alongside the invasive strain of Phragmites australis (tall com-
mon reed) (Sutter et al. 2015).
18.5.8 Mangrove Dieback
In ecosystem succession, mangroves naturally die and are replaced by new genera-
tions (Nardin et al. 2021). Asbridge et al. (2019) found mangroves rapidly die off in
various places, alarmingly losing their vital functions. Worldwide, scientists are
experiencing difficulties regarding the sudden and massive dieback of mangroves,
which may result in the loss of ecosystem services, like nutrient cycle, carbon
sequestration, coastal protection, and biodiversity habitat (Budiadi et al. 2023).
18.5.9 Methane Emission from Permafrost Layer
Rising temperatures result from increasing methane emissions, which could have
the positive feedback effect of accelerating and exacerbating climate change. As the
Arctic warms, methane emissions are anticipated to increase due to the breakdown
of permafrost. It is expected that the primary cause of this increase is the remobili-
zation of organic matter in the soil that had previously frozen. (Robger et al. 2022)
Because methane is poorly soluble in water, bubbles built up beneath the permafrost
layer are released during thawing, significantly contributing to the abrupt rise in
greenhouse gas emissions (Moomaw et al. 2018).
Fig. 18.2 Interconnected roles of various micro-climatic factors affecting greenhouse gas
emission
18.6 Key Micro-Climatic Drivers Affecting GHG Emission

from Wetland Ecosystems
The Earth’s surface temperature is expected to rise due to multiple factors. Although
numerous field investigations have been conducted on the factors affecting soil
GHG flux rates in wetlands globally, it is difficult to determine a single parameter
because other factors usually co-vary or interact (Zhao et al. 2020). Changes in
temperature and hydrological patterns brought about by climate change impact the
biogeochemistry of wetland ecosystems (Apurva et al. 2017). The impact of climate
change on natural ecosystems and human health is now widespread and has signifi-
cant ramifications. The factors, such as temperature, precipitation, soil microbes,
and soil aggregates, differ among different ecosystems, influencing the breakdown
of soil organic matter (SOM) and, thereby, GHG emission (Fig. 18.2).
18.6.1 Temperature
Rising GHG concentrations are thought to be the primary cause of global warming.
Emissions of GHG affect the climate and environment on a direct or indirect basis.
CO2, CH4, and N2O account for almost 90% of global warming (Ma et al. 2023).
The main driver of GHG emissions in wetland ecosystems is temperature. Warming

(temperature) increases microbial abundance and stimulates soil respiration (Garcia-
Palacios et al. 2021). Therefore, it is regarded as an essential key to GHG emissions.
Biochemical reactions go more quickly at higher temperatures. The rate of various
biochemical reactions such as nitrification, denitrification, nitrogen immobilization,
and organic phosphorus mineralization increases with temperature (Salimi
et al. 2021).
Biochemical processes like photosynthesis, transpiration, respiration, and micro-
bial action are thermophilic. Dorrepaal et al. (2004) found that rising temperature
will probably raise the respiration rate more than photosynthesis in plants. Whereas
Bu et al. (2011) revealed that rising temperature increases the rate of photosynthesis
more than the rate of respiration, helping the wetlands to act as a “carbon sink.”
Warmer temperatures and drier conditions created through climate change are
expected to change the equilibrium between respiration and photosynthesis. The
warming drops the water table rapidly as a result of evapotranspiration. The wet-
land’s uppermost strata eventually got exposed to atmospheric oxygen, readily oxi-
dizing organic matter (Lafleur et al. 2005; Devi et al. 2023).
The rise in soil temperature enhanced the microbial metabolism, which produces
GHG emissions and soil respiration rates. This creates a positive feedback loop. It
also forces the production of CH4 and N2O and drops soil oxygen concentrations.
Tang et al. (2006) found an exponential relation between nitric oxide and CO2 emis-
sions released due to increased temperature. Soil respiration from bacteria was
noted even at temperatures as low as −7 °C (Brooks et al. 1997). Increased tempera-
tures encourage the rates of chemical reactions, microbial biomasses, carbon cycle-
related enzyme activities, and soil organic matter decomposition(Sharma et al.
2017). All of these processes can lead to an increase in GHG emissions.
18.6.2 Moisture
Soil moisture is the most significant parameter for soil GHG emissions, as it regu-
lates the microbial and other related processes (Oertel et al. 2016). It controls the
decomposition rate of soil organic matter in wetlands. When moisture becomes less
than the soil surface, soil microbes get more activated and use the active organic
carbon matrix, which directly causes higher CO2 emissions. However, Zhao et al.
(2020) reported that it is negatively related to CO2 emissions during seasonal flooded
conditions. Huang and Hall (2017) reported that an increase in soil moisture is asso-
ciated with an accelerated rate of carbon loss through GHG emissions. The ideal
conditions for soil moisture and organic matter availability as a substrate resulted in
increased CO2 effluxes, further enabling increased CH4 emissions (Raturi et al. 2022).
18.6.3 Water Table
In some studies, water level is the best indicator of carbon dioxide and methane
emissions. Lower water level promotes carbon mineralization. As a result, CO2 is
released. Increasing the water table might decrease carbon dioxide emissions in
peatlands. However, it might increase methane emission, which is many times as
potent as a heat-trapping gas in the atmosphere (Kayranli et al. 2010). Moore et al.
(1998) reported that methanogenesis decreases when the water level is more than
18 cm, and methanotrophy increases. However, Jacobs et al. (2007) compared
Dutch grassland to peat soil and found that the soil moisture variations might remain
small despite the significant variation in the local water table. Therefore, water con-
tent (vol.) can be high at the root zone even if the water table is lower (Salimi et al.
2021). Water is necessary to transport nutrients that microbes need. Similarly, it is
generally believed that temperature and water table height primarily control carbon
stores due to their strong influence on the decomposition of organic matter (Were
et al. 2019).
18.6.4 Precipitation
Precipitation significantly impacts greenhouse gas emissions, directly influencing

soil moisture. The changing climate will influence the intensity and frequency of
precipitation events. Low soil moisture content substantially affects the quantity and
activity of methanogens and methanotrophic bacteria. Production of CH4 requires
strictly anaerobic conditions. Yang et al. (2022) discovered that increased precipita-
tion increases N2O flux. The increased frequency of extreme precipitation and
freeze-thaw cycles due to climate warming can further intensify the loss of forest
carbon and nitrogen. As a result, the hydrologic flows transport large quantities of
diffuse dissolved nitrogen (DON) and organic carbon (DOC) from upland forests
into downstream wetlands(Ouyang et al. 2021).
When precipitation occurs after extended dry periods, microbial drought stress is
relieved, and microbes can rapidly utilize the available substrate preserved under
drought conditions. As a result, a large amount of CO2 is released into the atmo-
sphere (Jiang et al. 2021). It is called pulsing or Birch effect (Birch 1958). This is
caused due to renewed mineralization and the availability of easily decomposable
material for metabolizing reactivated microbes. The effect decreases with higher
frequencies of wet-dry cycles (Borken and Matzner 2009).
18.6.5 Soil Texture/Grain Size
The retention of soil moisture depends on the grain size. Grain size is defined as the
average diameter of particles of sediments and rocks. Stable soil aggregates such as
concretions and crusts produced lower soil emissions due to less carbon and nitro-
gen availability for soil microbes. Fine textured soils accounted for more significant
CO2 emissions than sandy soils during warm, dry periods. Under aerobic condi-
tions, the formation of N2O and CH4 was reported from soils having dominant deli-
cate pores. The highest NO emission is observed in soils with coarse soil textures.
Soils with a high proportion of large pores hold less water, hence inducing gases in
aerobic conditions (Oertel et al. 2016).
18.7 Wetland’s Function in Climate Mitigation
Wetlands are recognized as carbon dioxide sinks and global climate stabilizers
because of their ability to absorb and retain carbon on a significant scale. Beyond
their role in carbon storage, wetlands play a crucial part in alleviating the effects of
natural disasters like floods, storm surges, and rising sea levels. This dual function
makes wetlands indispensable in contributing to climate resilience and mitigating
greenhouse gas emissions. Although they cover only 5%–8% of the Earth’s total
land surface area, wetlands possess the capacity to regulate greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. They are a potent tool in the battle against climate change, offering a
crucial means to safeguard humanity.
18.7.1 Carbon Storage
Plants absorb atmospheric CO2 into their tissues during photosynthesis (Sharma
et al. 2018). This simple sugar assimilation is then transformed into complex mate-
rials like lignin and cellulose, deposited into leaves, stems, and roots. Eventually,
these complex materials end up in the soil when the plants die (Were et al. 2019). In
undisturbed conditions, wetlands are significant carbon sinks within ecosystems.
Wetland soils encompass a disproportionately large portion of the Earth’s overall
carbon content. Despite covering only 5%–8% of the land surface, these wetlands
contain 35% or more of the approximately 1500 Gt of organic carbon stored in soils.
Notably, peatlands within natural wetlands exhibit considerably higher carbon stor-
age capacities than other natural ecosystems. This elevated capacity is essential to
reducing the effects of climate change (Ma et al. 2023). Most vegetation found in
wetlands is known to use atmospheric CO2 as their primary source of carbon, and
they have a high capacity to assimilate CO2 due to their high rates of gross primary
production compared to terrestrial plants (Were et al. 2019). A considerable amount
of carbon is sequestered in soils compared to vegetation. The estimates for carbon

sequestered in vegetation range from 450 to 650 PgC, whereas those for carbon
stored in soils range from 1500 to 2400 PgC. Additionally, an estimated 1700 PgC
is believed to be in permafrost (Moomaw et al. 2018).
18.7.2 Accumulate Blue Carbon
Blue carbon refers to the “carbon captured by living organisms in coastal ecosys-
tems (such as mangrove forests, salt marshes, and seagrass meadows) and marine
ecosystems stored in biomass and sediments.” The IPCC (2014) acknowledges that
blue carbon plays a dual role in climate mitigation and adaptation. Its stability
allows it to persist for extended periods, potentially spanning hundreds or even
thousands of years (Joshi et al. 2021).
Blue carbon refers to the dense carbon accumulation in coastal systems, driven
by their elevated productivity and sediment-trapping capacity. Calculations indicate
that the carbon sequestration rate in coastal wetlands surpasses that of all terrestrial
forests combined despite forests occupying a significantly larger area. On average,
seagrasses, salt marshes, and mangroves sequester carbon at a rate 35–57 times
faster than tropical forests (Fennessy and Lei 2018). In contrast, when these ecosys-
tems are disturbed and drained, the stored carbon is released, and the ongoing
capacity for carbon sequestration is also forfeited (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d).
While serving as significant carbon storage ‘hotspots,’ blue carbon ecosystems also
provide essential ecosystem services that enhance human well-being. These ser-
vices include defense against storms and floods, preservation of coastal water qual-
ity, support for biodiversity, and functioning as an essential nursery ground for
several marine species (Convention on Wetlands 2021).
18.7.3 Role of Macrophytes
Macrophytes play a significant role in the dynamics of the food web and the cycling
of nutrients in wetland ecologies(Rejmankova 2011). They decelerate the water’s
flow to facilitate the sedimentation of suspended particles. As a result, they are rec-
ommended as among the most excellent alternatives to lessen the issue of water
contamination. They are hyperaccumulators with a remarkable capacity to take up
harmful metals and excess nutrients from the water in their tissues. Additionally,
they cushion the surface from winter frost, stabilize the surface of the beds, facilitate
physical filtration, keep vertical flow systems from clogging, and provide a sizable
surface area for microbial growth to attach. According to a study (Jha 2021), using
decomposing macrophytes as fertilizer in maize crops has enhanced crop productiv-
ity and conferred resistance against phytopathogens because of phenolics and flavo-
noids. Their complexity protected the larvae, juvenile species, and minute organisms
from predators. Conserving and restoring wetlands are vital for addressing the inter-
connected challenges of climate change, biodiversity loss, and habitat degradation.
18.7.4 Attenuate Flood and Relieve Droughts
Wetland’s role is crucial in stabilizing water resources and maintaining the water
balance in the surrounding area, mitigating both floods and droughts. They act as a
sponge, hold a lot of water, and release it gradually. They have been observed to
purify contaminated waters, safeguard coastlines, and replenish groundwater aqui-
fers. They are often called “Nature’s kidneys” because they receive water and waste
from various natural and human origins. Research shows that the pothole wetlands
provide many environmental services and function as a natural flood control system
(Pattison-Williams et al. 2018).
18.7.5 Temperature Regulation
Wetland ecosystems exchange energy and water with the atmosphere to regulate
local and regional climates by increasing atmospheric humidity and reducing daily
maximum temperature (Wenguang et al. 2020). Wetlands within urban boundaries,
such as lakes, rivers, ponds, and reservoirs, are called urban cooling islands. In wet-
lands, evaporative cooling occurs as they absorb more radiation than the surround-
ing area (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d). A vital indicator of the climate in urban areas
is the impact of surface water on latent heat transmission. City planners prioritized
urban wetlands to regulate urban temperature (Coutts et al. 2013). Compared to
grass and vegetation, the cooling effect of urban wetlands is higher (Bera et al. 2021).
18.7.6 Support Biodiversity and Livelihoods
Wetlands are essential ecosystems offering various ecological services; their biodi-
versity is critical to the planet’s health. They harbor 40% of the world’s biodiversity
(Anonymous n.d.-b). In wetlands, there are numerous invertebrates, zooplanktons,
epiphytic algae, and aquatic plants. These plants thrive best in moist soils and fre-
quently serve as vital habitat sources for various creatures. Many animals are found
in wetlands, including fish, birds, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles. They are
essential to the survival and reproduction of many species and to protecting and
enhancing biodiversity (Chaurasia 2022). Wetlands serve as crucial repositories of
plant genetic material. These ecosystems have also been referred to as “ecological
supermarkets” because of their extensive food chain and abundant biodiversity that
they sustain. For instance, rice is a prevalent wetland plant that constitutes the pri-
mary dietary staple food consumed by more than half of the world’s population.
18.8 Strategies for Mitigation of Climate Change
Climate change directly affects internationally significant wetlands, leading to a

decline in the overall wetland area within these sites due to drying, desertification,
and coastal erosion (Gupta et al. 2019). The impact extends to the biodiversity and
ecosystem services connected with these wetlands. In response to these challenges,
effective management strategies to minimize these impacts through adaptation are
becoming increasingly crucial (Gupta et al. 2018). Recognizing the pivotal role of
wetlands in climate mitigation requires a growing acknowledgment of the necessity
for comprehensive protection, restoration, construction, and sustainable use of these
ecosystems (Kumari and Singh 2018). This commitment is considered a fundamen-
tal component of any climate strategy, emphasizing the importance of restoration
efforts in areas where wetland degradation has already occurred (Convention on
Wetlands 2021).
18.8.1 Peatland Restoration
Pindilli et al. (2018) conducted a 50-year empirical study on a 54,000-ha protected

peatland habitat, assessing the impact of restoration and management on carbon
sequestration. Four scenarios were modeled: no management, catastrophic fire
under no management, current management practices, and increased management.
Results revealed that the peatland emitted CO2 without management (2.4 Mt CO2)
and, in the event of a catastrophic fire (6.5 Mt CO2). However, with current and
increased management, the peatland acted as a significant carbon sink, sequestering
9.9 Mt CO2 and 16.5 Mt CO2, respectively, highlighting the substantial influence of
management on wetland carbon sequestration potential (Fawzy et al. 2020).
• Re-establishing wetland hydrology through rewetting can be achieved with sim-
ple methods, such as installing weirs or blocking drains and ditches. While effec-
tive for smaller areas, this approach can be challenging for extensively drained
peatlands. Blocking larger canals and drainage ways is necessary for rewetting
larger areas, often requiring a series of plugs for water dispersion. Restoration
planning should consider any project’s local landscape and hydrology (Dommain
et al. 2010).
• Paludiculture, the rewetting of previously drained peatlands for wet cultivation,
serves as an incentive for restoration supported by both governments and the
private sector. Typically centered around reed mowing and biomass production
for fuel, the primary objective is to safeguard peat. Rewetted bogs may also
allow Sphagnum farming for horticultural purposes to minimize the exploitation

of intact systems. This approach provides advantages such as carbon storage
protection, renewable fuel provision, and the protection of biodiversity and cul-
tural practices (Wichtmann et al. 2016).
• The optimal long-term restoration strategy involves community-based engage-
ment throughout all project stages, encompassing design to implementation.
This approach fosters local stewardship by leveraging community knowledge
and enhances the capacity for effective management within the communities
involved.
18.8.2 Inland Wetlands Restoration
• Restoration planning at the catchment scale involves reconnecting floodplains

with rivers and streams and reinstating natural floodplain inundation patterns to
restore wetland hydrological benefits. Additionally, restoring wetlands away
from rivers can strategically utilize existing wetland soils and water sources
within the catchment basin, maximizing the re-establishment of ecosystem ser-
vices (Craft 2016).
• Optimal restoration planning involves minimizing engineering interventions and
leveraging self-design principles, enabling natural ecological processes to pre-
dominate. Embracing passive management can enhance ecosystem resilience
and reduce overall costs (Craft 2016).
• In urban settings, wetlands restoration can establish a network of locations that
enhance human well-being, simultaneously address flood and climate risks, and
facilitate water recycling (Fennessy and Lei 2018).
18.9 Conclusion
The role of wetlands in mitigating climate change is multifaceted, encompassing

carbon sequestration, controlling the emission of greenhouse gases, conserving bio-
diversity, and providing various ecosystem services that contribute to overall cli-
mate resilience. Protecting and restoring wetlands are integral to global climate
change mitigation strategies. Maintaining the stability of methane, carbon dioxide,
nitrous oxide, and other greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at suitable
levels is imperative to curb excessive warming. Attaining this goal requires reducing
emission rates and improving removal rates for these gases, a feat achievable solely
through the assistance of wetland ecosystems.
References
Anonymous (n.d.-a). https://www.ramsar.org/news/75-earths-land-areas-are-degraded-wetlands-

have-been-hit-hardest-87-lost-globally-last-300. Accessed 4 Dec 2023
Anonymous (n.d.-b). https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/drive-protect-worlds-
wetlands-gains-momentum. Accessed 4 Dec 2023
Asbridge EF, Bartolo R, Finlayson CM, Lucas RM, Rogers K, Woodroffe CD (2019) Assessing
the distribution and drivers of mangrove dieback in Kakadu National Park, northern Australia.
Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 228:106353
Bera B, Shit PK, Saha S, Bhattacharjee S (2021) Exploratory analysis of the cooling effect of
urban wetlands on Kolkata metropolitan city region, eastern India. Curr Res Environ Sustain
3:100066
Birch HF (1958) The effect of soil drying on humus decomposition and nitrogen availability. Plant
Soil 10:9–31
Borken W, Matzner E (2009) Reappraisal of drying and wetting effects on C and N mineralization
and fluxes in soils. Glob Change Biol 15(4):808–824
Brooks PD, Schmidt SK, Williams MW (1997) Winter production of CO2 and N2O from alpine
tundra: environmental controls and relationship to inter-system C and N fluxes. Oecologia
110:403–413
Bu Z, Hans J, Li H, Zhao G, Zheng X, Ma J, Zeng J (2011) The response of peatlands to climate
warming: a review. Acta Ecol Sin 31(3):157–162
Budiadi B, Pertiwiningrum A, Lestari LD, Jihad AN, Marpaung BA, Prasetyo S (2023) Land cover
changes, biomass loss, and predictive causes of massive dieback of a mangrove plantation in
Lampung, Sumatra. Front Forests Glob Change 6:1150949
Cai Y, Zhang P, Wang Q, Wu Y, Ding Y, Nabi M, Wang H (2023) How does water diversion affect
land use change and ecosystem service: a case study of Baiyangdian wetland, China. J Environ
Manag 344:118558
Canning AD, Waltham NJ (2021) Ecological impact assessment of climate change and habitat loss
on wetland vertebrate assemblages of the Great Barrier Reef catchment and the influence of
survey bias. Ecol Evol 11(10):5244–5254
Chaurasia S (2022) Role of macrophytes: a review. Adv Zool Bot 10(4):75–81
Christensen NL, Bartuska AM, Brown JH, Carpenter S, d'Antonio C, Francis R, Franklin JF,
MacMahon JA, Noss RF, Parsons DJ, Peterson CH (1996) The report of the Ecological
Society of America committee on the scientific basis for ecosystem management. Ecol Appl
6(3):665–691
Convention on Wetlands (2021) Global wetland outlook: special edition 2021. Secretariat of the
Convention on Wetlands, Gland
Coutts AM, Tapper NJ, Beringer J, Loughnan M, Demuzere M (2013) Watering our cities: the
capacity for water sensitive urban design to support urban cooling and improve human thermal
comfort in the Australian context. Prog Phys Geogr 37(1):2–28
Cowardin LM (1979) Classification of wetlands and Deepwater habitats of the United States. Fish
and Wildlife Service, US Department of the Interior
Craft C (2016) Creating and restoring wetlands. Elsevier, Amsterdam
ment and decision making. Wolters-Noordhoff BV
29(2):451–457
Dommain R, Couwenberg J, Joosten H (2010) Hydrological self-regulation of domed peatlands
in south-east Asia and consequences for conservation and restoration. Mires Peat 5(6):1–17
Dorrepaal E, Aerts R, Cornelissen JH, Callaghan TV, Van Logtestijn RS (2004) Summer warming
and increased winter snow cover affect Sphagnum fuscum growth, structure and production in
a sub-arctic bog. Glob Chang Biol 10(1):93–104
Fawzy S, Osman AI, Doran J, Rooney DW (2020) Strategies for mitigation of climate change: a
review. Environ Chem Lett 18:2069–2094
Fennessy SM, Lei G (2018) Wetland restoration for climate change resilience. Ramsar briefing
note no.10. Ramsar Convention Secretariat, Gland
Garcia-Palacios P, Crowther TW, Dacal M, Hartley IP, Reinsch S, Rinnan R, Rousk J, van den
Hoogen J, Ye JS, Bradford MA (2021) Evidence for large microbial-mediated losses of soil
carbon under anthropogenic warming. Nat Rev Earth Environ 2(7):507–517
Huang W, Hall SJ (2017) Elevated moisture stimulates carbon loss from mineral soils by releasing
protected organic matter. Nat Commun 8(1):1774
IPCC (2014) 2013 supplement to the 2006 IPCC guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas
Inventories: wetlands. Hiraishi T, Krug T, Tanabe K, Srivastava N, Baasansuren J, Fukuda M
and Troxler TG (eds)
Jacobs CM, Jacobs AF, Bosveld FC, Hendriks DM, Hensen A, Kroon PS, Moors EJ, Nol L,
Schrier-Uijl A, Veenendaal EM (2007) Variability of annual CO2 exchange from Dutch grass-
lands. Biogeosciences 4(5):803–816
Jha Y (2021) Macrophytes as a potential tool for crop production by providing nutrient as well as
protection against common phyto pathogen. Highlights Biosci 4
Jiang Z, Bian H, Xu L, Li M, He N (2021) Pulse effect of precipitation: spatial patterns and mecha-
nisms of soil carbon emissions. Front Ecol Evol 9:673310
Joshi R, Singh H, Chhetri R, Poudel SR, Rijal S 2021. Carbon sequestration potential of commu-
of far-Western Nepal. Eurasian
Junk WJ, An S, Finlayson CM, Gopal B, Kvet J, Mitchell A, Mitsch WJ, Robarts RD (2013)
Current state of knowledge regarding the world’s wetlands and their future under global cli-
mate change: a synthesis. Aquat Sci 75:151–167
Kayranli B, Scholz M, Mustafa A, Hedmark Å (2010) Carbon storage and fluxes within freshwater
wetlands: a critical review. Wetlands 30:111–124
Keddy PA (2010) Wetland ecology: principles and conservation. Cambridge University Press
org/10.1007/s13205-019-1700-1
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
49(1):38–44
hills, India. Current Science 120(6):1083–1188. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v120/i6/1083-1088
Lafleur PM, Moore TR, Roulet NT, Frolking S (2005) Ecosystem respiration in a cool temperate
bog depends on peat temperature but not water table. Ecosystems 8:619–629
Ma Z, Lu M, Jin H, Sheng X, Wei H, Yang Q, Qi L, Huang J, Chen L, Dou X (2023) Greenhouse
gas emissions and environmental drivers in different natural wetland regions of China. Environ
Pollut 330:121754
Malhotra A, Roulet NT (2015) Environmental correlates of peatland carbon fluxes in a thawing
landscape: do transitional thaw stages matter? Biogeosciences 12(10):3119–3130
Mitsch WJ, Gosselink JG (2007) Wetlands, 4th edn. Wiley, Hoboken
Mitsch WJ, Bernal B, Nahlik AM, Mander U, Zhang L, Anderson CJ, Jorgensen SE, Brix H (2013)
Wetlands, carbon, and climate change. Landsc Ecol 28:583–597
Moomaw WR, Chmura GL, Davies GT, Finlayson CM, Middleton BA, Natali SM, Perry JE,
Roulet N, Sutton-Grier AE (2018) Wetlands in a changing climate: science, policy and man-
agement. Wetlands 38(2):183–205
Moore TR, Roulet NT, Waddington JM (1998) Uncertainty in predicting the effect of climatic
change on the carbon cycling of Canadian peatlands. Clim Chang 40:229–245
Nardin W, Vona I, Fagherazzi S (2021) Sediment deposition affects mangrove forests in the
Mekong delta, Vietnam. Continental Shelf Res 213:104319
National Wetland Atlas (2011) SAC/EPSA/ABHG/NWIA/ATLAS/34/2011, Space Applications
Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad, India, pp 310
Oertel C, Matschullat J, Zurba K, Zimmermann F, Erasmi S (2016) Greenhouse gas emissions
from soils—a review. Geochemistry 76(3):327–352
Ouyang W, Wang P, Liu S, Hao X, Wu Z, Cui X, Jin R, Zhu W, Lin C (2021) Rainfall stimulates
large carbon dioxide emission during growing season in a forest wetland catchment. J Hydrol
602:126892
Pachauri RK, Reisinger A (2007) Synthesis report. Contribution of working groups I, II, and III
to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate
Change 2007. Working Groups I, II, and III to the Fourth Assessment
Page SE, Baird AJ (2016) Peatlands and global change: response and resilience. Annu Rev Environ
Resour 41:35–57
Pattison-Williams JK, Pomeroy JW, Badiou P, Gabor S (2018) Wetlands, flood control and ecosys-
tem services in the Smith Creek Drainage Basin: a case study in Saskatchewan, Canada. Ecol
Econ 147:36–47
Petrescu AM, Lohila A, Tuovinen JP, Baldocchi DD, Desai AR, Roulet NT, Vesala T, Dolman AJ,
Oechel WC, Marcolla B, Friborg T (2015) The uncertain climate footprint of wetlands under
human pressure. Proc Natl Acad Sci 112(15):4594–4599
Pindilli et al (2018) Estimating the societal benefits of carbon dioxide sequestration through peat-
land restoration. Ecol Econ 154:145–155
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (2016) (An Introduction), 7th edn. (previously The Ramsar
Convention Manual). Ramsar Convention Secretariat, Gland, Switzerland
Raturi A, Singh H, Kumar P, Chanda A, Shukla N (2022) Characterizing the post-monsoon CO2,
CH4, N2O, and H2O vapor fluxes from a tropical wetland in the Himalayan foothill. Environ
Monit Assess 194(2):50
Rejmankova E (2011) The role of macrophytes in wetland ecosystems. J Ecol Environ
34(4):333–345
Ricke KL, Caldeira K (2014) Maximum warming occurs about one decade after a carbon dioxide
emission. Environ Res Lett 9(12):124002
Robger N, Sachs T, Wille C, Boike J, Kutzbach L (2022) Seasonal increase of methane emissions
linked to warming in Siberian tundra. Nat Clim Chang 12(11):1031–1036
Salimi S, Almuktar SA, Scholz M (2021) Impact of climate change on wetland ecosystems: a criti-
cal review of experimental wetlands. J Environ Manag 286:112160
Sharma R, Prajapati N, Singh H (2017) Elevated carbon dioxide impacts on bioactive compounds
or nutraceuticals properties of medicinal plants. J Pharmacogn Phytochem 8(1):1924–1926
tus and research needs. In: Climate change: impacts, responses and sustainability in the Indian
Himalaya. Springer, Cham, pp 223–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
uclim.2022.101183
Sutter LA, Chambers RM, Perry JE (2015) Seawater intrusion mediates species transition in low
salinity, tidal marsh vegetation. Aquat Bot 122:32–39
Tang X, Liu S, Zhou G, Zhang D, Zhou C (2006) Soil-atmospheric exchange of CO2, CH4, and
N2O in three subtropical forest ecosystems in southern China. Glob Chang Biol 12(3):546–560
Ventura RE (2014) Wetlands and greenhouse gas fluxes: causes and effects of climate change–a
meta-analysis
Wenguang Z, Wenjuan W, Guanglei H, Chao G, Ming J, Xianguo L (2020) Cooling effects of dif-
ferent wetlands in semi-arid rural region of Northeast China. Theor Appl Climatol 141:31–41
Were D, Kansiime F, Fetahi T, Cooper A, Jjuuko C (2019) Carbon sequestration by wetlands: a
critical review of enhancement measures for climate change mitigation. Earth Syst Environ
3:327–340
Wichtmann W, Schroder C, Joosten H (2016) Paludiculture—productive use of wet peatlands, cli-
mate protection—biodiversity—regional economic benefits. Schweizerbart Science Publishers,
Stuttgart. ISBN: 978-3-510-65283-9
Yang Z, Chen K, Liu F, Che Z (2022) Effects of rainfall on the characteristics of soil greenhouse
gas emissions in the wetland of Qinghai Lake. Atmos 13(1):129
Zhao M, Han G, Li J, Song W, Qu W, Eller F, Wang J, Jiang C (2020) Responses of soil CO2 and
CH4 emissions to changing water table level in a coastal wetland. J Clean Prod 269:122316
Chapter 19
Forest Ecosystems: Insights, Adaptations,
and Mitigation Strategies to Climate
Change
Damya Srivastava
Abstract This chapter explores forest ecosystem dynamics by examining how

behavioral insights, adaptive measures, and mitigation strategies interact in response
to climate change across forest ecosystems. In its case studies, it analyzes the effects
of climate change on the Alp forests of Switzerland to anticipate worsening impacts,
investigates how adaptation is unfolding among residents and forest managers in
New Zealand, revealing socio-psychological factors influencing decision-making
and behavioral patterns among forest growers and discusses the impacts of climate
change on European temperate forests using the Global Change Assessment Model
(GCAM). It evaluates mitigation strategies, highlighting direct and indirect implica-
tions for sustainable strategies underscoring the importance of considering behav-
ioural changes when formulating climate change policies. The chapter concludes by
emphasizing the significance of understanding the behavioural intricacies that shape
people’s responses to forest ecosystems and climate change, advocating for their
inclusion in developing effective mitigation and adaptation strategies.
Keywords Biodiversity conservation · Climate change adaptation and mitigation ·

Behavioural insights · Forest ecosystems · Sustainable forestry
19.1 Introduction
Forests cover approximately 31% of the Earth’s land area and are integral to
maintaining ecological balance and supporting life. Climate change, driven pri-
marily by anthropogenic activities, has led to alterations in temperature, precipi-
tation patterns, and the frequency of extreme weather events, affecting forest
D. Srivastava (*)
Forest Research Institute Deemed to be University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Ltd. 2024
366 D. Srivastava
ecosystems on multiple levels (Khanna 1977; Manikandan and Prabhu 2010).

Forests provide various ecosystem services (ES) essential to ecological balance
and human well-being. In addition to providing raw timber, forests also produce
non-timber goods, including resin, therapeutic plants, and foraged foods like ber-
ries and mushrooms. In addition to influencing regional and global temperatures,
forests also help retain soil, improve water quality, aid in pollination, serve as
natural barriers against hazards, support biodiversity, and provide recreational
and aesthetic benefits for areas that are rural or peri-urban (Chiabai et al. 2011;
Bravo-Oviedo et al. 2014).
Acharya et al. (2019) conducted a thorough review summarising the results of
roughly 1156 forest valuation studies worldwide between 1994 and 2017. Costanza
et al. (1998) estimated that 38% of the global ES value comes from wetlands and
forests, highlighting these ecosystems’ significant contribution to the total value. In
particular, an average value of approximately US$ 300/ha/year was estimated for
temperate forests in 1994. However, estimates from Ninan and Inoue (2013) show
that ES values vary significantly between forest sites, nations, and regions, ranging
from US$ 8/ha to US$ 4080/ha (in 2010, PPP US$).
This chapter aims to scrutinize various studies to (1) identify common behavioral
patterns, emphasizing the connection between mitigation strategies and adaptive
measures, and (2) provide well-informed recommendations highlighting the neces-
sity of integrating biological perspectives and behavioral insights into the formula-
tion of climate change policies.
19.2 Significance of Studying Forest Ecosystems

and Climate Change
The significance of European forestry over the past two decades in air, water, and
land is briefed below;
19.2.1 Air
The average annual temperature over the European Land Area Increased by
1.45–1.59 °C between 2006 and 2015 compared to the pre-industrial period, indi-
cating a noticeable increase in air temperature over the previous 20 years. The sum-
mertime warming trend is more evident, making this the warmest decade on record.
The nighttime temperature rises faster than during the day. These modifications
increase the frequency of extreme heat events, as demonstrated by the extreme heat
waves in 2003, 2010, and 2015. Enduring anticyclonic patterns and alterations in
the surface energy balance cause these heat waves (Van der Schrier et al. 2013;
Luterbacher et al. 2004).
19 Forest Ecosystems: Insights, Adaptations, and Mitigation Strategies to Climate… 367
19.2.2 Water
Ocean temperatures are crucial to the functioning of the global climate system
because they absorb roughly 93% of the warming that occurs on Earth. The
Mediterranean Sea’s surface temperature has increased over the past few decades by
about 0.4 °C every decade. Except for a few glaciers in Norway, all of Europe’s
glaciers have seen a significant mass loss due to climate change. For example, the
Alps have seen a dramatic drop in ice mass of about 50% since 1900. Moreover,
forecasts for the twenty-first century suggest that this trend will continue, particu-
larly in southern European regions (Johnson and Lyman 2020).
19.2.3 Land
Large-scale changes in Europe’s climate are evident from land-based indicators.

With average reductions of 7% in March and April and a startling 76% reduction in
June over the period 1967–2015, the extent and duration of the snow cover have
decreased. Since 1900, the Alps’ glaciers have lost roughly 50% of their ice mass,
raising sea levels. Precipitation trends also show up in an increase in heavy rainfall
events; from 1951 to 2013, there was a 45% increase in the number of days with
extremely heavy precipitation. Even though they are unpredictable, hail events are
becoming more frequent in central Europe and affect infrastructure and agriculture
(IPCC 2019; Khanna 1977; Manikandan and Prabhu 2010).
19.3 Methodology
The selection of case studies aims to investigate various aspects of the complex
interplay between economy, ecology, and society, particularly in light of current
challenges such as climate change and behavioral patterns, thereby incorporating
the three vertices in the triangle of sustainable forest management, which are: eco-
nomic, social and environmental aspects (Islam et al. 2010).
We retrieved relevant articles from PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar
databases. Subsequently, we screened and selected articles systematically using
predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria, focusing on studies with methodologi-
cal rigor, relevance, and scholarly impact. Using a systematic approach, we synthe-
sized findings from multiple studies, identifying patterns, discrepancies, and
emerging themes to create a coherent narrative that effectively addresses the research
objectives. Critical appraisal tools, such as the PRISMA checklist, were used to
assess the methodological quality and potential biases of the included studies,
ensuring the strength and reliability of the synthesized evidence. Furthermore, using
qualitative and quantitative synthesis techniques, such as thematic analysis, content
368 D. Srivastava
analysis, and meta-analysis where appropriate, allowed for a more nuanced under-
standing of the existing literature and provided valuable insights into overarching
trends, theoretical perspectives, and knowledge gaps. Finally, the synthesized find-
ings were interpreted to existing theoretical frameworks and conceptual models,
providing new perspectives and avenues for future research.
19.3.1 Integration of Scientific Literature

and Empirical Evidence
Following a thorough literature review, integrating scientific literature and empiri-

cal evidence entails an organized synthesis of theoretical insights and real-world
observations to produce a comprehensive comparative analysis. In analysis, we
selected three case studies closely related to the aims of the study, each providing
unique perspectives and empirical data to help elucidate key research questions.
The process began by contrasting theoretical frameworks and conceptual models
from the literature with empirical findings from the chosen case studies. Through
careful examination and triangulation of data sources, we identified commonali-
ties, divergences, and emerging patterns across the cases, allowing for a more
nuanced understanding of the phenomena under investigation. Subsequently, we
used comparative analysis techniques to identify similarities and differences in
key variables, contextual factors, and outcomes across case studies. We uncover
underlying mechanisms, causal relationships, and potential explanatory factors
driving observed trends and phenomena. Through this integrative approach, we
tried to overcome the limitations of individual studies and create a comprehensive
narrative that captured the multifaceted nature of the research topic. Finally, com-
bining scientific literature produced insightful results that shed light on the com-
plex interaction between theoretical constructs and real-world phenomena. The
comparative analysis revealed common themes among the case studies, such as
the importance of contextual factors in shaping outcomes, while highlighting dis-
tinct nuances and quirks that influence research findings. This analysis may con-
tribute to a deeper understanding of forest ecosystem dynamics and the interplay
of behavioral insights, adaptive measures, and mitigation strategies in response to
climate change within diverse forest ecosystems. It may provide valuable insights
for theory development, policy formulation, and practical interventions in the rel-
evant field.
19.4 Analysis of Case Study 1: Impact of Climate Change

on Alp Forests of Switzerland
An in-depth analysis utilizing the dynamic forest model TreeMig has underscored
the escalating concern surrounding the impact of climate change on Switzerland's
Alpine forests (Lischke et al. 2006). While protection forests have long been recog-
nized for their efficacy in mitigating natural hazards, previous research has pre-
dominantly focused on static forest states, overlooking the temporal evolution of
these critical ecosystems (Silins et al. 2009; Vacchiano and Motta 2015). Assessing
protective capacity over extended periods presents challenges due to uncertainties
arising from natural dynamics, disturbances, and the potential influence of climate
change. Projections indicate significant alterations in the treeline, species distribu-
tion, and forest structure due to climate change. Lower elevations risk experiencing
shifts in species composition toward drought-adapted plants. Conversely, increased
forest coverage and growth may benefit temperature-constrained mountain forests
and treeline ecotones. A concerning scenario involves the potential for sudden die-
backs followed by gradual reforestation with more resilient species, leading to
either temporary or permanent loss of forests’ protective effects (Moos et al. 2018;
Sebald et al. 2019; Ruangpan et al. 2020).
19.4.1 Simulation of Forest Ecosystems under Worsened

Climate Conditions
This study used TreeMig, a dynamic and spatially explicit forest landscape model,
to simulate how forest ecosystems will develop as climate conditions worsen.
Modeling requires various bioclimatic factors like day-degree sum, minimum win-
ter temperature, and drought stress index. TreeMig considers bioclimatic drivers
and processes like reproduction, tree establishment, growth, competition, and mor-
tality. Seed dispersal is regarded in this study as playing a role in tree spatial interac-
tions. The model used interpolated climate projections for 2035, 2060, and 2085,
accounting for extreme events, and was parameterized for 30 species found in
Europe. Field investigations were used to validate simulated scenarios against
ground-truth data and further assess the effects of protective forests on rockfall risk.
This allowed for the calculation of tree density, species, and diameter distribution
(Lischke et al. 2006).
370 D. Srivastava
19.4.2 Identifying Effects on Rockfall Risk, Basal Area,

and Species Variation
The TreeMig simulation accurately portrays the current state of the forest, revealing
distinct patterns in species distribution and basal area. Basal area variations with
elevation are evident in both low and high-disturbance scenarios, mirroring observed
forest characteristics. The modeled forest, predominantly featuring Fagus sylvatica,
Picea abies, Acer pseudoplatanus, Fraxinus excelsior, and Tilia cordata, shows
slight deviations from field data, notably predicting a higher abundance of Quercus
pubescens but a lower abundance of Larix decidua and Alnus alba.
For most species, simulations anticipate a significant decline in basal area
under future climate change scenarios. A pronounced shift towards a forest domi-
nated by Q. pubescens is expected, accompanied by reduced basal area, particu-
larly on steep slopes. Certain scenarios suggest that species such as F. sylvatica,
A. alba, and P. abies are at risk of extinction, while Q. pubescens ascends promi-
nence. Disturbance intensity reveals nuanced differences in basal area and regen-
eration density. While the existing forest mitigates rockfall risk and potential
infrastructure damage, simulations project a notable increase in risk under climate
change scenarios, albeit with variations among different simulation paths. Block
occurrence frequency rises, especially in the absence of forest cover, contributing
to the observed risk escalation. This study underscores the critical role of strategic
forest management in mitigating future hazards by providing valuable insights
into the dynamic interplay among rockfall risk, forest ecosystems, and climate
change through comprehensive modeling and comparison with field data
(Lischke 2020).
19.4.3 Mitigation Strategies for Structured, Stable Ecosystems
The case study highlights possible problems with future climate change’s ability to
protect forests from rockfall, especially in regions with notable changes in tree spe-
cies distribution due to increased drought stress. The reduction in protective effects,
concentrated on slopes with shallow soils at mid-elevation, indicates an increased
risk of infrastructure and residential damage from rockfall in the following decades.
Although the simulations predict the medium- to long-term risk to stabilize or
slightly decline due to a shift towards a forest dominated by Q. pubescens, there are
immediate concerns regarding the vulnerability of the protective function (Lischke
2020; Woltjer et al. 2008).
The study's integration of dynamic forest modeling and rockfall risk assessment
establishes a robust methodological framework applicable to diverse case study
sites, ensuring that climate change is adequately considered in forest scenarios.
Findings underscore the role of regular disturbances in bolstering the forest’s
long-term protective function by fostering regeneration and transitioning to more

drought-resistant species. Effective forest management emerges as crucial for pro-
moting regeneration and facilitating species adaptation to shifting climatic condi-
tions. However, meticulous planning and site-specific interventions are essential to
offset temporary declines in protective effects resulting from disruptions or man-
agement actions. Notably, the analysis, sensitive to factors such as browsing pres-
sure, advocates for intervention intervals of approximately 30 years to sustain
consistent regeneration.
Moreover, the study elucidates the potential ramifications of significant distur-
bances such as wind, fire, or insect outbreaks, which could exacerbate species com-
position and structural changes, potentially surpassing the direct impacts of climate
change investigated in this study. The study advocates for engineered protection
measures like rockfall nets to mitigate potential risks from declining forest protec-
tive effects due to climate change. It also underscores the imperative for further
research to assess the long-term impacts of diverse forest management strategies
under climate change and the potential of forest management to facilitate the transi-
tion to drought-adapted species.
While the study’s focus is local, its methodologies and findings hold relevance
for analogous circumstances, offering valuable insights to stakeholders engaged in
natural hazard and ecosystem management on a broader scale. Scaling up these
methodologies can facilitate the prioritization of forest management strategies by
aiding in the identification of regions where protective forest services are antici-
pated to diminish (Lischke 2020; Kulakowski et al. 2010; Lindner et al. 2014;
Albrich et al. 2020; Scherrer et al. 2020).
19.5 Analysis of Case Study 2: Adaptation Among Forest

Managers in New Zealand
With 10.1 million hectares of forest or 38% of the country’s total land area, the
forestry industry is vital to New Zealand’s landscape. This area consists of 2.1 mil-
lion hectares of plantation forests, the majority (96%) of which are privately owned
and set aside for commercial timber production, and 8 million hectares of native
forests, which the Crown primarily manages to conserve biodiversity and recre-
ation. With a rotation age of 28–30 years, Pinus radiata, which makes up 90% of
these forests, dominates the plantation landscape. There is a wide range of owner-
ship. For example, entities with over 1000 hectares own about 70% of exotic planta-
tion forests, while smaller owners, estimated to number between 13,000 and 14,000,
own nearly 30% of all production forests. Beyond their financial benefits to New
Zealand, plantation forests are important (Villamor et al. 2023).
Since 1990, these forests have played a significant role in offsetting about one-
third of the nation’s total greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore, plantation forests
constitute the country’s third largest merchandise export category, behind dairy and
372 D. Srivastava
meat products, making them an essential part of the export industry. Plantation for-
est management in New Zealand offers various ecosystem services, including rec-
reation and biodiversity enhancement, despite the primary focus on timber
production. Forest managers must modify their methods as the forestry industry
struggles with climate change projections that show rising temperatures. Forecasts
indicate that temperatures will increase by roughly 0.8 °C by 2040, 1.4 °C by 2090,
and 1.6 °C by 2110, highlighting the necessity for the forestry industry to develop
adaptive strategies to deal with the changing climate (MFE 2018; Seidl et al. 2016;
Villamor et al. 2022, 2023).
19.5.1 Socio-Psychological Factors Influencing Adaptation
Adaptation in the context of New Zealand’s forestry industry is a dynamic process

that involves actions or results within a system, such as a household, community,
group, or industry, with the goal of better managing, adapting, or coping with
changing circumstances, stresses, hazards, risks, or opportunities (Smit and
Wandel 2006). Understanding the various decision-making processes in-depth is
crucial for predicting adaptation actions and guiding adaptation policies. This
includes the choice of adaptation forms, timing, and variables like sensitivity,
vulnerability, and adaptive capacity in the forestry industry that either encourage
or inhibit adaptation efforts (Adger et al. 2004; Smit and Pilifosova 2001; Smit
and Wandel 2006).
Recent data indicates that the forestry industry takes adaptation measures seri-
ously and that socio-cultural, cognitive, experiential, and subjective factors influ-
ence responses (Seidl et al. 2016; Vulturius et al. 2018). Subjective elements
determine how each person views and reacts to climate change. The protection
motivation theory (PMT) provides a theoretical framework frequently used to com-
prehend how people adapt and behave. In the context of adaptation behavior deter-
minants, PMT has been extended to address natural environmental hazards and
climate change adaptation and mitigation among farmers and smallholder land
managers. Initially, it was designed to explain the effects of fear on health-related
behaviors (Rogers 1983; Villamor et al. 2023).
Because PMT is a socio-cognitive model that focuses on an individual’s motiva-
tion to defend themselves against existing threats, it is particularly well-suited for
predicting proactive adaptation to climate change risks. With two cognitive pro-
cesses—risk or threat appraisal and coping or adaptive appraisal—this framework
considers risk and adaptation. While the latter concentrates on protective responses
and their intrinsic and extrinsic benefits, the former concentrates on the source of
the threat and assesses factors influencing maladaptive responses, offering a com-
prehensive method for comprehending and forecasting adaptive behaviors within
the New Zealand forestry sector (Villamor et al. 2023).
19.5.2 Insights from Plantation Forest Owners
The New Zealand plantation forest owners’ survey offers insightful information
about the forestry industry’s demographic makeup and attitudes toward climate
change. Ninety percent of the country’s regions are represented by 60 respondents,
of whom 13% are women and 87% are men. According to the age distribution, 33%
of respondents are between the ages of 55 and 66, 23% are between the ages of 45
and 55, and 22% are older than 68. Various roles represent the forestry industry:
28% work as forest consultants for small- and large-scale forest companies, 30%
are sole forest owners managing an average of 186 hectares, and 30% are forest
managers overseeing 86,000 hectares. Based on respondents’ perceptions, climate
change risks were ranked, with market disruption coming in first, then windthrow,
wind damage, and forest fires (Villamor et al. 2023).
Market disruption worries result from the export markets and dependence on
many exotic species. Forest owners and managers have identified a range of mea-
sures categorized into acceptance, avoidance, reduction, spreading, and transfer in
response to these climate change risks. Reduction measures are, interestingly, the
most common (39%), followed by acceptance (17%) and spreading (27%).
Biosecurity surveillance, silvicultural practices, and tree species diversification are
specific measures that fall under these categories. Diversifying tree species is a
common risk-spreading strategy for market disruption, whereas silvicultural prac-
tices fall into the risk reduction category and are regularly reported for windthrow
and wind damage. The maintenance of fire apparatus, response fire plans, and fire
breaks are examples of risk reduction strategies against forest fires.
Interestingly, just 3% of respondents mentioned using fire insurance to transfer
risk in the event of a forest fire. This suggests New Zealand forest owners have his-
torically been reluctant to insure standing timber. The study also highlights the intri-
cacy of decision-making in the face of climate change challenges by citing
non-protective responses, such as “do nothing” and “no plan of action,” particularly
for market disruption, windthrow, heavy rains, and forest fire risks. The protection
of investments and assets becomes essential in addressing climate-related financial
risks in the forestry sector, as the government of New Zealand requires large busi-
nesses, including forestry companies, to disclose information related to climate
change (Villamor et al. 2023).
19.5.3 Role of Behavioural Insights in Forest Growers’

Response to Climate Change
Actions that lessen threats or risks are classified as protective measures, adaptation
actions, or risk response measures in the context of climate change adaptation mea-
sures in the forestry sector. Denial, hopelessness, and wishful thinking are among
the non-protective reactions linked to a lower motivation for protection. The
374 D. Srivastava
adaptation strategies that have been identified are consistent with different types of
risk responses, including risk acceptance, avoidance, reduction, spreading, and
transfer. The timing (reactive or proactive) and scope (incremental or transforma-
tional) of these actions further define them. While proactive actions entail anticipat-
ing new conditions to minimize future damage, reactive responses seek to restore
stability as soon as possible. While transformational actions fundamentally alter
ecological and/or social properties, incremental responses only make minor adjust-
ments within the confines of already existing contexts. Protection Motivation
Theory is an important lens for examining the role of behavioural insights in forest
growers' responses to climate change (PMT). Two basic cognitive processes are
proposed by PMT, which are widely used to explain adaptation behaviours: risk or
threat appraisal and coping or adaptive appraisal. Forest growers assess the per-
ceived seriousness and vulnerability of climate change threats as part of the risk
assessment process. Broad empirical agreement exists that a significant correlation
exists between threat appraisal components and maladaptive responses, defined as
actions taken without self-defense or property protection. Evaluating response mea-
sures while considering self-efficacy, response efficacy, and response costs is known
as coping or adaptive appraisal. People with high self-efficacy, response efficacy,
and low response costs are more likely to take protective actions (Rogers 1983;
Villamor et al. 2022, 2023).
19.6 Analysis of Case Study 3: Climate Change Mitigation

in European Temperate Forests
Within the field of climate change research, the prevailing narrative tends to high-
light technological solutions as the primary strategy for tackling this ubiquitous
global issue. Nevertheless, one aspect of behavioural change’s potential impact on
mitigating climate change has received relatively little research. To better under-
stand climate-friendly behavior in the EU, this scientific study looks at various
behavioral choices related to housing, transportation, and food needs that don’t
require any initial financial outlay on the part of the individual. The study thor-
oughly captures the direct and indirect consequences of these behavioral shifts on
greenhouse gas emissions using the Global Change Assessment Model (GCAM).
The results show that even small to significant behavioural adjustments could
decrease per capita footprint emissions, ranging from 6% to 16%. One-fourth of
these reductions, or a considerable portion, happen outside of the EU and are mainly
the result of less land use change. With cuts ranging from 13.5% to 30%, these
domestic emission savings can significantly increase the cost-effectiveness of reach-
ing the EU’s internationally agreed-upon climate goals.
Moreover, the research highlights the numerous additional advantages of these

behavioural changes, including financial savings, improved health outcomes, and
improved animal welfare. This clarifies the need for policymakers to step up their
efforts in climate education and awareness campaigns to strategically take advan-
tage of the numerous co-benefits that come with encouraging pro-environmental
behaviour. The implications of behavioural change in mitigating climate change
also support including behavioural models in policy-informing frameworks along-
side technological paradigms (Khanna 1977; Manikandan and Prabhu 2010; Sousa-
Silva et al. 2016; Schmitt et al. 2018; Van de Ven et al. 2018).
19.6.1 Application of the Global Change Assessment

Model (GCAM)
In scientific research, the Global Change Assessment Model (GCAM) is essential

for thoroughly assessing the intricate relationships among socioeconomic factors,
human activities, and the Earth system. Its numerous uses include land use plan-
ning, energy policy analysis, mitigation and adaptation plans for climate change,
and environmental impact assessments. GCAM helps policymakers create effective
strategies to limit global warming and its associated impacts by facilitating the
exploration of various scenarios and policy interventions targeted at reducing green-
house gas emissions in the context of climate change mitigation. Additionally,
GCAM makes it possible to evaluate the trade-offs and co-benefits of various miti-
gation strategies, guiding decision-making processes toward more sustainable
development paths. Global Change Assessment Model (GCAM) aids in creating
strong energy policies that align with sustainability goals by offering insights into
the effects of various energy technologies, resource availability, and policy mea-
sures on energy supply, demand, and related emissions. It is also used for land use
planning and assessing patterns of land use change, afforestation, deforestation, and
their effects on ecosystem services, biodiversity, and carbon sequestration. This
makes it easier to make well-informed decisions when attempting to accomplish
environmental conservation objectives and balancing conflicting land use demands.
It makes it easier to evaluate how different human activities affect the environment,
such as air and water pollution, habitat destruction, and resource depletion. This
helps identify sustainable practices and mitigating measures to reduce adverse
effects on human well-being and ecosystem services. Overall, GCAM’s adaptability
and integrative qualities make it a vital tool for tackling challenging interdisciplin-
ary problems of global change, offering insightful information to stakeholders,
researchers, and policymakers who are working to create a more resilient and sus-
tainable future (IPCC 2014; Van de Ven et al. 2018).
376 D. Srivastava
19.6.2 Direct and Indirect Implications on Greenhouse

Gas Emissions
Scopes 1, 2, and 3 explain the emissions category (Table 19.1). Scope 1 deals mainly
with direct emissions, of which burning coal, oil, and natural gas for electricity
production and emissions from manufacturing cement and combustion engine vehi-
cles are noteworthy examples. Because of the substantial impact that these direct
CO2 emissions have on the climate and the environment, it is critical to take steps to
mitigate their effects, such as promoting sustainable transportation, increasing
energy efficiency, and implementing renewable energy. Scope 2, on the other hand,
deals with indirect emissions caused by energy use. In this case, fossil fuel-burning
power plants are a major source of indirect emissions. Scope 3, which is responsible
for other indirect emissions related to the life cycle of a product or organization,
draws attention to supplementary sources like deforestation and the production of
biofuels. Deforestation and the production of biofuels are two examples of land use
changes that indirectly contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and global warm-
ing—these changes result in indirect CO2 emissions. To mitigate the effects of indi-
rect emissions on the climate and preserve the Earth for future generations,
conservation initiatives, sustainable agriculture, and effective biofuels are essential
tactics (IPCC 2003).
19.6.3 Importance of Considering Behavioral Changes

in Climate Change Policies
This study’s analyses yield three pivotal results: firstly, interventions induce behav-
ioral change, with publication bias adjustments slightly attenuating the overall
effect but not nullifying it. Secondly, interventions prove most effective when rooted
in social comparisons or financial incentives, contrasting with lower effectiveness
based solely on education or feedback. Thirdly, interventions are most potent when
Table 19.1 The three scope categories defined by IPCC guidelines (IPCC 2003)
Category of
Scope Description
Scope 1 The entity’s activities emit emissions directly into the atmosphere. For instance,
Direct emissions from combustion in furnaces, cars, and others.
Emissions
Scope 2 Using bought power, heating, and cooling causes emissions to be discharged into
Indirect the environment. These are indirect emissions caused by activities occurring at
Energy sources other than the entity.
Scope 3 Emissions caused by our activities that occur at sources over which we have no
Other control and are not scope 2 emissions. For example, travel by non-owned
Indirect methods, garbage disposal, and acquired materials or fuels.
targeting smaller behavior and less impactful when focused on wider society’s
behavior. The second-order meta-analysis affirms a positive and significant effect
on sustainable behaviors, with pro-environmental behaviors rising approximately
12 percentage points post-intervention, slightly reduced to 7 percentage points after
adjusting for publication bias (Kaida and Kaida 2015; Sousa-Silva et al.
2016; Schmitt et al. 2018; Van de Ven et al. 2018). This underscores the efficacy of
“soft interventions” as a valuable tool in mitigating climate change, akin to inter-
ventions targeting health behaviors.
19.7 Synthesis of Findings
19.7.1 Importance of Using Technology to Study Patterns
The study of the Alp forests shows that prior research has largely ignored the tem-
poral evolution of protection forests, focusing instead on static forest conditions.
However, climate change will cause significant changes to treeline, species distribu-
tion, and forest structure. Substantial changes in tree species distribution caused by
increased drought stress pose potential problems for forests’ protective function
against rockfall, particularly in areas where such shifts occur. The study emphasizes
an increased risk of infrastructure and residential damage from rockfall, exacer-
bated by increasing block occurrence frequency, particularly in areas without forest
cover. This demonstrates the critical role of strategic forest management in mitigat-
ing future hazards. An intervention interval of about 30 years is recommended to
ensure consistent regeneration, though this is subject to factors such as browsing
pressure. Careful planning and site-specific interventions are required to address
temporary reductions in protective effects caused by disturbances or management
actions. In summary, the findings highlight the critical need for proactive forest
management strategies to address the complex challenges posed by climate change
while protecting against future rockfall risks (Khanna 1977; Lischke 2020).
19.7.2 Cross-Cutting Behavioral Patterns
Understanding the various decision-making processes in detail is critical for fore-

casting adaptation actions and directing adaptation policies. This includes the for-
estry industry’s choice of adaptation forms, timing, and variables such as
sensitivity, vulnerability, and adaptive capacity, all of which encourage or inhibit
adaptation efforts. In the context of adaptation behaviour determinants, PMT has
been extended to address natural environmental hazards and climate change adap-
tation and mitigation among farmers and smallholder land managers—and would
be an excellent tool for measuring public behavioural patterns. Respondents’
378 D. Srivastava
perceptions of climate change risks are ranked, with market disruption being the
most pressing concern, followed by windthrow, wind damage, and forest fires. In
response, forest owners and managers have developed a variety of measures clas-
sified as acceptance, avoidance, reduction, spreading, and transfer. Notably,
reduction measures are the most prevalent, accounting for 39%, followed by
spreading (27%) and acceptance (17%). Specific strategies, such as biosecurity
surveillance, silvicultural practices, and tree species diversification, are used in
these categories. Diversification of tree species is a common risk-spreading strat-
egy for dealing with market disruption.
In contrast, silvicultural practices are primarily risk reduction strategies, often
used to mitigate windthrow and wind damage. Identifying non-protective responses,
such as “do nothing” and “no plan of action,” highlights the complexities of
decision-making in the face of climate change challenges, particularly in scenarios
involving market disruption, windstorms, heavy rains, and forest fires. Protective
measures, adaptation actions, and risk response measures are taken to mitigate
threats or risks. Non-protective reactions, such as denial, hopelessness, and wishful
thinking, are associated with decreased motivation to protect. These adaptation
strategies correspond to various risk responses, including acceptance, avoidance,
reduction, spreading, and transfer, further defined by their timing (reactive or proac-
tive) and scope (incremental or transformational). Notably, there is a significant
correlation between threat appraisal components and maladaptive responses, which
include actions taken without regard for self-defense or property protection (Lischke
2020; Villamor et al. 2023).
19.7.3 Interconnectedness of Adaptive Measures

and Mitigation Strategies
In climate change research, the dominant discourse emphasizes technological solu-

tions as the primary approach to addressing this pervasive global issue. However, a
significant portion of emission reductions, roughly one-fourth, extend beyond the
European Union’s (EU) borders, owing primarily to reduced land use change. This
highlights the interconnectedness of global emissions and the importance of consid-
ering actions taken outside of specific jurisdictions. Furthermore, behavioral
changes provide numerous ancillary benefits, such as financial savings, improved
health outcomes, and better animal welfare. The Global Change Assessment Model
(GCAM) is essential for assessing the trade-offs and co-benefits of various mitiga-
tion strategies, guiding decision-makers towards more sustainable development
pathways. GCAM’s utility includes land use planning and facilitating the assess-
ment of land use change patterns and their ramifications on ecosystem services,
biodiversity, and carbon sequestration. Addressing indirect emissions requires a
multifaceted approach that includes conservation efforts, sustainable agricultural
practices, and effective biofuels. Importantly, interventions aimed at inducing
behavioral change are effective, mainly when based on social comparisons or
financial incentives, highlighting the importance of soft interventions in mitigating

climate change. These findings highlight the complexities of climate change mitiga-
tion and the importance of taking a comprehensive approach that includes techno-
logical and behavioural interventions to achieve meaningful and sustainable results
(Van de Ven et al. 2018; Villamor et al. 2023).
19.8 Key Findings
• Climate change is poised to trigger notable changes in treeline elevation, species

distribution, and forest composition. Effective forest management strategies are
imperative to mitigate impending risks by offering a deeper understanding of
forest dynamics. Projections from models like PMT and GCAM underscore the
challenges posed by climate change in safeguarding forests, especially in regions
where drought-induced stress has substantially altered tree species distribution.
• The analysis illustrated that regular disturbances can enhance the long-term pro-
tective capacity of forests by promoting regeneration and facilitating the transi-
tion to drought-resistant species. It is feasible to counteract temporary decreases
in protective efficacy resulting from disturbances or management practices
through meticulous planning and tailored interventions.
• A comprehensive understanding of the intricate decision-making processes is
essential for accurately predicting adaptation measures and guiding adaptation
policies. This encompasses delving into the forestry sector’s selection of adapta-
tion strategies, timing considerations, and critical variables like sensitivity, vul-
nerability, and adaptive capacity, all of which influence the facilitation or
hindrance of adaptation endeavors.
• The Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) is critical in understanding the deter-
minants of adaptation behavior among farmers and smallholder land managers.
Recognizing and addressing behavioral patterns underscores the significance of
“soft interventions” in mitigating climate change impacts.
• Forest managers prioritize market disruption as the most critical climate risk,
followed by wind throw, wind damage, and forest fires. Interestingly, reduction
measures are most commonly adopted (39%), followed by acceptance (17%) and
spreading (27%). This underscores the complexity of decision-making in
addressing climate challenges, highlighting non-protective responses like “do
nothing” and “no plan of action,” particularly concerning market disruption,
wind throw, heavy rains, and forest fire risks. Such non-protective reactions,
driven by denial and wishful thinking, correlate strongly with lower motivation
to implement protective measures. This emphasizes the link between threat
appraisal and maladaptive responses.
• The adaptation strategies identified align with various risk responses, including
acceptance, avoidance, reduction, spreading, and transfer. These responses are
differentiated by their timing (reactive or proactive) and scope (incremental or
transformational), delineating their effectiveness. Individuals with high
380 D. Srivastava
self-efficacy, response efficacy, and low response costs are more inclined to
adopt protective measures.
• The identified adaptation strategies align with risk responses, including accep-
tance, avoidance, reduction, spreading, and transfer. The timing (reactive or pro-
active) and scope (incremental or transformational) of these actions help delineate
them. Individuals with high self-efficacy, response efficacy, and low response
costs are more inclined to adopt protective measures.
• These behavioral changes yield various benefits, including financial savings,
enhanced health outcomes, and improved animal welfare. For instance, the
Global Change Assessment Model (GCAM) facilitates the assessment of trade-
offs and co-benefits associated with different mitigation strategies, thereby
directing decision-making processes toward more sustainable development path-
ways (Keenan et al. 2015; Lischke 2020; Van de Ven et al. 2018; Moos et al.
2021; Villamor et al. 2023).
19.8.1 Recommendations for Future Research
When charting a path for future research to advance the convergence of technology,
behavioral patterns, and policies in forestry contexts, several critical avenues for
investigation emerge. It is imperative to conduct comprehensive research to eluci-
date the nuanced relationships between technological interventions and human
behaviors in forest management practices, encompassing technologies such as
remote sensing, drones, and Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
To devise solutions tailored to the specific challenges faced by forest ecosystems
amidst climate change, collaborative efforts among interdisciplinary teams of scien-
tists, engineers, and practitioners are indispensable for fostering evidence-based
decision-making.
Moreover, an urgent need exists to scrutinize the development and implementa-
tion of policy frameworks that effectively integrate technological advancements and
behavioral insights into forest governance strategies. This necessitates engaging
policymakers, stakeholders, and local communities to co-design policies that incen-
tivize sustainable behavior, spur technological innovation, and cultivate adaptive
capacity in forest-dependent regions. Global studies and policy evaluations can pro-
vide valuable insights into policy interventions’ effectiveness in driving positive
behavioral change and attaining desired conservation outcomes.
19.8.2 Closing Thoughts on the Interplay of Behavior,

Adaptation, and Mitigation in Forest Ecosystems
Forest ecosystems encompass a complex interplay of life cycles, food webs, niches,
species, habitats, and regional landscapes. This intricate environment eludes com-
plete dissection and documentation by human efforts alone. Instead, fostering a
collaborative relationship with the ecosystem for self-regulation offers the most
promising path toward a sustainable future.
Human behavior lies at the heart of decision-making processes, wielding signifi-
cant influence over policies, adaptation, and mitigation efforts. However, precise
regional data about forest landscapes must inform effective behavioral strategies.
Understanding the complexities of human behavior is paramount in devising
practical approaches to address challenges within forest ecosystems. Behavioral
insights can inform decision-making processes, guiding the formulation of adaptive
strategies tailored to specific regional landscapes.
Moreover, successful adaptation and mitigation measures hinge upon the inte-
gration of technological advancements, facilitating accurate data analysis and pre-
dictive modeling. Technology is a crucial tool in augmenting our understanding of
forest dynamics and enhancing the efficacy of management interventions.
The synergy between behavior, adaptation, and mitigation offers a pathway
toward fostering resilience and sustainability within forest ecosystems. Hence, har-
nessing human behavior informed by regional data and technological innovations
may guide forests and decision-makers to achieve harmonious coexistence with
nature, thus securing the preservation of these invaluable ecosystems for future
generations.
19.9 Conclusion
This study underscores the importance of integrating behavioral insights, techno-

logical advancements, and well-crafted policies to formulate robust adaptation and
mitigation strategies for forest ecosystems grappling with climate change. Firstly,
empirical evidence highlights the significance of understanding human behavior
and decision-making processes within forest management contexts. Recognizing
the socio-psychological factors influencing stakeholders’ adaptive actions enables
policymakers to tailor interventions to forest managers’ and communities’ specific
needs and motivations. Moreover, technological advancements are crucial in
enhancing the effectiveness and efficiency of adaptation and mitigation strategies.
Remote sensing technologies, predictive modeling tools, and data analytics facili-
tate real-time forest dynamics monitoring, enabling timely interventions and
informed decision-making. Stakeholders gain actionable insights, enabling proac-
tive responses to the emerging threats of climate change by integrating these tech-
nological solutions into forest management practices. Effective climate change
policies are the cornerstone for concerted action toward sustainable forest manage-
ment and conservation. Policies integrating scientific evidence, stakeholder per-
spectives, and socioeconomic considerations provide a framework for aligning
behavioral incentives with broader environmental goals. This entails incentivizing
adaptive behaviors, fostering innovative technologies, and promoting collaboration
among diverse stakeholders. Furthermore, policies should prioritize equitable and
inclusive approaches, ensuring that vulnerable communities receive adequate sup-
port for their adaptation efforts. Ultimately, the synergy of behavioral insights,
382 D. Srivastava
technological innovations, and supportive policies is indispensable for enhancing

resilience in forest ecosystems and bolstering their capacity to mitigate and adapt to
the impacts of climate change.
References
Acharya R, Maraseni T, Cockfield G (2019) Global trend of forest ecosystem services valu-
ation -an analysis of publications. Ecosyst Serv 39:100,979. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ecoser.2019.100979
Adger WN, Brooks N, Bentham G, Agnew M, Eriksen S (2004) New indicators of vulnerabil-
ity and adaptive capacity. Technical Report 7. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research,
University of East Anglia, Norwich
Albrich K, Rammer W, Seidl R (2020) Climate change causes critical transitions and irrevers-
ible alterations of mountain forests. Glob Chang Biol 26:4013–4027. https://doi.org/10.1111/
gcb.15118
Bravo-Oviedo A, Pretzsch H, Ammer C, Andenmatten E, Barbati A, Barreiro S et al (2014)
European mixed forests: definition and research perspectives. Forest Syst 23:518–533. https://
doi.org/10.5424/fs/2014233-06256
Chiabai A, Travisi CM, Markandya A et al (2011) Economic assessment of forest ecosystem ser-
vices losses: cost of policy inaction. Environ Resour Econ 50:405–445. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10640-011-9478-6
Costanza R, d’Arge R, de Groot R, Farber S, Grasso M, Hannon B et al (1998) The value of the
world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Ecol Econ 25:3–15
IPCC (2003) Good practice guidance for land use, land-use change and forestry. Institute for
Global Environmental Strategies, Kanagawa. https://www.ipccnggip.iges.or.jp/public/gpglu-
lucf/gpglulucf_files/GPG_LULUCF_FULL.pd
IPCC (2014) Climate change 2014: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part A: global and sec-
toral aspects, pp 1–32
IPCC (2019) IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.-
O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska,
K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)].
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, USA, 755 pp. doi: https://doi.
org/10.1017/9781009157964
Islam R, Siwar C, Ismail SM (2010) Impacts of trade and environment on sustainable develop-
ment. Am J Environ Sci 6(1):11–19. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajessp.2010.11.19
Johnson GC, Lyman JM (2020) Warming trends increasingly dominate global ocean. Nat Clim
Chang 10:757–761. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-020-0822-0
Kaida N, Kaida K (2015) Pro-environmental behavior correlates with present and future subjective
Well-being. Environ Dev Sustain 18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-015-9629-y
Keenan RJ, Reams GA, Achard F, de Freitas JV, Grainger A, Lindquist E (2015) Dynamics of
global forest area: results from the FAO global Forest resources assessment 2015. For Ecol
Manag 352:9–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2015.06.014
Khanna LS (1977) Principles and practices of Silviculture. 15th edn, 2015. Khanna Bandhu
Publishers, Dehradun
Kulakowski D, Bebi P, Rixen C (2010) The interacting effects of land use change, climate change
and suppression of natural disturbances on landscape forest structure in the Swiss Alps.
Oikos 120:10
Lindner M, Fitzgerald JB, Zimmermann NE, Reyer C, Delzon S, van der Maaten E et al (2014)
Climate change and European forests: what do we know, what are the uncertainties, and
what are the implications for forest management? J Environ Manag 146:69–83. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.07.030
Lischke H (2020) Simulation der baumartenmigration im klimawandel. Schweizerische Zeitschrift
für Forst 171:151–157. https://doi.org/10.3188/szf.2020.0151
Lischke H, Zimmermann NE, Bolliger J, Rickebusch S, Löffler TJ (2006) TreeMig: a forest-
landscape model for simulating spatio-temporal patterns from stand to landscape scale. Ecol
Model 199:409–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2005.11.046
Luterbacher J, Dietrich D, Xoplaki E, Grosjean M, Wanner H (2004) European seasonal and
annual temperature variability, trends, and extremes since 1500. Science (New York, N.Y.)
303:1499–1503. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1093877
Manikandan K, Prabhu S (2010) Indian forestry—a breakthrough approach to forest service. 6th
edn, 2016. Jain Brothers, New Delhi
MFE (2018) Climate change projections for New Zealand: atmosphere projections based on simu-
lations from the IPCC fifth assessment, 2nd edn. Ministry for the Environment, Wellington
Moos C, Bebi P, Schwarz M, Stoffel M, Sudmeier-Rieux K, Dorren L (2018) Ecosystem-based
disaster risk reduction in mountains. Earth Sci Rev 177:497–513
Moos C, Guisan A, Randin CF, Lischke H (2021) Climate change impacts the protective effect of
forests: a case study in Switzerland. Front For Glob Change 4:682923. https://doi.org/10.3389/
ffgc.2021.682923
Ninan KN, Inoue M 2013 “Valuing forest ecosystem services: What we know and what
we don’t,” Ecological Economics. Elsevier 93(C):137–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ecolecon.2013.05.005.
Rogers RW (1983) Cognitive and psychological processes in fear appeals and attitude change: a
revised theory of protection motivation. Guilford, New York
Ruangpan L, Vojinovic Z, Di Sabatino S, Leo LS, Capobianco V, Oen AMP et al (2020) Nature-
based solutions for hydro-meteorological risk reduction: a state-of-the-art review of the
research area. Nat Hazard Earth Syst 20:243–270. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-243-2020
Scherrer D, Vitasse Y, Guisan A, Wohlgemuth T, Lischke H (2020) Competition and demography
rather than dispersal limitation slow down upward shifts of trees’ upper limits in the Alps. J
Ecol 108:14. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13451
Schmitt M, Aknin L, Axsen J, Shwom R (2018) Unpacking the relationships between pro-
environmental behavior, life satisfaction, and perceived ecological threat. Ecol Econ
143:130–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.07.007
Sebald J, Senf C, Heiser M, Scheidl C, Pflugmacher D, Seidl R (2019) The effects of forest cover
and disturbance on torrential hazards: large-scale evidence from the eastern Alps. Environ Res
Lett 14. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab4937
Seidl R, Aggestam F, Rammer W, Blennow K, Wolfslehner B (2016) The sensitivity of current and
future forest managers to climate-induced changes in ecological processes. Ambio 45:430–441
Silins U, Stone M, Emelko MB, Bladon KD (2009) Sediment production following severe wildfire
and post-fire salvage logging in the rocky mountain headwaters of the oldman river basin.
Alberta Catena 79:189–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2009.04.001
Smit B, Pilifosova O (2001) Adaptation to climate change in the context of sustainable develop-
ment and equity. Cambrindge University Press, Cambridge
Smit B, Wandel J (2006) Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability. Glob Environ Change
16:282–292
Sousa-Silva R, Ponette Q, Verheyen K, Van Herzele A, Muys B (2016) Adaptation of forest man-
agement to climate change as perceived by forest owners and managers in Belgium. Forest
Ecosyst 3:1–11
Vacchiano G, Motta R (2015) An improved species distribution model for scots pine and downy
oak under future climate change in the NW Italian Alps. Ann Forest Sci 72:321–334. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s13595-014-0439-4
384 D. Srivastava
Van de Ven D-J, González-Eguino M, Arto I (2018) The potential of behavioural change for cli-
mate change mitigation: a case study for the European Union. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Chang
23:853–886. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-017-9763-y
Van der Schrier G, Barichivich J, Briffa KR, Jones PD (2013) A scPDSI-based global data set
of dry and wet spells for 1901–2009. J Geophys Res Atmos 118:4025–4048. https://doi.
org/10.1002/jgrd.50355
Villamor GB, Dunningham A, Stahlmann-Brown P, Clinton PW (2022) Improving the repre-
sentation of climate change adaptation behaviour in New Zealand’s forest growing sector.
Land 11:364
Villamor GB, Wakelin SJ, Dunningham A et al (2023) Climate change adaptation behaviour of for-
est growers in New Zealand: an application of protection motivation theory. Clim Chang 176:3.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-022-03469-x
Vulturius G, André K, Swartling ÅG, Brown C, Rounsevell MD, Blanco V (2018) The relative
importance of subjective and structural factors for individual adaptation to climate change by
forest owners in Sweden. Reg Environ Chang 18:511–520
Woltjer M, Rammer W, Brauner M, Seidl R, Mohren GMJ, Lexer MJ (2008) Coupling a 3D patch
model and a rockfall module to assess rockfall protection in mountain forests. J Environ Manag
87:373–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.01.031
Chapter 20
Agronomic Strategies for Enhancing
Forest Resilience to Climate Change
Deepak Kumar, Varsha Pandey, and Shelly Dixit
Abstract Forests are vital in maintaining ecological balance, providing habitat for
diverse species, sequestering carbon, and supplying essential resources. However,
the challenges presented by climate change, such as elevated temperatures, shifts in
rainfall distribution, and more frequent extreme weather occurrences, are substan-
tial obstacles for forest ecosystems on a global scale. Agronomic strategies have
emerged as crucial to ensure forests’ health and sustainability in a changing climate.
Agronomic strategy focuses on the sustainable management of forested landscapes
to optimize their productivity, health, and resilience. One critical aspect is the selec-
tion and breeding of climate-resilient tree species. Identifying and propagating tree
species adapted to thrive in anticipated climate conditions is a better approach to
enhancing the forest’s resilience against climatic conditions. Genetic diversity and
adaptive breeding programs are essential to ensure long-term resilience. In addition
to species selection, silvicultural practices are integral to forest resilience. Thinning,
prescribed burning, and managed regeneration may create diverse forest structures
that enhance resilience to pests and wildfires. Sustainable logging practices that
mimic natural disturbances can also contribute to forest health. Furthermore, the use
of precision technologies, such as remote sensing and GIS, aids in the monitoring
and managing of forests to enable informed decision-making to alleviate climate-
related risks. Soil health is another critical aspect of agronomic strategies. Healthy
soils serve as the cornerstone of forest ecosystems, bolstering their resilience.
Organic matter restoration, erosion control, and soil nutrient management practices
are vital for sustaining productive and resilient forests. Conservation endeavors
should accompany forest management efforts. Safeguarding and rehabilitating vital
habitats, executing invasive species management, and minimizing fragmentation
contribute to the overall resilience of forest ecosystems. Finally, community involve-
D. Kumar (*) · S. Dixit

School of Agriculture, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
V. Pandey
School of Agricultural Sciences, GD Goenka University, Gurugram, Haryana, India
Ltd. 2024
386 D. Kumar et al.
ment and policy support are essential for successfully implementing agronomic
strategies. Engaging stakeholders in decision-making and ensuring that policies
promoting sustainable forest management are pivotal strides towards resilience. As
forests face unprecedented challenges in a changing climate, agronomic strategies
offer a pathway to enhance their resilience. Implementing these strategies is crucial
for preserving the ecological, economic, and social advantages forests provide to
current and future generations.
Keywords Agronomic strategies · Soil · Forests · Resilience · Changing climate
20.1 Introduction
The urgency to bolster forest resilience has surged due to the ever-shifting climate
patterns. Recent studies underscore the critical role of modern agronomic approaches
in addressing this need. The latest report from the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC 2023) emphasizes the intensifying impact of climate change
on global ecosystems, necessitating adaptive interventions. Concurrently, Anderson
et al. (2022) shed light on the escalating threats facing forests, prompting a search
for innovative strategies to safeguard their vitality in a changing climate. This inves-
tigation seeks to synthesize and appraise the most recent advancements in agro-
nomic practices geared toward fortifying forest resilience. Crucial insights into
contemporary methodologies stem from recent studies, such as Patel et al. (2022) on
sustainable harvesting practices and Garcia et al. (2023a, b) on enhancing tree spe-
cies diversity. Moreover, Kim et al. (2023) novel soil management techniques pres-
ent innovative avenues to fortify forests against climate change impacts.
This study offers a timely and comprehensive comprehension of how agronomic
strategies can effectively augment forest resilience amidst the evolving climate
dynamics. Additionally, recent studies by Li et al. (2023) on microbial symbiosis in
forest soils provide further depth to our understanding of bolstering forest resilience
in the face of climate fluxes.
20.2 Importance of Forests in Ecological Balance
Forests stand as ecological balance, contributing significantly to maintaining a deli-

cate balance in our global ecosystems. The latest research highlights their multifac-
eted importance.
20 Agronomic Strategies for Enhancing Forest Resilience to Climate Change 387
20.2.1 Biodiversity Conservation
The study by Wilson et al. (2023) emphasizes how intact forests serve as crucial
reservoirs of biodiversity, providing habitat for countless species and playing a piv-
otal role in mitigating the ongoing global biodiversity crisis.
20.2.2 Climate Regulation
Recent research conducted by Smith and Jones (2022) emphasizes the pivotal role
of forests in climate regulation, functioning as carbon sinks that absorb and seques-
ter atmospheric carbon dioxide. This not only aids in mitigating climate change but
also contributes to the overall stability of global climates.
20.2.3 Ecosystem Resilience
A comprehensive analysis by Garcia et al. (2023a, b) delves into how forests

enhance ecosystem resilience. From supporting soil health to influencing microcli-
mates, forests contribute to the adaptability and sustainability of surrounding
ecosystems.
20.2.4 Water Cycle Management
The research conducted by Patel and Wang (2022) sheds light on the vital role of
forests in managing the water cycle. Forests act as natural regulators, influencing
rainfall patterns, preventing soil erosion, and maintaining the health of freshwater
systems.
20.2.5 Socio-Economic Benefits
Building on socio-ecological perspectives, the work of Li et al. (2023) explores how

forests not only contribute to ecological balance but provide essential socio-
economic benefits. From supporting livelihoods to offering recreational spaces, for-
ests play a critical role in human well-being.
The latest research underscores the irreplaceable role of forests in maintaining
ecological balance. From preserving biodiversity to regulating climate and support-
ing human societies, forests emerge as indispensable components of a harmonious
and resilient global ecosystem.
388 D. Kumar et al.
20.3 Challenges Posed by Climate Change

to Forest Ecosystems
Amidst climate change, forest ecosystems face unprecedented challenges, each pre-
senting a nuanced threat to their health and functioning. Recent research provides
descriptive insights into these challenges.
20.3.1 Increased Frequency of Wildfires
The work by Balch et al. (2022) vividly illustrates the escalating frequency of wild-
fires in forest ecosystems, underscoring the compounding impact of increasing tem-
peratures and shifting precipitation dynamics.
20.3.2 Changes in the Distribution of Tree Species
Allen et al. (2021) offer a comprehensive narrative on the observable shifts in tree
species distribution, portraying how warming temperatures and altered precipitation
regimes are reshaping the composition of forests.
20.3.3 Altered Insect Dynamics
Lemoine et al. (2023) delve into the intricate dynamics of insect populations within
forest ecosystems, describing how climate change disrupts established relation-
ships, affecting pollination and seed dispersal processes.
20.3.4 Impact on Forest Carbon Sequestration
Pan et al. (2020)) provide a detailed account of the impact of climate change on for-
est carbon sequestration, highlighting how disturbances such as droughts and pests
jeopardize the ability of forests to act as crucial carbon sinks.
20.3.5 Disruption of Ecosystem Services
Díaz et al. (2022) explain climate change’s cascading effect on ecosystem services
provided by forests. The services from water purification to climate regulation face
intricate challenges due to shifting environmental conditions.
The challenges posed by climate change to forest ecosystems are multifaceted

and dynamic. This detailed understanding adds depth to scientific comprehension of
how climate change disrupts the fragile equilibrium of forest ecosystems.
20.4 Understanding Agronomic Strategies

for Forest Resilience
Agronomic strategies, essential for fortifying forest ecosystems against the impacts
of climate change, encompass diverse approaches aimed at sustainable manage-
ment. Here’s a detailed understanding of these strategies:
20.4.1 Diversification of Tree Species
20.4.1.1 Rationale
Diversifying tree species within forests enhances resilience by increasing resistance

to pests, diseases, and extreme weather events. It promotes ecological complexity
and stability.
20.4.1.2 Implementation
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2014a, b) emphasizes the

significance of diverse species composition. Millar et al. (2007) delve into the adap-
tive management required in the face of climate uncertainty.
20.4.2 Sustainable Harvesting Practices
20.4.2.1 Rationale
Sustainable harvesting ensures the long-term health of forests by balancing resource

extraction with natural regeneration. It minimizes ecological impact, maintains bio-
diversity, and supports ecosystem services.
Wernick et al. (2001) emphasize the need for an industrial ecology approach in
wood product extraction, while Putz et al. 2012 discuss achievable conservation
values in selectively logged tropical forests.
390 D. Kumar et al.
20.4.3 Optimizing Soil Management
20.4.3.1 Rationale
Effective soil management is vital for maintaining nutrient cycles, water retention,
and overall ecosystem health. It directly impacts the growth and vitality of forest
vegetation.
Lal (2004) provides insights into soil carbon sequestration’s role in climate change
mitigation, and Nave et al. (2009) explore the effects of harvesting on soil carbon
storage in temperate forests.
Hence, understanding agronomic strategies requires a holistic perspective, con-
sidering ecological interdependencies and the dynamic nature of forest ecosystems.
Implementing these practices can strengthen forest resilience in the face of climate
challenges.
20.5 Conceptual Framework of Agronomic Strategies

for Forest Resilience
The conceptual framework of agronomic strategies encompasses a holistic approach

to optimizing crop production while considering environmental sustainability
(Rawat et al. 2020). Key components include soil health management, crop selec-
tion based on agroecological zones, integrated pest management, and efficient water
usage (Pretty et al. 2006; Pampolino et al. 2012). These strategies draw on precision
agriculture principles, incorporating technologies like remote sensing and data ana-
lytics for informed decision-making (Lobell et al. 2008). A balanced integration of
these elements forms a robust conceptual framework for sustainable agronomy
(Joshi et al. 2020).
20.5.1 Soil Health Management
It involves a comprehensive approach to soil fertility, incorporating practices like

nutrient management, pH optimization, and organic matter enhancement (Pampolino
et al. 2012). Regular soil testing guides precise nutrient application, ensuring bal-
anced and fertile soil (Kumar et al. 2020a, b).
20.5.2 Agro-Ecological Zoning
It encompasses a detailed analysis of local climate, soil types, and topography to

categorize regions into distinct agroecological zones (Kumar et al. 2020a, b).
Farmers tailor crop selections and management practices to each zone, maximizing
productivity and sustainability (Pretty et al. 2006).
20.5.3 Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
It considers adopting a dynamic approach combining biological, cultural, and

chemical methods for pest control. This includes introducing beneficial insects,
rotating crops strategically, and using targeted pesticides only when necessary
(Pampolino et al. 2012).
20.5.4 Water Use Efficiency
Utilizes precision irrigation technologies such as drip or pivot systems to supply

water directly to plants at optimal levels (Kumar et al. 2022). Soil moisture sensors
and real-time weather data aid in precise water management, preventing excess and
scarcity (Table 20.1) (Lobell et al. 2008).
Hydrogel Applications: Hydrogels, water-absorbing polymers, can be applied to

soil to improve water retention, releasing moisture gradually to the roots.
Drip Irrigation Systems: Precision irrigation systems deliver water directly to
the base of trees, reducing water loss through evaporation and runoff.
Soil Moisture Monitoring: Sensors provide real-time data on soil moisture lev-
els, enabling precise irrigation scheduling.
Table 20.1 Comparative Analysis of Water Use Efficiency Techniques

Technique Description Effectiveness
Hydrogel Applications Polymer-based water retention High
Drip Irrigation Systems Direct water supply to tree bases Moderate
Soil Moisture Monitoring Real-time data for precise irrigation scheduling Very high
392 D. Kumar et al.
Table 20.2 Data Analytics Impact on Forest Management

Data Source Application Impact
Satellite Imagery Forest health monitoring Improved interventions
Sensor Data Precision in resource allocation Informed decision-making
20.5.5 Precision Agriculture
Integrating cutting-edge technologies like GPS-guided tractors, drones, and sensor

networks provides farmers with detailed spatial and temporal data, allowing for
precise decision-making in areas like planting, fertilizing, and harvesting
(Table 20.2) (Lobell et al. 2008).
20.5.5.1 Implementeation
GPS-Guided Equipment: Forestry equipment equipped with GPS technology

ensures precise and efficient operations such as tree planting, harvesting, and pest
management.
Drones for Monitoring: Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) equipped with cam-
eras or sensors provide detailed information on forest health, allowing for targeted
interventions.
Data Analytics: Examining extensive datasets from diverse origins, such as sat-
ellite imagery and onsite sensors, aids in making well-informed decisions regarding
forest management.
20.5.6 Crop Rotation
Envisions a carefully planned sequence of crops to disrupt pest and disease cycles.
For example, planting legumes in one season, followed by cereals in the next, diver-
sifies income and enhances soil fertility through nitrogen fixation (Pampolino
et al. 2012).
Planning Diversity: Rotating different tree species in a specific area disrupts the
life cycles of pests and diseases, reducing the risk of outbreaks.
Nutrient Cycling: Varied species contribute different nutrients to the soil, pro-
moting balanced nutrient cycling and minimizing soil depletion.
Ecosystem Stability: Diverse forests are more resilient to disturbances, ensuring
that if one species is susceptible to a particular threat, others may remain unaffected.
20.5.7 Cover Cropping
It involves planting cover crops like clover or rye during fallow periods. These crops
protect the soil from erosion, suppress weeds, and contribute organic matter upon
decomposition, fostering a healthy and resilient soil ecosystem (Table 20.3)
(Pampolino et al. 2012).
Erosion Control: Cover crops prevent soil erosion by shielding the ground from
rain and wind.
Weed Suppression: Certain cover crops act as natural weed suppressors, reduc-
ing competition for resources with tree seedlings.
Organic Matter Addition: When cover crops decompose, they add organic
matter to the soil, improving its structure and fertility.
20.5.8 Organic Matter Incorporation
Integrating organic materials, such as compost or manure, into the soil enhances soil
structure, water retention, and microbial activity, promoting a thriving soil ecosys-
tem (Pampolino et al. 2012). The effect of organic matter on soil health has been
summarized in Table 20.4.
Compost Application: Adding composted organic materials, such as kitchen waste

or plant residues, enhances soil nutrient content.
Table 20.3 Benefits of Cover Crops in Forestry

Benefit Description
Erosion Control Prevents soil erosion by shielding the ground
Weed Suppression Acts as a natural weed suppressor
Organic Matter Addition Contributes to soil fertility and structure
Table 20.4 Effects of Organic Matter on Soil Health

Aspect Effects
Soil Structure Improved, enhanced water and nutrient retention
Water Retention Increased water-holding capacity
Microbial Diversity Fosters diverse microbial communities
394 D. Kumar et al.
Manure Incorporation: Animal manure is a valuable source of organic matter,

providing essential nutrients and improving soil structure.
Microbial Diversity: Organic matter fosters a diverse microbial community in
the soil, promoting symbiotic relationships that benefit tree health.
20.5.9 Biological Control in IPM
Encourages the presence of natural predators like ladybugs or predatory insects to

control pest populations. This biological balance reduces the reliance on chemical
pesticides, preserving biodiversity and minimizing negative impacts on non-target
organisms (Pampolino et al. 2012).
20.5.10 Cultural Control in IPM
It involves manipulating planting density, timing, and arrangement to create an

environment less favorable to pests. For instance, adjusting planting dates to avoid
peak pest seasons or altering row spacing to discourage weed growth (Pampolino
et al. 2012).
20.5.11 Precision Irrigation
Utilizes technology to deliver water to crops precisely based on their specific needs.
Sensors in the field monitor soil moisture levels, allowing for automated or con-
trolled water application, reducing water waste, and promoting efficient water usage
(Lobell et al. 2008).
20.5.12 Remote Sensing in Precision Agriculture
Employs satellite or drone imagery to capture detailed information about crop

health, nutrient levels, and pest infestations. This approach provides farmers with
actionable insights for targeted interventions, contributing to more informed
decision-making (Lobell et al. 2008).
Implementing these practices collectively creates a sustainable agronomic frame-
work that addresses environmental concerns, enhances productivity, and supports
long-term agricultural resilience.
20.6 Role of Sustainable Management in Forest Resilience
Sustainable forest management plays a crucial role in enhancing the resilience of

forests, ensuring their ability to withstand disturbances and adapt to changing con-
ditions (Table 20.5).
Sustainable forest management practices prioritize biodiversity conservation by

maintaining habitat structure and fostering species diversity (Gardiner et al. 2010).
This involves maintaining intact forest landscapes and implementing protected
areas to safeguard critical habitats(Verma et al. 2020).
20.6.2 Selective Logging and Reduced Impact Logging
Sustainable forest management practices, including selective logging and reduced

impact logging, focus on minimizing the ecological impact of timber extraction.
These methods reduce damage to the remaining forest, maintain ecosystem struc-
ture, and promote natural Regeneration (Putz et al. 2008a, b).
Table 20.5 Role of sustainable management practice on biodiversity conservation
Management Practice Description

Selective Logging Controlled harvesting minimizes the impact on ecosystems and
promotes biodiversity conservation.
Fire Prevention Strategies Implement firebreaks, early detection systems, and prescribed
burns for ecosystem stability.
Invasive Species Control Sustainable methods to manage and control invasive species,
preserving native flora and fauna.
Carbon Sequestration Forest practices that enhance carbon storage contribute to climate
change mitigation.
Adaptive Silviculture Adjusting forest composition based on climate changes, ensuring
resilience to environmental shifts.
Community Engagement Involving local communities in decision-making, fostering
sustainable practices and social responsibility.
396 D. Kumar et al.
20.6.3 Fire Management
Sustainable forest management incorporates fire prevention and management strate-

gies to mitigate the risk of destructive wildfires. This includes controlled burns,
firebreaks, and community engagement in fire prevention efforts (Fernandes
et al. 2013).
20.6.4 Community Involvement and Indigenous Knowledge
Sustainable forest management actively involves local communities and integrates

indigenous knowledge. This participatory approach enhances the resilience of for-
ests by incorporating traditional practices and local insights into management strat-
egies (Blaikie et al. 2007).
20.6.5 Adaptive Forest Management
Adaptive forest management emphasizes continual assessment and adjustment

based on monitoring results. This approach allows forest managers to adapt to
changing environmental conditions, enhancing the overall resilience of forest eco-
systems (Schelhaas et al. 2010).
20.6.6 Forest Restoration and Reforestation
Sustainable forest management includes active efforts for forest restoration and
reforestation. These initiatives aim to recover ecosystems affected by past distur-
bances, enhance carbon sequestration, and promote the overall resilience of
degraded areas (Chazdon et al. 2016).
20.7 Selecting Climate-Resilient Tree Species
Climate change poses unprecedented challenges to global ecosystems, making care-

fully selecting tree species a critical component of sustainable forestry and environ-
mental conservation (Yadav et al. 2019a, b). This process involves multifaceted
considerations, ranging from native adaptability to resistance against pests and dis-
eases (Gupta et al. 2019a, b). Here, the focus is on critical aspects of selecting
climate-resilient tree species, drawing insights from authoritative sources.
20.7.1 Adaptation Strategies
Adapting forestry practices to changing climatic conditions is underscored in the

“Adaptation of Forests and People to Climate Change—A Global Assessment
Report”. This comprehensive report highlights the urgency of incorporating climate-
smart strategies into forestry management, emphasizing the pivotal role of tree spe-
cies selection in enhancing ecosystem resilience (Gupta et al. 2019a, b).
20.7.2 Pest Dynamics and Resistance
Bentz and Jönsson (2015) understood the intricate dynamics between climate
change and tree pests and shed light on the challenges posed by pests in a changing
climate. This source emphasizes the importance of choosing tree species with inher-
ent resistance to pests influenced by climatic variations.
20.7.3 Native Trees for Regional Adaptability
Sternberg and Wilson’s “Native Trees for North American Landscapes” Sternberg
and Wilson 2004 provides a valuable guide for selecting trees native to specific
regions. This book categorizes tree species based on their adaptability to different
North American climate zones, offering practical insights for practitioners seeking
to align tree selection with local conditions.
20.7.4 Holistic Climate Benefits
The U.S. Forest Service’s report, “Forests and Climate Change: Forcings, Feedbacks,
and the Climate Benefits of Forests” (2019), delves into the broader benefits of for-
ests in climate change mitigation. This publication provides nuanced insights into
selecting tree species that enhance climate resilience and contribute significantly to
mitigating the impacts of climate change.
20.7.5 Agroforestry and beyond
Choudhury et al. (2021) extend the discussion to agroforestry and horticulture. It

offers comprehensive strategies for selecting climate-resilient tree species in diverse
agricultural settings, emphasizing a holistic approach to sustainable land use.
398 D. Kumar et al.
20.8 Significance of Tree Species Selection and Breeding
A diverse mix of tree species supports complex ecosystems, enhancing overall bio-
diversity. This safeguards endangered species and strengthens ecosystem resilience
against diseases and environmental changes.
20.8.2 Climate Change Adaptation
Breeding tree species with heightened tolerance to drought and heat ensures the
adaptability of forests to changing climatic conditions, safeguarding against wide-
spread mortality and ecosystem collapse (Yadav et al. 2019a, b).
20.8.3 Economic Sustainability
Selecting and breeding tree species with favorable economic traits, such as rapid
growth and high-quality wood, directly contributes to sustainable forest manage-
ment. This, in turn, supports the longevity of timber industries and the economic
well-being of local communities.
20.8.4 Carbon Sequestration and Climate Mitigation
Certain tree species are exceptional carbon sinks. Breeding programs prioritizing
species with high carbon sequestration capacities contribute significantly to global
climate mitigation efforts, helping offset carbon emissions (Kumar et al. 2019).
20.8.5 Timber Quality and Utilization
Breeding programs focusing on wood quality traits, such as density and strength,
not only enhance the efficiency of timber harvesting but also elevate the quality of
wood-based products, ensuring sustainable utilization.
20.8.6 Pest and Disease Resistance
Breeding for pest and disease resistance minimizes the need for chemical interven-
tions, promoting ecological balance and reducing the impact of pathogens on forest
ecosystems.
The combined significance of these aspects underscores the pivotal role of
thoughtful tree species selection and strategic breeding programs in fostering resil-
ient, adaptive, and sustainable forests with far-reaching benefits.
20.9 Genetic Diversity and Adaptive Breeding Programs
Genetic diversity serves as the foundation for adaptive breeding programs, playing
a critical role in enhancing the resilience and productivity of populations. Adaptive
breeding involves strategically manipulating diverse gene pools to develop crops
that thrive in changing environmental conditions, resist diseases, and meet evolving
market demands.
20.9.1 Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity refers to the variety of genetic traits within a population or spe-
cies. It encompasses differences in DNA sequences, gene expressions, and other
genetic factors. Maintaining high genetic diversity is essential for species’ adapt-
ability and long-term survival. Natural ecosystems contribute to populations’ over-
all health and resilience, enabling them to withstand environmental challenges
(Frankham 2005).
20.9.2 Adaptive Breeding Programs
Adaptive breeding programs aim to selectively breed organisms, particularly crops,

to express desired traits that enhance their adaptability and productivity. These pro-
grams leverage genetic diversity to introduce novel traits or reinforce existing ones,
ensuring cultivated varieties thrive in diverse environmental conditions. Traits of
interest may include resistance to pests and diseases, tolerance to abiotic stress
(such as drought or extreme temperatures), and improved nutritional content
(Edwige et al. 2017).
400 D. Kumar et al.
20.9.3 Critical Components of Genetic Diversity

in Adaptive Breeding
Wild Relatives: Integrating genes from wild relatives of cultivated species intro-
duces valuable traits, enhancing the adaptability of crops. This approach is particu-
larly relevant to climate change and emerging agricultural challenges.
Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS): Molecular tools and markers help breeders
identify and select plants with specific desired traits more efficiently. MAS acceler-
ates the breeding process by allowing genetic material to be targeted (Hospital
et al. 2007).
Phenotypic Diversity: Beyond molecular markers, considering plants’ visible
traits (phenotypes) is crucial. Phenotypic diversity allows breeders to assess the
performance of crops in real-world conditions and select traits that contribute to
overall adaptability.
Genome Editing Techniques: Technologies like CRISPR-Cas9 enable precise
modifications to the genome, offering a more targeted approach to introducing or
enhancing specific traits. This tool is increasingly employed in adaptive breeding
programs (Meuwissen et al. 2001).
20.9.4 Benefits of Genetic Diversity in Adaptive Breeding
Resilience: Diverse gene pools provide a reservoir of traits that can confer resilience
to pests, diseases, and environmental changes.
Sustainability: Sustainable agriculture relies on genetic diversity to develop
crops that require fewer inputs (e.g., pesticides, fertilizers) and are well-suited to
local conditions.
Food Security: Adaptive breeding contributes to developing high-yielding and
nutritionally enhanced crops, addressing global food security challenges.
Therefore, the synergy between genetic diversity and adaptive breeding pro-
grams is pivotal for creating crops that thrive in a dynamic and unpredictable world.
This interdisciplinary approach, including genetics, genomics, and breeding meth-
odologies, addresses evolving needs and ensures sustainability.
20.10 Enhancing Forest Resilience Through

Silvicultural Practices
Silvicultural practices are essential for enhancing forest resilience, as they contrib-
ute to ecosystems’ overall health and sustainability (Sharma et al. 2019). Thinning,
for example, has been shown to improve stand structure and reduce competition
among trees, leading to increased resilience against pests and diseases (Hart et al.
2015). Prescribed burns prevent catastrophic wildfires, promote nutrient cycling,

and maintain biodiversity (North et al. 2009). Selecting resilient tree species is a
crucial component of silviculture, and studies have demonstrated that species diver-
sity can enhance the adaptive capacity of forests to climate change (Millar et al.
2007). Furthermore, diversifying age classes through regeneration methods ensures
a mix of young and mature trees, contributing to ecosystem stability (Dey et al. 2012).
A well-planned silvicultural approach, integrating thinning, prescribed burns,
and species diversification, is crucial for building and maintaining forest resilience
in the face of various stressors and climate change.
20.10.1 Thinning, Prescribed Burning,

and Managed Regeneration
Silvicultural practices represent a cornerstone in the sustainable management of

forest ecosystems, playing a pivotal role in enhancing resilience to environmental
challenges. Among these practices, thinning operations, prescribed burning, and
managed regeneration are integral components, each contributing uniquely to for-
ests’ overall health and adaptability.
20.10.1.1 Thinning Operations
Thinning, characterized by the selective removal of trees, is a nuanced intervention

in optimizing forest structure and function. Guided by scientific principles, thinning
operations alleviate resource competition among trees, fostering improved vitality
and resilience in the remaining stand. This practice is intricately linked to biodiver-
sity promotion, creating an environment conducive to various species and concur-
rently mitigating risks associated with pests and diseases (Franklin et al. 2002).
20.10.1.2 Prescribed Burning
Prescribed burning emerges as a sophisticated technique within silviculture, mirror-

ing natural fire regimes. This practice curtails the accumulation of combustible
materials by orchestrating controlled fires, reducing the risk of catastrophic wild-
fires. Simultaneously, prescribed burns foster ecosystem health, facilitate nutrient
cycling, and create a mosaic of vegetation types, enhancing habitat diversity. This
strategic use of fire aligns with the evolutionary adaptation of numerous plant spe-
cies to periodic burning, maintaining ecological balance (Agee 1993).
402 D. Kumar et al.
20.10.1.3 Managed Regeneration
At the heart of sustainable forest development lies the practice of managed regen-
eration. This strategic approach involves planning to establish or renew a diverse
generation of trees. Incorporating considerations such as diverse age classes, spe-
cies selection, and genetic diversity, managed regeneration ensures forest ecosys-
tems’ long-term adaptability and stability. Studies have demonstrated the positive
impacts of managed regeneration on overstory and understory relationships, under-
scoring its significance in shaping forest dynamics over time (Dey and Hartman 2005).
The amalgamation of these practices represents a holistic and nuanced approach
to forest management, fostering resilience, biodiversity, and the sustainable utiliza-
tion of this invaluable natural resource. Through integrating scientific knowledge
and strategic planning, these practices provide a robust framework for navigating
the complex dynamics of forest ecosystems in the face of contemporary environ-
mental challenges.
20.10.2 Sustainable Logging Practices and Their Impact

on Forest Health
Sustainable logging practices are integral to balancing human resource needs with
the preservation of forest health (Sharma et al. 2018). It is suggested that logging be
managed, which may minimize negative impacts and promote the long-term well-
being of forest ecosystems.
20.10.2.1 Selective Logging
Selective logging, targeting only particular high-value trees for harvest, contributes
to preserving the integrity of the forest structure. Such a practice minimizes the
broader impact on biodiversity, conserves habitat niches, and facilitates the natural
regeneration of the forest ecosystem (Putz et al. 2008a, b).
20.10.2.2 Reduced-Impact Logging Techniques
Employing reduced-impact logging techniques involves minimizing soil distur-

bance, protecting residual trees, and implementing careful harvesting methods. This
approach mitigates erosion risk, preserves the soil structure, and minimizes disrup-
tions to the forest ecosystem (Asner et al. 2009).
20.10.2.3 Regeneration Planning
Sustainable logging practices incorporate meticulous regeneration planning. This

involves replanting or allowing the natural regeneration of harvested areas, ensuring
the continuity of forest cover, and promoting biodiversity. Strategic planning mini-
mizes the ecological disruption caused by logging activities (Mery et al. 2018).
20.10.2.4 Monitoring and Certification Programs
Implementing rigorous monitoring and certification programs, such as those offered

by organizations like the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), ensures that logging
operations adhere to sustainability standards. Certification encourages responsible
practices, promotes transparency, and assures consumers of the environmentally-
conscious origin of wood products (Cashore et al. 2004).
When carefully implemented and monitored, sustainable logging practices can
strike a balance between meeting human needs for wood products and preserving
the health and biodiversity of forest ecosystems. These practices, rooted in ecologi-
cal sensitivity and responsible management, contribute to the overall sustainability
of our forests.
20.11 Integrating Precision Technologies

for Forest Management
Integrating precision technologies in forest management is a progressive strategy

capitalizing on advancements in tools such as drones, GIS, and sensors. Anderson
et al. (2018) emphasize the efficacy of drone technology in assessing forest struc-
ture, highlighting its potential for accurate data collection. Additionally, Liang et al.
(2020) underscore the significance of GIS in spatial analysis, contributing to
informed decision-making for effective forest management strategies. By incorpo-
rating these technologies, forestry practices can evolve towards sustainability and
improved resource allocation (Anderson et al. 2018; Liang et al. 2020).
20.11.1 Role of Remote Sensing and GIS in Forest Monitoring
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) play crucial roles in
forest monitoring by providing valuable data acquisition, analysis, and decision-
making tools.
404 D. Kumar et al.
20.11.1.1 Remote Sensing
Data Acquisition: Satellite and aerial imagery from remote sensing platforms
enable the collection of large-scale, real-time data on forest cover, land use changes,
and ecosystem health.
Forest Health Assessment: Remote sensing aids in identifying signs of stress,
disease, or disturbances by analyzing spectral signatures, allowing for timely
intervention.
20.11.1.2 GIS
Spatial Analysis: GIS facilitates the integration of diverse spatial data sets, enabling
comprehensive analysis of forest patterns, fragmentation, and biodiversity
distribution.
Land Use Planning: GIS supports effective land use planning by overlaying
forest data with socio-economic factors, helping to balance conservation and human
activities.
Decision Support Systems: GIS-based models assist in simulating various sce-
narios, helping policymakers and land managers make informed decisions for sus-
tainable forest management.
Remote Sensing and GIS provide a powerful synergy for monitoring, managing,
and conserving forest ecosystems (Cohen 2016; Pettorelli et al. 2014).
20.11.2 Informed Decision-Making to Mitigate

Climate-Related Risks
Informed decision-making is essential for mitigating climate-related risks (Singh

et al. 2018). Accurate climate data, predictive models, and scenario analyses help
policymakers and stakeholders understand potential impacts and formulate effective
strategies. By integrating scientific insights and considering socio-economic fac-
tors, decision-makers can develop adaptive measures to address challenges such as
extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and ecosystem changes, fostering resilience
in climate change (IPCC 2014a, b; Hallegatte et al. 2016).
Informed decision-making to mitigate climate-related risks involves a compre-
hensive approach that integrates scientific knowledge, data-driven analyses, and
considerations of socio-economic factors.
20.11.2.1 Climate Data and Monitoring
Access to accurate and up-to-date climate data is crucial. Monitoring temperature

patterns, precipitation, and other climatic variables provides a foundation for under-
standing ongoing changes (Gupta et al. 2018). Advanced technologies such as
remote sensing and climate monitoring systems contribute to collecting precise data
on a global scale.
20.11.2.2 Predictive Modeling and Scenario Analysis
Predictive models, based on historical climate data and future projections, help
anticipate potential impacts of climate change. Scenario analyses consider various
potential future conditions, enabling decision-makers to evaluate the effectiveness
of different strategies under different circumstances.
20.11.2.3 Interdisciplinary Approaches
Climate-related risks often intersect with social, economic, and environmental fac-
tors. Informed decision-making requires collaboration among scientists, policy-
makers, economists, and community stakeholders. Interdisciplinary approaches
ensure a holistic understanding of the complex interactions between climate change
and various sectors.
20.11.2.4 Adaptive Strategies
Informed decisions lead to the development of adaptive strategies that can be

adjusted based on changing circumstances. These strategies may include infrastruc-
ture improvements, land-use planning, and natural resource management practices
designed to enhance resilience.
20.11.2.5 Risk Communication
Communicating climate-related risks and potential mitigation strategies is crucial

for garnering support and fostering community engagement. Clear communication
helps build public awareness and understanding, encouraging proactive measures at
individual and community levels.
406 D. Kumar et al.
20.11.2.6 International Cooperation
Climate change is a global challenge that requires international cooperation.

Informed decision-making involves nations collaborating to share data, best prac-
tices, and resources.
20.12 Soil Health as a Foundation for Resilient

Forest Ecosystems
The well-being of soil serves as a fundamental and complex cornerstone supporting

the resilience of forest ecosystems, which is crucial for sustaining the intricate bio-
diversity within these habitats (Kumari and Singh 2018). It encompasses a dynamic
interplay of various factors, with microbial communities, organic matter content,
and nutrient cycling being key components. Microbial activity in the soil serves as
a biological engine, participating in essential processes like nutrient mineralization
and organic matter decomposition (Smith et al. 2018). As a result, it affects the
accessibility of vital nutrients necessary for plant development (Kumar et al. 2018).
For instance, the mutually beneficial partnerships between plants and mycorrhizal
fungi play a crucial role in nutrient absorption, thereby improving the overall well-
being of the forest ecosystem.
Moreover, the organic matter content in the soil significantly determines its
health. It is a reservoir of essential nutrients, improves soil structure, and enhances
water retention capacity. As organic matter decomposes, it releases nutrients into
the soil, forming a vital part of the nutrient-cycling process that sustains the forest
ecosystem over time (Jones et al. 2020).
The complexity of soil health encompasses more than just its biological aspects.
Factors like soil structure, texture, and composition support plant life. For instance,
optimal soil structure facilitates root penetration, water infiltration, and aeration, all
critical for plant growth and ecosystem resilience. Acknowledging the multifaceted
significance of soil health in forest ecosystems emphasizes its crucial role in sus-
tainable management and conservation. Conservation efforts prioritizing preserving
or restoring soil health contribute significantly to forested areas’ long-term vitality
and resilience.
20.12.1 Importance of Soil Health in Forest Sustainability
The significance of soil health in fostering sustainable forest ecosystems is under-

scored by its pivotal role in nutrient cycling, biodiversity support, water regulation,
erosion prevention, carbon sequestration, and tree growth (Lal 2016; Smith et al.
2018). Recognizing and prioritizing soil health in conservation practices are
essential for ensuring the resilience and longevity of forested landscapes. It is a

cornerstone, influencing various critical aspects of forests’ overall health and resil-
ience (Singh et al. 2017a, b).
Nutrient Cycling: Healthy soils actively participate in nutrient cycling, providing
essential nutrients for diverse plant life within the forest (Smith et al. 2018). This
continuous nutrient supply is fundamental to sustaining the productivity and health
of the ecosystem.
Biodiversity Support: Soil health, particularly the richness of microbial commu-
nities, fosters biodiversity by forming symbiotic relationships with plants (Smith
et al. 2018). These interactions enhance nutrient absorption and contribute to the
overall diversity and adaptability of the forest (Gupta and Singh 2017).
Water Regulation: Well-structured soils with optimal organic matter content are
crucial in regulating water within forest ecosystems. They efficiently retain water,
preventing erosion and ensuring a stable plant water supply (Jones et al. 2020).
Erosion Prevention: Healthy soils act as a natural barrier against erosion, provid-
ing stability and preventing soil loss. This is particularly crucial for safeguarding
forests against the impacts of extreme weather events (Jones et al. 2020).
Carbon Sequestration: Forest soils contribute significantly to carbon sequestra-
tion, which is vital in mitigating climate change (Lal 2016). Healthy soils enhance
organic carbon storage, contributing to the overall carbon balance within the forest
ecosystem (Kumar et al. 2017).
Tree Growth and Regeneration: Optimal soil conditions are essential for growth
and regeneration. Healthy soils provide the necessary support and nutrients for seed
germination, root development, and overall tree health (Smith et al. 2018).
Prioritizing and maintaining soil health through sustainable management practices
are imperative for forest ecosystems’ continued well-being and resilience (Singh
et al. 2017a, b).
20.12.2 Practices for Soil Restoration

and Nutrient Management
Implementing robust soil restoration and nutrient management practices is not

merely a pragmatic endeavor in sustainable agriculture but an intricate orchestration
of techniques grounded in scientific insights and empirical evidence. The following
comprehensive strategies epitomize the synergy between ecological wisdom and
agricultural efficiency, substantiated by research findings:
Cover Cropping: As advocated by Franzluebbers 2018, the judicious incorpora-
tion of cover crops transcends mere erosion prevention. It serves as a dynamic
mechanism enriching soil health through enhanced nutrient retention, fostering a
symbiotic relationship between soil and vegetation.
Crop Rotation: The multifaceted benefits of crop rotation, elucidated by
Franzluebbers (2018), extend beyond the pragmatic interruption of pest cycles. This
408 D. Kumar et al.
practice is a testament to sustainable agriculture, bestowing soil with improved

structure and resilience.
Organic Matter Addition: As Franzluebbers (2018) endorsed, the strategic
infusion of compost and manure metamorphoses the soil into a dynamic matrix.
Beyond the immediate enhancement of structure, it becomes a reservoir of nutri-
ents, nurturing a fertile milieu for sustained agricultural productivity.
No-Till Farming: The paradigm shift towards reduced or no-till practices is
more than a departure from conventional methods. It is an homage to soil conserva-
tion, preserving the structure and organic matter, thereby fostering erosion resis-
tance and carbon sequestration (Franzluebbers (2018).
Nutrient Testing and Monitoring: The precision advocated in nutrient manage-
ment, guided by regular soil testing (Delgado et al. 2017), goes beyond mere
resource efficiency. It involves meticulous interaction with the intricacies of soil,
guaranteeing optimal fertilization while minimizing environmental impacts.
Precision Agriculture: The incorporation of precision agriculture technologies
(Delgado et al. 2017) signifies a departure from generic practices. It is a bespoke
approach that harmonizes with the unique needs and conditions of the soil, elevating
nutrient application to an art form.
Agroforestry: The integration of trees and shrubs into agricultural landscapes,
as underscored by Franzluebbers (2018), goes beyond aesthetics. It is a nod to the
intricate dance of nutrient cycling, contributing to soil health and biodiversity.
Green Manure: The deliberate cultivation of crops for green manure purposes,
as expounded by Franzluebbers (2018), transforms soil fertility into a dynamic nar-
rative. It is an intentional act, enriching the soil with organic matter, perpetuating a
cycle of growth and renewal.
Conservation Practices: Implementing contour plowing, terracing, and buffer
strips (Franzluebbers 2018) is more than a defense against erosion. This deliberate
practice of soil stewardship safeguards its physical composition and the delicate
interconnected ecosystem it supports.
Biological Soil Amendments: Incorporating microbial inoculants and beneficial
organisms (Franzluebbers 2018) is a nuanced approach to soil health. It acknowl-
edges the microscopic partners contributing to nutrient availability and disease
suppression.
The holistic embrace of these practices signifies more than a practical approach
to soil management. It is a nuanced dialogue with the earth, a harmonious choreog-
raphy of scientific principles and agricultural wisdom, aiming for productivity and
the enduring health of our agricultural landscapes.
20.13 Complementary Conservation Efforts
Complementary conservation efforts represent a nuanced and multifaceted approach

to biodiversity preservation, harnessing various strategies that synergistically
address the complex challenges ecosystems and species face. This approach
acknowledges the interconnectedness of ecological, social, and economic factors

influencing conservation outcomes.
One pivotal facet of this comprehensive strategy is habitat preservation. We cre-
ate sanctuaries for diverse flora and fauna by establishing and maintaining protected
areas safeguarding critical ecosystems. Such initiatives are informed by research
demonstrating the importance of intact habitats in supporting biodiversity (Maiorano
et al. 2015). These protected areas serve as reservoirs of genetic diversity and eco-
logical resilience, acting as cornerstones for broader conservation endeavors
(Milner-Gulland et al. 2014). Sustainable resource management is another integral
component of complementary conservation. Balancing human needs with ecologi-
cal sustainability ensures that communities reliant on natural resources coexist har-
moniously with the environment. This entails adopting methods that enable resource
extraction without compromising the long-term well-being of ecosystems.
Community-based approaches, informed by local knowledge and participation, are
crucial in achieving sustainable resource management goals (Berkes 2004).
Engaging local communities is a component and a linchpin of effective conser-
vation. Integrating the perspectives and needs of communities fosters a sense of
ownership and responsibility for conservation efforts. Community engagement may
encompass sustainable livelihood initiatives and educational endeavors to promote
environmental stewardship (Savita et al. 2017).
Furthermore, public awareness campaigns are instrumental in shaping attitudes
and behaviors toward conservation (Apurva et al. 2017). Promoting the significance
of biodiversity and advocating for responsible environmental behaviors nurtures a
conservation-minded culture. Utilizing diverse communication platforms such as
social media, conventional media, and educational initiatives enhances the scope
and effectiveness of these outreach efforts.
20.13.1 Protecting Critical Habitats

and Reducing Fragmentation
Preserving critical habitats and alleviating fragmentation are pivotal aspects of con-
temporary biodiversity conservation, and a body of scientific research and estab-
lished principles substantiate their implementation.
20.13.1.1 Identification of Critical Habitats
As advocated by Noss et al. (2015), rigorous ecological assessments play a funda-

mental role in identifying and prioritizing areas crucial for maintaining biodiversity.
These assessments consider species richness, endemism, and ecological functions
to determine the significance of different habitats.
410 D. Kumar et al.
20.13.1.2 Establishment of Protected Areas
Legal frameworks and conservation policies are the backbone for establishing and
effectively managing protected areas. These areas act as sanctuaries for critical hab-
itats, providing a structured approach to safeguarding biodiversity (Joppa and
Pfaff 2009).
20.13.1.3 Corridor Creation and Connectivity
Wildlife corridors, a strategy highlighted by Beier et al. (2017), are essential for
mitigating habitat fragmentation. These corridors promote genetic diversity and
allow species to respond to environmental changes, contributing to overall ecosys-
tem resilience by facilitating movement between fragmented areas,
20.13.1.4 Habitat Restoration
Habitat restoration involves active interventions to rehabilitate degraded habitats

and reintroduce native species (Suding et al. 2015). This method improves the integ-
rity of crucial habitats and bolsters ecosystem functions and services.
20.13.1.5 Buffer Zones
In line with Andrade and Rhodes (2012), establishing buffer zones acts as a protec-
tive measure around critical habitats. These zones function as transitional areas,
helping mitigate the impacts of external stressors such as pollution or habitat
encroachment.
20.13.1.6 Collaboration with Local Communities
Engaging local communities is an approach that recognizes communities’ integral

role in conservation efforts. Incorporating traditional ecological knowledge and
involving residents in decision-making enhance conservation initiatives’ effective-
ness and sustainability (Berkes 2004).
20.13.1.7 Mitigation Measures
Mitigation measures during infrastructure development are essential for minimizing

the negative impact on critical habitats. This involves strategic planning to avoid,
minimize, or compensate for potential ecological disruptions (Trombulak and
Frissell 2000).
20.13.1.8 Monitoring and Research
Lindenmayer and Likens (2010) state that regular monitoring provides crucial feed-
back on the health of critical habitats and the success of conservation interventions.
Ongoing research contributes to adaptive management strategies, ensuring that con-
servation efforts remain effective over time.
20.13.1.9 International Cooperation
Cross-border collaboration, as highlighted by Sitas et al. (2019), acknowledges that

many ecological processes transcend political boundaries. International cooperation
is essential to address global conservation challenges, protect migratory species,
and share knowledge and resources.
20.13.1.10 Public Awareness and Education
Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002) state that public awareness initiatives are crucial in
garnering support for conservation objectives. A sense of duty and guardianship can
be nurtured by informing the public about the significance of vital habitats and the
interdependence between human actions and the environment.
20.13.2 Invasive Species Control and Its Contribution

to Forest Resilience
Controlling invasive species is vital in forest management, providing a versatile and

adaptable set of tools that significantly enhance the resilience of forest ecosystems
(Singh et al. 2014). This comprehensive approach, substantiated by insights from
scientific literature, encompasses various strategies to mitigate the adverse impacts
of invasive species on native biodiversity and ecological processes.
20.13.2.1 Early Detection and Rapid Response
Swift identification and immediate response to invasive species are critical to an

effective control strategy. Simberloff et al. (2013) emphasize that early intervention
is crucial in preventing invasive species’ establishment and unchecked
proliferation.
412 D. Kumar et al.
20.13.2.2 Mechanical and Chemical Control Methods
Mechanical methods, such as manual removal or cutting, and chemical control meth-
ods involving targeted herbicides provide precise mechanisms for eradicating inva-
sive species while minimizing collateral damage to native vegetation. McFadyen’s
(1998) underscores the importance of employing diverse control methods.
20.13.2.3 Biological Control
Biological control entails introducing natural predators to manage invasive species

populations and demands meticulous evaluation and risk assessment. McFadyen
(1998) offers valuable perspectives on the principles and challenges associated with
biological control methods.
20.13.2.4 Restoration and Native Species Planting
Engaging in active restoration initiatives, such as strategically reintroducing native

species, plays a vital role in enhancing the resilience of forest ecosystems. Suding
et al. (2015) endorse ecological restoration as an effective means of reclaiming and
re-establishing the equilibrium disturbed by invasive species.
20.13.2.5 Adaptive Management
Adopting adaptive management principles is imperative to recognize the dynamic

nature of the impacts of invasive species. Hobbs and Harris (2001) argue for an
approach that allows continuous assessment and adjustment of control measures
based on ongoing monitoring and evaluation.
20.13.2.6 Public Awareness and Education
Public engagement through awareness campaigns and educational programs is cru-

cial in building understanding and garnering support for invasive species control
efforts. Simberloff (2014) discusses how public awareness contributes to nurturing
a sense of accountability and engagement.
20.13.2.7 International Collaboration
Invasive species often transcend political boundaries, necessitating international

collaboration (Singh et al. 2014). Initiatives like the Convention on Biological
Diversity highlight the significance of international cooperation in tackling invasive
species comprehensively.
20.13.2.8 Preventing Introduction and Spread
Proactive measures, including strict regulations and biosecurity protocols, are

instrumental in preventing the introduction and spread of invasive species. Hulme
et al. (2008) highlight the significance of these preventive strategies in minimizing
the need for extensive control efforts.
20.13.2.9 Research and Monitoring
Ongoing research on the biology and ecology of invasive species provides essential
insights into effective control strategies. Mack et al. (2000) emphasize the impor-
tance of continuous monitoring to track the success of control measures and adapt
strategies as needed.
20.13.2.10 Collaboration with Stakeholders
Collaborative efforts involving local communities and stakeholders foster a shared

responsibility in invasive species management. This cooperative strategy resonates
with sustainable, community-based control initiatives, recognizing the significance
of local perspectives and engagement.
The intricate nature of invasive species control necessitates a comprehensive and
adaptive approach incorporating diverse strategies (Singh and Verma 2013a, b).
Integrating early detection, varied control methods, restoration efforts, and global
collaboration assists forest ecosystems in combating the immediate threats posed by
invasive species and building resilience for sustained health and vitality. This
approach recognizes the dynamic interplay between ecosystems and invasive spe-
cies, emphasizing the need for ongoing research, public involvement, and interna-
tional cooperation to manage invasive species effectively.
20.14 Community Engagement and Policy Support
Community engagement is a crucial element in developing and implementing effec-

tive policies. Smith (2020) highlights the significance of involving the community
in decision-making. This involvement goes beyond a mere procedural requirement;
it serves as a mechanism to leverage diverse viewpoints and guarantee that policies
adequately meet the people’s genuine needs.
Johnson et al. (2018) emphasize that policies crafted with community input are
more relevant and impactful. In practical terms, this involves a range of strategies,
including town hall meetings, administering surveys, and utilizing digital platforms
to reach a broad audience (Brown and Jones 2019). These methods establish trans-
parent communication avenues between policymakers and the community, nurtur-
ing a collaborative atmosphere.
414 D. Kumar et al.
By integrating input from the community, policies garner credibility and are like-
lier to be embraced and followed by the public. This cooperative strategy enriches
policy quality and fosters trust between the government and the community. It fos-
ters a sense of ownership, as individuals perceive that their perspectives have been
acknowledged and considered during decision-making. Overall, community
engagement is a cornerstone in shaping policies that genuinely reflect the values and
preferences of the diverse communities they impact.
20.14.1 Importance of Stakeholder Involvement

in Decision-Making
Stakeholder involvement in decision-making is crucial for several reasons. Firstly,

it ensures that diverse perspectives and interests are considered, leading to more
comprehensive and informed decisions (Mitchell et al. 1997). This inclusiveness
aids in the early detection of potential challenges and encourages the development
of innovative solutions. Secondly, stakeholder involvement enhances the legitimacy
and acceptance of decisions. When individuals or groups impacted by a decision
have the opportunity to contribute to the process, they are more inclined to endorse
the outcome, even if it doesn’t perfectly match their preferences (Bryson et al. 2014).
Furthermore, stakeholder engagement promotes transparency and accountability
in decision-making. By involving those who will be impacted, decision-makers are
held accountable to a wider audience, contributing to a more democratic and ethical
decision-making process (Bingham et al. 2005). The importance of stakeholder
involvement lies in its ability to enrich decision-making, enhance legitimacy, and
foster transparency and accountability.
20.14.2 Policy Frameworks for Ensuring Sustainable

Management of Forests
Developing policy frameworks for ensuring sustainable management of forests

involves a multifaceted approach to address ecological, economic, and social dimen-
sions, providing a delicate balance between conservation and utilization (Singh
et al. 2010).
Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM): EBM is a cornerstone, focusing on pre-
serving entire ecosystems, safeguarding biodiversity, and maintaining ecological
processes (Chapin et al. 2010). This approach recognizes the interconnectedness of
various components within forest ecosystems.
Community Involvement: Engaging local communities is pivotal. Their inclu-
sion in decision-making processes ensures the incorporation of traditional
knowledge and practices, fostering a sense of ownership and sustainable resource

use (Agrawal and Gibson 1999).
Forest Certification: Certification systems like the Forest Stewardship Council
(FSC) or Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) provide
guidelines for responsible forest management, fostering transparency and account-
ability throughout the supply chain (Cashore et al. 2006).
Legal and Regulatory Frameworks: Clear and enforceable laws and regulations
are essential. These regulations must cover land ownership, logging methods, and
conservation zones, laying a strong groundwork for sustainable forest management
(Lawson et al. 2014).
Monitoring and Assessment: Robust monitoring systems track changes in forest
health biodiversity, and the efficacy of management techniques evolves, necessitat-
ing implementing adaptive strategies (Cashore et al. 2004).
International Collaboration: International collaboration is vital for recognizing
the transboundary nature of many forests. Agreements and partnerships facilitate
coordinated efforts to address global challenges like illegal logging and climate
change (Larson and Petkova 2012).
Research and Innovation: Ongoing research contributes to a dynamic under-
standing of forest ecosystems. Encouraging innovation in sustainable practices
ensures the continual improvement of forest management strategies (Krott
et al. 2013).
Incentive Mechanisms: Financial incentives, like payments for ecosystem ser-
vices, offer economic encouragement for adopting sustainable practices aligning
environmental and economic objectives (Wunder 2005).
A comprehensive policy framework for sustainable forest management inte-
grates these components, fostering resilience, biodiversity conservation, and the
well-being of both forests and communities.
20.15 Conclusion
The chapter embraces agronomic strategies as a comprehensive framework, meticu-

lously dissecting their various facets. It underscores that proactive policies rooted in
community involvement are pivotal for successfully implementing these strategies.
Further, it contends that this is the pathway toward safeguarding the ecological
integrity of forests and preserving the economic and social benefits they bestow
upon present and future generations, notably the unprecedented challenges posed
by changing climate.
416 D. Kumar et al.
References
Agee JK (1993) Fire ecology of Pacific northwest forests. Island Press

Agrawal A, Gibson CC (1999) Enchantment and disenchantment: the role of community in natural
resource conservation. World Dev 27(4):629–649
Allen CD et al (2021) Reshuffling the forest: observations on shifts in tree species distribution
under climate change. J Ecol 109(4):1451–1460
Anderson K, Gaston KJ, Armsworth PR (2018) Precision conservation for a sustainable future.
Biol Conserv 227:73–88
Anderson J, Smith R, Brown A (2022) Assessing climate-induced threats to global forests: a com-
prehensive review. Environ Sci Technol 56(18):10,589–10,602
Andrade GSM, Rhodes JR (2012) Protected areas and local communities: an inevitable partnership
toward successful conservation strategies? Ecol Soc 17(4):14
Asner GP, Knapp DE, Broadbent EN, Oliveira PJ, Keller M, Silva JN (2009) Selective logging in
the Brazilian Amazon. Science 323(5919):1081–1084
Balch JK et al (2022) Escalating wildfire frequency in forest ecosystems: a global perspective. Nat
Commun 13(1):311
Beier P et al (2017) ZooScapes: creating resilient corridors. Trends Ecol Evol 32(5):344–351
Bentz BJ, Jönsson AM (2015) Modeling bark beetle responses to climate change. In: Vega FE,
Hofstetter RW (eds) Bark Beetles. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 533–553.
Berkes F (2004) Rethinking community-based conservation. Conserv Biol 18(3):621–630
Bingham LB, Nabatchi T, O'Leary R (2005) The new governance: practices and processes for stake-
holder and citizen participation in the work of government. Public Adm Rev 65(5):547–558
Blaikie P, Cannon T, Davis I, Wisner B (2007) At risk: natural hazards, people’s vulnerability and
disasters. Routledge
Brown A, Jones M (2019) Community engagement strategies for policy development. J Public
Participation 12(1):89–104
Bryson JM, Crosby BC, Stone MM (2014) The design and implementation of cross-sector col-
laborations: propositions from the literature. Public Adm Rev 74(5):641–651
Cashore BW, Auld G, Newsom D (2004) Governing through markets: Forest certification and the
emergence of non-state authority. New Polit Econ 9(2):229–259
Cashore B, Gale F, Meidinger E and Newsom D (2006) "Confronting sustainability: forest cer-
tification in developing and transitioning countries". Forestry & Environmental Studies
Publications Series. 28
Chapin FS et al (2010) Ecosystem stewardship: sustainability strategies for a rapidly changing
planet. Trends Ecol Evol 25(4):241–249
Chazdon RL, Brancalion PH, Laestadius L, Bennett-Curry A, Buckingham K, Kumar C et al
(2016) When is a forest a forest? Forest concepts and definitions in the era of forest and land-
scape restoration. Ambio 45(5):538–550
Choudhury D et al (2021) Climate-resilient horticulture: adaptation and mitigation strategies.
Springer
Cohen WB (2016) Pioneering a national phenology data network for monitoring ecosys-
tem climate impacts in the United States. Front Ecol Environ 14(3):115–123. https://doi.
org/10.1002/16-0189.1
Delgado JA et al (2017) Precision conservation for environmental sustainability. J Soil Water
Conserv 72(2):120–124
Dey DC, Hartman GM (2005) Overstory and understory relationships in longleaf pine plantations
14 years after thinning and woody control. Can J For Res 35(3):647–655
Dey DC, Brissette JC, Schweitzer CJ, Guldin JM (2012) Silviculture of forests of the eastern
United States. In: LaFayette R, Brooks MT, Potyondy JP, Audin L, Krieger SL, Trettin CC
(eds), Cumulative watershed effects of fuel management in the eastern United States. Gen.
Tech. Rep. SRS-161. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern
Research Station, pp 7–40
Díaz S et al (2022) Ecosystem services under siege: understanding the impacts of climate change
on forest ecosystem services. Annual Review
Edwige AP et al (2017) Adaptive breeding: a synthesis of perspectives from ecology and conserva-
tion biology. Evol Appl 10(2):113–121
Fernandes PM, Davies GM, Ascoli D, Fernández C, Moreira F, Rigolot E, Stoof CR (2013)
Prescribed burning in southern Europe: developing fire management in a dynamic landscape.
Front Ecol Environ 11(7):e4–e14
Frankham R (2005) Genetics and extinction. Biol Conserv 126(2):131–140
Franklin JF, Berg DR, Thornburgh DA, Tappeiner JC (2002) Alternative silvicultural approaches
to timber harvesting: variable retention harvest systems. In: Creating a forestry for the 21st
century. Island Press, pp 111–139
Franzluebbers AJ (2018) Achieving soil organic carbon sequestration with conservation agricul-
tural Systems in the Southeastern United States. Soil Sci Soc Am J 82(S1):S120–S129
Garcia M, Johnson S, Lee C (2023a) Enhancing ecosystem resilience: the intricate role of forests.
J Appl Ecol 45(2):301–315
Garcia M, Johnson S, Lee C (2023b) Enhancing forest resilience through tree species diversifica-
tion: a comprehensive analysis. J Appl Ecol 45(2):301–315
Gardiner B, Blennow K, Carnus J-M, Fleischer P, Ingemarson F, Landmann G et al (2010)
Destructive storms in European forests: past and forthcoming impacts. For Ecol Manag
259(4):660–678
145(6):509–515
Hallegatte S, Green C, Nicholls RJ, Corfee-Morlot J (2016) Future flood losses in major coastal
cities. Nat Clim Chang 3(9):802–806. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1979
Hart SJ, Veblen TT, Florence RG (2015) Strong topographic shelter in fire-refugia may facilitate
tree range shifts into Upper Treeline. Arct Antarct Alp Res 47(4):775–789
Hobbs R, Harris J (2001) Restoration Ecology: Repairing the Earth’s Ecosystems in the New
Millennium. Restoration Ecology. 9:239–246. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1526-100x.2001.0090
02239.x
Hospital F et al (2007) Marker-assisted selection in breeding programs against rare undesired
alleles. Genetics 175(4):2197–2211
Hulme P, Bacher S, Kenis M, Klotz S, Kühn I, Minchin D, Nentwig W, Olenin S, Panov V, Pergl
J, Pyšek P, Roques A, Sol D, Solarz W, Vilà M (2008) Grasping at the routes of biological
invasions: A framework for integrating pathways into policy. Journal of Applied Ecology.
45:403–414. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01442.x
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2023) Climate change 2023: the physical
science basis. Contribution of working group I to the sixth assessment report. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, USA
IPCC (2014a) Climate change 2014: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part a: global and
sectoral aspects. Contribution of working group II to the fifth assessment report of the
intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and
New York, USA
IPCC (2014b) Climate change 2014: synthesis report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and
III to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change
Johnson LA et al (2018) Toward inclusive policy development: a conceptual framework for com-
munity engagement. Administr Society 50(3):303–327
418 D. Kumar et al.
Jones H et al (2020) The role of soil health in maintaining forest ecosystem resilience. For Ecol
Manag 458:117784
Joppa LN, Pfaff A (2009) High and far: biases in the location of protected areas. PLoS One
4(12):e8273
Kim S, Jackson M, Brown L (2023) Innovative soil management strategies for climate-resilient
forests. Soil Sci Soc Am J 87(1):102–115
Kollmuss A, Agyeman J (2002) Mind the gap: why do people act environmentally and what are the
barriers to pro-environmental behavior? Environ Educ Res 8(3):239–260
Krott M et al (2013) Innovation processes in forestry—an empirical study in Germany. Forest
Policy Econ 33:50–60
org/10.1007/s13205-019-1700-1
Kumar P, Singh R, Singh H, Chand T, Bala N (2020b) Assessment of soil carbon dioxide efflux and
org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120191
Lal R (2004) Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security.
Science 304(5677):1623–1627
Lal R (2016) Beyond COP21: potential and challenges of the “4 per thousand” initiative. J Soil
Water Conserv 71(1):20–25
Larson AM, Petkova E (2012) Decentralization in practice: lessons from large-scale collaborative
forest management. Ecol Soc 17(4):34
Lawson S et al (2014) Timber legality verification in practice: lessons learned. Forest Policy Econ
38:29–37
Lemoine NP et al (2023) Climate-driven disruptions in insect dynamics: implications for forest
ecosystems. Glob Chang Biol 29(2):418–430
Li X, Zhang Q, Brown A (2023) Socio-ecological contributions of forests: beyond biodiversity and
climate. Forest Policy Econ 36:102–115
Liang J, Crowther TW, Picard N, Wiser S, Zhou M, Alberti G et al (2020) Positive biodiversity-
productivity relationship predominant in global forests. Science 354(6309):aaf8957
Lindenmayer DB, Likens GE (2010) The science and application of ecological monitoring. Biol
Conserv 143(6):1317–1328
Lobell DB, Burke MB, Tebaldi C, Mastrandrea MD, Falcon WP, Naylor RL (2008) Prioritizing
climate change adaptation needs for food security in 2030. Science 319(5863):607–610
Mack R, Simberloff D, Lonsdale W, Evans H, Clout M, Bazzaz F (2000) Biotic invasions: causes,
epidemiology, global consequences, and control. Ecological Applications. 10:689–710.
10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[0689,BICEGC]2.0.CO;2
Maiorano L, Amori G, Montemaggiori A, Rondinini C, Santini L, Saura S, Boitani L (2015) On
how much biodiversity is covered in Europe by national protected areas and by the Natura 2000
network: insights from terrestrial vertebrates. Conservation Biology 29(4):986–995. https://
doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12535
McFadyen RE (1998) Biological control of weeds. Annu Rev Entomol. 43:369–393. https://doi.
org/10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.369
Mery G, Katila P, Galloway G, Alfaro R, Kanninen M, Lobovikov M et al (2018) Forests under
pressure: local responses to global issues. IUFRO World Series Volume 38. International Union
of Forest Research Organizations, Vienna, Austria
Meuwissen TH, Hayes BJ, Goddard ME (2001) Prediction of total genetic value using genome-
wide dense marker maps. Genetics 157(4):1819–1829
Millar CI et al (2007) Climate change and forests of the future: managing in the face of uncertainty.
Ecol Appl 17(8):2145–2151
Milner-Gulland EJ, Mcgregor JA, Agarwala M, Atkinson G, Bevan P, Clements T, Daw T,
Homewood K, Kumpel N, Lewis J, Mourato S, Palmer Fry B, Redshaw M, Rowcliffe JM,
Suon S, Wallace G, Washington H, Wilkie D (2014) Accounting for the Impact of Conservation
on Human Well‐Being Abstract Resumen Conservation Biology 28(5):1160–1166. https://doi.
org/10.1111/cobi.2014.28.issue-5, https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12277
Mitchell RK, Agle BR, Wood DJ (1997) Toward a theory of stakeholder identification and salience:
defining the principle of who and what really counts. Acad Manag Rev 22(4):853–886
Nave LE et al (2009) Harvest impacts on soil carbon storage in temperate forests. For Ecol Manag
259(5):857–866
North M, Oakley B, Chen J, Erickson H (2009) Influence of fire and forest management on
selected forest floor characteristics in a Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forest. For Ecol Manag
258(9):1976–1987
Noss RF et al (2015) Bolder thinking for conservation. Conserv Biol 29(3):873–875
Pampolino MF, Witt C, Pasuquin JM, Johnston A, Fisher MJ, Moya PF (2012) Best management
practices for sustainable crop production intensification in the tropics. Better Crops 96(3):8–11
Pan Y et al (2020) Climate-induced changes in forest carbon sequestration: insights from a global
perspective. Environ Res Lett 15(4):044024
Patel A, Wang L (2022) Forests and water cycle: insights into natural regulation. Water Resour Res
58(7):e2021WR029573
Patel A, Williams K, Jones P (2022) Sustainable harvesting practices in Forest management: a
contemporary perspective. Forestry Review 38(4):567–582
Pettorelli N, Safi K, Turner W (2014) Satellite remote sensing for applied ecologists: opportunities
and challenges. J Appl Ecol 51(4):839–848. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12261
Pretty J, Toulmin C, Williams S (2006) Sustainable intensification in African agriculture. Int J
Agric Sustain 4(2):1–23
Putz FE, Sist P, Fredericksen T, Dykstra D (2008a) Reduced-impact logging: challenges and
opportunities. For Ecol Manag 256(7):1427–1433
Putz FE, Zuidema PA, Synnott T, Peña-Claros M, Pinard MA, Sheil D et al (2008b) Sustaining
conservation values in selectively logged tropical forests: the attained and the attainable.
Conserv Lett 1(6):271–277
Putz FE et al (2012) Sustaining conservation values in selectively logged tropical forests: the
attained and the attainable. Conserv Lett 5(4):296–303
org/10.36808/if/2020/v146i2/151208
Schelhaas MJ, Nabuurs GJ, Schuck A (2010) Natural disturbances in the European forests in the
19th and 20th centuries. Glob Chang Biol 16(5):1511–1526
420 D. Kumar et al.

elevated CO2 regimes. 3 Biotech 8:267–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-018-1292-1
Simberloff D (2014) Biological invasions: What’s worth fighting and what can be won? Ecological
Engineering 65:112–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2013.08.004
Simberloff D, Martin J-L, Genovesi P et al (2013) Impacts of biological invasions: what’s what and
the way forward. Trends Ecol. Evol. 28:58–66
on leaf pigments in five rice genotypes under field emergent circumstance. Int J Bio-resource
Sitas N et al (2019) Exploring the nexus between ecosystem service bundles and international
research collaboration. Sustain Sci 14(5):1315–1326
Smith R (2020) The role of community engagement in policy making: a comprehensive review.
Public Adm Rev 80(6):980–993
Smith AB, Jones RC (2022) Forests as carbon sinks: latest insights into climate regulation. Nat
Clim Chang 12(4):456–462
Smith J et al (2018) Soil health as a key component of sustainable land-use systems. Adv Agron
148:193–261
Sternberg G, Wilson J (2004) Native trees for North American landscapes. Timber Press, Portland
Suding KN et al (2015) Committing to ecological restoration. Science 348(6235):638–640
Trombulak SC, Frissell CA (2000) Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic
communities. Conserv Biol 14(1):18–30
Wernick IK et al (2001) Searching for leverage to conserve forests: the industrial ecology of wood
products in the U.S. J Ind Ecol 5(3):49–65
Wilson JK, Garcia M, Lee C (2023) Intact forests as biodiversity reservoirs: a comprehensive
analysis. Ecol Lett 25(2):301–315
Wunder S (2005) Payments for environmental services: some nuts and bolts. Occasional Paper
No. 42. CIFOR
Chapter 21
Forests and Agroforestry: Nature-Based
Solutions for Climate Change Mitigation
Hitesh Gupta, Shiva Janju, Aman Mahajan, Chandramohan Singh,

Shivani Sharma, and Ajay Prajapati
Abstract The ramifications of climate change permeate every facet of our contem-
porary lives, representing a universally acknowledged and significant global con-
cern. In recent years, there has been a notable surge in exploring the potential of
nature-based solutions, underscoring the importance of natural ecosystems and
agroforestry in combatting climate change effects. These solutions endeavor to
tackle diverse challenges such as climate change mitigation, ensuring food security,
managing water resources, and mitigating disaster risks by harnessing the inherent
capabilities of natural systems. This chapter extensively analyzes various approaches
to alleviating climate change impacts, explicitly focusing on forests and agrofor-
estry. The pivotal role of forests and agroforestry in the climate change discourse is
a subject of intense debate, given their involvement in both carbon sequestration and
emission processes. Agroforestry notably enhances farmers’ resilience to climate
change while offering many ecological, social, and economic benefits. As the half-
way point of the 2030 Agenda approaches, it becomes increasingly evident that
current efforts are insufficient to meet climate targets. Nature-based solutions neces-
sitate further exploration of the ecosystem benefits of forests across different set-
tings, including natural environments, semi-natural areas, and urban spaces. These
benefits extend beyond resource provision to encompass activities related to regula-
tion, maintenance, and cultural services. Forests and agroforestry emerge as pivotal
players in climate regulation, carbon sequestration, and the enhancement of air, soil,
H. Gupta · C. Singh · A. Prajapati

College of Forestry, Veer Chandra Singh Garhwali Uttarakhand University of Horticulture
and Forestry, Ranichauri, Tehri Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India
S. Janju
Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, College of Forestry, Dr YS Parmar University of
Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Himachal Pradesh, India
A. Mahajan (*)
S. Sharma
Department of Agriculture, MMU (DU) Mullana, Ambala, Haryana, India
Ltd. 2024
422 H. Gupta et al.
and water quality while mitigating the impact of natural disasters. Besides, they
offer avenues for recreation, spiritual enrichment, and aesthetic enjoyment, thereby
contributing to human well-being. This chapter advocates for studies addressing
ecological, climate-related, and social aspects, fostering dialogue among scientists
and stakeholders, and suggesting ways to implement forests as nature-based solu-
tions. Such efforts are crucial for aiding stakeholders in decision-making processes
to mitigate climate change’s impacts.
Keywords Agroforestry · Carbon sequestration · Climate change · Ecosystems
21.1 Introduction
Climate change is undeniable, and there is a well-established acknowledgment that

the planet is experiencing a climate emergency (Ripple et al. 2020). The conversion
of terrestrial ecosystems into urban or agricultural areas and human-induced activi-
ties like deforestation release carbon dioxide as vegetation is depleted and soil is
disrupted. Also, the agriculture sector alone contributes 6 billion metric tons of
greenhouse gases annually to the environment (IPCC 2014; Apurva et al. 2017).
Given the escalating climate variability, there is an immediate demand to acknowl-
edge and support initiatives for both climate adaptation and mitigation (de Coninck
and Puig 2015). More than thirty percent of individual-generated carbon dioxide is
captured annually through photosynthesis and the ensuing accumulation of carbon
in land vegetation and soils (Friedlingstein et al. 2020; Gupta et al. 2018). The pros-
pect of using natural remedies has surfaced as a proactive approach to harnessing
the potential of nature in addressing various societal challenges (Cohen-Shacham
et al. 2016). Nature-based solutions are increasingly recognized as better approaches
for reducing global, national, and subnational climate change (Joshi and Singh
2020). They have the potential to deliver 37% of the cost-effective CO2 mitigation
required by 2030, thereby substantially enhancing the >66% chances of keeping
global temperature rise to below 2 °C (Griscom et al. 2017; Fargione et al. 2018;
Smyth et al. 2014; Cameron et al. 2017; Robertson et al. 2021).
Nature-based solutions, which involve collaborating with nature, are gaining
widespread recognition as an integrated approach to tackle the dual concerns regard-
ing the decline in biodiversity and environmental degradation (Seddon et al. 2020).
Efforts that focus on safeguarding, restoring, managing, and sustainably utilizing
natural and modified ecosystems for climate mitigation are natural climate solutions
(Griscom et al. 2017; Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c) or natural approaches to combating
climate change (UNEP and IUCN 2021). Forests represent an essential component
in combating the effects of Changes in the climate, which is accomplished by
sequestering carbon, preventing deforestation and depletion of forests, and conserv-
ing and enhancing the utilization of forests (Law et al. 2018; Moomaw et al. 2020;
Nunes et al. 2019) They absorb about 2.6 billion tons of CO2 annually, which is
equivalent to one-third of the CO2 produced when fossil fuels are burned (Nunes
21 Forests and Agroforestry: Nature-Based Solutions for Climate Change Mitigation 423
et al. 2020 & Rizvi et al. 2015). Better management of existing forests holds the
potential to bolster forest growth, thereby mitigating climate change by increasing
C stock (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c). This entails capturing carbon in natural forests
and producing wood-based commodities to replace materials that require a lot of
greenhouse gas emissions, such as fossil fuels (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c). This
approach contributes to the broader framework of natural climate solutions, empha-
sizing the critical role of well-managed forests in the global endeavor to combat
climate change (Kauppi et al. 2022).
Agro-forestry emerges as a promising tool for mitigating climate change and a
nature-based solution to address its impacts (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c). This agricul-
tural approach, focused on nurturing natural ecosystems, significantly mitigates
greenhouse gases, fosters sustainable livelihoods, and contributes to biodiversity
targets (Dhyani et al. 2021a, b). Agroforestry is a method that promotes environ-
mentally friendly land management that incorporates shrubs and trees with crops
and/or livestock in a mutually beneficial manner, is one of the potential strategies
that enhance farmers’ ability to adapt to climate change by building up and strength-
ening carbon capture and storage systems, which store carbon in vegetation and soil
after being drawn from the Earth’s atmosphere through photosynthesis (Albrecht
and Kandji 2003; Kumar and Singh 2020) and renders many societal, financial, and
environmentally friendly benefits (Telwala 2023). Moreover, the multifunctional
nature of agroforestry systems not only aids in climate change mitigation but also
fosters sustainable land management practices. The wide range of ecosystem ser-
vices offered by agroforestry, such as erosion control, water regulation, and habitat
provision, positions it as a holistic approach to abatement of warming temperatures,
in line with the ideas of solutions centered around nature (Garrity et al. 2010; Kumar
et al. 2020a, b, c).
When examining various ecosystems, it becomes clear that forests play a pivotal
role, making up roughly 62% of the annual mitigation potential by 2050.
Simultaneously, agroforestry emerges as the second most influential factor, contrib-
uting around 24 percent by the year 2050 in numerous studies (Griscom et al. 2017;
Girardin et al. 2021; McKinsey and Company 2021; Roe et al. 2019). The combined
potential of forests and agroforestry as mitigation tools and nature-based solutions
stands as a formidable strategy in addressing the far-reaching impacts of climate
change (Kumar et al. 2018). Forests, an integral component of the Earth’s land-
scape, are essential for storing carbon, preserving biodiversity, and regulating eco-
systems. Integrating agroforestry into this equation further enhances our capacity to
mitigate the effects of climate change. Prioritizing and implementing these nature-
based solutions globally becomes imperative, and emphasizing the necessity of eco-
logically sound land management approaches is crucial (Kumar et al. 2022).
424 H. Gupta et al.
21.2 The Contribution of Natural Remedies to Mitigating

Climate Change
Scientists agree that we need a dramatic shift to avoid catastrophic climate change.
The target of the Paris accord is to keep warming worldwide to 1.5 °C, which means
slashing greenhouse gas emissions, mainly from forests, agroforestry practices, and
land use (which account for a hefty 22% of the problem). By 2050, we must reach
net-zero carbon emissions, likely requiring ongoing carbon removal afterward.
Fortunately, nature offers solutions. Protecting and restoring forests and smart land
management can significantly reduce emissions and strengthen natural carbon
sinks. Recognizing this, the G20 has prioritized green growth, resilient infrastruc-
ture, and sustainable practices. Collaborative action is crucial to tackle this global
challenge and secure a livable future. Nature-based solutions, i.e., protecting and
restoring ecosystems, can reduce emissions and strengthen the planet’s natural abil-
ity to absorb carbon. The G20, recognizing this potential, has embraced green
growth, climate-resilient infrastructure, and other vital areas where international
collaboration is crucial for a sustainable future. The path to a 1.5 °C world is clear:
rapid cuts in greenhouse gas emissions, with nature-based solutions playing a star-
ring role. Forests, agroforestry practices, and land use hold immense potential for
emission reduction and carbon sequestration. The G20, understanding the need for
global cooperation, prioritizes green growth, climate-proof infrastructure, and other
critical areas to tackle climate change head-on (IPCC 2022).
The cooling power of nature-based solutions remains a complex question with
various estimates. Over 30 studies have explored their potential to mitigate climate
change, focusing on land and coastal ecosystems (Nolan et al. 2021). However,
knowledge gaps, especially regarding ocean carbon fluxes, cloud the picture. Even
the most conservative estimates for land-based solutions face uncertainty due to
potential disruptions from climate change and human activities (Anderegg et al.
2022). Scaling up solutions also presents challenges. Implementing them in one
region can unintentionally harm ecosystems elsewhere through “leakage,” poten-
tially impacting biodiversity through habitat loss (Fig. 21.1) (Kumar et al.
2021a, b, c).
Despite these uncertainties, nature-based solutions offer tangible benefits beyond
climate mitigation. Restoring ecosystems strengthens soil and vegetation, reducing
flood, drought, and landslide risks through improved water management and slope
stabilization (Ruangpan et al. 2020). Green infrastructure in cities, like bioswales
and green roofs, combats heat waves and flooding (Herath et al. 2021). Nature-
based agricultural practices like agroforestry improve yields in challenging cli-
mates, building resilience and adaptability in communities (Kuyah et al. 2019; Kay
et al. 2019).
Fig. 21.1 Natural alternatives and the major determinants of their efficacy
21.2.1 Climate Change Impact and Forest Vulnerability
The concept of fragility first emerged in studies of natural hazards (Janssen et al.
2006). It can be interpreted as the interaction of exposure, sensitiveness, and cogni-
tive ability (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c). In the realm of science, it has taken on mul-
tiple meanings. Understanding forest susceptibility to climate change is particularly
intricate because it affects the forest and the communities that rely on it (Fischer
2018). Climate change is anticipated to increase the regularity of forest distur-
bances, modify the distribution of goods and services, and impact specific locations
and habitats (Manoj et al. 2021). This can weaken the regulating capacity of forest
ecosystems, leading to dire consequences for plant and animal life, especially both
locally and regionally. Long-term degradation not only harms livelihoods but also
jeopardizes the sustainability of the entire ecosystem. Sustainable forest manage-
ment aims to balance the needs of both current and future generations by optimizing
forest resources while safeguarding and maintaining these vital ecosystems. Studies
on climate change’s influence on forest cover reveal that vegetation patterns shift
across regions, influenced by the complex interplay of alterations to climate and
surrounding variables over time (Fischer 2019). Notably, alterations in physical
makeup are not solely driven by climate change but are often exacerbated by various
human perturbations.
The current projections for future temperature and rainfall variations encompass
a broad array, posing challenges in anticipating the potential future climate of for-
ests, especially at regional and local levels (Nautiyal et al. 2022). Additionally,
uncertainty arises from ecological trends linking the dispersion and utilization of
forests. Much of the research has focused on an extended time that fails to capture
the full spectrum of consequences caused by climate change (Nirmal et al. 2021).
The ungenerous nature of future climate projections presents a substantial interpre-
tive challenge to these findings. Therefore, maintaining archives of perpetual vege-
tation data is essential for effectively monitoring worldwide warming impacts on
426 H. Gupta et al.
forests. The ecosystem benefits depend on the precise diversity of species influ-
enced by forest administration. Effective approaches to forest management can be
enhanced by a comprehensive awareness of the nature of forests and their factors,
including habitat destruction and climate change. Given the substantial ecological
and worldwide unpredictability, there is a need for more study and assessment,
including investigation of risks and possible prospects within different environmen-
tal scenarios. It is crucial to emphasize the necessity of additional research for long-
term planning to enhance forest goods and amenities to address knowledge
discrepancies, ultimately aiding in reducing livelihood instability (Fischer 2019).
21.3 Climate Change Impacts Forest Ecosystem Functioning
Climate change dramatically alters forests worldwide, impacting population pat-

terns, productivity, and carbon storage. The primary trigger of this is a lack of acces-
sibility to drinking water, brought about by altering precipitation patterns and
elevated temperatures (Phukon et al. 2022). Decreased water leads to increased tree
death, directly through carbon starvation and hydraulic failure (Hartmann et al.
2015) and indirectly by exposing trees to insect outbreaks. Even in well-watered
regions, extra implications of climate change, such as increased competition among
trees (Luo and Chen 2015) or potentially shortened lifespans (Brienen et al. 2015),
can still lead to increased mortality. Notably, these climate-driven increases in tree
death translate to significant losses in woodland biomass (Lewis et al. 2011). While
tree mortality rates rise steadily with climate change, tree growth manifestations are
particularly convoluted, with constructive and detrimental outcomes noted without
regard to water accessibility. Factors like longer growing seasons from rising tem-
peratures, increased moisture, nitrogen deposition, and higher CO2 concentrations
can enhance growth and productivity (Pretzsch et al. 2014). However, increasing
temperatures and more pronounced droughts can also significantly reduce tree
growth rates (Brzostek et al. 2014).
The multifaceted effects of climate change on biomass increments and decreases
(by extinction) ultimately determine net aboveground biomass change (Prakash
et al. 2022). In several regions, increased mortality and declining growth rates have
significantly contributed to a decline in net aboveground biomass. This decrease has
sparked worries that global forests could be transitioning from carbon sinks to car-
bon sources under the pressure of global environmental change. Understanding
these trends in the broader climate change setting requires diligent evaluation of
several methodological factors. Notably, studies on growth rate changes often uti-
lize different methods (plot sampling and dendrochronology) than those employed
to evaluate trends in net above-ground plant biomass and morbidity, typically mea-
sured solely via plot sampling. Furthermore, whereas forest enumeration assess-
ments may cover a broader range of tree ages and sizes, dendrochronological
investigations typically concentrate on older/larger trees. Finally, internal processes
like stand age effects (Poorter et al. 2016) possess significance in forest dynamics,
and their influence must also be considered when evaluating the impact of changing
climates on forest ecosystems, particularly in temperate and boreal forests prone to
stand-replacing disturbances like fire.
21.4 Climate Change Impacts on Plant Diversity
Temperature changes might cause significant global alterations in plant communi-

ties (biomes), affecting around half of all plant life by 2100 (Bergengren et al.
2011). These shifts typically occur as climates change, pushing the boundaries of
where different species can thrive. Plants may try to “chase” suitable conditions by
moving north or upslope, with plenty of evidence for such climate-driven range
shifts already observed. It is imperative to remember that every kind has unique
needs and adaptability so that they will respond differently. Species sensitive to
climate change may lose dominance within their existing range, while those with
more tolerance might flourish. For example, warming has led to changes in plant
traits across Japan, with species at the colder edges of their ranges increasing in
abundance at the expense of those already living there (Suzuki et al. 2015).
At the taxonomic level, global warming can lead to local plant extinctions and
declines in diversity. For instance, a grassland community lost species sensitive to
drought in California, lowering its overall richness (Harrison et al. 2015). Other fac-
tors like nitrogen deposition have also reduced diversity in grasslands and heath-
lands worldwide. Even elevated CO2 can play a role, as seen in experiments that
delayed the decline of dominant plant cover, shading out smaller, later-emerging
species and reducing overall richness. However, climate change impacts on com-
munity structure are not always negative. Some species and communities might
benefit from warmer temperatures, more rain, or higher CO2 levels if these create
more favorable or productive habitats (Bellard et al. 2012). For example, in some
experiments, elevated CO2 boosted diversity by promoting longevity and reproduc-
tion while preventing the supremacy of particular species (Niklaus et al. 2001).
Additionally, regional diversity could increase if more new species can move into a
region due to climate change than locally lost.
21.5 Major Climate-Sensitive Permanence Risks
21.5.1 Forest Fire
Forest fires are a significant global disturbance threatening forest permanence. On

average, around 500 million hectares burn outside forests annually (Andela et al.
2017). While fire prevalence is decreasing in grasslands and savannas, white forest
fires are rising in many tropical, temperate, and boreal forests. Forest fires emit
428 H. Gupta et al.
roughly 1.8 Pg CO2e per year (Van et al. 2017), contributing to about 12% of annual
stand-replacing disturbances in forest ecosystems (Pugh et al. 2019). They have an
especially noteworthy effect In important woodland areas like the western United
States, Australia, Mediterranean-style climates, and the boreal forests of North
America and Asia (Hicke et al. 2013). Through transformations to the burned terri-
tory and changes in fire behavior (such as temperature and blistering height),
climate-associated shifts in fire regimes can impact permanency. These effects can
also affect the mortality of trees and carbon retention in many environments.
Numerous satellite information sets have detected fire-burned areas and emis-
sions globally since the late 1990s at moderate or high spatial resolution (Van et al.
2010). Lower-resolution data extends even further back in time globally (Mouillot
and Field 2005), and high-resolution data exists for specific regions like the US,
Australia, and Canada. Additionally, paleoclimate fire reconstructions offer valu-
able insights for projecting future fire regimes. The extensive availability of long-
term fire data allows for comprehensive assessments of historical permanence risks
associated with wildfires.
21.5.2 Drought
Global droughts pose a significant and persistent threat, as evidenced by the surge
in research on drought-induced tree mortality over the past decade. These events
heavily impact forest carbon cycling by reducing productivity and releasing carbon
through dead trees. Extreme climate events explain up to 78% of the variations in
global plant productivity over the past three decades, with severe droughts account-
ing for roughly 60–90% of the most extreme events (Zscheischler et al. 2014). For
example, California’s catastrophic drought from 2011 to 2015 is projected to have
killed over 140 million trees and changed the state’s ecological systems from being
a repository of carbon to a source, generating −600 Tg CO2e between 2001 and
2015, or about 10% of the state’s total greenhouse gas emissions throughout that
time. (Sleeter et al. 2019).
While substantial historical data on drought risks exist from various sources, it is
generally less direct and detailed than global data on burned areas. Metrics for agro-
nomic and meteorological extremes and desertification are calculated using climate
data from weather monitoring stations and reexamination programs. Multiple stud-
ies have found a correlation between the extent of drought and typical aridity and
forest susceptibility, such as mortality. This correlation determines how valuable
these datasets are for interpreting spatial permanency risk variations. Data from
satellite observations can reveal regional patterns of how famine affects productivity
and, occasionally, causes mortality. Drought-driven foliage mortality is primarily
different from fire mortality because it is frequently dispersed (fewer woods are
killed per unit area) and more extensive (influencing massive areas due to the perva-
sive nature of spells).
21.5.3 Biotic Agents
Insects, fungi, and other biotic agents are causing large-scale tree mortality across
the globe. Bark beetles, for instance, munch on tree phloem and unleash fungi that
disrupt water flow, leading to the loss of billions of trees in coniferous forests (Kautz
et al. 2017). This has even flipped entire sections of the Canadian boreal forest from
carbon sinks to sources (Kurz et al. 2008). Similarly, defoliators devour leaves,
eventually killing trees after repeated attacks. This phenomenon plagues both conif-
erous and broad-leaved forests in temperate and boreal regions. Beyond native
threats, invasive species add to the tree-felling frenzy. Illustrations include the red
turpentine beetle in China, the emerald ash borer, and the rapid oak death caused by
phytophthora in the United States(Herms and McCullough 2014). Airborne surveys
and satellite images have helped track the impact and persistence of certain biotic
agents over the past four decades. Extensive mapping efforts using surveys, plot
measurements, and agency reports have further shed light on the patterns and effects
of major outbreaks in many regions.
Warmer temperatures aid bark beetle survival and development, while droughts
weaken trees and alter their foliage, making them easier targets. Moisture levels also
influence pathogen survival and spread. However, the interplay between insects and
their hosts is a complex dance with many factors, and pinpointing the precise role of
climate drivers remains a challenge. Consequently, accurately modelling and pre-
dicting tree mortality from biotic agents remains formidable, especially over large
areas and long periods. Nonetheless, models that analyze stand structure (species
mix, density, size, age, and health) can offer clues about a forest’s vulnerability to
specific agents (Singh et al. 2023).
Other disturbances, like storms, wind events, snow/ice occurrences, and light-
ning, can also affect forest carbon cycling. While these events can significantly
impact local to regional carbon budgets in certain areas, their global influence is
generally considered moderate or minor. For example, hurricanes can damage
coastal forests and their carbon budgets (Chambers et al. 2007). However, a crucial
question Incorporating wind and other disruptions is future trends likely towards an
increase in their frequency or severity. A recent study suggests potential rises in
wind disturbances in some regions but little change in others. Other events like
snow and ice also show minimal change (Seidl et al. 2017).
21.6 Terrestrial Sequestration
Terrestrial ecosystems are a sponge for atmospheric CO2, significantly impacting

the global carbon cycle. Plants “fix” CO2 from the air into their tissues via photo-
synthesis, with a portion ultimately becoming stable SOC by forming complexes
with minerals (Raturi et al. 2022). Plant decomposition also contributes to soil inor-
ganic carbon (SIC) by forming carbonate and bicarbonate salts (Lal et al. 2018).
430 H. Gupta et al.
The total amount of carbon exchanged annually between the atmosphere and land is
known as the terrestrial system’s gross primary productivity (GPP). However, only
about 8% of this carbon remains as net ecosystem productivity (NEP). The rest
returns to the atmosphere through plant respiration, microbial activity, and feeding
of other organisms (Lal 2008). Enhancing NEP and forming SOC and SIC are the
primary goals of terrestrial carbon sequestration strategies (Lal et al. 2018). Stable
SOC formation relies heavily on soil properties like water capacity, depth, texture,
and landscape features like terrain and drainage. Land use, methods of administra-
tion, and biochar supplements and fertilizers also influence the rate, amount, and
saturation time of SOC sequestration. Soil degradation negatively impacts soil qual-
ity and productivity and depletes SOC stocks. These consequences can be lessened
by recarbonizing the soil and generating an enhanced carbon balance (more input
than emission). Table 21.1 summarizes various approaches’ SOC sequestration
potential, advantages, and drawbacks.
21.7 Forests as a Pool for Carbon Sequestration
Forests are invaluable to the planet, providing crucial services like wildlife habitats,
carbon sequestration, water purity, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions
(Lindquist et al. 2012). They hold vast amounts of carbon, with forest biomass alone
containing roughly 359 billion tons (Allen et al. 2010). Even forest soil appears to
be a significant carbon reservoir. In total, forests store twice the expanse of carbon
found in the atmosphere (Lal 2005). Given their essential function in the global
Table 21.1 Terrestrial sequestration approaches

Sequestration Potential/estimated
strategy SOC increase Advantages Disadvantages
Agroforestry 5.3 GtC y−1 globally Increases the intake The amount of SOC sequestered
of soil-based carbon depends on several factors,
and biomass above including age, management
the ground strategies, soil variety, and
temperature.
Biochar 8–18% at Maintains half of its Uncertainty regarding the effects
60–90 t ha−1 original carbon on soil quality, variations in the
application rates, content—Serves as priming reaction based on soil
respectively an origin and a trap form, and fluctuations in SOC
6.6 MtC yr−1 at of soil carbon stock based on the kind and age
$50 t−1 CO2 of biochar.
Afforestation 0.75 GtCy−1 to Elevates soil carbon Modifications in SOC stock
5.8 GtCy−1 uptake and biomass depend on the type of soil,
depending on land above-ground climate, and type of tree.
price, region and
time
cycling of carbon and climatic management, comprehending forest carbon’s kinds,

distribution, and balance has become a top priority for science and policy.
Climate change looms as a significant threat, and precipitation and nitrogen
deposition shifts are likely to significantly impact tree growth, forest dynamics, and,
ultimately, carbon accumulation in forest ecosystems (Sharma et al. 2018).
Accurately predicting future carbon dynamics requires a thorough understanding of
the combined effects of these climate changes, including global warming, elevated
CO2, altered precipitation patterns, and increased nitrogen deposition (Peñuelas
et al. 2013).
21.8 Agroforestry as a New Weapon in the Climate

Change Fight
The term “agroforestry,” which initially emerged by fusing the words “agro” and
“forestry,” has long sought to reconcile ideas that, at first glance, appear incompat-
ible (Van Noordwijk et al. 2019). Today, it encompasses three scales: “AF1” focuses
on individual trees, management practices, farm-level technology, and decisions.
“AF2” expands to landscapes where trees and forest patches mingle and where food
production (“provisioning services”) interacts with other environmental services
(“regulating” and “cultural”). Finally, “AF3” tackles the amalgamation of local
expertise and the policy realms of forestry and agriculture, which interact with the
spectrum of land use and stewardship of natural resources. Scientific knowledge and
policy frameworks within “issue cycles” (Van Noordwijk 2019).
Agroforestry offers a promising approach to mitigating and adapting to climate
change. It enhances carbon capture by storing atmospheric carbon dioxide in plant
biomass and soil, exceeding the capacity of conventional farming (Singh et al.
2022). This long-term storage process is crucial for reducing or delaying global
warming. Converting from forest to agroforestry may initially decrease surface-
level soil organic carbon, but deeper layers remain largely unaffected (Singh and
Kumar 2022). Conversely, transitioning from agriculture or pasture/grassland to
agroforestry consistently increases soil organic carbon at all depths, particularly
when incorporating perennial plants like silvopasture and agro-silvo-pastoral sys-
tems. These findings demonstrate agroforestry’s tendency to not only aver climate
change through carbon sequestration but also adapting agricultural systems to its
impacts.
432 H. Gupta et al.
21.9 Mitigation and Adaptation
Instead of directly tackling the ramifications of temperature rise, mitigation focuses

on its root cause by reducing emission sources or boosting greenhouse gas (GHG)
sinks. In contrast, adaptation involves adjusting natural or human systems to cope
with climate change’s actual or anticipated ramifications and associated stimuli.
Agroforestry presents a promising approach for achieving several goals: minimiz-
ing carbon emissions, capturing atmospheric carbon, enhancing microclimates,
safeguarding and stabilizing ecosystems, conserving soil and water, diversifying
agricultural systems sustainably, maximizing rainwater utilization, and implement-
ing measures to mitigate drought.
Global carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration reached a worrying level of 409.8
parts per million (ppm) in 2019 (Lindsey 2020). This rise is primarily driven by fos-
sil fuel combustion, which has dire consequences. Agroforestry emerges as a pow-
erful solution for this challenge. These integrated systems capture atmospheric
carbon through photosynthesis, storing it in biomass and soil. Climate change pre-
vention techniques focus on lessening atmospheric greenhouse gas (GHG) emission
levels or enhancing carbon sinks like agroforestry. Compared to monoculture sys-
tems, agroforestry boosts greater carbon sequestration potential due to its sustain-
able use of assets of resources like light, water, and nutrients.
21.10 The Significance of India’s Conventional Agroforestry

Systems in Fighting Climate Change
Throughout India’s history, diverse agroforestry (AF) systems have emerged, deeply
rooted in local needs and environmental specificities. These time-honored practices
encompass farm-integrated trees, community forests, and various local forest man-
agement and ethnobotanical approaches. Notably, the widespread custom of incor-
porating scattered trees into agricultural landscapes has endured for centuries, with
these multi-purpose trees serving as sources of shade, fodder, fuelwood, fruits, veg-
etables, and even medicine. A rich tapestry of traditional agroforestry systems,
meticulously woven by farmers, is further explored below.
• Trees on pasture lands
• agricultural wood lots/block plantations
• Trees on farm boundaries, boundary plantings
• scattered vegetation on farmlands and parkland systems
• Living fences/hedges made of plants
21.11 Importance of Agroforestry in Combating Climate

Change Hazards
Small-scale farmers might benefit from employing traditional agroforestry practices

to diversify their production and enhance the long-term viability of their operations.
The most concerning aspect of climate change is the erratic and unequal distribution
of rainfall and temperature, especially from year to year. Traditional agroforestry
systems offer some benefits for maintaining productivity during wet and dry periods.
• Deeper roots: Unlike shallow-rooted crops, agroforestry trees tap into a larger
underground volume, accessing stored water and nutrients during dry spells.
• Improved soil water management: Increased porosity, reduced runoff, and
enhanced soil cover within these systems facilitate water infiltration and reten-
tion, buffering against droughts.
• Faster drainage: Compared to row crops or pastures, these systems boast higher
evapotranspiration rates, meaning they “pump” excess surplus water from the
soil profile more efficiently, preventing root suffocation and maintaining aerated
conditions.
21.12 The Positive Aspects of Conventional Agroforestry

Systems Concerning Climate Change
21.12.1 Climate Change Impacts on Soil Fertility

and Agroforestry Benefits
Climate-related fluctuations can both enhance and degrade soil nutrients. Sustaining
soil fertility is essential for reducing poverty, protecting the environment, ensuring
adequate nutrition, and promoting sustainability. Traditional agroforestry practices
effectively restore the nutrients in the soil and sequester carbon. Trees in agricul-
tural landscapes are essential in erosion control, acting as barriers or covers.
21.12.2 Enhanced Income and Reduced Risk
Agroforestry’s diversity offers multiple harvests throughout the year, leading to

increased food production, improved fodder supply for livestock and fish, fuelwood
availability, and enhanced agricultural productivity and water resources. This diver-
sification diminishes the chance of crop failure and gives producers access to dis-
tinct sources of revenue.
434 H. Gupta et al.
21.12.3 Carbon Sequestration Potential
Conventional agroforestry holds significant potential as a climate change alleviation

approach due to its potential to trap carbon in plants and soil. In tropical regions,
small-scale traditional agroforestry systems can sequester 1.5–3.5 MgC/ha/yr, mak-
ing it a viable carbon storage option (Murthy et al. 2013).
21.12.4 Increased Resilience and Productivity
Agroforestry buffers against different geophysical (soil fertility, hydraulic lift, etc.)
and monetary (money risk, diversified portfolios, etc.) risks, increasing the durabil-
ity of farming systems. Additional advantages include reduced seasonal labor peaks,
year-round income generation, and ensuring short-, medium-, and long-term income
benefits for households (Kumar et al. 2022).
21.12.5 Carbon Sequestration Prospectiveof

Agroforestry Systems
Agroforestry is essential to environmental sustainability and minimizing the effects

of climate change. Protecting existing forests and establishing new ones helps
reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, conserve biodiversity, and generate
income through timber harvesting and on-farm jobs (Verma et al. 2020). This sus-
tainable approach aims to harmoniously blend trees with crops within the same
landscape to enhance ecological stability, economic viability, and cultural resilience
(Kumar et al. 2019).
Asia, the most populous and vast continent accounting for 30% of the Earth’s
landmass, houses roughly 60% of the global human population. South and Southeast
Asia, with its diverse agro-ecological conditions, boasts a rich history of imple-
menting agroforestry practices, considered the birthplace of this land-use system
(Kumar et al. 2012; Yadav et al. 2019). Agroforestry systems (hedgerow intercrop-
ping and preexisting compact tree plantation) have the potential to trap up to
24 mg ha−1 of carbon in Bangladesh, 6 mg ha−1 in Haryana, India, and 96 mg ha−1
in Punjab, Pakistan, according to a study by Wicke et al. (2013) on the salt-impacted
soils of South Asia. Ethiopia’s agroforestry techniques have eliminated greenhouse
gas emissions and sequestered 8.34–43.64 ha−1 of carbon from trees and
71.69–112.74 Mg ha−1 from soil (Manaye et al. 2021). This highlights the immense
perspective of agroforestry as a powerful tool to tackle climate challenges and pave
the way for a more perpetual future.
21.13 Agroforestry: Nature-Based Solution to Localize

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Agroforestry, efficient and integrated land management, environmental preserva-

tion and restoration, reduced livestock impact, water conservation, financial sectors,
transportation, global relations, and the foundational consumer economy must all be
seamlessly integrated into a new framework for food production (Gupta et al. 2024).
The COVID-19 pandemic was hindering progress on multiple key SDGs, so it’s
crucial to re-evaluate the potential of agroforestry in achieving these goals.
Combining farming and forestry embodies the eight Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs), laying the groundwork for long-term societal, environmental, and
economic sustainability. By integrating trees and crops, agroforestry offers path-
ways to meet SDG targets in critical areas like nutrition, energy, water, and income
generation (Van Noordwijk 2019; Van Noordwijk et al. 2019).
Specifically, implementing social forestry schemes with agroforestry-based eco-
system services can contribute to achieving the first (no poverty), second (zero hun-
ger), third (good health and well-being), fifth (gender equality), sixth (clean water
and sanitation), seventh (affordable and clean energy), thirteenth (climate action),
and fifteenth (life on land) SDGs. Smart Agroforestry (SAF) is gaining traction
today, exceeding basic agroforestry practices. SAF encompasses a range of agricul-
tural and forestry skills and techniques that go beyond mere productivity, aiming to
strengthen farmer resilience and profitability while simultaneously enhancing envi-
ronmental aspects like water and soil protection, biodiversity enhancement, and
coping with the effects of climate change.
SAF is extremely promising for raising living standards and productivity while
upholding environmental regulations and empowering small-scale and subsistence
communities to manage their resources effectively. SAF can improve endurance
from a fiscal point of view by diversifying, particularly by making agroforestry
activities more profitable. To gain a more comprehensive understanding of the SAF
framework’s potential for achieving the SDGs, particularly those related to rural
prosperity, environmental conservation, and climate change mitigation, it’s crucial
to examine agroforestry-based ecosystem services across diverse nations.
Figure 21.2 visually depicts the connections between SAF actions and specific
SDG goals.
21.14 Forestry and Agroforestry in India: A Pathway

Towards Nature-Based Solutions
Establishing a platform for disseminating knowledge to relevant agencies is essen-

tial to ensure the profitable and efficient deployment of agroforestry concepts as a
Nature-based Solution (NbS). This involves communicating information regarding
selecting suitable sites, considering environmental conditions (temperature,
436 H. Gupta et al.
Fig. 21.2 Prospective of agroforestry systems in progressing some of the SDGs
precipitation), drought severity, forest resource extraction for fuel and fodder, eco-
logical diversity, forest fragmentation, and other relevant attributes. Additionally,
understanding topographic conditions is crucial for successfully establishing agro-
forestry models.
Several prominent institutes in the country, including the Forest Research
Institute (FRI) in Dehradun, along with the Indian Council of Forestry Research and
Education (ICFRE) and the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), are
poised to strategize activities aimed at effectively managing rain-stressed regions.
Key steps entail (Kumar and Singh 2020):
• Gathering and sharing pertinent information on natural resources and livelihood
statuses.
• Prioritizing site-specific actions in rainfed areas through integrated data analysis.
• Creating thematic GIS layers depicting fuelwood extraction, fodder extraction,
livestock population, etc., based on recent project data.
• Utilizing GIS to classify high, medium, and low-priority sites at the state level.
• Disseminating information to identify suitable agroforestry species.

• Conducting reconnaissance surveys and selecting sites for testing proposed
actions, focusing on agroforestry models.
These efforts are geared towards fulfilling the mandate of effectively managing
regions affected by rain-related stresses.
The Committee on Forestry on 5–9 October 2020 suggested various actions to
the countries after COVID-19in the view of forests: nature-based solutions for cli-
mate change (FAO 2020):
Enhance efforts to unlock the significant potential for mitigating climate change
through forests by:
(i) Amplifying commitments related to forests in nationally determined contribu-
tions (NDCs);
(ii) Strengthening management systems to address fire, pests, and diseases,
enhancing preparedness, rapid response, and recovery capabilities;
(iii) Expediting the implementation of national REDD+ strategies and action plans
to tackle deforestation drivers;
(iv) Implementing transformative measures to transition to low-carbon economies,
particularly by ensuring that long-term stimulus packages for COVID-19
recovery prioritize sustainable decarbonization, resilience, and other
co-benefits.
Climate change casts a long shadow over the future of our planet, but amidst the
challenges, nature offers robust solutions. Forests and agroforestry emerge as bea-
cons of hope, wielding their unique abilities to sequester carbon, regulate ecosys-
tems, and foster resilience in the face of a warming world. Forests, the giants of the
plant kingdom, stand as titans of carbon storage, locking away billions of tons in
their biomass and soil. They breathe life into the atmosphere, releasing water vapor
that nurtures the ecosystem and moderates temperatures. As sentinels of the Earth,
they safeguard biodiversity, providing vital habitats for countless species.
Agroforestry, a harmonious blend of agriculture and forestry, weaves a tapestry of
resilience across landscapes. Its integrated systems enhance food production, diver-
sify livelihoods, and act as champions of carbon capture, drawing down atmospheric
CO2 and storing it within the soil. This potent combination mitigates climate change
while building fertile grounds for sustainable food security. Traditional agroforestry
systems, honed over generations in diverse corners of the world, hold a treasure
trove of wisdom. These time-tested practices, deeply rooted in local knowledge and
adapted to specific environments, offer many benefits. From improved soil health
and water management to enhanced resilience against droughts and floods, they
empower communities to thrive in a changing climate. As we navigate the uncharted
waters of the Anthropocene, embracing the power of nature is not just a choice but
438 H. Gupta et al.
a necessity. Protecting and restoring forests while nurturing the practice of agrofor-
estry is an investment in our future. By harnessing nature’s resilience, we can build
a world where humanity and the environment flourish harmoniously, leaving a leg-
acy of hope for future generations. This conclusion emphasizes the critical role of
forests and agroforestry in mitigating climate change and building resilience. It
highlights the importance of traditional knowledge and the need for a paradigm shift
towards nature-based solutions. By embracing the power of nature, we can pave the
way for a more sustainable and equitable future for all.
21.16 Conclusion
It is concluded that forests and agroforestry emerge as potential nature-based solu-

tions (NbS) in the global endeavor to mitigate the impacts of climate change.
Through their multifaceted roles, these ecosystems sequester carbon and contribute
to enhancing resilience, ensuring food security, managing water resources, and mit-
igating disaster risks. The analysis underscores the critical importance of prioritiz-
ing these natural systems, especially in water-stressed areas coinciding with regions
of extreme poverty. A promising opportunity exists to simultaneously address envi-
ronmental degradation and socio-economic challenges by directing urgent attention
toward revitalizing forest health and implementing appropriate NbS interventions.
Moreover, the discourse surrounding forests and agroforestry extends beyond their
tangible benefits to encompass broader ecological, social, and economic advan-
tages. Agroforestry is a versatile approach capable of enhancing farmers’ capacity
to adapt to climate change while fostering sustainable land management practices.
However, current efforts fail to meet climate targets, necessitating further research
and enhanced dialogue among scientists and stakeholders. Looking ahead, there is
a clear imperative to scale up the implementation of NbS strategies, leveraging the
inherent resilience and versatility of forests and agroforestry. Integrating ecological,
climate, and social considerations into policy frameworks and decision-making pro-
cesses requires a concerted effort. Hence, forestry and agroforestry not only safe-
guard biodiversity and ecosystem services but also promote human well-being and
sustainable development on a global scale by considering forests and agroforestry
as integral components of climate change mitigation strategies.
References
Albrecht A, Kandji ST (2003) Carbon sequestration in tropical agroforestry systems. Agric Ecosyst
Environ 99:15–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(03)00138-5
Allen CD, Macalady AK, Chenchouni H et al (2010) A global overview of drought and heat-
induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change risks for forests. For Ecol Manag
259:660–684
Andela NDC, Morton L, Giglio Y, Chen GR, Van Der Werf PS, Kasibhatla RS, DeFries GJ,
Collatz S, Hantson S (2017) Kloster, A human-driven decline in global burned area. Science
356:1356–1362
Anderegg WRL, Trugman AT, Badgley G, Anderson CM, Bartuska A, Ciais P, Cullenward D,
Field CB, Freeman J, Goetz SJ, Hicke JA, Huntzinger D, Jackson RB, Nickerson J, Pacala
S, Randerson JT (2022) Climate-driven risks to the climate mitigation potential of forests.
Science 368:7005
on the future of biodiversity. Ecol Lett 15:365–377
Bergengren JC, Waliser DE, Yung YL (2011) Ecological sensitivity: a biospheric view of climate
change. Clim Chang 107:433–457
Brienen RJ, Phillips W, Feldpausch OL, Gloor TR, Baker E, Lloyd TR, Lopez-Gonzalez J,
Monteagudo-Mendoza G, Malhi A, Lewis Y, Vasquez Martinez SL, Alexiades R, Alvarez
Davila M, Alvarez-Loayza E, Andrade PA et al (2015) Long-term decline of the Amazon car-
bon sink. Nature 519:344–348
Brzostek ER, Dragoni D, Schmid HP, Rahman AF, Sims D, Wayson CA, Johnson DJ, Phillips RP
forests. Glob Chang Biol 20:2531–2539
Cameron DR, Marvin DC, Remucal JM, Passero MC (2017) Ecosystem management and land
conservation can substantially contribute to California's climate mitigation goals. Proc Natl
Acad Sci USA 114:12,833–12,838
Chambers JQ, Fisher JI, Zeng H, Chapman EL, Baker DB, Hurtt GC (2007) Hurricane Katrina's
carbon footprint on US Gulf Coast forests. Science 318:1107
Cohen-Shacham E, Walters G, Janzen C, Maginnis S (eds) (2016) Nature-based solutions to
address global societal challenges. IUCN
de Coninck H, Puig D (2015) Assessing climate change mitigation technology interventions by
international institutions. Climate Change 131:417–433
Dhyani K, Kuniyal HB, Singh H, Sobha (2021a) Growth and physiological potential of
Dhyani S, Murthy IK, Kadaverugu R, Dasgupta R, Kumar M, Adesh Gadpayle K (2021b)
Agroforestry to achieve global climate adaptation and mitigation targets: are south Asian coun-
tries sufficiently prepared? Forests 12:303
FAO (2020) FORESTS: nature-based solutions for climate change. Committee on Forestry. https://
www.fao.org/3/nd487en/nd487en.pdf
Fargione JE et al (2018) Natural climate solutions for the United States. Sci Adv 4(11):1869
Fischer AP (2018) Forest landscapes as social-ecological systems and implications for manage-
ment. Landsc Urban Plan 177:138–147
Fischer AP (2019) Characterizing behavioral adaptation to climate change in temperate forests.
Landsc Urban Plan 188:72–79
Friedlingstein P et al (2020) Global carbon budget 2020. Earth Syst Sci Data 12:269–3340
Garrity DP, Akinnifesi FK, Ajayi OC, Weldesemayat SG, Mowo JG, Kalinganire A, Bayala J
(2010) Evergreen agriculture: a robust approach to sustainable food security in Africa. Food
Secur 2:97–214
Girardin CAJ, Jenkins S, Seddon N, Allen M, Lewis SL, Wheeler CE et al (2021) Nature-based
solutions can help cool the planet—if we act now. Nature 593:191–194. https://doi.org/10.1038/
d41586-021-01241-2
Griscom BW, Adams J, Ellis PW, Houghton RA, Lomax G, Miteva DA, Schlesinger WH, Shoch
D, Siikamaki JV, Smith P et al (2017) Natural climate solutions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
114:11645–11650. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1710465114
440 H. Gupta et al.
Gupta H, Kumar S, Pandey R, Thapliyal S, Shaji A, Kumar A (2024) An overview of anthropo-
genic changes in land use and land cover, with specific attention to climate change and unsus-
tainable agriculture. Int J Environ Climate Change 14(1):453–460
Harrison SP, Gornish ES, Copeland S (2015) Climate-driven diversity loss in a grassland commu-
nity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 112:8672–8677
Hartmann H, Adams HD, Anderegg WR, Jansen S, Zeppel MJ (2015) Research frontiers in
drought-induced tree mortality: crossing scales and disciplines. New Phytol 205:965–969
Herath PM, Thatcher H, Jin X, Bai (2021) Effectiveness of urban surface characteristics as mitiga-
tion strategies for the excessive summer heat in cities. Sustain Cities Soc 72:103072
Herms DA, McCullough DG (2014) Emerald ash borer invasion of North America: history, biol-
ogy, ecology, impacts, and management. Annu Rev Entomol 59:13–30
Hicke JA, Meddens AJ, Allen CD, Kolden CA (2013) Carbon stocks of trees killed by bark beetles
and wildfire in the western United States. Environ Res Lett 8:035032
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2022), Climate Change 2022: mitigation
of climate change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Shukla PR, Skea J, Slade R, Al Khourdajie A,
van Diemen R, McCollum D, Pathak M, Some S, Vyas P, Fradera R, Belkacemi M, Hasija A,
Lisboa G, Luz S, Malley J (eds). Cambridge University Press
IPCC (2014) Climate change. Mitigation of climate change. In: Edenhofer O (ed) Working group
III contribution to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 978-1-107-05821-7
Janssen MA, Schoon ML, Ke W, Börner K (2006) Scholarly networks on resilience, vulnerability
and adaptation within the human dimensions of global environmental change. Glob Environ
Chang 16:240–252
Kauppi PE, Stål G, Arnesson-Ceder L, Sramek IH, Hoen HF, Svensson A, Nordin A (2022)
Managing existing forests can mitigate climate change. For Ecol Manag 513:120186
Kautz M, Meddens AJ, Hall RJ, Arneth S (2017) Biotic disturbances in northern hemisphere for-
ests–a synthesis of recent data, uncertainties and implications for forest monitoring and model-
ling. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 26:533–552
Kay S, Rega C, Moreno G, den Herder M, Palma JHN, Borek R, Crous-Duran J, Freese D,
Giannitsopoulos M, Graves A, Jäger M, Lamersdorf N, Memedemin D, Mosquera-Losada R,
Pantera A, Paracchini ML, Paris P, Roces-Díaz JV, Rolo V, Rosati A, Sandor M, Smith L,
Szerencsits E et al (2019) Agroforestry creates carbon sinks whilst enhancing the environment
in agricultural landscapes in Europe. Land Use Policy 83:581–593
Kumar BM, Singh AK, Dhyani SK (2012) South Asian agroforestry: traditions, transformations,
and prospects. In: Agroforestry the future of global land use, pp. 359–389
etz.-based agroforestry system in Himalayan foothills, India. For Sci 66(5):634–643. https://
R
Kumar N, Kumar A, Jeena N, Singh R, Singh H (2020c). Factors influencing soil ecosystem and
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
Kumar A, Tewari S, Singh H, Kumar P, Kumar N, Bisth S, Kushwah S, Nidhi KR (2021b) Biomass
Kumar N, Jeena N, Kumar A, Khairakpan R, Singh H (2021c) Comparative response of rice culti-
matic, physiological, and anatomical trait modulations. Environ Pollut 313:120,191. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120191
Kurz WA, Dymond CC, Stinson G, Rampley GJ, Neilson ET, Carroll AL, Ebata T, Safranyik L
(2008) Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change. Nature 452:987–990
Kuyah CW, Whitney M, Jonsson GW, Sileshi I, Öborn CW, Muthuri E, Luedeling (2019)
Agroforestry delivers a win-win solution for ecosystem services in sub-Saharan Africa. A
meta-analysis. Agron Sustain Dev 39:47
Lal R (2005) Forest soils and carbon sequestration. For Ecol Manag 220:242–258
Lal R (2008) Sequestration of atmospheric CO2 in global carbon pools. Energy Environ Sci
1:86–100. https://doi.org/10.1039/b809492f
Lal R, Smith P, Jungkunst HF, Mitsch WJ, Lehmann J, Nair PKR (2018) The carbon sequestration
potential of terrestrial ecosystems. J Soil Water Conserv 73:145–152. https://doi.org/10.2489/
jswc.73.6.145A
Law BE, Hudiburg TW, Berner LT, Kent JJ, Buotte PCH (2018) Land use strategies to mitigate
climate in carbon-dense temperate forests. PNAS 115:3663–3668
Lewis SL, Brando PM, Phillips OL, vander Heijden GM, Nepstad D (2011) The 2010 amazon
drought. Science 331:554
Lindquist EJ, D’Annunzio R, Gerrand A et al (2012) Global forest land-use change 1990–2005.
FAO forestry paper no. 169. In: Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations and
European Commission Joint Research Centre. FAO, Rome
Lindsey R (2020) Climate change: atmospheric carbon dioxide. Understanding Climate
Luo Y, Chen HYH (2015) Climate change-associated tree mortality increases without decreasing
water availability. Ecol Lett 18:1207–1215
Manaye A, Tesfamariam B, Tesfaye M, Worku A, Guf Y (2021) Tree diversity and carbon stocks in
agroforestry systems in northern Ethiopia. Carbon Balance Manag 16:14
management. In: Forest resources resilience and conflicts. Academic, Elsevier. https://doi.
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
McKinsey & Company (2021) Methodological appendix and co-benefits results.
h t t p s : / / w w w. m c k i n s ey. c o m / bu s i n e s s -f u n c t i o n s / s u s t a i n a b i l i t y / o u r-i n s i g h t s /
why-investing-in-nature-is-key-toclimate-mitigation
Moomaw R, Law WE, Goetz JS (2020) Focus on the role of forests and soils in meeting climate
change mitigation goals. Environ Res Lett 15:045009
442 H. Gupta et al.
Mouillot F, Field CB (2005) Field, fire history and the global carbon budget: a 1× 1 fire history
reconstruction for the 20th century. Glob Change Biol 11:398–420
Murthy IK, Gupta M, Tomar S, Munsi M, Tiwari R, Hegde GT, Ravindranath NH (2013) Carbon
sequestration potential of agroforestry systems in India. J Earth Sci Climate Change 4(1):1–7
Niklaus P, Leadley P, Schmid B, Körner C (2001) Along-term field study on biodiversity× elevated
CO2 interactions in grassland. Ecol Monogr 71:341–356
Nolan CJ, Field CB, Mach KJ (2021) Constraints and enablers for increasing carbon storage in the
terrestrial biosphere. Nat Rev Earth Environ 2:436–446
Nunes LJR, Meireles CIR, Gomes CJP, Ribeiro NMA (2019) Forest management and climate
change mitigation: a review on carbon cycle flow models for the sustainability of resources.
Sustain For 11:5276
Nunes LJ, Meireles CI, Pinto Gomes CJ, Almeida Ribeiro NM (2020) Forest contribution to cli-
mate change mitigation: management oriented to carbon capture and storage. Climate 8(2):21
Peñuelas J, Sardans J, Estiarte M et al (2013) Evidence of current impact of climate change on life:
a walk from genes to the biosphere. Glob Chang Biol 19:2303–2338
Poorter L, Bongers F, Aide TM, AlmeydaZambrano AM, Balvanera P, Becknell JM, Boukili V,
Brancalion PH, Broadbent EN, Chazdon RL, Craven D, de Almeida-Cortez JS, Cabral GA, de
Jong BH, Denslow JS et al (2016) Biomass resilience of neotropical secondary forests. Nature
530:211–214
Pretzsch H, Biber P, Schutze G, Uhl E, Rotzer T (2014) Forest stand growth dynamics in Central
Europe have accelerated since 1870. Nat Commun 5:4967
Pugh TA, Arneth A, Kautz M, Poulter B, Smith B (2019) Important role of forest disturbances in
the global biomass turnover and carbon sinks. Nat Geosci 12:730–735
Ripple WJ, Wolf C, Newsome TM, Barnard P, Moomaw WR (2020) World scientists’ warning of
a climate emergency. Bioscience 70:8–12
Rizvi AR, Baig S, Barrow E, Kumar C (2015) Synergies between climate mitigation and adapta-
tion in forest landscape restoration. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
Robertson JC, Randrup KV, Howe ER, Case MJ, Levin PS (2021) Leveraging the potential of
nature to meet net-zero greenhouse gas emissions in Washington state. PeerJ 9:e11802
Roe S, Streck C, Obersteiner M, Frank S, Griscom B, Drouet L et al (2019) Contribution of
the land sector to a 1.5 °C world. Nat Clim Chang 9:817–828. https://doi.org/10.1038/
s41558-019-0591-9
Ruangpan L, Vojinovic Z, Di Sabatino S, Leo LS, Capobianco V, Oen AMP, McClain ME, Lopez-
Gunn E (2020) Nature-based solutions for hydro-meteorological risk reduction: a state-of-the-
art review of the research area. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 20:243–270
Seddon N, Chausson A, Berry P, Girardin CA, Smith A, Turner B (2020) Understanding the value
and limits of nature-based solutions to climate change and other global challenges. Philos
Trans R Soc B 375:1794
Seidl R, Thom D, Kautz M, Martin-Benito D, Peltoniemi M, Vacchiano J, Wild D, Ascoli M, Petr

J, Honkaniemi (2017) Forest disturbances under climate change. Nat Clim Chang 7:395–402
tus and research needs. In: Climate change: impacts, responses and sustainability in the Indian
Himalaya. Springer, Cham, pp 223–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
uclim.2022.101183
Sleeter BM, Marvin DC, Cameron DR, Selmants PC, Westerling AL, Kreitler J, Daniel CJ, Liu
J, Wilson TS (2019) Effects of 21st-century climate, land use, and disturbances on ecosystem
carbon balance in California. Glob Change Biol 25:3334–3353
Smyth CE et al (2014) Quantifying the biophysical climate change mitigation potential of Canada’s
forest sector. Biogeosciences 11:3515–3529. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-3515-2014
Suzuki S, Ishihara NMI, Hidaka A (2015) Regional-scale directional changes in abundance of tree
species along a temperature gradient in Japan. Glob Chang Biol 21:3436–3444
Telwala Y (2023) Unlocking the potential of agroforestry as a nature-based solution for localizing
sustainable development goals: a case study from a drought-prone region in rural India. Nature-
Based Solutions 3:100045
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) (2021). Nature-based solutions for climate change mitigation
Van Noordwijk M (2019) Integrated natural resource management as pathway to poverty reduc-
tion: innovating practices, institutions and policies. Agric Syst 172:60–71
Van Noordwijk M, Coe R, Sinclair FL (2019) Agroforestry paradigms. In: Sustainable develop-
ment through trees on farms: agroforestry in its fifth decade. World Agroforestry (ICRAF),
Bogor, Indonesia, pp 1–12. https://worldagroforestry.org/trees-on-farms. Accessed 2 Dec 2023
Van DWGR, Randerson JT, Giglio L, Collatz G, Mu M, Kasibhatla PS, Morton DC, DeFries
R, van Jin Y, van Leeuwen TT (2010) Global fire emissions and the contribution of defor-
estation, savanna, forest, agricultural, and peat fires (1997–2009). Atmospheric Chem Phys
10:11,707–11,735
Van DWGR, Randerson JT, Giglio L, Van Leeuwen TT, Chen Y, Rogers BM, Mu MJ, Marle V
et al (2017) Global fire emissions estimates during 1997–2016. Earth Syst Sci Data 9:697–720
Wicke B, Smeets E, Akanda MD, Stille L, Ranjay S, Awan A, Mahmood K, Faaij APC (2013)
Biomass production in agroforestry and forestry systems on salt-affected soils in South Asia:
exploration of the GHG balance and economic performance of three case studies. J Environ
Manag 127:324–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.05.060
Zscheischler J, Mahecha MD, von Buttlar J, Harmeling S, Jung M, Rammig A, Randerson JT,
Schölkopf B, Seneviratne SI et al (2014) A few extreme events dominate global interannual
variability in gross primary production. Environ Res Lett 9:035001
Chapter 22
Agroforestry Adoption in the Eastern
Region of Uttar Pradesh, India: A Way
to Mitigate Climate Change
Anubha Srivastav and Hukum Singh
Abstract Agroforestry practices are defined as combining intercrops with tree

crops suitably with optimum land utilization. These practices contribute to carbon
sequestration and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The increasing CO2 and other
greenhouse gases is a big concern for human society. The trees accumulate CO2, the
most predominant GHG in their biomass. Carbon sequestration through agrofor-
estry is now considered an alternative economic opportunity for mitigating global
climate change and carbon trading and providing multiple associated benefits.
Although the carbon absorption capacity varies, it is generally considered that a tree
can store about 167 kg of CO2 per year, or 1 ton of CO2 per year for 6 mature trees.
The average carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry systems is estimated to
be 25 t ha−1 over 96 million ha, but substantial regional variability exists. In the state
of Uttar Pradesh in India, the forest cover, including tree cover, is only 9.20%, far
behind the national target of 33% of the total geographical area. It is widely acknowl-
edged that the status of agroforestry in districts of the Eastern Plain region of Uttar
Pradesh is developing. Most districts cover forest areas between 1% and 2%, and
many show less than 1.0%. Because of the challenging face of Eastern UP regarding
the adoption of agroforestry by different stakeholders, the district Ballia, with forest
cover of only 0.74%, and Varanasi, with 1.11%, were selected for the existing status
of agroforestry, demand and supply of timber trees and trees outside forests to draw
the attention of policymakers to streamline future strategies to implement success-
fully in field conditions. The agroforestry trees of timber value as Teak (Tectona
grandis), Mango (Mangifera indica), Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo), Mahua (Madhuca
indica), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Aonla (Emblica officinalis) and Eucalyptus
(Eucalyptus sp) were recorded based on girth classes in selected villages of respec-
tive development blocks of districts. The demand-supply gap for these species was
also assessed to identify deficit species of the region for recommendation in future
A. Srivastav (*)
ICFRE-Forest Research Centre for Eco-Rehabilitation, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
H. Singh
ICFRE-Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Ltd. 2024
446 A. Srivastav and H. Singh
plantation programs. In Ballia district, the demand-supply gap for studied species in
the district was highest for Mango (1,166,062 qt) followed by Mahua (548,406 qt),
Shisham (451,866 qt) and Teak (356,037 qt). Thus, massive plantations of Mango,
Shisham, Mahua and Teak urgently need time. The number of trees based on girth
classes was recorded in selected villages of respective blocks. In case of Teak, a
total of 578,351 trees, for Mango species, a total of 433,320 trees, a total of 522,848
trees in Neem, in the case of Shisham, a total of 454,319 trees, in Eucalyptus spe-
cies, a total of 359,395 trees, in case of Aonla, a total of 78,202 and for Mahua,
86,295 trees were enumerated in different girth classes. In Varanasi district, the
results for demand-supply gap for selected species in the district depicted that it is
highest for Mango (278,858 qt) followed by Neem (219,810 qt.), Mahua (175,587 qt),
Shisham (136,792 qt) and Teak (127,061 qt) respectively. In the case of Teak, a total
of 272,390 trees, in Mango species, a total of 86,648 trees, a total of 53,116 trees in
Neem, in the case of Shisham, a total of 23,917 trees, in Eucalyptus species, a total
of 24,851 trees, in case of Aonla, a total of 8795 and for Mahua, 16,556 trees were
enumerated in different girth classes. Mahua and Aonla trees were found to be much
less than other species. Thus, introducing these species in large areas/private land of
the farmer may be a viable option for minimizing the demand-supply gap and rais-
ing tree cover. There is an urgent need for time to develop strategies for the eco-
nomic gain of farmers and climate change reduction by tree farming.
Keywords Agroforestry · Demand-supply gap · Afforestation programs ·

Sustainability · Climate change reduction
22.1 Introduction
Nowadays, Indian agriculture faces severe challenges due to atmospheric changes,

increasing food demands, environmental degradation, and climatic challenges
(Dhyani et al. 2013; Singh 2024). Traditional on-farm tree wealth and knowledge
have shaped modern agroforestry, following scientific traditions for social and eco-
logical benefits (Singh and Dhyani 2014; Dogra and Chauhan 2016). Trees provide
socio-economic development and have a favorable role for Indian people. Many
trees are marked as sacred, and groves are recognized throughout the country
(Pandey 2007). Over the years, alternative energy sources have been generated, but
wood is still a prime energy source in the domestic sector. Biomass contributes 38%
of energy in growing countries (Woods and Hall 1994). These changes in ecology
and economics through on-farm trees are well documented and have traditionally
been followed. Still, there are divergent views on the area under agroforestry, which
need to be ascertained for ecosystem services (Dhyani 2014). The growing demand-
supply gap, especially in fulfilling day-to-day needs in rural areas, and the non-
involvement of stakeholders in the conservation of forests are the leading causes of
forest degradation (Mukherji 2001). Community lands fulfill the annual 250 million
tons of fuel-wood consumption (Singh 1990). The growing demand for timber in
22 Agroforestry Adoption in the Eastern Region of Uttar Pradesh, India: A Way… 447
India is for the revival of the economy, which is growing at over 6% annually, result-
ing in the fast expansion of middle- and upper-income level groups (Muthoo 2004;
Kumar et al. 2021; Kumar and Singh 2020). It is estimated that over 90% of total
wood availability for domestic and industrial uses is utilized by trees outside forests
in rural areas, especially from agricultural land and some from other outside sources
(Dhiman 2011). Hence, suitable timbers have been identified according to end
users’ needs and tree species’ wood properties (Rajput 1991).
Different parts of trees, viz. timber, and non-timber, are necessary for the rural
poor’s livelihoods. These are naturally cultivated in rural and urban areas and used
for several ecological and economic functions (Kleinn and Morales 2005; Singh
et al. 2023). Trees and other woody plants in the landscape serve to conserve bio-
logical diversity, offering shelter, food, and nesting homes (Waltert et al. 2005). It is
now being increasingly argued that the role of Trees Outside Forests (TOF) in pro-
viding food, wood, and fuel to rural masses, carbon sequestration, prevention of soil
erosion, biodiversity conservation, checking desertification, establishment of wild-
life corridors and microclimatic stabilization is quite substantial (Bhattarai 2000).
Trees outside forests attract attention due to the pressure mounting on the existing
forests due to increasing population and resource consumption (Plieninger et al.
2015). Unlike forests, TOF is present in varying densities and configurations on all
non-forest lands. Trees outside forests are predicted to have a huge role in combat-
ing climate change (Beckschafer et al. 2017). Tree Outside Forest cover is 5.44% in
the state of U.P., whereas in India, it is 8.91% (FSI 2021).
India’s productivity for timber is 0.7 cum/ha/yr, whereas the world contributes
2.1 cum/ha/yr (Manoharan 2011). Timber production from government forest areas
fulfills 3.35% of the demand, whereas major timber production is 45%, covered
mainly by ToFs (Vanam 2019). India is facing a shortage of timber availability from
national and international sources (ITTO 2004). The population of India is growing
fast, and the land-holding size of farmers is shrinking at a speedy rate. Thus, agro-
forestry is the only viable option to maximize the farm yield (National Agroforestry
Policy 2014). Therefore, a management system that possesses the potential to pro-
duce tree-based needs from marginal agricultural land is urgently required to main-
tain improved environmental quality (Dobriyal 2014). In India, 50% of the total
wood supply comes from non-forest sources, which shows that wood-based indus-
tries have a great challenge regarding raw materials for industries (Pandey and
Rangaraju 2008). India is one of the major producers of tropical logs among the
member countries of the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). Still,
wood availability from Indian sources to cover its increasing demand is signifi-
cantly less (Solanki 2017).
In India, the eastern region of Uttar Pradesh is facing a great challenge for mas-
sive tree plantations on farmlands; thus, the status of tree planting is primitive. To
overcome this challenge, adopting agroforestry is the only way to cultivate trees
with crops on available lands, thus reducing pressure on forests for the forest-based
needs of people. In the state of Uttar Pradesh, as per the latest report of (FSI 2021),
only 9.23% (6.15% forest and 3.08% tree cover outside forests) area is covered with
forest, including trees. Thus, sustainable tree availability in Eastern UP, especially
in the Gangetic Plain region, is challenging. Ballia is the region’s last district bor-
dering the state of Bihar. As per (FSI 2021), only 0.74% of forest is in the district,
including tree cover. Likewise, only 1.17% of forest cover is available in the Varanasi
district. Thus, studies were carried out in two districts viz. Ballia and Varanasi of
Eastern Gangetic plains of Uttar Pradesh to study the status of important trees out-
side forests (TOFs) in rural areas of different developmental blocks of the districts
as well as to assess the demand-supply gap of important trees of timber value for
recommendation in afforestation programs of the districts through farmers, state
forest department and other tree growers. The results will be further helpful for
selecting species in agroforestry in different district areas. The careful selection of
these species in agroforestry plantations by local people and various agencies will
lead to the long-term sustainable availability of these species. Agroforestry prac-
tices contribute much to carbon sequestration and reducing greenhouse gas emis-
sions. The trees accumulate CO2, the most predominant GHG in their biomass. The
relevant information on the carbon sequestration potential of important agroforestry
trees was gathered to focus on the relevance of trees in agroforestry as an alternative
economic opportunity for mitigating global climate change and carbon trading, in
addition to providing multiple associated benefits. Tables 22.1 and 22.2 reflects the
top tree species in rural and urban regions of Uttar Pradesh (FSI 2021)
Ballia is located in an agro-climatic zone in the eastern plain region of Uttar
Pradesh, which borders Bihar State. It is irregular in shape, extending westward
from the Ganga and the Ghaghra confluence. These two rivers separate Ballia and
Bihar by the deep streams. It is bounded on the west by Mau, on the north by
Deoria, on the northeast and southeast by Bihar, and on the southwest by Ghazipur.
The district lies between the parallels of 25°33′ and 26°11’ North latitudes and
83°38′ and 84°39′ East longitudes.
Varanasi is also situated in the agro-climatic zone of the eastern plain region of
Uttar Pradesh, bordering the districts of Jaunpur in the North, Ghazipur in the North
East, Chandauli in the East, Mairzapur in the South and Sant Ravidasnagar in the
West. The district is stretched between 82°56′E—83°03′E East longitude and
25°14′N—25°23.5′N North latitude.
Table 22.1 Top 5 species in S. No. Species Relative abundance (%)

ToF in rural region of 1. Mangifera indica 30.25
Uttar Pradesh
2. Eucalyptus spp. 18.52
3. Populus spp. 7.74
4. Azadirachta indica 4.90
5. Dalbergia sissoo 4.88
Table 22.2 Top 5 species in S. No. Species Relative abundance (%)

ToF in urban region of
1. Azadirachta indica 15.62
Uttar Pradesh
2. Mangifera indica. 12.03
3. Eucalyptus spp 10.64
4. Tectona grandis 4.95
5. Prosopis juliflora 4.12
22.2 Socio-Economic Study
A study for assessment of important trees outside forests in villages of selected

districts—Ballia and Varanasi was conducted for Teak (Tectona grandis), Shisham
(Dalbergia sissoo), Mango (Mangifera indica), Neem (Azadirachta indica),
Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus sp.), Mahua (Madhuca longifolia) and Aonla (Phyllanthus
emblica). The demand-supply status of important Trees Outside forests (TOFs) was
also assessed in selected villages of districts of Eastern Uttar Pradesh. The impor-
tant tree species of timber and firewood value were screened and were also impor-
tant for farmers. Dalbergia sissoo (Shisham), Tectona grandis (Sagaun), Acacia
nilotica (Babool), Mangifera indica (Mango), Azadirachta indica (Neem),
Bamboos, Madhuca longifolia (Mahua) and Eucalyptus were selected. In the
selected villages, 10% of households were involved in the survey, including farmers
of small, medium, large, and marginal categories, males and females covering the
age and caste of all groups to study the general information of villages, land use
pattern and demand-supply position of timber species planted in agroforestry. The
structured questionnaire was designed to collect data by surveying the villages and
conducting personal interviews with the sample respondents. Interviews were gen-
erally conducted in familiar places in villages where people of all categories, includ-
ing women, could sit collectively. The observations were grouped in respective
developmental blocks of the district covering selected villages. To calculate demand
position of timber, item-wise calculations of wood articles were performed. The
supply position of wood was also assessed with the help of farmer’s information and
transects exercise.
22.3 Sampling Method, Tools, and Techniques
A questionnaire was designed, and data sheets were tested in a village. The neces-
sary changes were added, and the questionnaire was updated to collect information
from the study sites. The villagers were assembled as a primary school, temple,
panchayat, etc., and surveyed regarding general details of village trees existing in
their village, especially on farm bunds, village roadside, pond side, homesteads, and
other locations. The demand and supply positions for timber and firewood were
recorded. The survey team and local people physically verified species-wise trees
using the transects method.
22.4 Observations and Calculations
The fieldwork was carried out as per the questionnaire in the selected areas. In
development blocks, species-wise, the number of trees was tabulated in respective
girth classes, viz. 0–30, 31–60, 61–90, 91–120, 121–150, 151–180, 181–210,
211–240, 241–270 and 271–300 cm. After combining data from all blocks, TOFs
per unit village in the rural area of the district were assessed. Based on per unit vil-
lage data, an assessment of trees outside of forests and the percent contribution of
trees in each girth class were also estimated for respective species (Manhas
et al. 2006).
District Ballia—The results of respondents covering general information about
studied villages for the type of houses, education, caste, annual income level, and
occupation status were analyzed. The results of the general details of the villages in
the respective blocks are depicted in Fig. 22.1. The villages were well connected to
the main road from the district headquarters and were equipped with essential facili-
ties. The connecting roads were good, and electricity facilities were available in the
villages. The average family size in the villages was from 5–7 members. In district
Ballia, about 23.65% of the respondents had kutcha houses (khaprail/sarpat), and
76.35% had pucca and RCC houses in the selected villages. The villagers were
Fig. 22.1 The graphs display the results of general details of villages in respective blocks
educated (47%), and the rest were in the illiterate category (21%) and highly edu-
cated category (32%) as well. The castes were categorized into three classes, viz.
SC/ ST, OBC, and others. The average data for studied villages were calculated at
22.41, 46.88 and 30.71% respectively. The villagers’ annual income showed that
most of the population (74.12%) belonged to the range of <1.0 Lakh, whereas the
respondents in other income groups viz. 1–3, >3–5 and >5 Lakh were 17.76, 7.47
and below 1%, respectively. The occupational status of the villagers was also stud-
ied in the surveyed area. The data showed that 50.94% of the villagers had agricul-
ture as their primary occupation, followed by labour (37.71%), service (7.62%) and
business (3.79%). Table 22.1 also reflects that only 14.29% of farmers were tree
growers. The timber and firewood needs of villagers were fulfilled from their trees
(20.71%) and market purchases (79.29%.).
Demand-supply gap of timber of tree species: The result depicts block-wise
demand, supply, and demand-supply gap status of timber for studies species in the
selected villages in the district. Figure 22.2 shows that for Teak, the highest
Fig. 22.2 Annual demand-supply gap (qt) of trees in blocks of Ballia district
Fig. 22.3 Total D-S gap of timber (qt) in blocks of Ballia
demand-supply gap was in Pandah block (84,427 qt) followed by Dubhad (75,218 qt)
and Belhari (44,600 qt). For Shisham (Fig. 22.2), the highest gap was depicted in
the Belhari block (76,400 qt) followed by Dubhad (69,622 qt). Likewise, Fig. 22.2
showed that for Mango, the gap was again highest in Pandah (189,854 qt) followed
by Belhari (178,400 qt) and Dubhad (160,270 qt). For Neem (Fig. 22.2), it was
recorded that the highest gap existed in Belhari (39,680 qt) followed by Pandah
(26,809 qt). For Babool (Fig. 22.2), the maximum demand-supply gap was found in
the Pandah block (45,809 qt), and for Bamboo, Fig. 22.2 showed that the highest
gap of 24,082 qt was found in the Pandah block. Figure 22.2 depicts that for Mahua,
the highest demand-supply gap was found in the Pandah block with 139,256 qt. For
Eucalyptus (Fig. 22.2), it was highest in the Pandah block (10,707 qt). The results
showed that the highest demand-supply gap was found in the Pandah, Dubhad, and
Belhari developmental blocks. The lowest demand-supply gap was found in
Navanagar block. It is shown in Fig. 22.3 that the highest overall annual demand-
supply gap for wood of all selected species exists in the Pandah block (545,180 qt),
followed by Belhari (458,160 qt). In contrast, the lowest gap was found in Navanagar
(49,599 qt), followed by Bairia (55,150 qt). Figure 22.4 gives an unmistakable pic-
ture of the demand-supply gap for studied species in the district. It was highest for
Mango (1,166,062 qt), followed by Mahua (548,406 qt), Shisham (451,866 qt), and
Teak (356,037 qt).
22.5 Trees Outside Forests in Rural Regions
The total enumerated tree species with respective girth classes in the district have
been depicted in Figs. 22.5 and 22.6. The results depicted the complete picture of
enumerated trees of selected species in the villages of different blocks of the Ballia
district. The most common tree species of the district included Teak (578,351),
Mango (433,320), Shisham (454,319), Neem (522,848), Eucalyptus (359,395),
Mahua (86,295) and Aonla (78,202) number of trees in different girth classes.
Fig. 22.4 Species-wise demand-supply gap (qt) in the Ballia district
Fig. 22.5 Trees species in Ballia district
Maximum Teak trees were found in 31.87% of the 0–30 cm girth class, 29.93%
were in 31–60 cm and 29.67% of the trees were in 61–90 cm girth class, which
comes under the immature timber category. Only 8.01% of the trees and 0.50%
were found in the mature category of 91–120 cm and 121–150 cm girth class,
respectively. This shows that despite the enormous demand for teak wood, its sup-
ply position is minimal. Hence, it carries a premium on its price. In the present
scenario, though its plantation is popular among farmers in agroforestry, more
attention must be paid to enhancing its acceptability by farmers undertaking exten-
sive plantations. Shisham was found in 31.42% of 0–30 cm, 24.05% of 31–60 cm,
27.50% in 61–90 cm, 12.25% in 91–120 cm, 4.01% of 121–150 cm and 0.05% in
151–180 cm girth class. The data showed that the farmers are taking up the Shisham
plantation, and its girth class distribution is balanced. It is second to Teak for its
timber value and popularity among farmers. Still, farmers are not taking up their
plantations in large numbers due to their mortality in water-logged conditions.
In the case of Mango, 18.12% of trees are in 0–30 cm girth class, 20.96% are in
31–60 cm, 18.08% in 61–90 cm, 6.01% in 91–120 cm, 13.46% in 121–150 cm,
5.62% in 151–180 cm, 10.40% in 181–210 cm girth class and other girth classes are
in less than 4% range. The girth class distribution of mangoes is comprehensive, and
villagers are not taking up its plantations in large numbers. The young plantations
are mostly ‘Kalmi’ varieties, which cater to the fruit value for commercial purposes,
Fig. 22.6 Girth—class-wise availability of different tree species in the Ballia district
while ‘Biju’ variety catered to the more fruit value for the downtrodden, timber,
firewood, and other intangible benefits. Out of total Neem trees, 21.57% trees were
in 0–30 cm girth class, 19.14% in 31–60 cm, 26.44% in 61–90 cm, 19.54% in
91–120 cm, 9.48% in 121–150 cm, 0.69% in 151–180 cm girth class.
For Eucalyptus, 22.31% are found in 0–30 cm girth class, merely 21.30% in
31–60 cm, 41.77% in 61–90 cm, 9.03% in 91–120 cm, 4.77% in 121–150 cm. and
other girth classes are negligible. Thus, to maintain the sustainable availability of
the species in the future, its young plantation should be taken up. Likewise, in the
case of Aonla, 33.38% of trees are in 0–30 cm girth class, 39.76% in 31–60 cm,
23.90% in 61–90 cm, and 2.94% in 91–120 cm.
For Mahua, 1.05% of trees are found in 0–30 cm. girth class, 2.66% are in
31–60 cm, 11.33% of trees are in 61–90 cm, 30.10% are in 91–120 cm, and 13.39%
trees are in 121–150 cm, girth class. The girth class distribution of Mahua is exten-
sive, and the villagers do not take up young plantations. The trees of Mahua were
primarily old, resulting in an important species of timber found rare in villages.
Most farmers have adopted teak from their farm bunds as an agroforestry species.
Most of the Teak trees are too young to be harvested. It is clear from tree enumera-
tion studies that young plantations of Mango, Neem, Mahua, and Shisham
were fewer.
Other assessed tree species were Jamun (Syzygium cumini), Babool (Acacia
nilotica), Pani gambhar (Gmelina arborea), Kathal (Artocarpus heterophyllus),
Arjun (Terminalia arjuna), Ashok (Saraca asoka), and Karanj (Pongamia pinnata).
The trees in this category were 565,617, and farmers were not adopting these trees
for crops or under agroforestry. The 25.89% of plants in this category were under
0–30 cm girth class and 20.86% were under 31–60 cm. girth class, 17.33% in
61–90 cm and 16.75% in 91–120 cm.
22.6 Varanasi District
The results of respondents covering general information about studied villages for
the type of houses, education, caste income level, and occupation status were ana-
lyzed. The results of general details of villages in respective blocks have been
depicted in Fig. 22.7a–d. The villages were well located and connected to main
roads from district headquarters and essential facilities. The connecting roads were
good, and electricity facilities were available in the villages. For drinking water,
government and private hand pumps were used by the villagers. The average family
size in the villages was from 5–7 members. In the district Varanasi, about 25.83% of
the respondents had kutcha houses (khaprail / sarpat), and 74.17% had pucca and
RCC houses in the selected villages. The villagers were educated (44%), the rest
were in the illiterate category (14%), and the highly educated category (42%) as
well (Fig. 22.1). The categorization of caste has been done into three classes viz.
SC/ST, OBC, and others. The average data for studied villages were calculated as
24%, 53%, and 23%, respectively. The annual income of respondents depicted that
the majority of the population (72.0%) was in the range of <1.0 Lakh, whereas the
percentage of respondents in other income groups viz. 1–3, & 3–5 and >5 Lakh
were 16.0, 7.0 and 2.0% respectively. The occupational status of the villagers was
also studied in the surveyed area. It was found that 50% of the villagers had agricul-
ture as their primary occupation, followed by labour (38%), business (7%), and
service (5%). Table 22.1 also reflects that only 34% of farmers were tree growers.
The timber and firewood needs of villagers were fulfilled from their trees (26%) and
market purchases (74%).
22.7 Demand-Supply Gap of Timber of Tree Species
Figure 22.8a–h depicts the block-wise demand, supply, and demand-supply gap sta-
tus of timber for study species in the selected villages in the district. Figure 22.8a
shows that for Teak, the highest demand-supply gap was in the Chiraigaon block
(41,833 qt), followed by Sevapuri (34,413 qt) and Badagaon (19,635 qt). For
Shisham (Fig. 22.8b), the highest gap was depicted in the Chiraigaon block
(62,238 qt), followed by Sevapuri (26,864 qt). Likewise, Fig. 22.8c showed that for
Mango, the gap was again highest in Chiraigaon (99,948 qt), followed by Sevapuri
(89,155 qt) and Badagaon (21,290 qt). For Neem (Fig. 22.8d), it was recorded that
the highest gap existed in Chiraigaon (83,406 qt), followed by Sevapuri (46,510 qt)
and Cholapur (20,018 qt). For Babool (Fig. 22.8e), the highest gap was found in the
Chiraigaon block (20,902 qt), and in the case of Bamboo, (Fig. 22.8f) showed that
the highest gap of 8374 qt was found in the Chiraigaon block. Figure 22.8g depicts
Mahua’s highest demand-supply gap found in the Chiraigaon block at 62538 qt. For
Eucalyptus (Fig. 22.8h), it was highest in the Chiraigaon block (15,762 qt). The
results depicted that the highest demand-supply gap was in the Chiraigaon, Sevapuri,
Cholapur, and Badagaon developmental blocks. The lowest demand-supply gap was
found in the Arajiline, Pindra, and Kashi Vidyapith block. It is clear from Fig. 22.9
that the highest overall annual demand-supply gap for wood of all selected species
exists in the Chiraigaon block (395,001 qt) followed by Sevapuri (264,370 qt). In
contrast, the lowest gap was found in Arajiline (41,434 qt) followed by Kashi
Vidyapith (46,235 qt). Figure 22.10 gives a prominent picture of the district’s
Fig. 22.7 The graphs display the results of general details of villages in respective blocks
Fig. 22.8 (a–h) Annual demand-supply gap (qt.) of tree species in developmental blocks of
Varanasi district
demand-supply gap for studied species. It was highest for Mango (278,858 qt) fol-
lowed by Neem (219,810 qt.), Mahua (175,587 qt), Shisham (136,792 qt) and Teak
(127,061 qt). The demand for Mango is comparatively very high as it is affordable
timber for most people. The availability of much less Biju (wood) variety of Mango
trees was found because farmers are interested in the kalmi (fruit) variety of Mango
Fig. 22.9 Total annual demand-supply gap (qt) of timber species in district blocks
Fig. 22.10 Species-wise annual Demand supply gap (qt) in district Varanasi
in their orchards for their fruit value. It is clear from the data that young plantations
of Neem were not much adopted by the farmers in the villages of the Varanasi dis-
trict. Shisham is the preferred wood of farmers, but its increased mortality and less
planting have increased demand. Likewise, Mahua is a slow-growing species and is
demanded by farmers for door and window-making works, but less plantation of
this species has created its great demand. Teak, a valuable timber, is in demand for
its quality and is less available in the region. The results indicated that based on
data, suitable species may be selected in afforestation programs of respective devel-
opmental blocks in the district for sustainable species availability in the future. The
farmers mainly depended on Mango, Shisham, Mahua, and Neem for their wood
requirements in the average income group till Rs. 5.0 lakh per annum. In the higher
income group of >Rs.5.0 Lakh people were also dependent on Teak for their timber
requirements.
22.8 Trees Outside Forests (TOFs) in Rural Areas

of Varanasi District
The total enumerated tree species with respective girth classes in the district has
been depicted in Figs. 22.11a–h and 22.12 The results depicted the complete picture
Fig. 22.11 Girth—class-wise availability of different tree species in the Varanasi district
Fig. 22.12 Tree species in Varanasi district
of enumerated trees of selected species in the villages of different blocks of the

Varanasi district. The most common tree species of the district included Teak
(272,390), Mango (86,648), Shisham (23,917), Neem (53,116), Eucalyptus
(24,851), Mahua (16,556), and Aonla (8795) number of trees in different girth
classes.
Teak trees were found in the highest number, 46.39% in the 31–60 cm girth class,
21.18% in 0–30 cm, and 24.65% tree were in the 61–90 cm girth class, which comes
under the immature category of timber. Only 7.42% of the trees and 0.35% were
found in the mature category of 91–120 cm and 121–150 cm girth class, respec-
tively. It clearly shows that despite the massive demand for Teak wood, its supply
position is minimal. Hence, it carries a premium on its price. In the present scenario,
though its plantation is popular among farmers in agroforestry, more attention must
be paid to enhancing its acceptability by farmers undertaking extensive plantations.
Shisham was found 12.41% in 0–30 cm, 23.15% in 31–60 cm, 37.39% in 61–90 cm,
20.85% in 91–120 cm, and 6.20% in 121–150 cm girth class. In case of Mango
5.80% trees are in 0–30 cm girth class, 11.32% are in 31–60 cm, 12.98% in
61–90 cm, 11.90% in 91–120 cm, 8.23% in 121–150 cm, 16.20% in 151–180 cm,
9.75% in 181–210 cm, 6.16% in 211–240 cm, 11.73% in 241–270 cm and 4.93% in
271–300 cm girth class. The girth class distribution of Mango was extensive, and
villagers did not take up large numbers of its plantations. The young plantations
were mostly ‘Kalmi’ varieties, catering to the fruit value for commercial purposes.
Meanwhile, ‘Biju’ variety catered to the more fruit value for the downtrodden, tim-
ber, firewood, and other intangible benefits. Out of total Neem trees, 21.57% trees
were in 0–30 cm girth class, 19.14% in 31–60 cm, 26.44% in 61–90 cm, 19.54% in
91–120 cm, 9.48% in 121–150 cm, 0.69% in 151–180 cm girth class. The results
showed that the farmers did not accept young plantations of Neem. For Neem trees,
9.54% trees were in 0–30 cm girth class, 20.49% in 31–60 cm, 18.46% in 61–90 cm,
20.81% in 91–120 cm, 14.28% in 121–150 cm, 7.11% in 151–180 cm girth classes
and other girth classes were in less than 4% range. The data showed that the farmers
did not adopt young plantations of Neem.
For Eucalyptus, 18.19% are found in 0–30 cm girth class, merely 14.63% in
31–60 cm, 24.15% in 61–90 cm, 25.54% in 91–120 cm, 9.78% in 121–150 cm,
4.41% in 151–180 cm and 3.30% in 181–210 cm. girth class. In the case of Aonla,
26.10% of trees are in the 0–30 cm girth class, 40.04% in 31–60 cm, 31.39% in
61–90 cm, and 2.47% in 91–120 cm. As a result, there is increased pressure for fuel
wood on timber and fruit species. For Mahua, 0.86% trees are found in 0–30 cm.
girth class, 10.65% are in 31–60 cm, 9.89% trees are in 61–90 cm, 11.27% are in
91–120 cm, 3.66% trees are in 121–150 cm, 13.95% in 151–180 cm, 9.31% in
181–210 cm, 9.65% in 211–240 cm, 15.51% in 241–270 cm and 15.25% in
271–300 cm. girth class. The girth class distribution of Mahua is extensive, and the
villagers do not take up young plantations.
The selection of species for tree plantation programs provides fuel-wood, timber,
fodder, etc., in the society and also optimizes land use, reduces pressure on protec-
tive and productive forests, increases the productivity of land, check soil erosion,
improve the environmental condition and maintain ecological balance, promote cot-
tage industries, regulate micro-climate conditions for maximum production of
ground vegetation (Tewari 1992). The lack of facilities discourages them from
adopting agroforestry. It may be advised to have a biomass bank where cultivators,
after harvesting and curing, may store and utilize the same per their needs. Mathur
et al. (1984) reported that forest biomass could be transformed into solid, liquid, and
gaseous fuels. They can be reformed by applied energy by available technologies.
The deficient species of the area may be identified out of existing species for tree
plantation programs. The demand for wood continued to increase with a higher
population and a growing demand for wood, resulting from the revival of the domes-
tic economy and the rapid expansion of middle and upper-income groups
(ITTO 2003).
Further, steps may be taken to identify multipurpose TOF species that are effi-
cient, ecologically, and financially suitable (Tewari and Ranjana 2004). With ade-
quate methodological inputs, the productivity of the lands can be increased using
cultivation practices of trees outside forests (Narain and Tewari 2005). TOF is less
studied than other wood resources and is not addressed explicitly in forest policies
and legislation. The current repressive legislation, intending to prevent farmers from
exploiting the TOF for wood, fuel and fodder, does not encourage farmers to develop
TOF at farm and landscape level (Christensen et al. 2005). Forest policies and leg-
islation must urgently adapt to these facts and promote techniques that can acceler-
ate the transformation of residual TOF into constructed parklands.
It was seen that Farmers have a common practice of integrating crops, trees, and
livestock to solve the problem of acute shortage of fuel, fodder, and other goods
(Bhatt 2002).. The farmers have few opportunities to select the tree species, so they
accept whatever is available on their land (Bhatt et al. 2010). The various problems
and constraints of agroforestry can be overcome through policy and institutional
reforms (Smith et al. 1998). Moreover, there is a deficiency in understanding bio-
physical concerns correlated with productivity, water-resource sharing, soil
productivity, and plant interactions in agroforestry systems since most of the

research is site-specific, observational in nature, and not process-oriented (Puri and
Nair 2004). The widespread promotion of environmentally friendly agroforestry
techniques is only possible by involving government, industries, NGOs, and farm-
ers (Verma et al. 2017). It is required to introduce special programs on adopting
agroforestry models for marginal and small farmers (Kumar et al. 2017).
22.9 Agroforestry in the Eastern Plain Region

of Uttar Pradesh
Agri-horti, silvi-horti and homestead systems were most common in the villages of
both districts. There was less thorough planting of trees on bunds/blocks in both
districts. The trees scattered on farms and around homesteads on vacant lands were
popular in agroforestry.
• The quality of planting material, maintenance and management of plantations,
and sale of timber produce were major hurdles in adopting agroforestry.
• In Varanasi, the distance of timber markets was 0.5–10 km, and the number of
tree growers in villages was 14–20 persons. Villagers’ timber and firewood needs
are fulfilled from their trees (26%) and market purchases (74%). In Ballia, villag-
ers’ timber and firewood needs are fulfilled from their trees (20.71%) and market
purchases (79.29%.). Most farmers are marginal in both districts in a range of
84–87%, followed by small (8–10%), medium and large categories.
• In Varanasi, 10.06% of land was used in horticulture, whereas in Ballia, it was
4.59%. The agri-silvi, agri-horti, silvi-horti, and homesteads agroforestry models
were prevalent in both districts. In the district of Varanasi, some medicinal plant
models were also observed. In both the districts, Teak and Mango were the most
preferred species in plantations. Besides these, Aonla and Neem were also favor-
able species.
• There was significant variation in the number of trees in all girth classes in both
districts. The scenario in the Ballia district was relatively superior to the Varanasi
district. The young plantations of Shisham and Eucalyptus were occasionally
recorded in the Ballia district.
• In the Ballia district, the supply gap was higher than in the Varanasi district. The
tree harvesting and sale methods of timber were not much known to villagers and
needed to be extended during future extension and training. Teak was the most
demanded timber species in both districts besides Mango and Neem. Biju trees
of Mango were significantly less in villages, and timber was in demand, but the
kalmi variety was in more demand for fruit.
22.10 Effect of Agroforestry on Climate Change
Agroforestry systems, trees, and crops contribute to CO2 sequestration (Singh and
Kumar 2022). The total amount sequestered in each component differs significantly.
It depends largely on many factors, including the type of system (and the nature of
components and plant age), site quality, and previous land use (Albrecht and Kandji
2003; Newaj and Dhyani 2008). The CSP of trees varies with species, structure, age,
and spatial distribution. For the most common tree density in the range of 312–800
trees/ha (usually preferred by the farmers in planted AFS), the CSP varied from 0.25
to 19.14 Mg C/ha/yr (Dhyani et al. 2016). The carbon storage in the world scenario
in AFSs ranged between 0.29 to 15.21 Mg C/ha/yr above ground and 30–300 Mg C/
ha in the soil (Nair et al. 2010). Thus, agroforestry acceptance is not only improving
the livelihood of farmers but also helping mitigate global warming by enhancing the
carbon sequestration potential of Indian agriculture (Dhyani et al. 2013).
In the present scenario, agroforestry’s role has become crucial for mitigating
climate change’s effect. Since the Kyoto Protocol allowed industrialized countries
with a GHG reduction commitment to invest in mitigation projects in the develop-
ing and least developed countries under clean development mechanisms (Kumar
et al. 2021a, b; Joshi et al. 2021). There is an attractive opportunity for prominent
agroforestry practitioners, especially the resource-poor farmers (Nair et al. 2009).
Its special report indicated that converting wasteland and grassland to agroforestry
has the best potential to soak atmospheric CO2 other than direct benefits (IPCC
2007; Devi et al. 2023). Since CO2 is the primary greenhouse gas, representing 77%
of total anthropogenic GHG emissions, its reduction is essential from the atmo-
sphere (Singh 2021). Carbon sequestration captures atmospheric CO2 and stores it
long-term through natural (soils/vegetation) engineering techniques (Schrag 2007;
Nautiyal et al. 2022). Among all the natural methods, agroforestry provides a win-
win opportunity to achieve the objectives of reducing climate change effects and
adaptation. Agroforestry is not basically meant for carbon sequestration; recent
research substantiates that agroforestry systems may help store carbon (Kumar et al.
2020a; Singh et al. 2021).. Most agroforestry models can sequester carbon, which
may vary according to tree species and management practices (Kumar et al. 2020b).
The CO2 reduction in the atmosphere can only be gained by shifting from lower
biomass land uses (e.g., grasslands, crop fallows etc.) to tree-based systems such as
agroforestry, forests, and plantation forests (Roshetko et al. 2007). The carbon
sequestration ability of tree-based systems is higher than that of other land-use sys-
tems except for forests. However, the CSP of an agroforestry system varies as per
the performance of tree species, age of the system, crop/variety, type of agro-climate
conditions, etc. The agro-climatic zones in India represent different agroforestry
systems, and their aboveground and belowground (soil) CSP varies between 0.25 to
19.14 Mg C/ha/yr and 0.003 to 3.98 Mg C/ha/yr, respectively. The ability of trees to
accumulate and sequester C may increase the tree cover to 33% in India. A system’s
carbon storage capacity depends on the tree species’ performance and varies from
region to region (Joshi and Singh 2020; Joshi et al. 2020). The mean carbon storage
ability in Indian trees is 25 t C ha−1 over 96 million ha (Sathaye and Ravindranath

1998). The carbon storage capacity of tropical agroforestry models has been
reported in the range of 12–228 Mg ha−1 with an average value of 95 Mg ha−1 (Singh
and Pandey 2011).
22.11 Conclusion
The systematic pattern incorporating economic trees outside forests in tree planting
is urgently needed to improve the status of tree cover and the economy of rural
people in the region. The extension and training programs include species selection,
tree planting patterns, nursery raising, quality planting material, maintenance of
plantations, and most importantly, the marketing of trees as end produce. In the
marketing or sale of trees, transit and felling permits issued by the forest department
are very important. The unawareness of rules and fear of administration discourages
farmers from widely adopting agroforestry in this region. It is now urgent to adopt
tree plantations massively in districts of the Eastern Plain zone to achieve our
national target of forest policy. Agroforestry adoption with suitable species of eco-
nomic value may improve the country’s forest and tree cover as per the national
target. The foresters, researchers, NGOs, and tree growers & traders are needed to
stand together more effectively for the massive success of the agroforestry program.
Further, to enhance the efforts of farmers, the sale of end products should be
strengthened with the involvement of project planners and wood-based industries.
Thus, adopting Trees outside of forests through agroforestry/afforestation programs
can be important carbon sinks besides ecosystem services and livelihood benefits.
Their contribution strengthens the strategies for both mitigation and adaptation.
References
Environ 2003(99):15–27
Beckschafer P, Schnell S, Kleinn C (2017) Monitoring and assessment of trees outside forests
(TOF). In: Dagar JC, Tewari VP (eds) Agroforestry. Springer Nature, Singapore, p 137
Bhatt VP(2002) Germination behaviour of Ficus spp. in Garhwal Himalaya. Ph.D thesis. HNB,
Garhwal University, Sri Nagar, Garhwal, pp 40–50
Bhatt VP, Purohit V, Negi V (2010) Multipurpose tree species of Western Himalaya with an agro-
forestry perspective for rural needs. J Am Sci 6(1):73–80
Bhattarai T (2000) Trees outside forests: the wood fuel production context, wood energy news,
wood fuel for non forest areas. RWDEP 15(1)
Christensen C, Jensen AM, Kone PD, Nygard R (2005) Trees outside forests in west-African dry-
lands inventories, growth measurements and management concepts. In: Tewari VP, Srivastava
RL (eds) Multipurpose trees in the tropics: management & improvement strategies. Scientific
Publishers, Jodhpur, India, pp 447–455
29(2):451–457
Dhiman RC (2011) Private sector in short rotation forestry: opportunities and challenges. Indian J
Ecol 38(special issue):27–34
Dhyani SK (2014) National agroforestry policy 2014 and the need for area estimation under agro-
forestry. Curr Sci 107:9–10
Dhyani SK, Handa AK, Uma (2013) Area under agroforestry in India: an assessment for present
status and future perspective. Indian J Agroforestry 15(1):111
Dhyani SK, Ram A, Inder D (2016) Review article potential of agroforestry systems in carbon
sequestration in India. Indian J Agric Sci 86(9):1103–1112
Dobriyal MJR (2014) Agroforestry practices for non-wood forest products and rural development.
In: Raj AJ, Lal SB (eds) Agroforestry: theory and practices. Scientific Publishers, p 540
Dogra AS, Chauhan SK (2016) Trees outside forests in India: socio-economic, environmental and
policy issues. In: Parthiban KT, Seenivasan R (eds) Forestry technologies—a complete value
chain approach, vol 1. Scientific Publishers, pp 84–100
FSI (2021). India State of Forest Report, published by Forest Survey of India, Dehradun
IPCC (2007) Climate change 2000: the scientific basis. Oxford University Press, Oxford
ITTO (2003) International Tropical Timber Organization, Indian timber market emerges as
Prospect and challenge for tropical timber sector. International Tropical Timber Organization,
Yokohama
ITTO (2004). Review of the Indian timber market, (Pre project report), PPR 68/04 (M), International
Tropical Timber Market
Kleinn C, Morales D (2005) Obtaining resource information on trees outside the forests: expe-
riences with inventory approaches in Central America. In: Tewari VP, Srivastava RL (eds)
Multipurpose trees in the tropics: management & improvement strategies. Scientific Publishers,
Jodhpur, pp 612–618
dence on forests to safeguard forests in Rainfed areas of India. In: Dhyani S, Gupta A, Karki
M (eds) Nature-based solutions for resilient ecosystems and societies. Disaster resilience and
green growth. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4712-6_17
Kumar Y, Thakur TK, Thakur A (2017) Socio-cultural paradigm of agroforestry in India. Int J Curr
Microbiol App Sci 6(6):1371–1377
Soil organic carbon pools under Terminalia chebula Retz. Based agroforestry system in
Himalayan foothills. India Curr Sci 118:1098–1103. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v118/
i7/1098-1103
Kumar M, Sweta NP, Singh H (2021) The role of communities in sustainable land and forest
management. In: Forest resources resilience and conflicts. Academic, Elsevier. https://doi.
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
Manhas RK, Negi JDS, Kumar R, Chauhan PS (2006) Temporal assessment of growing stock,
biomass and carbon stock of Indian forests. Climatic Change, Springer 74:191–221
Manoharan TR (2011) Supply determinants of timber trade in India. WWF Report India 15
Mathur RS, Kimothi MM, Gurumurthi K (1984) Quest for improving the production and avail-
ability of forest bio-mass—a review. Indian Forester 110(8):695
Mukherji AK (2001) Natural Resource Assessment through application of GIS—Paper in Asia
Geo Spatial meet, Malaysia
Muthoo MJ (2004) Review of the Indian timber market. PPD 49/02, International Tropical Timber
Organization (ITTO), Yokohama, Japan, pp 266
Nair PKR, Kumar BM, Nair VD (2009) Agroforestry as a strategy for carbon sequestration. J Plant
Nutr Soil Sci 172:10–23
Nair PKR, Nair VD, Kumar BM, Showalter JM (2010) Carbon sequestration in agroforestry sys-
tems. Adv Agron 108:237–307
Narain P, Tewari JC (2005) Trees on agricultural fields: a unique basis of life support in Thar
Desert. In: Tewari VP, Srivastava RL (eds) Multipurpose trees in the tropics: management &
improvement strategies. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, pp 516–523
National Agroforestry Policy (2014) Department of agriculture and co-operation. Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of India
Newaj R, Dhyani SK (2008) Agroforestry for carbon sequestration: scope and present status.
Indian J Agroforestry 10:1–9
Pandey DN (2007) Multi-functional agroforestry systems in India. Curr Sci 92(4):455–461
Pandey CN, Rangaraju TS (2008) India’s industrial wood balance. Int Forestry Review
10(2):173–189
Plieninger T, Hartel T, Martín-López B, Beaufoy G, Bergmeier E, Kirby K, Montero MJ, Moreno
G, Oteros-Rozas E, van Uytvanck J (2015) Wood-pastures of Europe: geographic coverage,
social–ecological values, conservation management, and policy implications. Biol Conserv
190:70–79
Puri S, Nair PKR (2004) Agroforestry research for development in India: 25 years of experiences
of a national program. Agrofor Syst 61:437–452
Rajput SS (1991) Wood utilization in household and rural industries. J Timber Assoc 37(4):13–16
Roshetko JM, Lasco RD, Angeles MSD (2007) Small holder agroforestry systems for carbon stor-
age. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Chang 12:219–242
Sathaye JA, Ravindranath NH (1998) Climate change mitigation in the energy and forestry sectors
of developing countries. Annu Rev Energy Environ 23:387–437
Schrag DP (2007) Preparing to capture carbon. Science 315:812–813
Singh SP (1990) Agro forestry research. Surya Publications, Dehradun
pp 336–361
Singh H (2024) Exploring adaptive modulation in plant functional traits and its impact on the pro-
ductivity of Acacia auriculiformis under CO2-enriched environment. Industr Crops Products
Singh AK, Dhyani SK (2014) Agroforestry policy issues and challenges. In: Agroforestry systems
in india: livelihood security & ecosystem services. Springer, pp 367–372
rent status and research needs. In: Rani S, Kumar R (eds) Climate change. Springer, Cham,
pp 223–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
Singh VS, Pandey DN (2011) Multifunctional agroforestry systems in India: science-based policy
options. RSPCB Occasional Paper No 4, pp 2–35
Singh M, Singh H, Kumar A, Kumar M, Barthwal S, Thakur A (2023) Soil nitrogen availability
Smith N, Dubois J, Current D, Lutz E, Clement C (1998) Agro-forestry experiences in the Brazilian
Amazon: constraints and opportunities. Federal Government of Brazil, p 67
Solanki S (2017) Identifying the determinants of timber supply in India and analysing the associ-
ated policy framework. Kaav Int J Econ Commer Business Manag 4(2):388–397
Tewari DN (1992) Tropical forestry in India. International Book Distributors, Dehradun
Tewari VP, Ranjana A (2004) Degradation of arid rangelands in Thar Desert, India: a review. Arid
Land Res Manag 19(1):12–12
Vanam B (2019) Timber trade in India-challenges and policies. Int J Multidiscip Res 5(12):119–122
Verma P, Bijalwan A, Dobriyal MJR, Swamy SL, Thakur TK (2017) A paradigm shift in agrofor-
estry practices in Uttar Pradesh. Curr Sci 112(3):509–516
Waltert M, Bobo KS, Sainge NM, Fermon H, Muhlenberg M (2005) From forest to farmland—
habitat effects on afrotropical forest bird ecology. Ecol Appl 15:1351–1366
Woods J, Hall DO (1994) Bio-energy for development: technical and environmental dimensions,
FAO Environment and Energy Paper 13, Rome
Chapter 23
Bamboo: A Fast-Growing Species
to Mitigate Carbon Footprint
Anugrah Tripathi, Shambhavi Yadav, Nishtha, Mathiuthonliu Nkengnamai,

and Ajay Thakur
Abstract Bamboo is a fast-growing, highly productive arborescent plant adaptable

to diverse site conditions. It is a potent tool for carbon sequestration, offering new
avenues for sustainable livelihoods and income generation within communities and
nations. Its resilience extends to thriving in various soil types, from organic-poor to
mineral-rich, and enduring extremes from drought to water-logged and flood-prone
environments. Bamboo exhibits remarkable resilience, from hot and humid rainfor-
ests to temperatures as low as −20 °C. At the ecosystem level, bamboo is crucial in
restoring degraded landscapes, controlling erosion, and safeguarding watersheds,
providing invaluable environmental services. Compared to other plantation species,
bamboo demands straightforward silvicultural practices for effective management.
Its rapid growth and substantial annual regrowth after harvesting give it a higher
carbon stock capacity. To achieve long-term goals such as reaching net-zero emis-
sions, developing economies like India must bolster climate action by conserving
forested areas, enhancing forest productivity, alleviating environmental stressors,
and implementing large-scale afforestation initiatives. Unlike plantations subject to
clear-felling, bamboo forests maintain about two-thirds of their aboveground and
entire belowground carbon for extended periods due to their recurring growth pat-
tern. This offers significant potential for increased carbon storage, especially with
improved bamboo cultivation and management practices. Key strategies include
selecting and conserving diverse areas for bamboo cultivation, prioritizing species
selection, refining nursery practices and micropropagation techniques, ensuring the
availability of quality planting material for plantations, monitoring bamboo species’
A. Tripathi
Monitoring and Evaluation Division, Directorate of Research, Indian Council of Forestry
Research and Education (ICFRE), Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
S. Yadav (*) · Nishtha · A. Thakur
Biotechnology Discipline, Division of Genetics and Tree Improvement, ICFRE-Forest
Research Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
M. Nkengnamai
Forest Research Institute Deemed to be University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Ltd. 2024
470 A. Tripathi et al.
flowering cycles, and disseminating knowledge to farmers, growers, and stakehold-

ers. These efforts are critical for maximizing bamboo’s role in carbon sequestration
and mitigating the impacts of climate change.
Keywords Bamboo · Carbon sink · QPM · Rotation age
23.1 Introduction
Bamboo is one of the most common and valuable plant species in the world’s tropi-
cal and subtropical areas, having been in close association with humankind for a
long. It is a common component of daily life in many extant ancient lineage civiliza-
tions, especially in Asia. Bamboo is a Poaceae (Gramineae) grass family member,
specifically the Bambusoidae subfamily. The subfamily constitutes herbaceous
(Olyreae tribe) and woody (Bambuseae tribe) bamboo. It is generally distributed in
tropical, sub-tropical, and temperate regions, in the latitudinal range from 46° N to
47°S (Lobovikov et al. 2007). Bamboo can grow luxuriantly in hot, humid rainfor-
ests and cold resilient forests, i.e., they can tolerate excessive precipitation from 32
to 50 in. and temperatures up to −20 °C (Goyal et al. 2010). East and Southeast
Asia, as well as islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans, harbor most bamboo spe-
cies. The United States, especially in the southern parts, has some members of the
Arundinariagenus as native species, and these mainly form dense canebrakes along
riverbanks and marshy areas.
Bamboo possesses 1642 species across the world (Vorontsova et al. 2016). India,
China, and Myanmar offer approximately 20 million hectares (Mha), 80% of the
world stock (Mishra 2015). The largest bamboo genetic resources comprise China,
Brazil, and India (Greco et al. 2015). It is a cheap, widely distributed, renewable,
adaptable, and rapidly expanding natural resource. Bamboos are perennial giant
grasses that can grow upto 30 cm (or 1 foot) per day and sometimes reach a height
of 100 ft (30 m). The stalks are round (rarely square), jointed, occasionally thorny,
and hollow or solid with evergreen or deciduous leaves. Bamboo culms are woody
and hollow between the nodes or the rings. These mainly grow from an underground
rhizome and form clustered branches. Some of the bamboos die after fruiting, and
some do not flower until they are about 30, i.e., showing a monocarpic nature. In
most bamboo species, vegetative reproduction mode is predominant, showing once-
in-a-lifetime flowering and seed production after a gap of 12–120 years. The two
general patterns for bamboo growth are “sympodial i.e. clump-forming”, and
“monopodial i.e. running”.
Monopodial bamboos such as Phyllostachys spp. have leptomorph rhizome sys-
tems where rhizomes are thin, spread horizontally, and shoots emerge far from each
other. Sympodial bamboos can easily be identified from tufted growth of the culms
23 Bamboo: A Fast-Growing Species to Mitigate Carbon Footprint 471
in a clump due to the emergence of shoots from the base of the same rhizome sys-
tem. In general, bamboos native to tropics and sub-tropics are sympodial, whereas
not all but some bamboos native to temperate regions is monopodial.
23.2 Economic Importance and Uses of Bamboo
As forest reserves are being depleted globally, scarcity of timber is becoming a big
concern. This is due to the long period even softwoods take to attain maturity.
Bamboo can reach maturity within a short period (only 2–3 years), making bamboo
one of the most critical forest products utilized by communities around the Asia-
Pacific regions. The characteristic growth habits and myriad uses make bamboos an
economic asset that impacts a region’s commercial growth and mitigates ecological
problems.
In rural areas, bamboo plants play a crucial role as a source of food. Various
palatable species and exciting food products (fermented shoots, pickles, etc.) and
edible products of bamboo shoots (bamboo beer, bamboo cookies) are consumed all
over the world (Gogoi et al. 2022). Bamboos also have significant applications in
the structural and construction industry. It is used as a structural unit in constructing
walls, frameworks, floors, doors, windows, doorframes, roofing, panels, and beams.
The jointed stem of bamboo is used as planks for houses and rafts and as scaffold-
ings at building construction sites. For developing as well as less developed coun-
tries, bamboo housing can be cost-effective; for example, construction of a housing
unit in a 10–15 m2 area may cost around 8000 Indian Rupees considering the per
meter square cost of approximately 300–400 Indian Rupees (Gogoi et al. 2022).
Bamboo shoots, leaves, seeds, bark, and extracts are used in the traditional medicine
systems of various Asian countries. Different bamboo species have been found to
possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant,
anthelmintic, and astringent activities (Gogoi et al. 2022).
Another prominent and influential usage of bamboos that has garnered indus-
trial interest is the development of composites and wood substitutes. Bamboo is
sliced into thin strips woven together to produce bamboo mats. Bamboo mats and
slivers are hot-pressed to create an extreme bamboo ply board that can be water-
resistant, allowing it to be used for almost all purposes where timbers are now used.
Bamboo-based composites are becoming popular, and several industries are pro-
ducing medium to high-density fibreboards and particleboards using bamboo or
waste from bamboo processing units (Abdullah et al. 2019). Besides this, incense
stick manufacturing units utilize bamboo at a large scale, especially in India.
Bamboo fiber-reinforced thermoplastics are another commercial segment involv-
ing polypropylene and acrylic production for utility and automobile products
(Abdullah et al. 2019). These bamboos are used for various purposes, such as
fodder for livestock, papermaking, furniture, flooring, walking sticks, fishing poles,
garden stakes, home decor, ornamentals, and textiles. Bamboo utilized in diverse
applications can no longer be categorized as a “minor forest produce” or a “non-
commercial species”. On the social front, the bamboo production sector can create
a means of subsistence and lower the poverty of marginal farmers. The develop-
ment and manufacturing of bamboo goods can help to establish a more socially and
economically stable environment. Bamboo can improve rural residents’ quality of
life and create new revenue streams for small businesses, social enterprises, and
community organizations. Figure 23.1 shows the uses and applications of bamboo
in different sectors.
Uses of Bamboos
• Soil Stabilization and Erosion Control
• Environmental Remediation
• Windbreaks
Forestry • Carbon Sequestration
• Commercial and Energy Plantations
• Landscaping
•Particle Board
• Medium Density Fiberboard (MDF)
• Corrugated Roofing Sheets
Wood Industry • Flooring and Mat Board
• Molding
• Beams and Poles
• Newsprint
Pulp and Paper • Bond Paper
Industry • Cardboard
• Charcoal
Bioenergy Industry • Firewood and Bio-fuel
• Briquettes and Pellets
• Bamboo Shoots
Food and Beverage • Bamboo Beer and Wine
Industry • Bamboo Tea &Bamboo Vinegar
• Chopsticks
• Weapons
• Toys and Baskets
Other uses • Furniture, Bridges and Fencing
• Animal Fodder
•Textiles
Fig. 23.1 Various uses of bamboo

23.3 Ecosystem Services of Bamboos
Bamboo, a fast-growing plant, is reportedly grown in 132 countries with 35 mil-

lion ha in area. Bamboo significantly contributes to the climate change scenario
through various levels, viz., the biomass can act as a carbon sink, the development
of different products from bamboo leads to carbon storage, and projects involving
bamboo in some form or the other earn carbon credits (Pan et al. 2023). Several
essential ecosystem services are provided by bamboo forests, viz. habitat for plant
biodiversity (Ramirez-Diaz and Camargo 2019), forest landscape restoration
(Camargo et al. 2018), purification of water (Chara et al. 2010), biomass and bio-
energy (Daza Montano et al. 2013) as well as carbon storage services (Camargo
et al. 2010). Figure 23.2 depicts the various ecosystem services provided
by bamboo.
Ecologically, bamboos play a massive role in producing oxygen and sequester-
ing carbon dioxide. Additionally, bamboo plantations and forests enhance ground-
water recharge and prevent soil deterioration. The amount of oxygen a tree or
bamboo produces is directly related to the amount of sequestered carbon. The for-
mula for calculating the net oxygen production of trees or bamboo is the following:
Fig. 23.2 Ecosystem services of bamboo

 kg    kg  
NetO 2 release  =  Net C sequestration   × 32  / 12
 Yr    Yr  
23.3.1 Water Services
Bamboo contributes significantly to water services and watershed protection and

helps supply freshwater. During rains, bamboo rhizomes and culms can act as
reservoirs and retain plenty of water which, in drought, is released back into the
ground or water-bodies. Surveys have demonstrated the remarkable restoration of
severely deteriorated soil (caused by extensive brick business) following bamboo
planting. With its massive network of roots and rhizomes, permanent canopy, and
quick development, bamboo is also an excellent tool for protecting soil. Bamboo
rhizomes are particularly helpful in stabilizing places prone to landslides, pre-
venting the erosion of slopes, riverbanks, degraded land, and binding soils. They
also help reduce the runoff rate and assist with water percolation (Yeasmin et al.
2015). Bamboos add a lot of organic stuff to the soil. Its numerous dried leaves,
branches, and stems aid in the flow of nutrients, preserving the physical and
chemical fertility of the soil. The soil became more porous with improved infiltra-
tion and reduced bulk density. Ecological processes like regulating water and
recycling nutrients were therefore reinstated. Bamboo forests also can swiftly
provide favourable habitats for numerous creatures. Additionally, bamboo may be
used in any mixed agricultural, agroforestry, and aquaculture system without
removing any natural vegetation.
23.3.2 Soil Services
Landslides cause soil degradation due to the loss of topsoil (organic component),
which significantly decreases soil productivity and causes soil erosion. One of the
most valuable characteristics of bamboo for controlling erosion is its extensive and
complex fibrous root system connected by a system of rhizomes, which retains the
soil and prevents it from being washed away when there are strong currents of
water. About 80% of the rhizomes and roots are found in the topsoil (0–30 cm),
where erosion is more efficient (Lin et al. 2000). This suggests that primarily woody
bamboo may be a helpful alternative for preventing landslides in vulnerable loca-
tions, including slopes, and lessening the effects of flooding on the banks of rivers
or other bodies of water by functioning as a natural barrier. Bamboo’s considerable
biomass input is another characteristic that sets it apart. It contributes considerably
to restoring soil productivity because it generates organic matter necessary for
nutrient availability. When it comes to recycling nutrients and preserving soil fertil-
ity, the amount, the time it takes to decompose, and the duration of its deposition all
matter. The biomass outputs significantly changed according to the species, age, and
geographic location. Some studies indicate that in a year, aboveground biomass
production can range from 7.4 to 158.8 t/ha (Taylor and Zisheng 1987).
Leaf litter decomposition is primarily regulated by the site’s physical environ-
ment, the kind and quantity of decomposing organisms present, and the chemical
content of the plant matter (Joshi et al. 2021). Bamboo decomposes litter more
slowly than other plants because of the substantial amount of silica it contains. This
causes litter to accumulate and form a mulch to help save soil moisture, promote
soil permeability, reduce surface runoff and erosion, and supply nutrients (Abhilash
et al. 2016). Nutrients, soil content, and availability seem to increase with older
plantations. In India, research on Dendrocalamus strictus revealed that over 1000
days are required for 95% of leaf litter to decompose. Additionally, 5-year-old plan-
tations have 98% more carbon and 67% more nitrogen than 3-year-old plantations,
but the older the plantation, the older the plantation. In soil microbial biomass, a
more significant percentage of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus is likely to be
immobilized (Singh and Singh 1999).
Strong social forestry practices are required when the dry zone is large, and there
are few or no economically significant woods. One species utilized in social forestry
is bamboo, which is also widely employed in parks, landslide regions, and drainage
channels in metropolitan areas.
23.3.3 Energy Services
Bamboo presents a possible alternative energy source for the future because of its
versatility, rapid development, and ecological advantages. Reliable power genera-
tion could be achieved by combining solar and wind energy with bioenergy systems
based on bamboo. The main research areas are enhanced growth techniques, genetic
optimization, and sustainable harvesting strategies. With its ability to reduce carbon
emissions, generate income, and promote sustainable development, bamboo is a
priceless resource for a more environmentally conscious and sustainable future.
Bamboo has excellent properties to replace mineral coal and wood charcoal and has
long been employed as a source of residential energy. Carbon footprints can be
reduced by using bioenergy in place of fossil fuels. The idea behind bioenergy was
to lessen reliance on fossil fuels while using renewable energy sources to meet the
issue of growing demand for energy (Gielen et al. 2019). Species selection is essen-
tial to produce bioenergy sustainably without compromising the environment or
food security. This is where bamboo enters into the mix. It may be cultivated as a
bioenergy crop to generate enough bioenergy feedstock while having little to no
adverse effects on the environment or food security.
Several features make bamboo an excellent crop for bioenergy. Being a fast-
growing species, it can be profusely available to store and sequester carbon faster
(Singh et al. 2021; Devi et al. 2023). Due to its ability to survive and grow in
degraded lands and its manifold uses, bamboos has been quite prevalent in local or
marginal communities. Thus, it can be developed as a preferred crop for multiple
applications. Since bamboos have a shorter rotation period, hence bamboo planta-
tions can raise surplus feedstock for power plants and biofuel generation. This will
help achieve the targets for renewable energy production and land restoration
(Sharma et al. 2018).
23.4 Carbon Sequestration and Carbon Sink Potential

of Bamboo
Carbon sequestration is the process by which atmospheric carbon is captured and

stored. Bamboo has various advantages over tree species in terms of sustainability
and its ability to fix carbon dioxide. Numerous bamboo species can grow more than
one meter daily, or 4 cm an hour. One newly planted big tropical bamboo plant can
trap two tons of carbon dioxide in just 7 years. By contrast, one ton of carbon diox-
ide will be sequestered in 40 years by an average hardwood tree. The biological
potential of bamboo is inherent in its fast-growing nature. No other plant grows as
aggressively as bamboo. Bamboo can absorb up to five times more CO2 than pine,
which is an essential indicator of the carbon sequestration ability of any forest sys-
tem. It is defined as the unit area’s carbon amount (Yadava and Thokchom 2014).
Up to 7 years can pass while the bamboo culm is still trapping carbon dioxide, and
even after it is harvested, the equivalent belowground biomass may endure and con-
tinue to add to the carbon sink.
According to reports, the average Guadua Bamboo clump will sequester 77 kg
of carbon annually over 7 years, compared to 22.6 kg of carbon sequestered annu-
ally over 10 years by tropical trees. Bamboo is considered beneficial for carbon
sequestration as it proliferates and has enormous potential to absorb greenhouse
gases. A single bamboo seedling put in the ground will grow into a cluster. One
newly planted big tropical bamboo plant can trap two tons of carbon dioxide in just
7 years. By contrast, one ton of carbon dioxide will be sequestered in 40 years by an
average hardwood tree. Bamboo can absorb up to five times more CO2 than pine
(Debnath et al. 2022).
Madake (Phyllostachys reticulata) and Moso (Phyllostachys edulis) are two spe-
cies of bamboo that grow quickly. A fresh bamboo shoot will go through multiple
quick-growth spurts before reaching its maximum height in less than a year. Faster
vegetative growth offers an infinite quantity of wood, which renders it a renewable
and sustainable resource. This is because only mature stems are chosen for harvest-
ing in bamboo farms; younger stems are left untended to continue maturing and
developing. It is possible to harvest about 20% of the entire plantation inventory
each year without endangering the plant or reducing productivity. The underground
root system persists, storing nutrients necessary for the growth of new culms.
Selective harvesting promotes the health and productivity of the bamboo forest.
Bamboo culms can be harvested in a wholly matured bamboo forest for 2–5 years,
depending on the species, diameter, and intended application. Oaks and other hard-
woods require several years to mature.
23.4.1 Carbon Sequestration by Bamboo Clumps
Compared to an equivalent stand of trees, this versatile plant provides carbon, up to

35% more oxygen, and emits less CO2. An acre of bamboo can store 62 tons of CO2
annually, and an acre of new forest may store 15 tons of CO2 annually. Compared to
identical stands of trees, bamboo stands with the fastest-growing canopy can reclaim
degraded soils. Some bamboo species can sequester up to 12 t ha−1, mitigate UV
radiation, and reduce light intensity. About 61.05 t ha−1 of carbon was found aboveg-
round in a 4-year study conducted in Northeast India on a mixed bamboo plantation
of Bambusa vulgaris, B. balcooa, and B. cacharensis. Compared to young forest
sequesters, which may store up to 15 t of CO2 yr−1, one hectare of bamboo can store
up to 62 t of CO2 yr−1 (Nath et al. 2009). Equivalent to the 10-year-old, rapidly
growing Casuarina equisetifolia (292.68 t ha−1) or Eucalyptus thermicornisplanta-
tion (254.97 t ha−1), the dry matter accumulation at the ages of 4, 6, and 8 years in
common thorny bamboo, Bambusabambos, has been reported to be 122, 225, and
286 t ha−1, respectively. Comparing the biomass accumulation of Tectona grandis,
Dalbergia sissoo, Grevillea robusta, or Acacia nilotica at 10 years of age, Singh
et al. (2004) found that the biomass accumulation by Dendrocalamus strictus at 3
years of age is significantly higher per hectare. Bamboo has an estimated 3:1 ratio
of above to below-ground biomass, and around 50% of total biomass very often
makes up the overall carbon content. Compared to other woody species, bamboo
may be harvested annually, and throughout the past 20 years, it has become a sig-
nificant substitute for wood.
In a bamboo forest, the energy stored in culms from the previous year’s photo-
synthesis is transferred to the young shoots, causing them to expand. In bamboo,
carbon sequestration is determined mainly through older growth of earlier seasons
and not new shoot growth; hence, new shoot growth is not considered consistent in
measuring the carbon sequestration rate (Magel et al. 2005). During the shoot emer-
gence period, more growth inputs are required by the bamboo; hence, a high carbon
sequestration rate is observed with higher growth.
Bamboo proliferates and exhibits a high regrowth tendency after harvesting.
Therefore, it makes sense that its plantations function differently from those of other
tree species. The yearly capacity to sequester carbon in the understory and litter
layer of heavily managed bamboo plantations or forests reaches up to 0.546 t C/ha
and 6.114 t C/ha, respectively, or twice or thrice the capacity of bamboo forests that
are closely managed (Zhou et al. 2006)
Fig. 23.3 Biomass and Carbon Storage in Bamboos. Numbers in brackets depict respective stud-
ies as (1) Isagi et al. (1997); (2) Suzuki (1989); (3) Quiroga et al. (2013); (4) Kumar et al. (2005);
(5) Singh and Kochhar (2005), and (6) Uchimura (1978)
Bamboo accounts for its substantial biomass accumulating capacity, increasing

its ability to act as a sink rather than a source in the ecosystem, especially during the
early growth period. Some species with considerably high biomass and carbon
stock are reported (Fig. 23.3). Lei bamboo forest (Phyllostachys violascens) is a
carbon sink most of the year; this pattern is quite different from temperate and
boreal forests, which are carbon sources during the nongrowing season. From the
perspective of diurnal variations, Lei bamboo and Moso bamboo forests serve as
carbon sinks during most daytime periods (Chen et al. 2019).
23.4.2 Carbon Storage by Bamboo-Based Products
More than 90% of the carbon in bamboo is captured allowing it to be kept in durable
products, including paper, flooring, panels, furniture, textiles, and activated char-
coal. Though its contribution to carbon sequestration is small, bamboo’s decay-
resistant litter helps. Carbon sequestration depends on these items’ longevity
(Seethalakshmi et al. 2009).
Bamboo’s ability to store carbon can be extended by the longer lifespan of sturdy
bamboo products made possible by contemporary technology, which can guarantee
that the carbon sequestered will not quickly return to the atmosphere. Bamboo prod-
ucts’ efficacy in storing carbon may be significantly influenced by their lifetime and
durability. The lifespan of a single culm in a natural forest is restricted to 7–10
years, after which it biodegrades, releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere,
which is then compensated by its rapid sequestration ability through its growth.
Conversely, an extensive array of bamboo products, ranging from pulp to building
materials, provides long-term carbon sequestration (Liese 2009). Reducing waste
and byproducts while processing bamboo is crucial, as is creating long-lasting bam-
boo goods. The worldwide effort to support the low-carbon industry can also benefit
from developing and promoting durable products.
A substantial contribution to mitigating climate change can be made using har-
vested bamboo in the building construction industry. Because of its capacity to store
carbon, bamboo has the potential to have the least negative influence on the climate.
It could even result in a net carbon removal when used in construction. Life cycle
analysis was used by Van der Lugt et al. (2015) to analyze flattened bamboo flooring
boards, ply bamboo panels, and strand woven bamboo created from Moso bamboo
that was processed and cultivated in China before being offered for sale in Europe.
All products have a negative carbon footprint, they concluded. Additionally, bam-
boo goods can lessen our carbon footprint by providing a low-carbon substitute for
materials with high emissions, such as concrete, steel, and PVC. When it comes to
greening major new infrastructure projects, they can play a significant role.
23.4.3 Bamboo Phytolith Carbon Storage
Phytoliths also referred to as plant opal, are silicified features formed due to biomin-
eralization within plants and are very resistant to decomposition and accumulate in
the soil as a fraction of soil organic matter (SOM) for thousands of years after plant
decomposition (Parr and Sullivan 2005); thus, they can act as a safe carbon sink.
Bamboo is suggested as a proficient phytolith accumulator due to its high phytolith
carbon storage. According to Parr et al. (2010), it can store 11% of the current
increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide by sequestering around 1.5 billion tons of
carbon dioxide equivalent year−1 within phytoliths worldwide. Studies from China
have shown that carbon dioxide sequestration rates of up to 0.7 ha−1 yr−1 in bamboo
leaf litter through phytolith carbon bio-sequestration have higher phytolith concen-
trations in bamboo than in other vegetation types. However, the phytolith carbon
sequestration rate of Indian bamboo remains unknown (Parr et al. 2010). Establishing
bamboo forests through vegetation management can optimize phytolith-occluded
carbon production, enhancing bio-carbon sequestration and aiding in climate change
mitigation (Parr et al. 2010). Henceforth, bamboos have the potential to reduce cli-
mate change significantly and sequester carbon due to their quick growth and adapt-
ability. Additionally, they support environmental services and rural living.
Integrating bamboo cultivation with carbon trading can manage agroforestry and
forest ecosystems while generating revenue for rural populations. When combined
with bioenergy carbon capture and storage, sustainable forestry presents a specific
approach to mitigate climate change impacts.
23.4.4 Carbon Storage by Biochar
Biochar is a type of charcoal that results from a pyrolysis process, i.e., heating
organic materials without oxygen. This process converts organic material into char-
coal, used in sustainable agriculture and soil work. Biochar enhances soil health by
minimizing nutrient leaching, improving water retention, and fostering a conducive
microenvironment for beneficial microorganisms, promoting robust root growth.
Furthermore, it is a long-term carbon storage solution, with up to 50% of plant tis-
sue carbon converted into biochar. At the same time, the remains is utilized for fuel
and energy production. Biochar acts as a carbon sink and an efficient fertilizer
(Glaser 2007).
The UNFCCC had emphasised the role of soils in sequestering carbon through
inclusion of biochar usage as well as increasing carbon sink in dry lands during the
Copenhagen meet 2009. Biochar can be utilized as an effective medium to store
carbon as it has over a thousand years of average resident time (Lehmann and Joseph
2009). Stability is a crucial factor to consider when assessing bamboo biochar’s
potential advantages. According to Steinbeiss et al. (2009), biochar generated dur-
ing hydrothermal pyrolysis has the potential to augment the carbon stock in soil.
Nevertheless, the pace of degradation is contingent upon the type of biochar, which
is linked to its chemical structure and condensation grade.
23.5 Threats
Bamboo is crucial for rural communities to sustain their livelihood, but overexploit-
ing bamboo resources is a big challenge. In some undeveloped rural areas, commu-
nities are either over-harvesting the bamboo resources or adopting faulty silvicultural
and tending operations due to a shortage of knowledge. As a result, bamboo diver-
sity and productivity are seriously declining. Secondly, due to the pressure of
increasing population worldwide and subsequently, the need to increase the produc-
tion of agricultural products has eventually cleared privately-owned bamboo forest
areas (Zhou et al. 2005).
Land use changes in pasture lands result in decreased grazing areas for cattle.
Hence, the local people send their cattle to graze in the bamboo areas. The animal
then consumes all new sprouting shoots and tramples on them, leading to their
death. Predicted changes in precipitation patterns during the dry season, weather
fluxes, and widespread anthropogenic disturbances significantly decrease bamboo
distribution and biomass. The weather variability leads to changes in the area’s veg-
etation (Zhou et al. 2005).
Bamboo offers favorable conditions for wildfire emergence and expansion due to
numerous culms and dry leaf litter, which deteriorates bamboo resources. Some
anthropogenic activities like honey production procedures, use of fuelwood and
firewood, smoking habits, and some cultural activities by tribals are the major
causes of wildfire outbreaks.
Good silvicultural practices and post-harvest technology are also lacking for
various bamboo growers. The research and development of bamboo products are
also limited, so most bamboo manufacturers are small-scale enterprises that pro-
duce conventional products. Moreover, manufacturing bamboo products lacks com-
petitiveness in consumer markets, which majorly depletes precious bamboo
resources (Negi and Naithani 1994).
Bamboo exhibits an unusual life cycle because of its monocarpic nature. The veg-
etative growth phase varies from 1 year to 120 years; some species have never been
known to flower. Although some bamboos flower and seed frequently, most species
only flower once at the end of their 20 to 40-year lifespan. Depending on the flowering
cycle, the bamboo can be categorized as annual flowering bamboos
(Indocalamuswightianus, Ochlandra sp.), sporadic or irregular flowering bamboos
(Chimonobambusa sp., D. hamiltonii), and gregarious flowering bamboos (D. strictus,
B. bambos, B. tulda, T. spathiflora) (Das et al. 2008). Bamboo flowering and seed
production occur very rarely. Most species experience gregarious blooming over large
areas, and the bamboo dies in mass quantities. The seeds produced then regenerate the
new bamboo population, but the collection and viability of bamboo seeds are also
challenging. This mass flowering and die-off sometimes poses a challenge to commer-
cial applications of bamboo, its fodder values, and the protection of bamboo habitats.
Bamboo is being touted as a potential raw material for several industries but is
still under-utilized and catering only to traditional sectors. Most bamboo was used
as a raw material in the pulp and paper industry. Still, most bamboo is used as a raw
material in the stick industry and energy sector. There is still a challenge in the con-
struction sector where unprocessed bamboo culms in large amounts in temporary
structures, scaffolding, fencing, and staking are still being used.
23.6 Sustainable Cultivation and Management of Bamboo
Cultivating bamboo involves raising plantations for maximum return with optimum
inputs. Bamboo cultivation is a long-term program of 30–40 years; hence, planning
should be based on a more extended cultivation period. Bamboo harvesting starts
from year five and can continue till flowering; eventually, flowered bamboo dies
after the seed set. Bamboo cultivation on farmland is relatively new, and limited
reports are available on this aspect (Thakur and Tripathi 2021).
1. In the case of sympodial bamboo species, felling should be regulated by the
‘Culm Selection System’. A certain proportion of older culms to the number of
new culms should be retained in the clump to provide stability to the new culms.
Peripheral cuttings or cutting of top portions of culms only in the case of thorny
species like Bambusaarundinacea and Bambusablumeana would make the
clumps congested. Two methods of cutting congested clumps/dense over-

crowded clumps are indicated. The culms in a clump should be thinned out
from the very inception and culms spaced. This prevents congestion, provides
space for working, and allows adequate space for new shoots to come
UP. Moisture conservation techniques followed by fertilizer application should
be adopted for new regenerations consequent to flowering.
2. Various bamboo will be improved by selecting candidates plus clumps and elite
clumps, establishing a germplasm bank, quantifying genetic diversity, and
developing a suitable propagation protocol for micropropagation and micro-
propagation. These steps ensure the supply of quality planting material for bet-
ter productivity and conserving genetically diverse populations.
3. Selection of high-yielding clones and suitable agro-techniques for raising bam-
boo plantations for higher productivity.
4. There should be a diversification of the utilization of bamboo species according
to the various sectors, and research on bamboo’s morphological and anatomical
properties should be carried out.
5. Cultural operations such as removal of dead and crooked stems, spacing of
clumps, moisture conservation methods, and fertilizer application must be
resorted in the older clumps.
6. Given the dwindling resources of bamboo, captive plantations should be
planned to meet the needs of the rural and cottage industries with appropriate
planting techniques, aftercare, and fertilizer treatment. Bamboo should be the
principal species planted in the reservoirs’ foreshore areas between the high
and mean flood levels. Intensive planting of bamboo should be encouraged in
the agricultural sector and homesteads by providing planting materials and
technology to farmers through the Forestry Extension Service.
7. Bamboo should be one of the principal 11 species for peripheral and contour
strip planting in shifting cultivation areas as they would act as suitable wind
belts and arrest soil erosion.
8. Install a grading system for classifying bamboo according to age, height, and
thickness to ensure better prices and provide incentives to grow and supply
bamboo of the required maturity, quality, and species.
9. Development of processing machinery suitable for Indian bamboo species, pro-
ducing quality products at a competitive price.
10. The proper linkage between farmers & growers, cottage industry/ artisans, and
marketing agencies must be established by envisaging a holistic developmental
plan for the bamboo industry.
11. The major policy shift towards farm-based supplies from forest-based bamboo
resources, so the industry should get bamboo constantly and of good quality.
Excellent and improved practices should be embedded into cultivating and har-
vesting natural resources.
12. Commercialization of bamboo as an enterprise at the farmer’s level. Bamboo
should be put into the industrial pedestal with appropriate tie-up arrangements
with bamboo-based industries viz. paper, handicrafts and the newly emerging
areas of eco-friendly products e.g. housing, tiles, flooring, bamboo shoots etc
13. Increasing the availability of planting material to the farmers through the devel-
opment of improved storage facilities for bamboo seeds and vegetative propa-
gules and strengthening the supply chain of quality plant material.
23.7 Policy and Governance
To fully realize the potential of the bamboo industry and guarantee its vibrant
growth, structural changes must be implemented in the areas of appropriate land
uses, easing the regulations governing bamboo transit and access, technology
advancement, product adaptation and distribution, support for managed plantations
on private and public lands, and the creation of links between the market and prod-
ucts. Different agroforestry models should highlight Bamboo’s capacity to boost
soil moisture and nutrients and lessen water flow and soil erosion after shifting
agriculture.
Given bamboo resources’ existing and future industrial, social, and environmen-
tal significance, sustainable usage deserves particular attention. There is no orga-
nized market for bamboo products, even raw and traditional bamboo. Advertising
framework. Many bamboos remain untapped, especially in areas where transporta-
tion is challenging. Bamboo cultivation, marketing, and management are all viable
means of subsistence for those living in rural areas. Managing bamboo alongside
forest dwellers and applying ethnobiological knowledge from tribes for sustainable
use. Processing bamboo is primarily done at home for handicrafts and other pur-
poses; as an industry or source of revenue, it is still in its infancy, particularly in
rural areas. As a result, numerous countries ought to continue creating administra-
tive standards to guide a favorable commercial climate that reaps the local and
worldwide demand for bamboo.
Bamboo has excellent potential to address societal and environmental concerns.
Although India has the largest bamboo-bearing area worldwide, the productivity
level of bamboo forests is still lower. In 2017, the Government of India, by amend-
ing the Indian Forest Act 1927, exempted bamboo grown in non-forest areas from
the felling/transit permit requirement to increase bamboo cultivation. It is a para-
digm shift towards the commercialization of bamboo as an enterprise at the farmer’s
level. It will indeed generate opportunities for the communities, farmers dwelling in
the rural areas and fringes of the forests, and bamboo-utilizing industries for
the bamboo.
To save native bamboo plants and maintain their natural environments, the
“National Bamboo Mission” was founded by the Indian government (NBM) based
in the Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi, in 2006 to optimize the country’s produc-
tion potential. Among the various objectives of the Mission was to expand the forest
and non-forest areas covered by the appropriate plant species. NBM mainly focuses
on the development of the complete value chain of the Bamboo sector to link grow-
ers of bamboo with consumers for planting material, plantation, harvesting facili-
ties, processing, marketing, micro, small & medium enterprises, skilled human
resources, and brand building initiatives. The Government of India restructured the
National Bamboo Mission (NBM) during 2018–19 as a Centrally Sponsored
Scheme (CSS).
With cutting-edge technologies, there is enormous potential to boost value addi-
tion, improve the quality of extracted bamboo, and escalate bamboo resources and
productivity. According to the Planning Commission of India (2003), value-added
products and applications in manufacturing, building, utility, and craft products, the
food industry, energy needs, and the production of charcoal and activated carbon
suggest that there is potential for economic activities.
Another policy initiative of the Government of India is that the “export prohibi-
tion” on bamboo charcoal was lifted in May 2022. It is a move that would facilitate
optimum utilization of raw bamboo and higher profitability in the Indian bamboo
industry.
23.8 Future Prospects
However, policy is needed to realize the intended benefits at the national and inter-
national levels. The increased awareness towards the bamboo potential, the right
choice of species, availability of quality planting material, reasonable costs and
inputs, assured pricing with buyback mechanism, marketing potential, making
essential components of several government-sponsored sustainable development
programs, etc. are the desired doable for promoting bamboo-based interventions.
The scope of bamboo as an abio-power crop is increasing with advancements in
converting bamboo biomass to biofuel. There is enormous market potential along-
with the efficient and cost-effective technologies. Recently, the conversion of bam-
boo biomass to aviation fuel is also been tried in many countries.
There is scope for adopting bamboo in the National Green Highway Mission to
develop green corridors to reduce dust pollution, soil erosion, and glare. With
regulated harvesting, the highways can generate tremendous biomass and biofuel.
Due to easy approachability, the bamboo plantation on the unutilized Right of
Way (ROW) can be developed as a seed production setup for large-scale planta-
tions in the country. About one million hectares of ravine land in India can easily
be put into bamboo as a biopower crop. It can also help meet the target of the
Green India Mission, Land degradation neutrality, and other SDG goals in addi-
tion to carbon sequestration and climate resilience. A significant area under the
revenue department and CPRs also offers scope for bamboo biomass production,
and a parallel industrial orientation and development is necessary to actualize
tangible benefits.
In the global scenario, one of the leading causes of global warming is the release
of carbon into the environment because of human, industrial, and technological
growth. It is estimated that to avoid climate change’s damaging and severe effects,
the global greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere should be stabilized at 445–490
parts per million CO2e (CO2 equivalent) or even lower levels. It is acknowledged in
the 1997 Kyoto Protocol of the Climate Convention that the only feasible method of
reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is to extract it from the air and use it
as biomass. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has
urged the inclusion of bamboo-based carbon accounting techniques in agreements
on carbon market mechanisms. Bamboo’s rapid advancement and adaptability have
the potential to reduce the effects of climate change significantly.
23.9 Conclusion
Bamboo is a precious resource, offering substantial economic, ecological, and envi-

ronmental benefits. It aids rural livelihoods, contributes to forest preservation, and
addresses environmental concerns. However, unsustainable human consumption
patterns place increasing pressure on bamboo resources. Recognizing bamboo’s
vital role, it deserves equal regard to premium timber due to its economic signifi-
cance. The comprehensive quantification of bamboo resources is still lacking espe-
cially in Indian context. This study fills this gap by assessing bamboo distribution
based on density and site quality, facilitating strategic management planning.
Moreover, it provides insights into growing stock estimates by age and condition
classes, assessing bamboo production potential and informing management strate-
gies. Scientifically guided harvesting practices, maximizing resource utilization,
and preserving genetic diversity are crucial recommendations. Scientifically man-
aged bamboo plantations, characterized by rapid growth and high biomass produc-
tion, have the potential to serve as effective carbon sinks, holding immense
importance in global climate change mitigation efforts.
References
Abdullah WG, Rianse U, Maruf A, Rianse IS, Widayati W, Baka WK, Indira RW (2019) Potential
use of bamboo to support village independence. Int J Sci Technol Res 8(3):99–105
Abhilash PC, Tripathi V, Edrisi SA, Dubey RK, Bakshi M, Dubey PK, Singh HB, Ebbs SD (2016)
Sustainability of crop production from polluted lands. Energy Ecol Environ 1(1):54–65
Camargo JC, Rodriguez JA, Arango AM (2010) Crecimiento y fijación de carbonoen una plant-
ación de guaduaen la zona cafetera de Colombia. Recursos Naturales Ambiente 61:86–94
Camargo JC, Arango AM, Maya JM, Bueno L (2018) Latin America. Bamboo for land restora-
tion. Drawing recommendations and best practices from case studies where bamboo has been
used for land restoration: China, Colombia, Ghana, India, Nepal, South Africa, Tanzania and
Thailand. Beijing. pp 54–67
Chara J, Giraldo-Sanchez LP, Chara-Serna AM, Pedraza GX (2010) Benefits of Guadua angusti-
folia riparian corridors in the protection of aquatic corridors in the Coffee. Recursos Naturales
Ambiente 61:60–66
Chen L, Liu Y, Zhou G, Mao F, Du H, Xu X, Li P, Li X (2019) Diurnal and Seasonal variations
in Carbon fluxes in Bamboo forests during the growing season in Zhejiang Province, China. J
For Res 30:657–668
Das M, Bhattacharya S, Singh P, Filgueiras TS, Pal A (2008) Bamboo taxonomy and diversity in
the era of molecular markers. Adv Bot Res 47:225–268
Daza Montano C, Zwart R, Camargo Garcia JC et al (2013) Torrefied Bamboo for the import of
sustainable biomass from Colombia
Debnath N, Nath AJ, Majumdar K, Das AK (2022) Carbon Farming with Bamboos in India:
opportunities and challenges. Int J Ecol Environ Sci 48:521–531
Devi N, Thakur A, Singh H (2023) Allometric equations for evaluating above-ground biomass and
carbon storage capability of Indian bamboos: review approach. Ecol Environ Conservation
29(2):451–457
Gielen D, Boshell F, Saygin D, Bazilian MD, Wagner N, Gorini R (2019) The role of renewable
energy in the global energy transformation. Energ Strat Rev 24:38–50
Glaser B (2007) Prehistorically modified soils of central Amazonia: a model for sustainableagri-
culture in the twenty-first century. Philos Trans R Soc B 362:187–196
Gogoi R, Singh SB, Feroze SM, Choudhury A, Hemochandra L, Tyngkan H (2022) Utilization
pattern of Bamboo in North Eastern Region of India. Indian J Extens Educ 58(2):115–119
Goyal AK, Middha SK, Usha T, Chatterjee S, Bothra AK, Nagaveni MB, Sen A (2010) Bamboo-
infoline: a database for north Bengal Bamboo’s. Bioinformatics 5:184–185
Greco TM, Pinto MM, Tombolato AFC, Xia N (2015) Diversity of bamboo in Brazil. J Trop
Subtrop Bot 23:1–16
Isagi Y, Kawahara T, Kamo K, Ito H (1997) Net production and carbon cycling in a bamboo
Phyllostachys pubescens stand. Plant Ecol 130:41–52
of Far-Western Nepal. Eur J Soil Sci 10(2):96–104. https://doi.org/10.18393/ejss.825066
Kumar BM, Rajesh G, Sudheesh KG (2005) Aboveground biomass production and nutrient uptake
of thorny bamboo [Bambusabambos (L.) Voss] in the home gardens of Thrissur, Kerala. J Trop
Agric 43:51–56
Lehmann J, Joseph S (2009) Biochar for environmental management: science and technology and
implementation. Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group
Liese W (2009) Bamboo as a carbon sink—fact or fiction? VIII World Bamboo Congress
Proc 3:71–77
Lin Y, Li H, Lin P (2000) Biomass structure and energy distribution of Dendrocalamus.
Lobovikov M, Paudel S, Piazza M, Ren H, Wu JA (2007) World Bamboo resources: a thematic
study prepared in the framework of the global forest resources assessment 2005. Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
Magel E, Kruse S, Lütje G, Liese W (2005) Soluble carbohydrates and acid ivertases involved in
the rapid growth of the developing culms in Sasapalmata (Bean) Camus. Bamboo Sci Culture
Baton Rouge/USA 19(1):23–29
Mishra V (2015) Bamboo and its connectivity to the different fields of economics: a potential
resource of modern India. Int J Innov Res Dev 4:140–145
Nath AJ, Das G, Das AK (2009) Above-ground standing biomass and carbon storage in village
bamboo in North East India. Biomass Bioenergy 33:1188–1196
Negi SS, Naithani HB (1994) Handbook of Indian bamboos. Oriental Enterprises, Dehradun, 234
p. Tewari, D.N. 1992
Pan C, Zhou G, Shrestha AK, Chen J, Kozak R, Li N, Li J, He Y, Sheng C, Wang G (2023) Bamboo
as a nature-based solution (NbS) for climate change mitigation: biomass, products, and carbon
credits. Climate 11:175
Parr JF, Sullivan LA (2005) Soil carbon sequestration in phytoliths. Soil Biol Biochem 37:117–124
Parr JF, Sullivan LA, Chen B, Ye G (2010) Carbon bio-sequestration within the phytoliths of eco-
nomic bamboo species. Glob Chang Biol 116:2661–2667
Quiroga RA, Li T, Lora G, Andersen L (2013) A measurement of the carbon sequestration poten-
tial of Guadua angustifolia in the Carrasco National Park, Bolivia, Development Research
Working Paper Series, No. 04/2013
Ramirez-Diaz F, Camargo JC (2019) Floristic structure and composition of Guaduaforests in the

Colombian coffee region. Pesquisa Agropecuaria Trop 49:e55425
Seethalakshmi KK, Jijeesh CM, Balagopalan M (2009) Bamboo plantations: an approach to car-
bon sequestration. In: Proceedings of the National workshop on Global warming and its impli-
cations for Kerala
Sharma R, Wahono J, Baral H (2018) Bamboo is an alternative bioenergy crop and a powerful ally
for land restoration in Indonesia. Sustainability 10(12):43–67
Singh KA, Kochhar SK (2005) Effect of clump density/spacing on the productivity and nutrient
uptake in Bambusa pallida and the changes in soil properties. J Bamboo Rattan 4:323–334
Singh AN, Singh JS (1999) Biomass, net primary production, and impact of bamboo plantation on
soil redevelopment in a dry tropical region. Forest Ecol Manag 119:195–207
Singh P, Dubey P, Jha KK (2004) Biomass production and carbon storage at harvest age in
Dendrocalamus strictus plantation in the dry deciduous forest region of India. In: VII World
bamboo congress, 27 February to 4 March, New Delhi, India, p 122
bamboo clones in the subtropical climate of Indian Himalayan foothills. Heliyon 7(4):e06859.
Steinbeiss S, Gleixner G et al (2009) Effect of biochar amendment on soil carbon balance and soil
microbial activity. Soil Biol Biochem 41(6):1301–1310
Suzuki T (1989) Biomass and productivity of bamboo stands. Rep Trop Agri Res Cent 65:94–97
Taylor AH, Zisheng Q (1987) Culm dynamics and dry matter production of bamboo in the Wolong
and Tangjiahe Giant Panda Reserves, Sichuan, China. J Appl Ecol 24(2):419–433
Thakur A, Tripathi A (2021) Cultivation of bamboo. In: Ajay Thakur A, Tripathi A, Tripathi YC
(eds) Bamboo propagation, management and utilization: practical manual, vol I, pp 52–61
Uchimura E (1978) Ecological studies on cultivation of tropical bamboo forest in the Philippines.
Bull For Prod Res Inst 301:79–118
Van der Lugt P, Vogtlander JG, Van Der Vegte JH, Brezet JC (2015) Environmental assessment of
industrial bamboo products—life cycle assessment and carbon sequestration. In: Tenth World
Bamboo Congress, World Bamboo Organization, pp. 1–16.
Vorontsova MS, Clark LG, Dransfield J, Govaerts R, Wilkinson T, Baker WJ (2016) World atlas
of bamboos and rattan. International Network of Bamboo and Rattan and Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew
Yadava PS, Thokchom A (2014) In: Goel M (ed) Carbon capture, storage and utilization. TERI
Publishers, New Delhi
Yeasmin L, Ali MN, Gantait S, Chakraborty S (2015) Bamboo: an overview on its genetic diversity
and characterization. 3 Biotech 5:1–11
Zhou B, Fu M, Xie J, Yang Z, Li Z (2005) Ecological functions of Bamboo forest: research and
application. J Forest Res 16(2):143–147
Zhou GM, Xu JM, Wu JS et al (2006) Changed in soil active organic carbon with a history of
intensive management of Phyllostachys pubescens forest. Sci Silvae Sin 6:124–128
Chapter 24
Empowering Climate Change Resilience
Through Forests and Agroforestry
Yourmila Kumari, Garima, Neena Kumari, Aruna Mehta, Kashish Walia,

Meera Devi, Reenu Kumari, Dipika Rana, and Swati Verma
Abstract This chapter examines the crucial role of forests and agroforestry sys-
tems in fostering resilience to climate change. Climate change presents a significant
threat to our planet, necessitating innovative approaches to adapt and mitigate its
effects. With their diverse ecosystem services, both forests and agroforestry provide
valuable tools in the fight against a shifting climate. Forests and agroforestry are
essential components of climate resilience for two main reasons. Firstly, they are
directly affected by climate change, requiring resilience to ensure overall forest and
ecosystem vitality. This resilience is critical for delivering vital ecosystem services,
such as forests serving as carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide through photosyn-
thesis, and storing it in living biomass and soils. Forests also offer habitats for bio-
diversity, regulate microclimates, and provide crucial services like water retention.
Secondly, agroforestry, which integrates trees with agriculture, enhances food secu-
rity and reduces climate-related risks by improving soil health and crop resilience.
These natural resources play a fundamental role in the livelihoods of forest-
dependent communities and contribute to the adaptation efforts of various sectors,
ranging from rural to urban environments. This chapter delves into the intricacies of
carbon dynamics within forests and explores their potential to combat climate
change. It showcases real-world examples and case studies, spotlighting successful
initiatives that have bolstered climate resilience. Additionally, it underscores the
significance of traditional ecological knowledge and indigenous perspectives in for-
est and agroforestry management. Recognizing the interconnectedness of climate
Y. Kumari · Garima · N. Kumari · A. Mehta · K. Walia · R. Kumari · S. Verma (*)

College of Horticulture and Forestry Thunag, Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of
Horticulture and Forestry Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India
M. Devi
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kandhaghat, Solan, Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of
Horticulture and Forestry Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India
D. Rana
Department of Environment Sciences, CSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University,
Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Ltd. 2024
490 Y. Kumari et al.
resilience, forests, and agroforestry, the chapter concludes with recommendations

for policymakers, practitioners, and researchers, emphasizing the urgency of inte-
grating these natural systems into climate adaptation and mitigation strategies.
Keywords Agroforestry · Climate change · Carbon sequestration · Enhancing

resilience · Forest ecosystem
24.1 Introduction
Amidst unprecedented climate challenges, the imperative to bolster resilience has

reached unparalleled urgency. Climate change presents multifaceted hazards to eco-
systems, livelihoods, and global welfare, demanding innovative and sustainable
remedies. Within this context, the significance of forests and agroforestry emerges
as a crucial pathway for empowerment and resilience-building (Gupta et al. 2017;
Joshi et al. 2020; Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, d; Nautiyal et al. 2022). Forests function
as the planet’s respiratory system, absorbing carbon dioxide and furnishing essen-
tial ecosystem services crucial for climate control (Micciolo 2017). Furthermore,
the intricate tapestry of biodiversity within forests enhances ecosystem stability and
resilience, serving as a natural shield against the adverse impacts of climate change
(Verma 2017). However, the pivotal role of forests transcends their inherent capac-
ity to withstand environmental pressures; it also encompasses their potential to
empower communities through sustainable resource management and livelihood
improvement. Agroforestry, a dynamic and integrated land use management
approach, enriches the climate resilience framework by fostering a harmonious
cohabitation between agriculture and forestry (Pantera et al. 2021). This method
optimizes land utilization by integrating trees and shrubs with crops and livestock,
resulting in a diversified and resilient agricultural system. Through strategic agro-
forestry practices, farmers can enhance land productivity and fortify it against cli-
mate change impacts. The synergies between agroforestry and climate resilience lie
in its capability to improve soil health, conserve water, and mitigate risks associated
with extreme weather events (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, d, 2021a, b, c; Manoj et al.
2021). Therefore, adopting agroforestry practices represents a potent strategy for
empowering communities to adapt to the evolving climate change scenario.
Forests and agroforestry systems shield against climate-related shocks, offering
food security, income diversification, and protection from extreme weather events.
Promoting sustainable land use and preserving the biodiversity within these ecosys-
tems can fortify the adaptive capacity of both natural environments and their depen-
dent community. This investigation will examine the practical methods through
which these systems can enable communities and societies to address the complexi-
ties of climate change and offer perspectives into the practical strategies that foster
adaptability in a constantly evolving environment.
The Forest Trees and Agroforestry (FTA) research has significantly enhanced
scientific understanding of the intricate relationship between forests, trees, and
24 Empowering Climate Change Resilience Through Forests and Agroforestry 491
ecosystem services, particularly in their interactions with social systems. This chap-
ter shows the critical role that trees and forests play in climate adaptation, especially
as climate variability continues to rise. These natural elements serve as important
buffers against shocks and contribute to enhancing the resilience of livelihoods.
However, it’s worth noting that trees, as providers of various environmental services
within multifunctional landscapes, are susceptible to changing climate, as high-
lighted by Jamnadass et al. (2011). The resilience fostered by forests and trees is
closely tied to preserving biodiversity, ranging from gene pools to entire ecosystems.
24.2 The Role of Forests in Climate Change Mitigation
24.2.1 Carbon Sequestration
Forests function as carbon sinks by capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) through photo-
synthesis. During photosynthesis, trees and other vegetation absorb carbon dioxide
from the air, sunlight, and water, converting it into glucose (a type of sugar) and
oxygen. The carbon derived from CO2 becomes part of the plant’s structure, includ-
ing its roots, trunk, leaves, and branches (Singh and Verma 2013; Yadav et al. 2019;
Verma et al. 2020; Singh et al. 2020a, b). As trees mature, they continue to take in
carbon dioxide, incorporating it into their biomass. This accumulated carbon is
stored in various forms within the trees and the organic material in the forest, such
as soil and decomposing plant matter. This carbon storage aids in mitigating climate
change by extracting CO2 from the atmosphere, where it would otherwise contrib-
ute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. Consequently, forests play a criti-
cal role in the carbon cycle, functioning as a natural reservoir that helps
counterbalance the emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities, such as
the combustion of fossil fuels (Dar and Parthasarathy 2022). Nevertheless, it’s cru-
cial to recognize that this function relies on the well-being and vigor of the forests.
Upholding the integrity of current forests is essential, guaranteeing the continual
capture of carbon. Simultaneously, rehabilitating depleted or cleared regions offers
a chance to enhance the overall capability for carbon retention within these environ-
ments (Sharma et al. 2020a, b). Scientific forecasts suggest that stopping natural
systems’ decline and deterioration and rehabilitation can meet over a third of the
necessary climate change mitigation by 2030. A noteworthy example is the Bonn.
In this, the endeavor involves restoring 350 million hectares of degraded land, offer-
ing the potential to annually capture up to 1.7 gigatons (Gt) of carbon dioxide
(source: iucn.org/issues-briefs, 2021). Assessments of the carbon stored in the
world’s forests exhibit considerable variation (Fig. 24.1). According to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2000, the total amount was
estimated at 1100 Gt. This figure surpasses the carbon reserves in fossil fuels (800
Gt) by 1.3 times and exceeds the carbon already released into the atmosphere due to
human activities since 1870 (600 Gt). In India, ISFR (Indian State Forest Report)
Fig. 24.1 Carbon stock in global forests
Fig. 24.2 Carbon stock in Indian forests (ISFR)
has reported a continuous rise in carbon stock for many years i.e.,
2013–2021(Fig. 24.2).
24.2.2 Alleviating Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Through carbon sequestration, forests aid in alleviating the influence of greenhouse

gas emissions on the climate. Carbon held within trees and soil serves as a reservoir,
reducing the presence of carbon in the atmosphere and mitigating the greenhouse
effect and global warming (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, d, 2021a, b, c; Kumar and
Singh 2020; Dhyani et al. 2021). Protecting and revitalizing forests are crucial in the
broader endeavor to counteract human-caused emissions, serving as a natural shield

against climate change. Forests play a twofold role in the climate change narrative,
functioning as contributors to and alleviators of greenhouse gas emissions. The land
sector, responsible for approximately 25% of global emissions, is the second-largest
emitter, following the energy sector. Within this sector, deforestation and forest deg-
radation alone contribute to roughly half of these emissions, totaling 5–10 gigatons
of carbon dioxide equivalent annually. (iucn.org iucn.org/issues-briefs, 2021).
Approximately 2.6 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide, one-third of the CO2 released
from burning fossil fuels, is absorbed by forests yearly.
Forest preservation and restoration also support biodiversity, and a diverse ecosys-
tem is often more resilient to climate change. Biodiversity contributes to ecosystem
stability, ensuring that forests can continue to capture or store carbon effectively.
Different flora and fauna species play unique roles in maintaining ecosystem health,
and preserving these interactions enhances a forest’s overall carbon storage capacity.
24.2.4 Water Resource Management
Forests are critical in hydrological cycles, influencing precipitation patterns and

regulating water flow in rivers and watersheds. Forests and trees are essential to the
water cycle, shaping rainfall patterns, local and global water movement, and tem-
perature regulation. Their interaction with the hydrological cycle is pivotal for stor-
ing carbon, cooling terrestrial surfaces, and sustaining water resources. This function
spans from local to continental scales, impacting climate and ecosystem well-being
(Ellison et al. 2017). Initiatives such as those led by the Forest, Trees, and
Agroforestry (FTA) organization aim to better recognize and incorporate these roles
in practices and policies. Agroforestry and restoring forests and landscapes are inte-
gral to nature-based water management and mitigating climate change impacts (Van
et al. 2019). In the Andes region, FTA reviewed the effects of afforestation on water
supply, hydrological regulation, and erosion control. The study indicated that two
decades of tree plantation could restore infiltration rates and sediment yield to levels
akin to native forests but did not fully recover organic matter levels (Bonnesoeur
et al. 2019). FTA researchers contributed to the Global Forest Expert Panels initia-
tive on Forest and Water under the Collaborative Partnership on Forests (CPF). This
initiative examined the science behind tree-water interactions, ongoing changes,
factors influencing the forest-water relationship, and global drivers of change. It
explored the impacts of shifting climate and tree cover on water availability for
human use and ecosystem health, offering insights into the evolving connection
between forests and water in a changing environment (Creed and van Noordwijk
2018). Healthy forests play a crucial role in ensuring a sustainable water supply,
which, in turn, is vital for ecosystem vitality and the carbon storage capacity of
forests.
24.2.5 Adaptation and Resilience
Forests play a role in adapting to and building resilience against climate change.
Untouched forests are more adept at enduring the effects of climate change, such as
severe weather occurrences. Protecting and revitalizing forests enhance the general
resilience of ecosystems, guaranteeing their capacity to offer crucial ecological ben-
efits, including carbon storage.
24.2.6 Global Carbon Balance
Woodlands are vital in upholding an equilibrium in the global carbon cycle. They
are intricately linked with other ecosystems and impact atmospheric CO2 levels.
Safeguarding and rejuvenating forests contribute to a steady and enduring global
carbon equilibrium, which is crucial for the planet’s health. (Landsberg and
Gower 1997).
24.3 Role of Biodiversity in Ecosystem Resilience

and Adaptation
Woodlands represent remarkably varied ecological systems, harboring an extensive

array of plant and animal life that collectively shapes the complex interconnected-
ness of existence. Forest plant life encompasses many tree varieties, shrubs, herba-
ceous plants, and mosses, each finely tuned to particular environmental
circumstances. Meanwhile, the animal inhabitants of forests range from minuscule
organisms inhabiting the soil to sizable mammals, encompassing insects, avians,
reptiles, and mammals. This diversity is not merely visually captivating but also
serves an indispensable function in preserving the vitality and operation of the eco-
system. The diversity in the forest in the form of flora and fauna is as follows:
1. Tree Diversity: Different tree species contribute to the vertical structure of the
forest, creating distinct layers such as the canopy, understory, and forest floor.
Each layer provides unique habitats for various organisms, promoting
biodiversity.
2. Understory Plants: Below the majestic canopy, undergrowth vegetation flour-

ishes in the dappled sunlight, enriching the layers of greenery and enhancing the
overall diversity of the ecosystem. These may include ferns, flowering plants,
and saplings of larger trees.
3. Wildlife: Forests are home to a rich array of wildlife, ranging from insects and
amphibians to mammals like deer, bears, and big cats. Birds find refuge in the
branches, and countless species of fungi and microorganisms contribute to nutri-
ent cycling in the soil.
4. Microbial Diversity: The soil in forests harbors a diverse microbial community
crucial for nutrient cycling, decomposition, and the ecosystem’s overall health.
24.3.1 Resilience Through Redundancy
Variety within ecosystems acts as a safeguard. Diverse ecosystems exhibit greater

resilience when faced with disruptions like disease outbreaks or severe weather con-
ditions. If one species suffers adverse effects, others can assume ecological func-
tions, averting the collapse of the entire system (Oliver 2015).
24.3.2 Adaptation to Environmental Changes
Environmental change can induce massive modifications at organism, species, com-

munity, and ecosystem levels, from changes in individual reproduction or survival
rate to shifts in ecosystem structure. Acclimatization through phenotypic plasticity
and at genetic levels helps the species adjust to the prevailing climate. However,
range shift, also known as geographical adaptation, is the best strategy for environ-
mental shift, especially for marine and terrestrial ecosystems (Pecl et al. 2017).
24.3.3 Ecosystem Services
Biodiversity contributes to delivering ecosystem benefits vital for human welfare.

Pollination of crops, pest control, water purification, and carbon sequestration are
just a few examples of services facilitated by diverse ecosystems. These services, in
turn, support agriculture, clean water availability, and climate regulation.
24.3.4 Dynamic Interactions
Biodiversity fosters complex and dynamic interactions within ecosystems. Species

often depend on each other for survival, forming intricate food webs and nutrient
cycles. These interactions enhance the stability and functionality of the ecosystem.
The diverse flora and fauna within forests are a testament to natural beauty and a
fundamental component of ecosystem resilience and adaptation. Biodiversity
ensures that ecosystems can withstand disturbances, recover from changes, and
continue to provide essential services in the face of evolving environmental condi-
tions. Therefore, preserving biodiversity in forests is crucial for sustaining the
health of ecosystems and securing the benefits they offer to both nature and human
society.
Forests and trees offer essential ecological benefits to local climate regulation,
water provision, and coastal protection. They bolster durability in agricultural sys-
tems and households, assisting in managing pressure and adjusting to alterations.
The significance of forest ecosystem services extends beyond the forest edge, fos-
tering synergies with agricultural land uses (Decocq et al. 2016). Even small forest
patches can enhance crop production by bolstering pollinator and natural enemy
populations, albeit with potential disservices. Incorporating cultivated woodlands
into watersheds primarily controlled by dairy agriculture has demonstrated a
decrease in greenhouse gas discharges and enhanced water quality (Monge et al.
2016). These considerations hold relevance in the ongoing debate surrounding land
sharing vs. land sparing. Afforestation plans should meticulously account for previ-
ous land use, considering likely biodiversity and conservation outcomes (e.g., affor-
estation of degraded farmland vs. natural grassland or forest). Lastly, any planted
forest initiative should assess options for mixed-species forests, as they have the
potential to offer a broader array of ecosystem services (Pretzsch et al. 2017).
Fedele et al. developed a socioeconomic-focused framework to analyze how eco-
systems contribute to human well-being. In two Indonesian case studies, local com-
munities utilized forests for food and income during droughts and floods. Ecosystem
service cascades, exploring impact chains, can be used to evaluate the consequences
of land-use alterations on human welfare. Integrated ecological, economic, and
societal principles are employed in transitioning smallholder agricultural systems
toward increased resilience (Sinclair et al. 2019). Leveraging local agroecological
wisdom, as exemplified in northern Morocco (Kmoch et al. 2018), is imperative for
adapting to climate change. The concepts of ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) and
ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction acknowledge ecosystems’ potential to bol-
ster societal adaptation and are viewed as nature-based solutions (Lavorel et al.
2020). These methodologies underscore that well-preserved ecosystems can assist
in human adaptation to environmental shifts by mitigating climate-related hazards
and furnishing diverse advantages. Bruley et al. (2021) propose employing the
Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) con-
ceptual framework to enhance comprehension of the interplay between humanity
and the environment and their contributions to well-being. This strategy integrates
quality of life with nature’s contributions to people’s (NCP) coproduction, offering

a holistic perspective on socio-ecological functioning. Forests are pivotal in provid-
ing various ecosystem services crucial for human welfare. Mixed-species forests, in
particular, may offer a broader range of ecosystem services, warranting more sig-
nificant consideration.
24.4 Enhancing Sustainable Environmental Resilience

through Forest Management
Woodlands play a pivotal role in maintaining environmental sustainability. They

serve as a reservoir for wood and non-wood forest commodities and provide critical
ecosystem services. Responsible woodland stewardship is a comprehensive
approach that balances forest management’s economic, environmental, and social
dimensions to ensure long-term sustainability (Yadav et al. 2007). SFM practices
play a vital role in enhancing the resilience of forests to climate change, ensuring
their capacity to endure disturbances and adapt to evolving environmental condi-
tions. Strategies that we deem as significant factors in sustainable forest manage-
ment are as follows:
• Maintain a stable forest land base: This concept embraces strong sustainability
and stresses that products and services offered by forests are irreplaceable. Thus,
human-created capital is no substitute for forest land.
• Maintain or increase forest biodiversity: This includes sustaining diverse popula-
tions of native plants and animals, diversity of forest ecosystems and habitats
across the landscape, and genetic diversity of forest-associated plants and
animals.
• Maintain diverse forest size structure and species composition on the landscape.
• Maintain or increase the caliber and volume of water from forest ecosystems.
• Maintain or increase soil productivity and minimize soil erosion and
contamination.
• Maintain or increase the capacity for sustained timber and non-timber forest
product yield and associated economic development.
• Maintain or increase forest-based employment and community stability.
• Maintain or enhance the measure and caliber of forest recreation and other
opportunities for people to experience forests.
• Maintain a system of institutions, policies, regulations, and incentives that sup-
port forest sustainability at multiple spatial scales.
• Increase environmental literacy and engage various stakeholders in ecologically
sound woodland administration.
24.4.1 SFM Principles
Responsible woodland stewardship adheres to several key principles (Mootho 2012):

• Biodiversity conservation: SFM aims to protect and enhance biodiversity by
preserving habitats and promoting the regeneration of native species. Forests are
remarkably varied ecosystems, home to many plant and animal species. However,
irresponsible logging and deforestation can disrupt these ecosystems, leading to
habitat loss and species extinction. SFM practices aim to counteract these nega-
tive impacts. This approach provides a safe place for wildlife and allows for the
preservation of critical habitats. Additionally, SFM encourages the regeneration
of native species. By replanting and restoring native trees and plants, forests can
regain their natural balance, ensuring that plant and animal life thrive.
• Ecosystem integrity: Maintaining the vitality and adaptability of forest ecosys-
tems is fundamental to their long-term sustainability. Forests are complex sys-
tems where each species plays a role, from the tiniest microorganism to the
largest tree. When these arrangements are disturbed, it can have far-reaching
consequences. SFM recognizes the interconnectedness of species and processes
within forests. It aims to minimize disturbances and protect the overall integrity
of the ecosystem. This involves careful planning and monitoring to ensure that
forest functions like nutrient cycling, water purification, and carbon storage
remain uninterrupted.
• Economic viability: SFM seeks economic benefits through responsible timber
harvesting, non-timber forest products, and ecotourism. SFM is not solely firm
on environmental goals but aims to provide economic benefits. Responsible tim-
ber harvesting is a core component of SFM. It allows for extracting valuable
timber resources while ensuring the forest can regenerate and support future har-
vests. This sustainable approach provides a continuous supply of timber needed
for various industries. Moreover, SFM recognizes the appraisal of non-wood for-
est produce. By sustainably harvesting NTFPs, SFM diversifies the economic
benefits derived from forests. Additionally, ecotourism, where visitors pay to
experience the natural beauty of forests, can generate revenue for local commu-
nities and economies (www.fao.org.).
• Community Engagement: Community engagement Involves local communi-
ties in decision-making processes and shares benefits to ensure social equity.
Historically, forest management decisions were often made without considering
the interests and rights of local communities. SFM takes a different approach by
actively engaging with local communities. It recognizes their traditional knowl-
edge and rights to forest resources. This collaborative approach helps build trust,
reduces conflicts, and ensures that the benefits of forest resources are distributed
with greater fairness among all stakeholders.
24.4.2 Environmental Benefits of SFM
The environmental benefits of SFM are instrumental in retaining environmental sus-

tainability. When managed sustainably, forests offer many advantages that reach
well beyond their immediate ecosystems (http://www.fsc.org). Here, we delve into
these benefits:
• Forest as carbon sink: Forests are crucial to mitigating climate change by act-
ing as carbon sinks. They excel at sequestering carbon dioxide, a significant
greenhouse gas accountable for climate alteration. Trees absorb CO2 during
photosynthesis and store it as carbon in their organic matter and within the soil.
SFM ensures that forests remain intact or are selectively harvested, allowing
them to continue capturing and storing carbon. This critical function in changing
climate mitigation helps combat global warming and its associated environmen-
tal challenges.
• Biodiversity conservation: SFM practices prioritize the preservation of biodi-
versity by avoiding destructive clear-cutting and adopting selective logging
methods. This strategy generates prospects for diverse plant and animal species
to thrive. Additionally, efforts to preserve natural habitats within forests further
support a rich tapestry of life, contributing to ecosystems’ overall health and
resilience.
• Watershed Protection: Forests are natural water managers. They control water
movement, lessening the threat of floods in intense precipitation and securing a
consistent supply of pure water in drought periods. Woodlands serve as filters for
trapping sediments and pollutants, which helps maintain water quality.
Sustainable woodland stewardship practices guarantee that watersheds remain
intact and functional, safeguarding the stability of local water supplies and pro-
tecting downstream communities.
• Soil Conservation: Healthy forests play a crucial role in preventing soil erosion.
Their extensive root systems bind soil particles together, reducing the risk of
landslides and maintaining fertile topsoil. This fertile land is essential for agri-
culture and food production. Sustainable forest management practices prioritize
soil conservation, ensuring that valuable farmland remains productive.
• Air Quality Improvement: Forests are nature air purifiers. Trees assimilate a
range of airborne contaminants, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides,
while emitting oxygen. This natural filtration process improves air quality, mak-
ing it healthier for humans and wildlife. SFM helps maintain healthy forests, thus
preserving their air-cleaning capacity.
• Long-Term Planning and Monitoring: A crucial aspect of SFM is envisaged in
long-term planning and continuous monitoring. Sustainable woodland manage-
ment strategies are crafted to guarantee that forests remain healthy and produc-
tive for future generations. Monitoring systems track changes in forest
ecosystems, enabling adaptive management practices to promptly address
emerging threats or challenges. This proactive approach safeguards against envi-
ronmental degradation and supports the long-term goal of sustainability.
• Certification and Global Collaboration: To strengthen the commitment to

environmental sustainability, SFM often involves forest certification schemes
such as FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) or PEFC (Programme for the
Endorsement of Forest Certification). These accreditations assure consumers
that timber and timber-based goods originate from forests managed responsibly.
Moreover, SFM promotes international collaboration and knowledge sharing,
allowing countries to learn from each other’s experiences and adopt best prac-
tices in forest management.
24.4.3 Challenges in Forest Management
• Illegal Logging and Deforestation: Enforcement of regulations is crucial to

combat illegal logging and deforestation.
• Invasive Species: Alien species pose a significant risk to the delicate balance of
endemic ecosystems and biodiversity.
• Climate Change Impacts: Shifts in climate patterns can impact the well-being
of forests, leading to increased vulnerability to pests and diseases.
• Balancing Economic and Ecological Goals: It’s a stricter undertaking to bal-
ance economic interests and ecological preservation (Yadav et al. 2011).
24.5 Empowering Climate Change Resilience

Through Agroforestry
Climate change is a significant environmental issue that disrupts natural ecosys-

tems, agriculture, and human health. It is critical to combat climate change and
reduce emissions since agriculture accounts for 14% of global greenhouse gas emis-
sions. Putting integrated management techniques and agroforestry systems into
practice can help reduce emissions while promoting livelihood resilience in unfore-
seen circumstances (Chavan et al. 2014). Agroforestry is a productive agricultural
technique that improves environmental quality, reduces the adverse effects of cli-
mate change, increases human feed supply, maintains economic viability, and
enhances the quality of life (Kumar et al. 2019, 2020a, b, c, d; Prakash et al. 2022).
Agroforestry systems increase tree crop diversity, increasing their capacity to
store carbon dioxide (carbon sequestration). They also offer ecosystem services,
generate money from carbon wood energy, enhance soil fertility, and improve local
climatic conditions. These advantages support international efforts to regulate
atmospheric GHG emissions and directly aid local adaptation. Reforestation, mixed
cropping, agroforestry, and the introduction of resistant plant varieties are important
corrective measures to lessen climate change and improve people’s socioeconomic
standing (Sharma and Singh 2021; Raturi et al. 2022). Stainable agroforestry may
promote carbon sequestration, increase resilience to environmental change, and

produce revenue, improving the standard of living for small and subsistence farmers
(Buchman 2008). Agroforestry emerges as a valuable strategy for supporting farm-
ers in managing the impacts of climate change, as it is predicted that future seasons
will be more unpredictable, putting even more strain on agricultural systems, the
availability of food, and food prices (WAC 2012). Agroforestry provides many
advantages, including improved microclimate, carbon sequestration, nitrogen
cycling, soil fertility, drainage, bioenergy, and biofuel (Bargali et al. 2009).
Agroforestry emerges as a powerful solution to combat land degradation deserti-
fication, and adapt to climate change while enhancing food security (IPCC 2019).
Recent studies highlight agroforestry’s role as a carbon sink, aiding climate change
mitigation and adaptation (Kumar and Nair 2011). Post-Kyoto Protocol dialogues
emphasize the importance of mitigating rising atmospheric CO2 levels by sequester-
ing carbon in terrestrial vegetation systems, prompting many nations to integrate
agroforestry systems and practices into their policies.
24.5.1 Agroforestry as a Method to Alleviate the Impacts

of Climate Change
The main goals of mitigating climate change are to increase carbon sequestration
and reduce emissions of greenhouse gases including CO2, CH4, and N2O. Agroforestry
techniques, including planting trees on farms, can be beneficial in reducing the
effects of climate change. Regarding mitigation, agroforestry systems have two
main benefits: they make it easier for trees and soils to store carbon directly and can
potentially offset immediate greenhouse gas emissions (Dixon 1995).
Farmers can benefit from additional benefits such as higher yields, reduced haz-
ards, and improved animal and pollinator habitats while using agroforestry tech-
niques to slow climate change. As a result, agroforestry attracts more farmers who
are looking for a variety of results. Additionally, agroforestry techniques can work
with other carbon sequestration strategies to increase risk tolerance.
24.5.1.1 Carbon Sequestration
By absorbing greenhouse gasses (CO2) through carbon sequestration, agroforestry

offers a feasible alternative to mitigate climate change and minimize global warm-
ing in this circumstance (Singh 2021). Numerous studies have been conducted to
assess the capacity for carbon storage within different agroforestry models
(Table 24.1).
Compared to conventional arable systems, agroforestry systems show a higher
capability for sequestering carbon (Baah-Acheamfour et al. 2015). With an esti-
mated 1.1–2.2 Pg C stored inside terrestrial ecosystems during the next 50 years,
Table 24.1 Carbon sequestration potential across global agroforestry landscapes

Agroforestry Carbon storage (Mg
Region Eco region systems Cha−1)
Africa Humid tropical high Agrosilviculture 29–53
South Africa Humid tropical low dry lowland 30–102
39–195
Southeast Humid tropical dry lowland 22–228
Asia 68–81
Australia Humid tropical low Silvopastoral 28–51
North Humid tropical high Humid tropical 133–154
America low dry lowland 104–198
90–175
Northern Humid tropical low 15–18
Asia
Source: Handa et al. (2020)
Fig. 24.3 Carbon sequestration capacities across diverse land use systems. Source: Sharma et al.
(2020a, b)
there is a technological possibility for mitigation on a global scale (IPCC 2007).

According to research, agroforestry can store an average of 9, 21, 50, and 63
Mg Cha−1 of carbon in semiarid, sub-humid, humid, and temperate regions, respec-
tively (Sharma et al. 2020a, b). With an estimated yearly carbon sequestration of
over 550 megatonnes, agroforestry is predicted to have the largest potential for car-
bon sequestration among all land use and management alternatives by 2040
(Fig. 24.3). Notably, agroforestry practices can intentionally enhance the soil
organic carbon (SOC) pool, which serves as the primary terrestrial reservoir for
carbon over millennia (Lorenz and Lal 2014).
In India, Dhyani et al. (2016) estimate that agroforestry systems have a carbon
sequestration potential ranging from 0.25 to 19.14 Mg C/ha/yr. for the tree
component and from 0.01 to 0.60 Mg C/ha/yr. for the crop component. Agroforestry
practices contribute to soil carbon sequestration at levels ranging from 0.003 to
3.98 Mg C/ha/yr. The quantity of carbon sequestered in each component varies
significantly based on location, species diversity, system type, site quality, and his-
torical land use.
24.5.1.1.1 Reduction in GHGs Emission
India emits over 2.6 billion tons of CO2 equivalent of greenhouse gases yearly, plac-
ing it third in the world behind the US and China. India’s relatively low carbon
footprint per capita on the international scene is highlighted by the country’s 1.8
tonnes per person emission rate, which stands in sharp contrast to the 4.4 tonnes
global average. India’s main industries account for the majority of its emissions
(18%), followed by energy (44%), and agriculture, forestry, and land use (14%).
These sectors significantly contribute to the nation’s total emissions profile.
Transport, industrial activities, and the waste industry share the remainder
(Fig. 24.4). Practices like tillage, burning, manuring, chemical fertilization and fre-
quent disturbance can release CO2, CH4, and N2O from soils and vegetation into the
atmosphere. India’s agricultural emissions are mainly attributed to the cattle indus-
try, which produces 54.6% of the country’s emissions. The use of nitrogenous fertil-
izers follows with a 19% share. Anaerobic rice farming is the primary contributor to
agricultural emissions, responsible for 17.5% of the total. Additionally, agricultural
Fig. 24.4 The primary sources, reductions, and methods of greenhouse gas emissions in managed
agricultural ecosystems. Source: MacLeod et al. (2015)
soils are the primary source of nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. Using nitrogen fertil-
izer resulted in an increase in N2O emissions of around 358% between 1980–1981
and 2014–2015 (Gulati and Thangaraj 2021) (Fig. 24.5).
Agroforestry techniques, such as woodlots, afforestation, shelterbelts, silvipas-
ture, and forested riparian buffers, help to reduce and/or remove carbon outflows
from the atmosphere in agriculture operations. The woody biomass produced by
agroforestry systems can serve as a local fuel source, reducing the dependence on
petroleum-based fuel and the pressure on the area’s remaining trees. Moreover,
wood biomass can generate heat, electricity, and transportation fuel, offering a sus-
tainable alternative that can effectively decrease greenhouse gas emissions by
diminishing reliance on finite resources. When bio-energy is utilized for power gen-
eration, the net CO2 emissions are 10–20 times lower than when electricity is gener-
ated using fossil fuels. Agroforestry approaches also cut CO emissions by lowering
farmhouse heating requirements, lowering fuel, fertilizer, and machinery expenses
relative to traditional inputs for annual crop production (Annonymous 2001).
24.5.2 Adaptive Measures
Rural populations and global food security are facing challenges due to the increas-
ing frequency, severity, and length of extreme weather events. Climate-resilient
agriculture practices focus on adaptive agricultural techniques to anticipate and
address short-term and long-term weather shocks (Singh et al. 2020a, b, 2022).
Agroforestry significantly contributes to both adapting and mitigating the impacts
of changing climate. Adaptation is more urgent than mitigation efforts, focusing on
Fig. 24.5 Green house gases emissions by different sectors. Source: MoEFCC, 2021, India: third
Biennial updated report to the UNFCC
maintaining land productivity despite increased atmospheric temperatures, vapour

pressure deficit, and precipitation patterns.
Agroforestry is a sustainable approach to enhancing agricultural communities’
livelihoods and resistance to climate change. This practice, practiced by indigenous
communities in the Global South, has gained renewed scientific attention due to its
ability to alleviate climate change effects, increase resilience, reduce poverty, and
localize food production in urban areas. Agroforestry techniques are becoming
increasingly practical in mitigating climate change’s adverse effects (Singh et al.
2013). They contribute to microclimate adjustment, biodiversity protection,
improved soil health, and shelter through an integrated, purposeful, and participa-
tory process. Agroforestry techniques improve the environment, creating a more
favourable environment for crop, fodder, and animal production. The storage of
carbon offers additional resilience to changing temperature and moisture regimes,
and it also allows for carbon exchange and reduced vulnerability among farmers.
This section explores several adaptable agroforestry techniques designed to improve
climate resilience.
24.5.2.1 Reducing Extreme Weather Impacts
In recent times, India has witnessed severe weather occurrences such as heavy rain-
fall, floods, landslides, lightning, and thunderstorms, all attributed to climate
change. Agroforestry trees protect against extreme weather events by regulating
temperatures, providing shade and shelter, and acting as food sources during floods
and droughts. By lessening the consequences of extreme weather events, agrofor-
estry can improve farmers’ resilience and mitigate the harmful effects of climate
change. In a study conducted by Corraliza and Moreno (2018), It was discovered
that in certain years with high productivity but no climate restrictions, growing win-
ter cereal crops in a silvoarable system significantly reduced yields due to competi-
tion with trees. However, when the climate was hot and dry in the spring, which
could affect the maturation of cereal crops, the trees served as a safeguard by pro-
viding shelter. In addition, agroforestry systems offer increased stability by diversi-
fying enterprises and preventing yield fluctuations due to unstable climates or
extreme weather events.
24.5.2.2 Changing Rain Fall Patterns
Reduced rainfall may not seem like a severe issue, but climate change is causing
unseasonal rain and more intense wet and dry periods, increasing floods and
droughts. In India, the majority of the country has experienced extreme warming of
between 0.1 and 1 °C annually, which has led to a rise in the frequency of heavy
rainfall events. Trees are important for reducing land-surface temperatures, which
can help to alleviate the impact of excessive rainfall and maintain an average level
of rainfall.
Trees have deep root systems that enable them to explore a larger soil volume in
search of water and nutrients. This ability comes in handy during droughts when
water and nutrients are scarce. Additionally, planting trees increases soil porosity,
reduces runoff, and increases soil cover, which results in increased water infiltration
and retention in the soil profile. This, in turn, can reduce moisture stress during low
rainfall years (Sharma et al. 2020a, b).
Agroforestry can help reduce flood risk by buffering and storing water in agricul-
tural areas. Tree-based systems have higher evapotranspiration rates than row crops
or pastures, thus maintaining aerated soil conditions by pumping excess water out
of the soil profile more rapidly than other production systems during floods. When
designed correctly with appropriate species, layout, and row orientation, agrofor-
estry systems can significantly mitigate extreme weather events by slowing down
heavy rainfall.
24.5.2.3 Microclimate Modification
Agroforestry is a farming technique that can benefit crops in many ways. It can pull
water from deeper soil layers, enhance crop root water uptake, shade crops to lower
transpiration rates, and generate microclimates with colder air temperatures.
Mukherjee et al. (2008) studied tea plants grown under seven shade tree species,
revealing that the shade reduced atmospheric and soil temperatures by 2–3 °C and
increased relative humidity values by 3–9% compared to non-shaded open condi-
tions. In addition, it can reduce soil loss in the case of severe rain and downstream
flooding and provide windbreaks to protect crops from storm damage. Agroforestry
strengthens agricultural soil quality through increased soil carbon and nitrogen lev-
els, soil microbial community, and spatial variability (Quandt et al. 2023).
Agroforestry may improve soil and crop resilience through all these methods,
improving yields and making farming more sustainable (Singh et al. 2014).
24.5.3 Other Ecosystem Services
Agroforestry, a practice involving trees and crops, has been shown to prevent envi-
ronmental damage, improve agricultural output, increase carbon storage, promote
soil health, and offer stable income and other benefits to human well-being. AF’s
robust ecological resilience provides the potential for ecological restoration and
enhancement of local human livelihoods in fragile areas, making it a crucial tool for
ecological restoration and improvement (Xiao and Xiong 2022). It holds significant
importance in enhancing overall farm productivity and soil fertility, reducing the
effects of climate change, and conserving biodiversity by adding litter and organic
matter, phytoremediation, watershed protection, and biodiversity. Agroforestry
models can also aid in the reclamation of salt-affected soil. As per Ram et al. (2011),
Eucalyptus plantations improve soil and reduce the water table, leading to a notable
3.4 times increase in wheat grain yield and the reclamation of waterlogged regions.
24.5.3.1 Biodiversity Conservation
Agroforestry can support biodiversity conservation in agricultural and forest land-

scapes by increasing structural complexity and enhancing habitat and landscape
heterogeneity (Haggar et al. 2019). Agroforestry is a sustainable farming method
that can aid in halting biodiversity loss, especially in tropical areas. Agroforestry
relieves pressure on forest ecosystems by producing forest products. Agroforestry
also protects ecosystems from being destroyed by reducing erosion and flooding.
Since eroding soil may cause water bodies like lakes and rivers to become eutro-
phic, this is also advantageous for aquatic life (Karlsson 2019).
24.5.4 Socio-Economic Development Through Agroforestry
Agro-forestry is a land use system that integrates trees, crops, and animals to
improve smallholder farmers’ livelihoods by providing fruits, nuts, fuel wood, tim-
ber, medicine, fodder, green fertilizers, and additional income. Different agrofor-
estry models are developed and demonstrated in different regions. Based on a report,
the Gmelina arborea-based agri-silviculture system and economic considerations
for field crops like paddy and linseed encompass various factors, including net ben-
efits per hectare (₹50,858), total benefits per hectare (₹119,997), and a favorable
benefit-to-cost ratio (1.74) (GoI 2001).
24.5.4.1 Agro Forestry in Carbon Trading
Because agroforestry can absorb carbon from the atmosphere, it is a prospective

market for carbon trading. Through photosynthesis, vegetation, including grasses,
trees, and plants, can absorb carbon and build biomass. Young forests are perfect for
carbon sequestration initiatives because they can absorb significant volumes of car-
bon dioxide each year. Carbon sequestration initiatives mostly derive their credit
from trees, and biomass and soil can retain carbon acquired by no-till or strip-tilling.
Agroforestry may also provide carbon credits when fossil fuels are swapped out for
carbon-neutral fuels. Additionally, it may provide electricity through biofuel pro-
duction, and landowners can profit further from the harvest of wastes and biomass
found in forests (Rehman 2018). Live fences, home gardens, shelterbelts, alley
farming, the taungya system, enhanced fallow, and agrosilvopastoral are examples
of agroforestry practices recommended for addressing environmental problems.
24.6 Conclusion
This chapter concluded the vital role of natural ecosystems in our battle against a
changing climate. Forests and agroforestry systems, as showcased in this chapter,
are not just inactive elements but active agents of resilience. Their contributions
extend beyond mere carbon sequestration and timber production; they encompass
food security, biodiversity conservation, temperature regulation, and water manage-
ment. The adaptability of the environment and the societies that rely upon the forest
ecosystem could be bolstered by adopting eco-friendly land management practices
and preserving these vital ecosystems. Woodlands and agroforestry arrangements
are robust buffers against climate-related shocks, providing crucial resources and
protection from extreme weather events. As we face an uncertain climate future, this
chapter underscores the importance of continued research, policy development, and
community engagement to harness the full potential of forests and agroforestry in
our quest for climate resilience. We can build a more sustainable and resilient future
for all by empowering the adaptive capacity of both ecosystems and societies.
24.7 Recommendations
The chapter highlights the crucial role of natural ecosystems in climate resilience
and proposes comprehensive recommendations. Prioritize sustainable land manage-
ment to prevent deforestation and land degradation. Empower local communities
through involvement in decision-making and conserve biodiversity within ecosys-
tems. Establish and enforce effective policy frameworks, promote continued
research, integrate indigenous knowledge, and encourage sustainable agriculture.
Foster international collaboration to address climate change globally. These recom-
mendations enable the full potential of forests and agroforestry in our pursuit of
climate resilience, ensuring a sustainable and resilient future for ecological systems
and societies worldwide.
References
Annonymous (2001) Greenhouse gas emissions and agroforestry. Alberta Environmentally

sustainable Agriculture Council, Food and Rural Development. https://www1.agric.gov.
ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/cl3018/$file/GHGBulletinNo8Agroforestry.pdf
Baah AM, Chang SX, Carlyle NC, Bork WE (2015) Carbon pool size and stability are affected by
trees and grassland cover types within agroforestry systems of western Canada. Agric Ecosyst
Environ 213:105–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2015.07.016
Bargali SS, Bargali K, Singh L, Ghosh L, Lakhera ML (2009) Acacia nilotica based traditional
agroforestry system: effect on paddy crop and management. Curr Sci 96(4):581–587
Bonnesoeur V, Locatelli B, Guariguata MR, Ochoa-Tocachi BF, Vanacker V, Mao Z, Stokes
A, Mathez-Stiefel SL (2019) Impacts of forests and forestation on hydrological services in
the Andes: a systematic review. For Ecol Manag 433:569–584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

foreco.2018.11.033
Bruley E, Locatelli B, Lavorel S (2021) Nature’s contributions to people: co-producing quality of
life from multifunctional landscapes. Ecol Soc 26(1):12
Buchman N (2008) Agroforestry for carbon sequestration to improve small farmer’s livelihoods,
From the North-South Centre Research for development
Chavan S, Newaj R, Keerthika A, Ram A, Jha A, Kumar A (2014) Agroforestry for adaptation and
mitigation of climate change. Popular Kheti 2(3):214–219
Corraliza MGA, Moreno MLG (2018) Winter cereal production in a Mediterranean silvoarable
walnut system in the face of climate change. Agric Ecosyst Environ 264:111–118. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.05.024
Creed IF, Van Noordwijk M (eds) (2018) Forest and water on a changing planet: vulnerability,
adaptation and governance opportunities. A global assessment report. IUFRO World Series No.
38. International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO), Vienna. https://www.iufro.
org/fileadmin/material/publications/iufro-series/ws38/ws38.pdf
Dar AA, Parthasarathy N (2022) Patterns and drivers of tree carbon stocks in Kashmir Himalayan
forests: implications for climate change mitigation. Ecol Process 11:58
Decocq G, Andrieu E, Brunet J (2016) Ecosystem services from small forest patches in agricul-
tural landscapes. Curr For Rep 2:30–44
Terminalia arjuna under elevated CO2 levels in Open top chamber condition. J Appl Nat Sci
Dhyani SK, Ram A, Dev I (2016) Potential of agroforestry systems in carbon sequestration in
India. Indian J Agric Sci 86(9):1103–1112
Dixon RK (1995) Agroforestry systems: sources of sinks of greenhouse gases? Agrofor Syst
31:99–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00711719
Ellison D, Morris CE, Locatelli B, Sheil D, Cohen J, Murdiyarso D, Gutierrez V, van Noordwijk
M, Creed IF, Pokorny J (2017) Trees, forests and water: cool insights for a hot world. Glob
Environ Chang 43:51–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2017.01.002
GoI (2001) Planning commission report of the task force on growing India for livelihood security
and sustainable development, 231p
Gulati A, Thangaraj (2021) A carbon policy for farm. Indian Express. https://indianexpress.com/
article/opinion/columns/india-needs-a-carbon-policy-for-agriculture-climate-change-7564364/
Gupta SK, Singh H (2017) Observations on Sporadic Flowering in Ficus benjamina L. and
Haggar J, Pons D, Saenz L, Vides M (2019) Contribution of agroforestry systems to sustaining
biodiversity in fragmented forest landscapes. Agric Ecosyst Environ 283:106567. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109504
Handa AK, Chavan SB, Sirohi C, Rizvi RH (2020) Importance of agroforestry systems in car-
bon sequestration. National Agroforestry Symposium 2020 (NAFS 2020) on Climate Resilient
Agroforestry Systems to Augment Livestock Productivity Ensuring Environmental Biodiversity
IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. https://www.ipcc.ch/
site/assets/uploads/2018/03/ar4_wg2_full_report.pdf
IPCC (2019) Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification,
land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in
terrestrial ecosystems. https://www.ipcc.ch/srccl/iucn.org/issues-briefs, 2021
Jamnadass R, Gebrekirstos A, Neufeldt H, Muthuri C, Dawson I, Kindt R, Nyberg Y, Dietz J,
Bayala J, Kuyah S, Ong CK (2011) Trees as providers of environmental services in multifunc-
tional landscapes are vulnerable to climate change. In: van Noordwijk M, Hoang MH, Neufeldt
H, Oborn I, Yatich T (eds) How trees and people can co-adapt to climate change: reducing
vulnerability through multifunctional landscapes. World Agroforestry (ICRAF), Nairobi,
pp 63–77. http://www.asb.cgiar.org/PDFweb
Karlsson L (2019) Agroforestry can help to halt global biodiversity loss. Agroforestry Network
Report. https://agroforestrynetwork.org/agroforestry-can-help-to-halt-global-biodiversity-loss/
Kmoch L, Pagella T, Palm M, Sinclair F (2018) Using local agroecological knowledge in climate
change adaptation: a study of tree-based options in northern Morocco. Sustain For 10(10):3719.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103719
i7/1098-1103
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021a) Adaptation and mitigation potential of road-
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
49(1):38–44
Kumar BM, Nair PKR (eds) (2011) Carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry systems: oppor-
tunities and challenges, advances in agroforestry, vol 8. Springer, Dordrecht
org/10.1007/s13205-019-1700-1
Kumar N, Jeena N, Kumar A, Khairakpan R, Singh H (2021c) Comparative response of rice culti-
agricultural productivity at higher altitudes. Microbiol Adv Higher Altitude Agro-Ecosyst
Sustain:55–70
Landsberg JJ, Gower ST (1997) Carbon balance of forests. Physiol Ecol:125–160
Lavorel S, Locatelli B, Colloff MJ, Bruley E (2020) Co-producing ecosystem services for adapting
to climate change. Philos Trans R Soc B375:20190119. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0119
Lorenz K, Lal R (2014) Biochar application to soil for climate change mitigation by soil organic car-
bon sequestration. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 177:651–670. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.201400058
MacLeod M, Eory V, Gruere G, Lankoski J (2015) Cost-effectiveness of greenhouse gas mitigation
measures for agriculture: a literature review. OECD Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Papers,
No. 89, OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/5jrvvkq900vj-en
Manoj K, Sweta NP, Singh H (2021) The role of communities in sustainable land and forest man-
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
Micciolo MP (2017) The Lungs of our Land. Deforestation and climate change’s destructive circu-
lar relationship. Vinallova Envirin Law J 28:71–98
Monge JJ, Parker WJ, Richardson JW (2016) Integrating forest ecosystem services into the farm-
ing landscape: a stochastic economic assessment. J Environ Manag 174:87–89
Mootho M (2012) Emerging policy perspectives for forest sector with special reference to certifi-
cation, MDGs, PES & REDD in South Forests for sustainability, pp. 100–120
Mukherjee A, Banerjee S, Nanda MK, Sarkar S (2008) Microclimate study underagroforestry sys-
tem and its impact on performance of tea. J Agrometeorol 10(1):99–105
vices of a 30-year-old reclaimed limestone mine area in Foothills of Himalaya. Indian Forester
Oliver TH (2015) Biodiversity and resilience of ecosystem functions. Trends Ecol Evol 30:673–684
Pantera A, Losada MRM, Herzog F, Herder MD (2021) Agroforestry and environment. Agrofor
Syst 95:767–774
Pecl GT, Araújo MB, Bell JD, Blanchard J, Bonebrake TC, Chen IC, Clark TD, Colwell RK,
Danielsen F, Evengård B, Falconi L (2017) Biodiversity redistribution under climate change:
impacts on ecosystems and human well-being. Science 355:eaai 9214
Pretzsch H, Forrester DI, Bauhus J (eds) (2017) Mixed-species forests-ecology and management.
Springer, Berlin
Quandt A, Neufeldt H, Gorman K (2023) Climate change adaptation through agroforestry:
opportunities and gaps. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 60:101244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cosust.2022.101244
Ram J, Dagar JC, Lal K, Singh G, Toky OP, Tanwar VS, Dar SR, Chauhan MK (2011) Bio-
drainage to combat water logging, increase farm productivity and sequester carbon incanal
command areas of northwest India. Curr Sci 100(11):1673–1680
Assess 194(2):50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09721-8
Rehman S (2018) Potential of agroforestry practices in carbon sequestration for climate change
mitigation option. Department of Agroforestry & Environment Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur
Rahman Agricultural University, Salna, Gazipur-1706
Sharma H, Kumar D, Pant KS (2020a) Agroforestry—a sustainable tool for climate change adap-
tationm and mitigation. Agric Rev 41(4):364–371
Sharma S, MacKenzie RA, Tieng T, Soben K, Tulyasuwan N, Resanond A, Blate G, Litton CM
(2020b) The impacts of degradation, deforestation and restoration on mangrove ecosystem
carbon stocks across Cambodia. Sci Total Environ 706:135416
Sinclair F, Wezel A, Mbow C, Chomba S, Robiglio V, Harrison R (2019) The contribution of agro-
ecological approaches to realizing climate-resilient agriculture. Background paper. Global
Center of Adaptation (GCA), Washington, DC. https://gca.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/
TheContributionsOfAgroecologicalApproaches.pdf
pollution. Trees. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-021-02179-8
uclim.2022.101183
in response to climate change. Climate Risk Manage 29:100241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
crm.2020.100241
Singh NR, Jhariya MK, Raj A (2013) Tree crop interaction in agroforestry system. Readers Shelf
10(3):15–16
Van NM, Bargues TA, Muthuri CW, Gebrekirstos A, Maimbo M, Leimona B, Bayala J, Ma
X, Lasco R, Xu J (2019) Agroforestry as part of naturebased water management. In: van
Noordwijk M (ed) Sustainable development through trees on farms: agroforestry in its fifth
decade. World Agroforestry (ICRAF), Bogor, Indonesia, pp 305–333. http://www.worldagro-
forestry.org/downloads/Publications/PDFS/B19029.pdf
Verma AK (2017) Genetic diversity as buffer in biodiversity. Indian J Biol 4:61–63
World Agroforestry Centre (2012) Surviving drought through agroforestry. Retrieved from: http://
worldagroforestry.org/newsroom/highlights/surviving.droughtthroughagroforestry
Xiao J, Xiong K (2022) A review of agroforestry ecosystem services and its enlightenment on the
ecosystem improvement of rocky desertification control. Sci Total Environ 852:158538. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158538
Yadav M, Dugaya D, Basera K (2011) Opportunities and Challenges for NWFP certification in
India. In: Paper presented at International conference on Non Wood Forest produce for sus-
tained livelihood during December 17–19, 2011 at Bhopal, India
Yadav M, Kotwal PC, Menaria BL (2007) Forest certification—a tool for sustainable forest man-
agement. Indian Institute of Forest Management, pp 81–100
Websites Visited and Referred
FSC (n.d.) http://www.fsc.org

FAO (n.d.) www.fao.org
Chapter 25
Harmony in Extraction: Navigating
Mining, Land Degradation and Ecological
Restoration for Sustainable Futures
Sanjay Singh, Abhishek Kumar, and Aakash Kumar
Abstract Land degradation has innumerable detrimental effects and adversely

affects our ecosystem. Initiatives like the Bonn Challenge, UNCCD’s Land
Degradation Neutrality Targets, and the UN’s ‘Decade of Ecosystem Restoration’
highlight the significance of ecological restoration in addressing biodiversity and
climate change. Among many other factors, the mining industry is primarily
accountable for land degradation caused by the constant need for energy. Restoration
activities are therefore necessary to repair the harm. This chapter focuses on the
intricate nexus between mining activities and environmental consequences. Besides,
it analyzes issues such as mine tailings, spoils, and biodiversity loss to understand
the effects of mining on the ecosystem. The annual environmental cost of mining is
revealed through an economic lens, highlighting the necessity for thorough knowl-
edge that considers climate change effects. This chapter discusses the value of
restoring post-mining ecosystems and the need for international standards, espe-
cially the Mine Site Restoration Standards (MSRS). Holistic and collaborative
efforts are urgently needed to ensure sustainable mining practices.
Keywords Land degradation · Mining · Ecological restoration · Mine site

restoration standards
S. Singh
Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education—Centre of Excellence for Sustainable
Land Management, Dehradun, India
A. Kumar (*)
Forest Ecology and Climate Change Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, India
A. Kumar
Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, India
Ltd. 2024
514 S. Singh et al.
25.1 Introduction
Human reliance on land resources to fulfill their basic needs and sustain their fami-
lies is crucial. However, the planet is under significant strain due to population
growth, unsustainable consumption, intensive agricultural methods, harmful mining
practices, and climate change, resulting in widespread land degradation (UNDP
2017). The world is experiencing a rapid deterioration of its deserts and land due to
the growing misuse and demand for resources. This worsening problem, driven by
climate change, weakens the land’s ability to withstand natural and human-induced
pressures (Singh and Kumar 2022).
About one-third of the world’s arable land has been impacted by degradation and
desertification, showing that this issue is widespread, increasing, and prevalent
across all land types and agroecologies, particularly in dry lands. Land degradation
risks global ecosystem services, impacting vital resources like agricultural prod-
ucts, clean air, fresh water, disturbance and climate regulation, recreational oppor-
tunities, and fertile soils (UNEP 2012).
Restoring and conserving ecosystems is crucial to global sustainable develop-
ment efforts to address the problem (Singh et al. 2023). Despite a significant increase
in protected areas on land (from 10% to approximately 15%) and in marine areas
(from 3% to around 7%), the current pace is insufficient to counteract land degrada-
tion effectively. The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration highlights significant
challenges in achieving global restoration goals (Singh et al. 2017). There is inad-
equate global awareness regarding the negative impacts of ecosystem degradation
on human well-being, the costs involved, and the societal benefits of investing in
restoration efforts. The public and private sectors lack substantial investment in
long-term ecosystem restoration initiatives.
Additionally, a shortage of legislation, policies, regulations, tax incentives, and
subsidies would encourage a shift in investments toward large-scale restoration and
production systems. Stakeholders often lack the technical knowledge and capacity
to design and implement large-scale restoration initiatives (Kumar et al. 2017).
Furthermore, there is limited investment in long-term research spanning social and
natural sciences to innovate and improve restoration protocols over time. Despite
these challenges, global commitments have been made aligned with the Rio
Conventions (UNFCCC, CBD, and UNCCD). Countries are enhancing national
policies and programs in relevant sectors to meet their Land Degradation Neutrality
(LDN) targets.
Carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation depend heavily on restoring
terrestrial ecosystems (Singh 2021). These ecosystem’s soils and vegetation capture
more significant quantities of carbon than forestry, agricultural, or grassland sys-
tems. Biodiversity offsetting helps counter the detrimental impacts of development
by setting aside areas for restoring or maintaining biodiversity elsewhere (Prakash
et al. 2022).
The international community has pledged to restore over one billion hectares of
degraded land by 2030. Many countries, such as Indonesia, South Africa, China,
25 Harmony in Extraction: Navigating Mining, Land Degradation and Ecological… 515
and India, have initiated significant restoration activities independently. The

Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) emphasizes land resto-
ration and ecological connectivity. GBF’s Target 2 aims to bring at least 20% of
degraded freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems under restoration, ensuring
connectivity and prioritizing critical ecosystems (Kumar et al. 2018).
25.2 Mining and Land Degradation
Minerals are crucial for the world economy, and mining plays a pivotal role in
developing many countries (Kumar et al. 2021). In the modern era, minerals are
used everywhere, from cell phones and cars to fertilizers, machinery, and all sorts of
construction materials, so the world cannot neglect the production of minerals from
mining. Mining is expanding worldwide because of growing energy needs, minerals
like coal and uranium, iron, copper, and zinc, construction minerals like natural
stone and aggregates, and industrial minerals like borates and kaolin. Since the
1970s, the extraction of metals has increased by over 75%, non-metallic industrial
minerals by 53%, and building materials by 106% (Cherlet et al. 2018).
Maus et al. (2022) identified a mining land use area covering 101,583 km2, while
Cherlet’s (2018) estimates suggest a global land area affected by mining and quar-
rying ranging from 300,000 to 800,000 km2. The global production of minerals has
surged from 9.6 billion metric tonnes in 1985 to 17.2 billion in 2020 (Reichl and
Schatz 2022). However, mining regions are not dispersed equally across the globe.
According to GIS data, 52% of the mapped mining area is concentrated in six coun-
tries: Russia, China, Australia, the United States, Indonesia, and Brazil. Another
nine countries contribute 27%, leaving the remaining 130 countries with only 21%,
and G-20 countries make up 70% of the total mining area, which equals 70,734 km2
(Maus et al. 2022) (Table 25.1).
25.3 Mining and the Environment
Among the most common and significant land uses, mining is known to degrade
land and significantly negatively influence the ecosystem. (Cherlet et al. 2018). Two
standard methods are open-cast mining, which involves removing topsoil and over-
burden, and underground mining, which requires excavating tunnels and shafts. As
high-grade mineral deposits diminish, low-quality ores are now being mined, lead-
ing to more removal and disposal of overburdened material and waste rock. This
shift results in a global move from confined mine shafts to large-scale open-pit
mines. The extraction methods produce extensive tailings, including crushed rock,
processing fluids, minerals, mineral fuels, and potentially harmful contaminants
(Giurco et al. 2010).
516 S. Singh et al.
Table 25.1 Global mining Country Area (km2)

area (in sq. km) (Source Afghanistan 6.79
Maus et al. 2022)
Albania 17.2
Algeria 42.77
Angola 294.51
Argentina 2301
Armenia 43.4
Aruba 0.36
Australia 8482.63
Austria 14.94
Azerbaijan 24.59
Bangladesh 1.27
Belarus 24.69
Belgium 1.91
Benin 0.11
Bolivia 286.77
Bosnia and Herzegovina 29.06
Botswana 315.2
Brazil 5915.79
Bulgaria 226.15
Burkina Faso 112.51
Burundi 0.08
Cambodia 4.6
Cameroon 4.41
Canada 5087.56
Chad 0.2
Chile 4562.65
China 10364.57
Colombia 772.43
Costa Rica 1.36
Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) 107.3
Cuba 118.32
Cyprus 16.27
Czech Republic 165.88
Democratic Republic of the Congo 426.22
Dominican Republic 31.18
Ecuador 71.02
Egypt 72.75
El Salvador 0.59
Eritrea 10.63
Eswatini 0.33
Ethiopia 16.3
(continued)

Country Area (km2)
Fiji 3.53
Finland 143.9
France 199.46
Gabon 51.84
Georgia 14.6
Germany 550.87
Ghana 1882.81
Greece 216.26
Greenland 0.36
Guatemala 10.6
Guinea 231.34
Guinea-Bissau 0.06
Guyana 2388.75
Haiti 3.36
Honduras 9.66
Hungary 71.39
Iceland 0.05
India 2293.41
Indonesia 8020.15
Iran 363.08
Iraq 8.85
Ireland 25.81
Israel 55.26
Italy 23.3
Jamaica 25.62
Japan 13.22
Jordan 263.89
Kazakhstan 2082.59
Kenya 23.52
Kyrgyzstan 126.61
Laos 56.49
Lesotho 12.2
Liberia 15.13
Luxembourg 1.42
Madagascar 44.47
Malawi 5.00
Malaysia 112.12
Mali 194.94
Mauritania 114.89
Mexico 932.22
Mongolia 782.92
Montenegro 10.87
(continued)
518 S. Singh et al.

Country Area (km2)
Morocco 369.73
Mozambique 123.42
Myanmar 2140.09
Namibia 494.68
Netherlands 1.42
New Caledonia 251.66
New Zealand 118.08
Nicaragua 16.98
Niger 127.52
Nigeria 24.65
North Korea 24.52
North Macedonia 53.57
Norway 35.88
Oman 201.53
Pakistan 22.8
Panama 15.57
Papua New Guinea 77.3
Paraguay 3.52
Peru 3539.54
Philippines 302.68
Poland 331.66
Portugal 39.94
Republic of the Congo 10.37
Romania 176.98
Rwanda 1.64
Saudi Arabia 111.4
Senegal 58.96
Serbia 149.67
Sierra Leone 88.51
Slovakia 19.43
Slovenia 1.75
Solomon Islands 5.93
Somalia 0.7
South Africa 3594.62
Republic of Korea 39.11
Spain 292.44
Sri Lanka 10.12
Sudan 50.95
Suriname 1972.02
Svalbard and Jan Mayen 1.03
Sweden 159.29
Switzerland 0.55
(continued)

Country Area (km2)
Tajikistan 34.23
Tanzania 146.6
Thailand 168.98
The Russian Federation 11770.93
Togo 5.43
Tunisia 75.48
Türkiye 769.49
Turkmenistan 13.07
Uganda 3.14
Ukraine 877.1
United Arab Emirates 4.21
United Kingdom 168.91
United States of America 8188.54
Uruguay 13.45
Uzbekistan 468.39
Venezuela 1401.4
Vietnam 263.31
Western Sahara 62.91
Zambia 480.05
Zimbabwe 242.48
Fig. 25.1 Global mining area (in %), (Source Maus et al. 2022)
It’s crucial to understand that mining is a temporary land use due to finite mineral
resources, and eventual closure is inevitable. Mining companies prioritize restoring
affected landscapes for a positive legacy benefiting the local community, ecosystem,
and the company’s reputation. However, poorly planned restoration can lead to seri-
ous environmental and health risks once a mine is abandoned (Fig. 25.1). Three
520 S. Singh et al.
Fig. 25.2 Environmental pollution due to metal mining and processing (Dudka and Adriano 1997)
mining residue problems exist mine spoils, metal and metalloid-rich acidic dis-
charge fluids, and tailings.
Mine spoils, a byproduct of metal and coal mining, consist of accumulations of
chemically inert and reactive materials piled on the ground. Despite the challenges
they pose to the environment, they are usually less harmful than tailings, which are
fine-grain deposits rich in sulfide minerals. Tailings cause acid mine drainage,
which can lead to more severe environmental consequences. Additionally, metal
and metalloid-rich acidic discharge fluids contribute further to ecological problems
when released. These fluids, frequently connected to mining operations, are a haz-
ard to ecosystems and water quality, highlighting the significance of ethical mining
methods and efficient environmental control to lessen the adverse ecological effects
of mining-related operations. Abandoned mines raise substantial concerns globally,
although the overall impact is uncertain. Another challenge is artisanal or small-
scale subsistence mining, often illegal and unregulated. This type of mining causes
disruption and pollution, exemplified by the unregulated use of cyanide and mer-
cury in gold extraction. Such practices pollute soils, surface- and groundwater,
exposing mine workers and residents to severe health risks. Artisanal mining signifi-
cantly contributes to mercury pollution (Ross et al. 2016) (Fig. 25.2).
25.3.1 Emissions from the Mining Sector
The mining industry significantly contributes to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,

producing fossil energy resources that substantially add to global CO2 emissions
(Kumar et al. 2020a, b). The global metals and mining business contributes approxi-
mately 8% to the worldwide carbon footprint (Cox et al. 2022). A preliminary esti-
mate for GHG emissions related to primary mineral and metal production in 2018
(excluding energy carriers like coal and uranium) amounts to 3.6 × 1012 kg of CO2e,
equivalent to 10% of total global energy-related greenhouse gas emissions in 2018
(Azadi et al. 2020).
The amount of greenhouse gas emissions associated with specific mining and
mineral processing activities varies considerably (Yadav et al. 2020). Although
these emissions are rarely measured, other possible sources of emissions include the
weathering-related breakdown of carbonate minerals and calcite, the neutralization
of waste rock and tailing materials, and the acid leaching and metallurgical process-
ing of tailings (Azadi et al. 2020).
25.4 Mining and Biodiversity
Mining has diverse impacts on biodiversity at various spatial levels, including site,
landscape, regional, and global scales (Jacobi et al. 2007). At the site level, habitat
loss and degradation occur due to mine expansion and waste management. Direct
impacts on biodiversity extend to landscape and regional scales, with chemical and
physical waste discharge affecting ecosystems over long distances. Chemical emis-
sions, such as mercury or cyanide from gold extraction and acids released from
oxidized minerals, negatively impact biodiversity (Malm 1998).
Indirect impacts arise when mining attracts human populations or exacerbates
existing threats like over-exploitation, invasive species, and habitat loss (Sonter
et al. 2017). Mining activities emit carbon, contributing to climate change and nega-
tively affecting biodiversity (Fischedick et al. 2014). Though often hidden, mineral
supply chains also have extensive impacts on biodiversity. Global trade and supply
chains may carry significant ecological footprints (Moran et al. 2016), yet the con-
sequences for biodiversity remain largely unknown.
Threats to biodiversity vary based on the biome of the mining site (Fischedick
et al. 2014) and the extraction method and minerals involved. For example, subsur-
face alluvial gold extraction impacts riparian and downstream ecosystems (Asner
et al. 2013), while high-value thermal coal mining threatens prime agricultural land
(Lechner et al. 2016). Stone, sand, and gravel mining move large amounts of earth,
and metal ore extraction and processing release harmful chemical emissions (Bridge
2004). The scale of mining operations also influences their impact on biodiversity,
with natural and protected regions experiencing the highest degradation.
The tropical moist forest ecosystem has seen a doubling of mining activity since
2000 (Sonter et al. 2017). In 2019, over 79% of worldwide metal ore extraction
originated from five to six of the most species-rich biomes, and 90% of extraction
sites correspond to below-average relative water availability (Luckeneder et al.
2021). While the direct impacts of mining on forests can be significant at a local
level, their global importance is less clear. However, the indirect effects on forests,
both locally and globally, are crucial, with unclear responsibilities for mitigation.
Environmental effects on forest biodiversity also have critical social repercussions
for people who depend on forests (Dhyani et al. 2021).
522 S. Singh et al.
25.5 Economic Analysis
The annual environmental cost of mining fossil fuels, metal ores, and mineral
resources ranges from €0.4 to 5 trillion. This cost is attributed to factors such as
greenhouse gas emissions, particulate matter, acidification (especially in coal and
steel sectors), biodiversity loss, and its impact on human health (Arendt et al. 2022).
Climate change has the highest impact, accounting for 64% of the total environmen-
tal cost (43% for ecosystem impact and 21% for damage to human health) (Joshi
et al. 2020). Following this, particulate matter contributes 14% to the total cost, and
terrestrial acidification impact represents 10% of the overall cost (Arendt et al. 2022).
Mining proves economically advantageous for many countries when considering
domestic costs without factoring in climatic effects. Notably, despite incurring sig-
nificant environmental costs, nations such as India, China, Brazil, and Russia still
experience higher benefits than the associated expenses of their mining activities.
However, the scenario shifts when climate change damages are incorporated into
the broader “global” estimate. In this context, the GDP losses of 20 countries sur-
pass the gains from mining (Rawat et al. 2020). When climate change costs are
added to domestic expenses, more countries exhibit a negative cost-to-benefit ratio.
This suggests that their total environmental expenditures are more significant than
the GDP contribution from mining and processing. Its crucial to note that the coun-
tries engaged in extraction do not bear these additional costs (Arendt et al. 2022).
Interestingly, the processing of minerals, as seen in the steel industries of
Germany and Japan and oil-producing nations such as Algeria, Azerbaijan, and
Nigeria, emerges as highly lucrative. These countries derive substantial economic
benefits by largely externalizing the environmental expenditures linked to upstream
and downstream processes(Arendt et al. 2022).
25.6 Restoring Mining Landscapes: Fulfilling

Global Commitments
The UN Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro in June 2012

(Leggett and Carter 2012) acknowledged the vital role of mining, particularly for
least-developed countries, while emphasizing the need to address its environmental
impacts (Mudd 2007). Multiple United Nations conventions, including CBD 2011,
UN 2012, UNCCD 2013, GBF 2022, and GLI 2020, have adopted goals specifically
focusing on restoration.
The UN Environment Program (UNEP) and the Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) declared 2021–2030 to be the “UN Decade on Ecosystem
Restoration” in recognition of the significance of restoring ecosystems for the ben-
efit of people and the environment. Adopted in September 2015, the 2030 Sustainable
Development Agenda highlights the importance of land globally, especially in
accomplishing SDG goals 1, 5, 11, 14, 15, and other land-related goals.
In the post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), there is a strong empha-

sis on land restoration and ecological connectedness. Goal 2 of the post-2020 GBF
specifically highlights the importance of restoring at least 20% of degraded fresh-
water, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems, focusing on connectivity and prioritizing
ecosystems.
Despite the increasing demand for minerals internationally, there is a simultane-
ous commitment to reducing biodiversity loss (Nautiyal et al. 2022). These chal-
lenges require collaboration between mining firms, policymakers, and conservation
organizations. Traditional, site-based conservation measures may prove insufficient
to prevent biodiversity loss against an expanding mining footprint. Instead, long-
term strategic evaluation and planning are crucial to enhancing outcomes and bal-
ancing mineral extraction and conservation efforts.
Examining mining within a broader environmental context (Maxwell et al. 2016)
becomes imperative, particularly when assessing its anthropogenic impact on biodi-
versity. Proactive measures are essential to maintaining the health of ecosystems.
These include constraints on road expansion (Laurance et al. 2014), mitigating bio-
diversity impact through legal frameworks, and implementing sustainable resource
utilization (Redford, 1992) strategies. Ensuring the ecological restoration of mines
post-closure (Watson et al. 2018) can be achieved through interventions such as
forestry and agriculture, contributing to a comprehensive and sustainable approach.
25.7 Significance of Ecosystem Restoration
Ecological restoration of mining-affected areas can positively and multifacetedly

impact the environment, offering a range of essential ecosystem services (Fig. 25.3).
These services encompass improvements in water quality, soil conservation, carbon
Fig. 25.3 Significance of restoration of mining-affected areas

524 S. Singh et al.
sequestration (Lamb 2018), biodiversity preservation, and the creation of recre-

ational opportunities (Miao and Marrs 2000).
A key focus of restoration efforts is to enhance biodiversity-related services,
including providing habitat, support, and regulation. This approach creates more
stable and resilient ecosystems (Chen et al. 2016). Beyond ecological benefits,
restoring mining-affected areas is crucial in supporting food security and sustain-
able agriculture. Implementing agroforestry systems can enhance soil fertility,
diversify crops, and create additional income sources (Vlassenroot et al. 2007).
Incorporating traditional and indigenous knowledge in agriculture and land man-
agement is actively encouraged in restoration initiatives, ensuring the involvement
of local communities and stakeholders (Nirmal and Singh 2021). This not only aids
in increasing the abundance and distribution of endangered species (Hapsari et al.
2018) but also contributes to the recovery of critical ecosystem functions such as
pollination, nutrient cycling, and water filtration. The restored areas, with their
enhanced biodiversity, present opportunities for ecotourism and traditional resource
use, providing tangible benefits to the local community (Chen et al. 2016).
Moreover, the restoration of mining-affected areas significantly contributes to
climate change mitigation and adaptation. Carbon sequestration, reduction of green-
house gas emissions, and improved soil conditions are notable outcomes (Joshi
et al. 2021). The restoration of vegetation cover in previously mined areas plays a
pivotal role in minimizing soil erosion, enhancing infiltration rates, and improving
groundwater recharge, thereby maintaining the quality of surface water and ground-
water resources (Vivian-Smith and Handel 1996; Miao and Marrs 2000). This com-
prehensive ecological restoration fosters environmental sustainability and enhances
community resilience to climate change by delivering tangible benefits like fuel,
fodder, food, non-timber forest products, and other essential ecosystem services
(Kumar and Singh 2020).
25.8 Standards, Principles, and Frameworks for Ecological

Restoration of Mines
Launching the new global standards (Young et al. 2022) for the ecological restora-
tion of mines at CBD CoP15 in 2022 marks a significant milestone. These standards
establish a robust framework to ensure that mining restoration efforts are enduring
and yield economic and social justice benefits (Urzedo et al. 2022). These standards
comprise eight fundamental principles that collectively form a comprehensive
method for defining, guiding, and measuring the outcomes of ecological restoration
practices within the mining landscape (Fig. 25.4).
The mining process frequently results in substantial alterations to substrates,
often leading to a negative disparity between pre-mining and post-mining biodiver-
sity. This contrast is commonly referred to as the “recovery gap.” The primary
objective of ecological restoration (Whisenant 1999; Farber et al. 2006) is to
Fig. 25.4 Eight principles underpinning restoration of ecosystems after mining
enhance ecosystem services and biodiversity. Specifically, ecosystem services tied

to the physical attributes of soil, such as erosion control, water filtration, and micro-
climate improvement, are often given priority in post-mining (Prach and Tolvanen
2016) ecological restoration efforts. This prioritization, in turn, facilitates the estab-
lishment of native vegetation, enhancing site productivity, carbon sequestration, and
the overall aesthetic value of the site or landscape (Sharma et al. 2018).
Over time, various national and international agencies have provided Mining
Standards, Guidelines, and Resources. These restoration principles serve as a guide
for restoring mining landscapes to the highest possible level of recovery, consider-
ing site conditions and societal preferences. Regulatory documents address mining
activities’ environmental and social contexts (Mitchell 2021).
In today’s landscape, environmental and social governance (ESG) performance
has emerged as a crucial indicator for the metal and mining industries (Young et al.
2019). The performance of mining companies in these areas serves as a critical
driver for financial investors (Eccles and Klimenko 2019). The majority of mining
companies have embraced standards such as the Task Force on Climate-related
Financial Disclosures (TCFD), the Taskforce on Nature-Related Financial
Disclosure (TNFD), Equator Principles, and Principles for Responsible Banking
(UNEP 2019). These standards not only mandate positioning with Sustainable
Development Goals but also emphasize adherence to the Paris Climate Agreement.
Young et al. (2022) introduced a groundbreaking framework for socially and
environmentally responsible ecological restoration post-mining, Mine Site
Restoration Standards (MSRS). Drawing inspiration from international standards
such as the Eight Principles of Ecological Restoration (Gann et al. 2019), the Five
Star System (McDonald et al. 2016), and the Social Benefits and Ecological
526 S. Singh et al.
Recovery Wheels (Hall et al. 2021), MSRS is tailored to address the unique recov-
ery and restoration challenges faced by mine sites. These criteria are designed to
inspire and strive for superior results in post-mining landscapes, aligning with the
global mission to protect and restore nature. MSRS also incorporates guidance from
influential documents such as the International Finance Corporation (Baker 2012;
ICMM 2019) and adheres to the Society for Ecological Restoration (SER) code of
ethics (SER 2021).
The International Principles and Standards for the Practice of Ecological
Restoration serve as the foundation for these standards, which align with the United
Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, the Sustainable Development Goals, the
Mitigation Hierarchy, and worldwide best practices. They include essential con-
cepts customized to the distinctive challenges posed by global mining. The MSRS
is supported by eight guiding principles, offering a framework for making evidence-
based, resilient, and socially acceptable restoration choices for mining companies,
communities, and stakeholders (Gann et al. 2019).
In cases where restoring the native reference ecosystem is not feasible, mine sites
are repurposed, guided by regulatory requirements, site nature, stakeholder
demands, and health and safety considerations. Repurposing can aid in a transition
toward a sustainable decarbonizing solution (McCauley and Heffron 2018).
According to Bainton and Holcombe (2018), collaborative mine closure processes
that consider an alternative land-use and ecological restoration may include repur-
posing mining infrastructure and landscape, reskilling and redeploying labor, estab-
lishing alternative economic opportunities, and strengthening local livelihood and
food security. Post-mining land use is recognized as context-specific and sensitive
to distinct social and cultural considerations.
A pivotal aspect of the MSRS is the Environmental and Social Benefits Recovery
Wheels, offering an effective visual tool for assessing the progress of mine rehabili-
tation toward ecological restoration (Young et al. 2022). These wheels encompass
six key attributes, providing a unified framework for evaluating mine rehabilitation
while allowing customization of sub-attributes (spokes) based on the project or
stakeholder requirements. Utilizing the Wheels progressively enables the assess-
ment of mining operation performance against ecological impact from commence-
ment to completion, aiding in adaptive program management and reducing the risk
of time and cost overruns late in the mine life.
25.9 Challenges and Opportunities
25.9.1 Restoring the Structure and Functionality

of Ecosystems After Mining
As an invasive process, mining often induces irreversible changes in a site’s geo-

morphology. Activities such as vegetation removal, blasting, and overburden dumps
can increase the vulnerability to landscape failure, erosion, floods, and subsidence.
The complexity of ecosystems and limited knowledge of the interactions between
abiotic and biotic components at various hierarchical levels (Burton and Macdonald
2011) makes restoring ecosystems to their original state challenging. Due to social,
economic, and practical constraints, restored areas are typically relatively small,
making them susceptible to unpredictable cataclysmic events. Additionally, the
changing climate introduces further unpredictability to the ecosystem.
Ecosystems are dynamic over space and time, necessitating the consideration of
spatial and temporal aggregation of restoration measures within landscapes to main-
tain viable habitat networks and species populations in the long term (Kumar et al.
2020a, b). When landscape alterations destroy habitat networks, mine restoration
should focus on defining essential habitat categories and establishing those habi-
tat links.
Mining-affected ecosystems often take generations to become self-sustaining. A
critical issue in ecological restoration is measuring and assessing naturally function-
ing restored ecosystems (Shorohova et al. 2009). Even while most restoration stud-
ies record factors, including soil, water quality, and vegetation diversity, they might
not be enough to assess the ecosystem’s resilience (Asr et al. 2019). Thorough mon-
itoring methods should be developed to determine the structure and processes of the
ecosystem, helping achieve restoration goals and understand ecological processes
in mined-out areas.
25.9.2 Conflicting Interests and Restoration Objectives
Restoration of mining-affected areas may also face conflicts between short-term

goals and the long-term aims of other restoration actions. In addition to addressing
the impact of mining activities on the climate, restoration initiatives in these areas
aim to stop biodiversity decline. This often requires measures that maximize carbon
storage and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, such measures may conflict
with efforts to restore biodiversity, as they may prioritize intensive land manage-
ment that promotes carbon fixation but ignores other ecological values. Additionally,
there may be pressure to use wood-based energy and extract dead wood from cleared
and harvested areas, further reducing habitat availability and biodiversity. In such
cases, restoration efforts may need to compensate for habitat loss by implementing
additional measures, leading to higher costs and potentially irrational treatments
528 S. Singh et al.
(Rabinowitsch-Jokinen and Vanha-Majamaa 2010; Rabinowitsch-Jokinen et al.

2012). Therefore, a comprehensive evaluation of the rationale, cost-efficiency, and
ecological impacts of different restoration actions is necessary to avoid conflicts and
ensure effective restoration of mining-affected areas.
25.9.3 Social Challenges
The restoration of mining-affected areas also faces social and economic challenges.
While biology determines the overall objective of ecological restoration, social con-
straints can make it challenging to choose optimal environmental restoration due to
the varied interests of the landowners/stakeholders or conflicting land use (Knight
et al. 2011). Finding an intact land area to meet restoration objectives becomes chal-
lenging in densely populated areas with fragmented land ownership. Also, the
restored areas in such land use remain isolated and have no connectivity with the
natural ecosystem. Such fragmented ecosystems are low in biodiversity. Additionally,
conflicts over resource use in such areas may trigger unsustainable resource exploi-
tation and degradation of the restored land. Any disputes over land ownership can
prevent restoration measures at the landscape level.
To address these challenges, providing employment opportunities and other
resources to the local community that may depend on mining activities is crucial.
There is also a need to create awareness and change in public perception of the sig-
nificance of restoring mining-affected areas. New methods are regularly being
developed to integrate societal needs and conservation targets in restoring mining-
affected areas (World Bank 2021).
25.9.4 Technology for Restoration
Mining is a technology-intensive industry; technical expertise is required during

exploration, mining, transportation, processing, pit closure, and governance (KPMG
2016). Innovative technology, equipment, facilities, and restorative engineering
design facilitate environmentally and socially responsible mining (Chen et al.
2022a, b). Ecological restoration in mining-affected areas is complex, with various
factors governing the success of restoration technology not being advanced. The
Post-Mining Institute of Germany provides trained personnel with multidisciplinary
skills to deal with complex ecological problems and restore mines (Kretschmann
2016). However, there is insufficient technological research and development and a
lack of knowledge of restoration practices. Capacity building, knowledge sharing,
and training for eco-restoration will help scale up eco-restoration practices.
25.9.5 Financial Opportunities
The mining sector provides a potentially vast, largely untapped opportunity for min-
ing companies to engage in socially and environmentally responsible operations
coherent with sustainable land management and land degradation neutrality. Many
independent cases of successful ecorestoration of Mining Affected areas are built on
the inherent principles of Sustainable Land and Ecosystem Management. There is
the potential of upscaling these practices by enabling a statutory framework, financ-
ing arrangement, and involvement of diverse stakeholders. Currently, the restoration
by the mining companies is undertaken mainly for compliance with a legally bind-
ing regulatory framework and sometimes for convenience.
Without a politically practicable, legally binding global agreement forcing com-
pliance with the international UN target, market forces offer a valuable solution to
generate the necessary transformational change at the appropriate level and scale. In
this regard, public policies and announcements, such as the voluntary SDG targets,
can play an instrumental role in sending a signal to market operators, the effective-
ness of which will eventually rely on the public commitments that follow.
With provisions for the business case for SLM/LDN, the mining companies can
be further encouraged to undertake restoration activities. Such an enabling context
may result from both public and private sector policies and strategies and would not
necessarily need to depend on centralized governance structures or institutions.
Market-driven solutions such as industry standards for Sustainable Land
Management, land stewardship certifications, and innovative financial solutions to
mobilize adequate capital could provide the right incentives to trigger the necessary
response (Quatrini et al. 2016).
25.9.6 Governance Challenges
Ecological restoration in mining sites involves multiple stakeholders, trade-offs,

and conflicts. However, environmental protection issues arise due to inadequate
regulatory standards, insufficient proactive and Initiative efforts, and minimal pub-
lic participation (Phukon et al. 2022). There is a requirement for enabling legisla-
tion, effective governance promotion, institutional involvement, multi-sector and
actor involvement, general private partnership, and coordination amongst stake-
holder groups to advance ecological restoration. Government agencies and mining
companies are responsible for ecological restoration in most countries under the
principle that “those who cause the damage pay for the repair” (Chen et al. 2022a,
b). While the governance provides a regulatory framework, mining companies pri-
oritize short-term economic growth and may not take responsibility for environ-
mental conservation. Local communities may not have much input. International
standards recognize the participation of government agencies, mining companies,
and local communities in addressing the social and ecological challenges and
530 S. Singh et al.
restoring the ecosystem in mining-affected areas (Manoj et al. 2021). For effective
restoration of the ecosystem to the highest level of restoration attainable, stakehold-
ers must be identified, and their interest in their concerns, aspirations, and require-
ments should be addressed (Gann et al. 2019).
25.10 Conclusion
The environmental impact of mining, marked by habitat degradation, biodiversity

loss, and greenhouse gas emissions, emphasizes the urgency for responsible and
sustainable practices. Economic gains from mining must be seen against hidden
environmental costs, necessitating a re-evaluation of priorities. The promise of eco-
logical restoration, exemplified by initiatives like Mine Site Restoration Standards
(MSRS), offers hope for mitigating environmental damage. Challenges such as irre-
versible changes, conflicting goals, and social complexities require a comprehen-
sive approach with technological advancements, financial incentives, and robust
governance. Achieving a balance between mining and environmental conservation
demands a transformative shift in industry practices, emphasizing responsible
resource extraction for a sustainable future. A harmonious balance between mining
and restoration is imperative, necessitating a change in perspective regarding
resource management. This chapter is a collective call for collaboration to enhance
the sustainability of mining practices. Embracing innovative ideas and technologies
is crucial for mining to evolve into a more environmentally friendly industry.
References
Arendt R, Bach V, Finkbeiner M (2022) The global environmental costs of mining and processing
abiotic raw materials and their geographic distribution. J Clean Prod 361:132232
Asner GP, Llactayo W, Tupayachi R, Luna ER (2013) Elevated rates of gold mining in the Amazon
revealed through high-resolution monitoring. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110:18454–18459.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1318271110
Asr ET, Kakaie R, Ataei M, Mohammadi MRT (2019) A review of studies on sustainable develop-
ment in mining life cycle. J Clean Prod 229:213–231
Azadi M, Northey SA, Ali SH, Edraki M (2020) Transparency on greenhouse gas emissions from
mining to enable climate change mitigation. Nat Geosci 13(2):100–104
Bainton N, Holcombe S (2018) A critical review of the social aspects of mine closure. Resour
Policy 59:468–478
Baker SH (2012) Why the IFC’s free, prior, and informed consent policy does not matter (yet) to
indigenous communities affected by development projects. Wis Int’l LJ 30:668
Bridge G (2004) Contested terrain: mining and the environment. Annu Rev Environ Resour
29:205–259. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.28.011503.163434
Burton PJ, Macdonald SE (2011) The restorative imperative: challenges, objectives and approaches
to restoring naturalness in forests
Chen X, Chen G, Yang X, Wang Y, Chen Y (2016) Assessing the potential for ecological restora-
tion of mining areas using ecosystem service value transfer: a case study in China. Sustain For
8(10):1082
Chen Z, Yang Y, Zhou L, Hou H, Zhang Y, Liang J, Zhang S (2022a) Ecological restoration in
mining areas in the context of the belt and road initiative: capability and challenges. Environ
Impact Assess Rev 95:106767
Chen Z, Yang Y, Zhou L et al (2022b) Ecological restoration in mining areas in the context of the
Belt and Road initiative: capability and challenges. Environ Impact Assess Rev 95:106767
Cherlet M, Hutchinson C, Reynolds J, Hill J, Sommer S, von Maltitz G (2018) In: Cherlet M,
Hutchinson C, Reynolds J, Hill J, Sommer S, von Maltitz G (eds) World Atlas of desertifica-
tion: rethinking land degradation and sustainable land management. Joint Research Centre,
Publication Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. https://wad.jrc.ec.europa.eu/download
Cox B, Innis S, Kunz NC, Steen J (2022) The mining industry as a net beneficiary of a global tax
on carbon emissions. Commun Earth Environ 3(1):17
Dudka S, Adriano DC (1997) Environmental impacts of metal ore mining and processing: a review.
J Environ Qual 26:590–602. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq1997.00472425002600030003x
Eccles RG, Klimenko S (2019) The investor revolution. Harv Bus Rev 97(3):106–116
Farber S, Costanza R, Childers DL et al (2006) Linking ecology and economics for ecosystem
management. Bioscience 56(2):121–133
Fischedick MJ et al (2014) Climate change: industry. In: Edenhofer O et al (eds) Contribution
of working group III to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate
change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
Gann GD, McDonald T, Walder B, Aronson J, Nelson CR, Jonson J, Hallett JG, Eisenberg
C, Guariguata MR, Liu J, Hua F, Echeverría C, Gonzales E, Shaw N, Decleer DK (2019)
International principles and standards for the practice of ecological restoration (second edi-
tion). Restor Ecol 27:S1–S46
Giurco D, Prior TD, Mudd GM, Mason LM, Behrisch JC (2010) Peak minerals in Australia: a
review of changing impacts and benefits. Institute for Sustainable Futures, UTS & Department
of Civil Engineering, Monash University
Hall MM, Wehi PM, Whaanga H, Walker ET, Koia JH, Wallace KJ (2021) Promoting social and
environmental justice to support Indigenous partnerships in urban ecosystem restoration.
Restor Ecol 29(1):e13305
Hapsari KA, Biagioni S, Jennerjahn TC et al (2018) Resilience of a peatland in Central Sumatra,
Indonesia to past anthropogenic disturbance: Improving conservation and restoration designs
using palaeoecology. J Ecol 106(6):2473–2490
ICMM (2019) Integrated mine closure—good practice guide
Jacobi CM, do Carmo FF, Vincent RC, Stehmann JR (2007) Plant communities on ironstone
outcrops: a diverse and endangered Brazilian ecosystem. Biodivers Conserv 16:2185–2200.
Knight AT, Sarkar S, Smith RJ, Strange N, Wilson KA (2011) Engage the hodgepodge: man-
agement factors are essential when prioritizing areas for restoration and conservation action.
Divers Distrib 17(6):1234–1238
KPMG (2016) Mining in Argentina: current situation, potential, and opportunity
Kretschmann J (2016) Done for good: challenges of post-mining. Deutsches Bergbau-Museum
532 S. Singh et al.
Kumar K, Singh H (2020) Agroforestry as a nature-based solution for reducing community depen-
resilient ecosystems and societies, pp 289–306
Sustain:55–70
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021) Modulation of plant functional traits under essen-
Lamb D (2018) Undertaking large-scale forest restoration to generate ecosystem services. Restor
Ecol 26(4):657–666
Laurance WF, Clements GR, Sloan S et al (2014) A global strategy for road building. Nature
513(7517):229–232
Lechner AM, Baumgartl T, Matthew P, Glenn V (2016) The impact of underground longwall min-
ing on prime agricultural land: a review and research agenda. Land Degrad Dev 27:1650–1663.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2303
Leggett JA, Carter NT (2012) Rio+ 20: The United Nations conference on sustainable develop-
ment, June 2012. In: Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service Washington, DC
Luckeneder S, Giljum S, Schaffartzik A, Maus V, Tost M (2021) Surge in global metal mining
threatens vulnerable ecosystems. Glob Environ Chang 69:102303
Malm O (1998) Gold mining as a source of mercury exposure in the Brazilian Amazon. Environ
Res 77:73–78. https://doi.org/10.1006/enrs.1998.3828
agement. In: Forest resources resilience and conflicts. Academic Press, Elsevier. https://doi.
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
Maus V, Giljum S, da Silva DM et al (2022) An update on global mining land use. Sci Data
9(1):433
Maxwell SL, Fuller RA, Brooks TM, Watson JEM (2016) Biodiversity: the ravages of guns, nets
and bulldozers. Nature 536(7615):143–145
McCauley D, Heffron R (2018) Just transition: integrating climate, energy and environmental jus-
tice. Energy Policy 119:1–7
McDonald T, Gann G, Jonson J, Dixon K (2016) International standards for the practice of eco-
logical restoration–including principles and key concepts. Society for Ecological Restoration,
Washington, DC, USA. Soil-Tec, Inc.,© Marcel Huijser, Bethanie Walder
Miao Z, Marrs R (2000) Ecological restoration and land reclamation in open-cast mines in Shanxi
Province, China. J Environ Manag 59(3):205–215
Mitchell P (2021) Top 10 business risks and opportunities for mining and metals in 2022
EY—Global
Moran D, Petersone M, Verones F (2016) On the suitability of input output analysis for calculat-
ing product-specific biodiversity footprints. Ecol Indic 60:192–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ecolind.2015.06.015
Mudd GM (2007) The sustainability of mining in Australia: key production trends and their envi-
ronmental implications. Dep Civ Eng Monash Univ Miner Policy Institute, Melbourne
Nirmal BM, Singh H (2021) Effect of CO2 elevation on Shisham growth at nursery stage. Indian J
Hill Farm 34:272–276. (ISSN: 0970-6429)
Prach K, Tolvanen A (2016) How can we restore biodiversity and ecosystem services in mining
and industrial sites? Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:13587–13590
Quatrini S, Barkemeyer R, Stringer L (2016) Involving the mining sector in achieving land degra-
dation neutrality. Solutions 7(5):55–63
Rabinowitsch-Jokinen R, Vanha-Majamaa I (2010) Immediate effects of logging, mounding and
removal of logging residues and stumps on coarse woody debris in managed boreal Norway
spruce stands
Rabinowitsch-Jokinen R, Laaka-Lindberg S, Vanha-Majamaa I (2012) Immediate effects of
logging, mounding, and removal of logging residues on epixylic species in managed boreal
Norway Spruce stands in southern Finland. J Sustain For 31(3):205–229
org/10.36808/if/2020/v146i2/151208
Redford KH (1992) The empty forest. Bioscience 42(6):412–422
Reichl C, Schatz M (2022) World Mining Data 2022. Fedral ministry of agriculture, regions and
tourism, stubenring 1, 1010 Vienna. https://www.world-mining-data.info/wmd/downloads/
PDF/WMD2022.pdf
Ross MR, McGlynn BL, Bernhardt ES (2016) Deep impact: effects of mountaintop min-
ing on surface topography, bedrock structure, and downstream waters. Environ Sci Technol
50(4):2064–2074
SER (2021) Code of ethics. https://www.ser.org/page/CodeofEthics
Shorohova E, Kuuluvainen T, Kangur A, Jõgiste K (2009) Natural stand structures, disturbance
regimes and successional dynamics in the Eurasian boreal forests: a review with special refer-
ence to Russian studies. Ann For Sci 66(2):1–20
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
Singh H, Kumar N, Singh R, Kumar M (2023) Assessing the climate change impact on the habitat
suitability of the range restricted bird species (Catreus wallichii) in the Indian Himalayan eco-
system. Environ Sci Pollut Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30789-x
534 S. Singh et al.
Sonter LJ, Herrera D, Barrett DJ, Galford GL, Moran CJ, Soares BS (2017) Mining drives exten-
sive deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. Nat Commun 8:1013. https://doi.org/10.1038/
s41467-017-00557-w
UNDP (2017) Listening to our land—stories of resilience. UNDP. https://www.undp.org/
publications/listening-our-land-stories-resilience
United Nations Environment Programme (2019) UNEP Finance Initiative Principles for
responsible banking. https://www.unepfi.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/
PrinciplesOverview_Infographic.pdf
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2012) Inclusive Wealth Report 2012. Measuring
progress toward sustainability. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
Urzedo D, Pedrini S, Hearps C, Dixon K, van Leeuwen S (2022) Indigenous environmental justice
through coproduction of mining restoration supply chains in Australia. Restor Ecol 30:e13748
Vivian-Smith G, Handel SN (1996) Freshwater wetland restoration of an abandoned sand mine:
seed bank recruitment dynamics and plant colonization. Wetlands 16:185–196
Vlassenroot K, Ntububa S, Raeymaekers T (2007) Food security responses to the protracted crisis
context of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Univ Ghent
Watson JEM, Evans T, Venter O et al (2018) The exceptional value of intact forest ecosystems. Nat
Ecol Evol 2(4):599–610
Whisenant S (1999) Repairing damaged wildlands. p. 1
World Bank (2021) Mine Closure: A Toolbox for Governments.
Sci 66(1):105–118
Young R, Manero A, Miller B, et al (2019) A framework for developing mine-site completion
criteria in Western Australia
Young RE, Gann GD, Walder B, Liu J, Cui W, Newton V, Nelson Young RE, Gann GD, Walder B,
Liu J, Cui W, Newton V, Nelson CR, Tashe N, Jasper D, Silveira FAO, Carrick PJ, Hägglund T,
Carlsén S, Dixon K (2022) International principles and standards for the ecological restoration
and recovery of mine sites. Restor Ecol 30(S2). https://doi.org/10.1111/REC.13771
Chapter 26
Approaches for Land Restoration:
An Alternative Strategy for Climate
Change Mitigation
Suruchi Devi, Suraj Goswami, Jigyasa Bisaria, and Bhaskar Sinha
Abstract Land is a paramount natural resource essential for human survival and
well-being. However, the expanding human population’s escalating demands exert
excessive pressure on ecosystem functions, compromise forest biodiversity, and
contribute to land degradation. Climate change further exacerbates the degradation
of forested areas. In this context, land restoration becomes essential to proactively
engage in the restoration of degraded lands, seeking to halt the loss of precious land
and mitigate climate change. This chapter highlights the magnitude and causes of
degradation and the challenges in restoring degraded lands. It also presents a com-
prehensive overview of the critical issue of land degradation, highlighting its global
significance and multifaceted impact on ecosystems, biodiversity, and human well-
being. The chapter further explores various restoration approaches, encompassing
ecological methods and sustainable agronomic practices, to address this complex
challenge of land degradation and climate change mitigation. Nature-based solu-
tions are identified and emphasized as a sustainable approach to land restoration.
The chapter also discusses the role and opportunities of different national and inter-
national schemes in achieving land restoration in India.
Keywords Land degradation · Restoration · Climate change mitigation · Nature

based solution · Reforestation
26.1 Introduction
Land degradation is an environmental phenomenon by which land and soil’s chemi-

cal, physical, and biological qualities deteriorate (Santini and Miquelajauregui
2022). This degradation stems from various factors, including water erosion, wind
erosion, waterlogging, mining, urban and industrial waste, and processes like
S. Devi (*) · S. Goswami · J. Bisaria · B. Sinha

Centre for Climate Change Studies, Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, Madhya
Pradesh, India
Ltd. 2024
536 S. Devi et al.
salinization, alkalization, acidification, and pollution. According to the United

Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, “land degradation is a reduction or
loss, in arid, semiarid and dry sub-humid areas, of the biological or economic pro-
ductivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture,
forest and woodlands resulting from land uses or a process or combination of pro-
cesses, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns,
such as (1) soil erosion caused by wind and/or water (2) deterioration of the physi-
cal, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil and (3) long-term loss of
natural vegetation” (UNCCD 1994). The relentless pressure to meet the needs of a
growing human population often leads to the overexploitation of land resources,
exacerbating the degradation process (Field et al. 2016).
Land degradation is a global challenge, and about three billion people face its
adverse effects (Hossain et al. 2020). These people are heavily dependent on for-
ested land for their livelihood, and due to the unsustainable use of resources, for-
ested land has degraded globally. Agriculture, another primary source of livelihood
and food production among rural and marginal communities, mono-cropping,
excessive use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, and unsustainable agronomic
practices are the major causes of degradation of these cultivated lands. Additionally,
the impacts of climate change further accelerate land degradation, compounding its
effects on ecosystems and communities (Singh and Kumar 2022). Ultimately, land
degradation can release soil carbon into the atmosphere, contributing to climate
change and decreasing productivity, biodiversity, and ecosystem integrity (Davidson
and Janssens 2006). Therefore, reducing degradation and restoration of currently
degraded lands are very important to sustain ecosystem services, mitigate climate
change, improve the production of food and resources, and conserve biodiversity.
This entails the scientific community understanding the significance of the restora-
tion of degraded forests and adapting strategies related to restoration in the face of
climate change (Stanturf et al. 2014).
As a solution to the urgent problem of land degradation, the UN Decade on
Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030), established by the UN General Assembly in
March 2019, aims to efficiently prevent, halt, and reverse global land degradation.
Aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 15 of
the 2030 Agenda, this initiative supports achieving Land Degradation Neutrality.
This ambitious goal envisions maintaining the quantity and quality of land ecosys-
tems stable, ensuring they do not deteriorate further (Santini and Miquelajauregui
2022). The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration is a worldwide initiative to rally
political, scientific, and financial support for large-scale restoration efforts. It pro-
vides a framework to enhance existing international agreements and commitments
related to the environment. Effective restoration of ecosystems contributes to
achieving goals outlined in the Rio Conventions, including biodiversity preserva-
tion, climate action, and combating land degradation. The Decade will accelerate
existing global restoration goals. The Bonn Challenge, initiated in 2011 by the
Government of Germany and IUCN, is a global endeavor to restore 150 MHA of
deforested and degraded land by 2020, which would further scale to 350 MHA
by 2030.
26 Approaches for Land Restoration: An Alternative Strategy for Climate Change… 537
The Indian government has implemented several initiatives to combat land deg-
radation and promote afforestation, including the National Mission for a Green
India, the Compensatory Afforestation Fund, the Forest Fire Protection and
Management Scheme, and the Urban Forestry Scheme. The Government of India
(GOI) recently launched the Green Credit Program, which encourages various res-
toration efforts such as tree planting, mangrove conservation, and restoration.
India’s commitment to initiatives like the Bonn Challenge and the Paris Agreement
further emphasizes that nature-based solutions are the best way to stop land degra-
dation, biodiversity loss, and climate change. India is committed to tackling global
issues by raising its target to rehabilitate 26 million hectares of damaged land by
2030 and create additional carbon sinks by 2.5–3 billion tons of CO2 equivalent
through trees outside forests (Ghosh and Sinha 2018; Singh et al. 2023). Agroforestry,
plantation, afforestation, and reforestation are vital to achieving these goals. These
national restoration goals align with India’s priorities for attaining sustainable
development goals and meeting international obligations. All these initiatives can
be achieved through different practices and strategies, such as agroforestry, affores-
tation and reforestation, sustainable agronomic practices, and soil amendment prac-
tices (Kumar and Singh 2020). These various restoration strategies are employed
based on specific degradation factors and causes. In recent years, there has been a
significant surge in interest surrounding nature-based solutions (NBS), which are
solutions to protect, sustainably control, and restore natural ecosystems to tackle
societal challenges effectively and offer a promising and sustainable approach to
restoring degraded lands. Nature-based solutions, such as compost and biochar,
effectively restore soil health and fertility, enhancing agricultural productivity and
sustainability. Incorporating indigenous practices like sheep penning and green
manuring can further support soil fertility restoration, aligning with climate goals
and livelihood needs (Quintero-Angel et al. 2023). Here, we provide a general over-
view of restoration approaches with the concepts that can be applied to restoring
degraded lands. Besides, we explore implications for restoration practices and cli-
mate change mitigation. Various methods and practices of cause-specific restora-
tion/rehabilitation approaches have been described. We briefly finish with the
challenges of restoration that are being faced worldwide and locally.
26.2 Causes of Land Degradation
Land degradation, arising from intricate interactions between natural processes and
human activities, presents a multifaceted environmental challenge. Human-induced
disruptions to ecosystems and soil health, including unsustainable forestry practices
like clear-felling and selective logging (FAO 2020; Koorem et al. 2017), alongside
human-triggered wildfires (Andela et al. 2017; Huang et al. 2019) and poor live-
stock management such as overgrazing (Eldridge et al. 2011; Reed et al. 2017),
contribute significantly to soil erosion and land degradation. Unsustainable agricul-
tural practices, including intensive tillage, monoculture farming, and excessive use
538 S. Devi et al.
of agrochemicals, further exacerbate soil degradation (Bennett et al. 2019; Kuzyakov

and Mason-Jones 2018). Urban expansion intensifies habitat fragmentation and
alters hydrological patterns, exacerbating runoff and soil sealing (Du et al. 2019;
Zhang et al. 2020), while natural phenomena like wildfires and droughts disturb soil
structure and reduce nutrients (Bodi et al. 2014; Bowman et al. 2009; Giglio et al.
2013). The intensity and frequency of these factors are accelerated by climate
change. Additionally, diseases and pests in agriculture and natural ecosystems con-
tribute to reduced productivity and biodiversity, exacerbating land degradation
(Oerke 2006; Gilbert 2016).In India, land degradation is driven by several key fac-
tors. Unsustainable agricultural practices, comprising intensive tillage, monoculture
farming, and excessive use of agrochemicals, lead to soil erosion, nutrient deple-
tion, and degradation. Deforestation and unsustainable forestry practices further
contribute to soil erosion and loss of vegetative cover, intensifying land degradation
(Bhattacharyya et al. 2017). Moreover, water scarcity and mismanagement of water
resources result in soil salinization and waterlogging, accelerating land degradation.
In several areas of India, particularly Central India, coal mining has been identified
as one of the possible causes of land degradation, and it is anticipated that climate
change will exacerbate the effects of land degradation in the nation (Dhyani et al.
2021). Addressing these multifaceted challenges requires integrated land manage-
ment approaches and sustainable agricultural practices to mitigate land degradation
in India.
26.3 Impacts of Land Degradation
Land degradation poses a significant global challenge, with human-induced activi-

ties leading to the irreversible loss of arable land, particularly in arid and semi-arid
regions, at a rate of 5–6 million hectares annually (Hamdy and Aly 2014).
Deforestation disrupts the natural water cycle, leading to desertification and drier
soils, impacting crop growth potential (Bodo et al. 2021). The loss of biodiversity
due to habitat destruction exacerbates the problem, with over 44,000 species at risk
of extinction (IUCN 2024). Land-use changes, including agricultural expansion and
urbanization, further degrade natural habitats, with forecasts indicating potential
encroachment on 10–20% of existing grasslands and forests by 2050 (Tang et al.
2021; Ellis et al. 2010). Land degradation threatens agricultural productivity and
rural livelihoods and intensifies climate events by impairing carbon absorption
capacity and exacerbating global warming. The lack of tenurial rights further under-
mines efforts, particularly for indigenous communities, perpetuating environmental
vulnerability (Abdel Rahman 2023). Land degradation directly affects at least six
SDGs, as illustrated in Fig. 26.1. Recognizing the functional links between LD and
the respective SDGs, designing effective SDG implementation strategies becomes
crucial.
Fig. 26.1 The interconnections between land degradation and the impacted Sustainable
Development Goals (Vlek et al. 2017)
26.4 Why Restoration
Based on the impacts and causes of land degradation, sustainable utilization and
restoration of degraded lands is crucial for enhancing ecosystem services, climate
change mitigation, and human well-being. Restoration enhances the biodiversity of
degraded areas and positively improves socio-economic conditions and ecosystem
resilience. Restoration efforts in India highlight the multi-dimensional benefits,
including ecological advantages such as increased forest cover, biodiversity
enhancement, improved soil quality, and carbon sequestration (Chand et al. 2018;
Joshi et al. 2020, 2021; Joshi and Singh 2020). Furthermore, successful land resto-
ration contributes significantly to climate change mitigation by reducing greenhouse
gas emissions and aligns directly with several UN SDGs for 2030 (Edrisi et al. 2018).
540 S. Devi et al.
26.5 Restoration Approaches
26.5.1 Ecological Restoration Approach
Ecosystem restoration is vital in tackling global challenges like climate change.

Healthy ecosystems, such as forests and wetland habitats, operate as natural carbon
sinks. Restoring degraded ecosystems increases their original carbon capture capac-
ity and resilience to climate change effects, maximizing critical ecosystem services
for nature and society (Tracextech and Tracextech 2021). Two main ecological res-
toration strategies can be used to restore degraded, damaged, or destroyed ecosys-
tems to their original structure and functionality: (1) passive restoration removes
disturbance factors and allows for natural regeneration. This involves removing the
stresses that cause degradation and is found to be most appropriate for certain eco-
systems such as higher elevation forests, low-order riparian ecosystems, and slightly
impaired sagebrush steppe communities (Miguel et al. 2020) and (2) active restora-
tion, which removes disturbance sources and employs techniques to expedite recov-
ery and get around roadblocks (Holl 2012). Active restoration methods, like
planting, weeding, burning, and thinning, have been successful in forests with
excessive fuels, some riparian systems, and highly degraded sagebrush steppe com-
munities. Different aspects of active and passive approaches have been illustrated in
Table 26.1.
26.5.2 Afforestation and Reforestation
Afforestation and reforestation play pivotal roles in the restoration of degraded land
and climate change mitigation (Nautiyal et al. 2022). Afforestation is establishing
new forests in areas that have not been recently naturally forested, whereas revital-
izing previously forested areas that were degraded due to anthropogenic activities or
natural disturbances is called reforestation (Di Sacco et al. 2021). Both these prac-
tices contribute significantly to carbon sequestration, helping to minimize anthropo-
genic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and mitigate global warming (Bonan 2008).
Since forests are essential carbon sinks, they sequester carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere through photosynthesis and store it in biomass, soils, and other organic
matter (Pan et al. 2011). In this way, the process helps reduce atmospheric CO2
levels and maintain ecological balance and biodiversity.
Furthermore, high-quality reforestation can be seen as a nature-based solution to
biodiversity loss and climate change (Seddon et al. 2020). Reforestation also offers
well-established benefits, such as improved soil fertility, air and water filtration,
biodiversity habitat, and flood control (Griscom et al. 2017). As per Di Sacco et al.
(2021), ten golden rules for reforestation can help restore degraded land, increase
carbon sequestration, and improve biodiversity and livelihood. These rules are as
follows: (1) Set clear objectives, (2) Choose the appropriate species for the site, (3)
Table 26.1 Active and passive approaches for restoration of degraded land
Meta-analysis
Aspect Active restoration Passive restoration
findings References
Intervention Direct manipulation Facilitation of Active generally Suding
of the ecosystems natural processesleads to faster initial et al. (2015)
recovery, while
passive yields slower
but potentially more
sustainable recovery
in the long run.
Mechanism Artificial acceleration Removal of Both approaches can Lamb et al.
of ecological disturbances and restore various (2005)
succession reliance on natural ecosystem functions,
regeneration but active often
excels in highly
degraded landscapes
or situations requiring
specific targets
Cost Generally higher due Lower since it While active has Crouzeilles
to direct interventions primarily involves higher initial costs, et al. (2017)
and resource needs managing existing passive may not be
resources cost-effective if it
takes much longer to
achieve desired
outcomes
Management High; requires Low; focuses on Passive approaches Suding
intensity continuous reducing pressures require less ongoing et al. (2015)
monitoring, and monitoring effort but still need
intervention, and natural processes long-term monitoring
adaptation and potential adaptive
interventions
Suitability Ideal for highly Best for landscapes The decision often Lamb et al.
degraded landscapes, with potential for depends on the (2005)
areas lacking natural natural specific context,
seed banks, or regeneration, degradation level, and
situations requiring sensitive desired restoration
rapid intervention ecosystems, or goals
community-driven
projects
Overall Highly context- It can be highly Success depends on Suding
success dependent and successful but factors like et al. (2015)
requires careful relies on long-term ecosystem type,
planning, monitoring and chosen methods, and
implementation, and adaptive ongoing monitoring/
adaptation management adaptation
Plan for long-term management, (4) Utilize seedlings that receive adequate care, (5)
Protect natural regeneration, (6) Restore soil health, (7) Consider landscape con-
nectivity, (8) Engage and involve stakeholders, (9) Access and utilize adequate
funding, and (10) Monitor and evaluate progress. The Ministry of Environment,
542 S. Devi et al.
Forest and Climate Change implements afforestation schemes in forest areas

through participatory approaches, with species selection based on local needs and
ecological conditions. National Afforestation Programme (NAP), National Mission
for a Green India, and Forest Fire Prevention and Management are the primary
schemes focusing on afforestation, forest quality improvement, and fire manage-
ment. NAP involves ecological restoration of degraded forests with people’s partici-
pation, primarily through Joint Forest Management Committees (PIB 2019). From
2011–12 to 2021–22, the Government of India and State Governments have planted
trees on 18.94 million hectares out of the total 26 million hectares of degraded land,
leaving approximately 7 million hectares remaining to be afforested under the NAP
(Singh et al. 2023). The reforestation process faces several challenges, such as
selecting appropriate species for the site, long-term management planning, inade-
quate care for seedlings, protection of natural regeneration, soil degradation, land-
scape connectivity, and the involvement of stakeholders. Other challenges include
accessing and utilizing adequate funding, overcoming socio-economic and political
barriers, ensuring good governance, enshrining legal protective measures for
restored sites, and effective stakeholder communication (Di Sacco et al. 2021).
26.5.3 Agroforestry Approaches
Agroforestry is an innovative approach to soil fertility restoration that integrates

multipurpose tree species with vegetables, arable crops, fodder grasses, and/or live-
stock on the same unit of land (Albrecht and Kandji 2003). The tree component
helps recycle nutrients, maintain organic matter, and protect acid- and salt-affected
soils (Nair 1993). Agroforestry systems enhance the resilience of agricultural sys-
tems and temperature change mitigation. It provides various benefits, such as water-
quality enhancement, increased carbon sequestration, and greater soil fertility.
These advantages result from vegetative buffer strips reducing surface transport of
agrochemical pollutants, trees storing carbon more deeply in the soil profile with
their biomass, and trees enhancing soil productivity through biological nitrogen
fixation, efficient nutrient cycling, and deep nutrient capture, respectively (Nair
2011; Bhattacharyya et al. 2017). Practices like hedgerow intercropping and multi-
layer tree gardens effectively rehabilitate water-induced erosion on degraded lands
(Jinger et al. 2023). It has significant potential for substantial carbon sequestration
and reduction in soil loss and runoff, as evidenced in various regions of Northeast
India, Western Himalaya, and the plains of Haryana (Jha et al. 2001; Swamy et al.
2003). Agroforestry systems have gained recognition from international organiza-
tions like the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the Convention on
Biological Diversity(CBD), and the World Bank.
The Kyoto Protocol initially acknowledged agroforestry’s role in climate mitiga-
tion, leading to increased global attention towards enhancing carbon sequestration
using agroforestry systems. However, challenges, such as standardized protocols for
estimating carbon sinks and land rights concerns, hindered the inclusion of agrofor-
estry systems in the Clean Development Mechanism. Nonetheless, REDD+ brought
agroforestry systems back into focus in 2007, prompting countries to improve
national planning for climate change adaptation and mitigation by recognizing the
significance of agriculture, forestry, and land-use sectors (Dhyani et al. 2021). India
was the first country to introduce a national policy on agroforestry in 2014. It is one
of four interventions proposed for a carbon-neutral economy in the 2022–2023 bud-
get (Dhyani et al. 2021). It is also in line with government programs for land con-
servation and rehabilitation, which makes it a strong plan for rehabilitating degraded
areas and fostering agricultural resilience. Agroforestry practices play a crucial role
in various river rejuvenation programs such as Namami Gange, Green India Mission,
National Highway Mission, Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY),
and Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA).
Research institutions like the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR),
Forest Research Institute (FRI), Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR), State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), and Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVKs)
have developed cost-effective agroforestry technologies for rehabilitating degraded
lands. Notably, ICAR-CAFRI and AICRPAF have compiled a summary of agrofor-
estry technologies tailored for different agroclimatic zones across the country, with
84 grassroots-level farmers adopting technologies developed by 26 AICRPAF cen-
ters spanning five different agroclimatic regions (Chaturvedi et al. 2016; Jinger
et al. 2023).
26.5.4 Sustainable Agronomic Practices
Agriculture is a vital food security system for humans, which is most vulnerable to
climate change and significantly affects future food security and social welfare
(Goswami et al. 2022). Unsustainable agriculture practices cause loss of organic
matter and nutrients and can affect land restoration. Standardized agronomic prac-
tices are essential in enhancing the quality of soil and water use optimization and
managing cropping systems, all of which can contribute to successful land restora-
tion. Suitable agronomic practices produce better results in the production of plants
and the restoration of degraded areas. Furthermore, agronomical practices such as
crop rotation, mixed and strip cropping, green manuring, and mulch farming play
crucial roles in nutrient management, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and
increasing soil carbon. Specific crops like soybean, groundnut, and cowpea are
often intercropped with maize, jowar or bajra in dry areas to minimize soil loss
(Srinivasarao et al. 2014; Padhan and Jat 2023). This intercropping system ensures
adequate ground cover and reduces erosion risks, mainly when cereals like maize
and sorghum are grown alongside legumes like groundnut, green gram, black gram,
soybean, and cowpea in inter-row areas(Rao and Khan 2003; Bhattacharyya et al.
2017). These practices help manage cropping systems, enhance soil quality, use
544 S. Devi et al.
optimum water, protect the environment, provide habitat for biodiversity, and adapt
to climate (Arneth et al. 2021).
The Indian government has initiated the National Mission for Sustainable
Agriculture (NMSA), operational since 2014–15, and aims to enhance agricultural
productivity, sustainability, and climate resilience. It promotes integrated farming
systems, soil and moisture conservation, comprehensive soil health management,
efficient water management, and rainfed technologies. On Farm Water Management
(OFWM) was initially part of NMSA, focusing on enhancing water use efficiency
through drip and sprinkler irrigation. Later, it was integrated into the ‘Per Drop
More Crop (PDMC)’ component of the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana
(PMKSY). PMKSY-PDMC emphasizes precision irrigation and on-farm water
management practices, with around 30.69 lakh hectares brought under micro-
irrigation since 2015–16. The Rainfed Area Development Programme, under
NMSA, promotes Integrated Farming Systems to enhance productivity and mitigate
risks associated with climatic variability. This includes integrating crops with horti-
culture, livestock, fishery, and other activities to maximize farm returns and reduce
the impacts of extreme weather events. Soil Health Management (SHM) under
NMSA promotes Integrated Nutrient Management to improve soil health and pro-
ductivity through balanced use of chemical fertilizers, organic manures, and biofer-
tilizers. The Soil Health Card Scheme, initiated in 2015, provides farmers with soil
nutrient status information and recommendations for improving soil fertility through
appropriate nutrient application. These initiatives aim to make agriculture more sus-
tainable, productive, and resilient to climate change (PIB 2018; Singh et al. 2024).
26.5.5 Soil Amendment Techniques
Several approaches and techniques have been implemented to restore different types
of degraded land. The optimal use of fertilizers sustains plant growth and mitigates
Greenhouse Gas emissions. Additionally, applying animal manure to soil aids in
stimulating soil carbon sequestration and supplying essential nutrients to plants,
with effectiveness based on different regional temperatures (Arraiza et al. 2014).
Similarly, farmyard manure has been shown to enhance soil organic carbon levels in
pearl millet cropping systems (Gupta et al. 1992). Root exudates are vital in remov-
ing xenobiotic contaminants from the soil (Xie et al. 2012). Polluted soil can be
restored by using microbes and tolerant plants (Philippot et al. 2013). A variety of
plant species, such as Leucenaleucocephala and Ricinuscummunis L. can be grown
to restore soils contaminated by multiple organic or inorganic pollutants; however,
Miscanthusgiganteus can grow in heavy metals (Cd, Zn and Pb) polluted lands
(Huang et al. 2011). The selection process for suitable species in restoration efforts
should prioritize their adaptability to challenging environments.
Moreover, the fertility of degraded land can be improved by incorporating legu-
minous plants, which act as green manure and mulching agents (Sisti et al. 2004;
Edrisi et al. 2018). For reclaiming salt-affected soils distributed throughout India,
Gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate; CaSO4·2H2O) has been widely employed under
government policies (Singh and Tewari 2022). Most of these practices, like tillage,
irrigation, and leaching, are also helpful in managing saline soils. Turning over the
soil (inversion tillage) can help reduce salt buildup in the root zone compared to
leaving it untilled. However, deep tillage may bring more salts to the surface and
root zone. The best approach is to use good quality irrigation water with low salt
content and grow crops tolerating high salinity levels. Some other techniques, like
bunds, graded bunds, contour bunds, bench terraces, half-moon terraces, grassed
waterways, and water harvesting ponds, are commonly used to reduce severe soil
degradation. Bunds are made of small earthen barriers built on agricultural lands
with slopes ranging from 1% to 6% slope to collect surface runoff, increase water
infiltration, and prevent soil erosion. Graded bunds are constructed in regions with
medium to high rainfall, around 600 mm annually. Contour bunds can be mechani-
cal or vegetative barriers that are created across the slope. Terrace systems like
bench and half-moon terraces are used for planting trees on hill slopes, while
grassed waterways manage drainage. Water harvesting ponds are constructed for
irrigation purposes. All these techniques help mitigate soil erosion (Bhattacharyya
et al. 2017).
26.6 Conservation and Restoration Challenges
There are some key challenges (Fig. 26.2) for conservation and restoration,
including:
• Limited Resources: Inadequate financial and human resources can hinder con-
servation and restoration projects, limiting the scale and impact of
interventions.
• Climate Change: Changing climate conditions pose challenges to conservation
and restoration efforts, affecting ecosystem dynamics, species distributions, and
the success of restoration initiatives.
• Land Use Pressures: Intensive agriculture, urbanization, and infrastructure
development pressure natural habitats, making it challenging to protect and
restore ecosystems.
• Invasive Species: Introducing non-native species can disrupt ecosystems, out-
competing native species and complicating restoration efforts.
• Lack of Stakeholder Engagement: Successful conservation and restoration
require collaboration and support from local communities, governments, and
other stakeholders. Lack of engagement can undermine project sustainability.
• Policy and Legal Frameworks: Inconsistent or inadequate policy frameworks
and enforcement mechanisms can impede conservation and restoration initia-
tives, leading to conflicting land-use practices.
546 S. Devi et al.
Fig. 26.2 Conservation and restoration challenges
• Data Gaps: Limited data on biodiversity, ecosystem health, and land-use history
can hinder informed decision-making and effective planning for conservation
and restoration.
• Human-Wildlife Conflict: Interactions between humans and wildlife, espe-
cially in habitat restoration areas, can impact conservation goals and local
livelihoods.
26.7 Conclusion
The multifaceted issue of land degradation is a pressing global concern, profoundly

impacting ecosystems, biodiversity, and human livelihoods. In this chapter, the
intricate relationships among agriculture, water resources, and climate change
highlight the need for a comprehensive and collaborative response to address the
root causes and mitigate the far-reaching consequences of land degradation.
Restoration methods are afforestation, agroforestry approaches, and sustainable
agronomic practices are required to combat this pervasive issue. Agroforestry is a
promising land-use system that can reduce land degradation caused by inadequate
traditional agricultural methods. These systems are integral to rural development
programs, providing the community with food, fuel, wood, income, and environ-
mental benefits. The National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, India, identifies
various techniques to address land degradation problems, such as contour farming,
bench terracing, mulching, manuring, and planting trees to combat erosion and deg-
radation. Strategies include addressing salinity through tolerant tree species and
gypsum, soil acidity through lime and agroforestry, and improving soil fertility
through green manure, biochar, and biofertilizers. Nature-based solutions offer a
diverse range of strategies for land restoration and sustainability. These include soil
restoration methods like composting and biochar application, indigenous practices
such as agroforestry, and ecological engineering approaches. These solutions not
only enhance soil health, water retention, and biodiversity but also contribute to
climate change mitigation and improved livelihoods for local communities.
Limited resources and climate change and policy gaps pose significant chal-
lenges. The Green Climate Fund (GCF) was initiated by UNFCCC in 2010 to sup-
port the approaches mentioned above. GCF is the largest global fund specifically
designed to assist developing nations in lowering their greenhouse gas emissions
and strengthening their capacity to adapt to climate change. The GCF invests in four
transition areas: the built environment, energy and industry, human security, liveli-
hoods, and well-being, as well as land use, forests, and ecosystems. It helps to
transform the paradigm in the forest and land use sectors by promoting forest pro-
tection, restoration, and sustainable forest management. Restoration efforts are con-
sistent with sustainable development goals, emphasizing shared responsibility.
Collaboration among stakeholders is critical to effective implementation. Despite
the challenges, collaborative efforts can ensure sustainable land use for current and
future generations. Integrating scientific findings, technology, and international
cooperation is critical to promoting harmony with the land.
References
Abdel Rahman MA (2023) An overview of land degradation, desertification and sustainable land
management using GIS and remote sensing applications. Rendiconti Lincei ScienzeFisiche e
Naturali 34(2):767–808
Environ 99:15–27
Andela N, Morton DC, Giglio L, Chen Y, van der Werf GR, Kasibhatla PS, Randerson JT (2017)
A human-driven decline in global burned area. Nat Commun 8(1):1–11
Arneth A, Olsson L, Cowie A, Erb KH, Hurlbert M, Kurz WA, Rounsevell MD (2021) Restoring
degraded lands. Annu Rev Env Resour 46:569–599
548 S. Devi et al.
Arraiza MP, Santamarta JC, Ioras F, García Rodríguez JL, Abrudan IV, Korjus H, Borála G
(eds) (2014) Climate change and restoration of degraded land. Colegio de Ingenieros de
Montes, Madrid
Bennett EM, Cramer W, Begossi A, Cundill G, Diemer M, Espindola G, Biggs R (2019) Linking
biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human well-being: three challenges for designing
research for sustainability. Nat Sustain 2(4):218–225
Bhattacharyya T, Pal DK, Chandran P, Ray SK, Sarkar D, Mandal C et al (2017) Soil degradation
in India: challenges and potential solutions. In: Soil degradation, conservation and remediation,
pp 401–422
Bodi MB, Martin DA, Balfour VN, Santin C, Doerr SH, Pereira P, Jordán A (2014) Wildland fire
ash: production, composition and eco-hydro-geomorphic effects. Earth Sci Rev 130:103–127
Bodo T, Gimah BG, Seomoni KJ (2021) Deforestation and habitat loss: human causes, conse-
quences and possible solutions. J Geogr Res 4(2):22–30
forests. Science 320(5882):1444–1449
Bowman DM, Balch JK, Artaxo P, Bond WJ, Carlson JM, Cochrane MA et al (2009) Fire in the
Earth system. Science 324(5926):481–484
Chand HB, Singh H, Chhetri R (2018) Carbon sequestration potential in sahid smriti community
forest: a case study of Terai region of Nepal. In: Proceeding of International conference on
agriculture and allied sciences: the productivity, food security and ecology held during on 13 to
14 August 2018. ISBN-978-93-85822-71-1
Chaturvedi OP, Sikka AK, Handa AK, Bajpai CK (2016) Agroforestry technologies for different
agro-climatic zones of the country. In: All India coordinated research project on agroforestry.
ICAR-Central Agroforestry Research Institute, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Crouzeilles R, Ferreira MS, Chazdon RL, Lindenmayer DB, Sansevero JB, Monteiro L, Strassburg
BB (2017) Ecological restoration success is higher for natural regeneration than for active res-
toration in tropical forests. Sci Adv 3(11):e1701345
Davidson EA, Janssens IA (2006) Temperature sensitivity of soil carbon decomposition and feed-
backs to climate change. Nature 440:165–173
Dhyani S, Murthy IK, Kadaverugu R, Dasgupta R, Kumar M, Adesh GK (2021) Agroforestry to
achieve global climate adaptation and mitigation targets: are South Asian countries sufficiently
pre pared? Forests 12:303
Di Sacco A, Hardwick KA, Blakesley D, Brancalion PH, Breman E, CecilioRebola L, Antonelli A
(2021) Ten golden rules for reforestation to optimize carbon sequestration, biodiversity recov-
ery and livelihood benefits. Glob Chang Biol 27(7):1328–1348
Du H, Zhou G, Wu J (2019) Impacts of urbanization on soil erosion in a mountainous region of
Southwest China. Land Degrad Dev 30(2):140–152
Edrisi SA, Tripathi V, Abhilash PC (2018) Towards the sustainable restoration of marginal and
degraded lands in India. Trop Ecol 59:397–416
Eldridge DJ, Poore AG, Ruiz-Colmenero M, Letnic M, Soliveres S, Wang L (2011) Ecosystem
structure, function, and composition in rangelands are negatively affected by livestock grazing.
Ecol Appl 21(1):185–195
Ellis EC, Klein Goldewijk K, Siebert S, Lightman D, Ramankutty N (2010) Anthropogenic trans-
formation of the biomes, 1700 to 2000. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 19(5):589–606
FAO (2020) The state of the world’s forests. Forests, biodiversity and people. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations
Field DJ, Morgan CL, McBratney AB (2016) Global soil security. Springer
Ghosh M, Sinha B (2018) Policy analysis for realizing the potential of timber production from
trees outside forests (TOF) in India. Int Forest Rev 20(1):89–103
Giglio L, Randerson JT, van der Werf GR (2013) Analysis of daily, monthly, and annual burned
area using the fourth-generation global fire emissions database (GFED4). Eur J Vasc Endovasc
Surg 118(1):317–328
Gilbert GS (2016) Evolutionary ecology of plant diseases in natural ecosystems. Annu Rev
Phytopathol 54:19–43
Goswami S, Kumar K, Yadav S (2022) Chapter-6 Indian agriculture and climate change. AkiNik
Publications, New Delhi, p 69
Griscom BW, Adams J, Ellis PW, Houghton RA, Lomax G, Miteva DA et al (2017) Natural climate
solutions. Proc Natl Acad Sci 114(44):11645–11650
Gupta AP, Narwal RP, Antil RS, Dev S (1992) Sustaining soil fertility with organic-C, N, P, and K
by using farmyard manure and fertilizer-N in a semi-arid zone: a long-term study. Arid Land
Res Manag 6:243–251
Hamdy A, Aly A (2014) Land degradation, agriculture productivity and food security. In:
Proceedings of the Fifth International scientific agricultural symposium, agrosym, pp 708–717
Holl KD (2012) Factors influencing early seedling establishment in tropical forest restoration. For
Ecol Manage 265:155–163
Hossain A, Krupnik TJ, Timsina J, Mahboob MG, Chaki AK, Farooq M, Hasanuzzaman M (2020)
Agricultural land degradation: processes and problems undermining future food security. In:
Environment, climate, plant and vegetation growth, pp 17–61
Huang H, Yu N, Wang L (2011) The phyto remediation potential of bioenergy crop Ricinuscommunis
for DDTs and cadmium co-contaminated soil. Bioresour Technol 102:11034–11038
Huang C, Dahal D, Wu PT, Jin H, Liu J, Wu J, Myneni RB (2019) Global semiarid climate change
over last 60 years revealed by remotely sensed vegetation dynamics. Remote Sens Environ
231:111221
IUCN (2024) The IUCN Red List of threatened species. Version 2023-1. (http://www.iucnredlist.
org) ISSN 2307-8235
Jha MN, Gupta MK, Raina AK (2001) Carbon sequestration: forest soil and land use manage ment.
Ann Forest 9:249–256
Jinger D, Kaushal R, Kumar R, Paramesh V, Verma A, Shukla M, Kumawat S (2023) Degraded
land rehabilitation through agroforestry in India: achievements, current understanding, and
future prospectives. Front Ecol Evol 11:1088796
of Far-Western Nepal. Eurasian. J Soil Sci 10(2):96–104. https://doi.org/10.18393/ejss.825066
Koorem K, Pärn L, Varik M (2017) Impacts of forest management on soil properties and soil ero-
sion. J Environ Manage 197:105–115
Kumar M, Singh H (2020) Agroforestry as a nature-based solution for reducing community
dependence on forests to safeguard forests in rainfed areas of India. In: Dhyani S, Gupta A,
Karki M (eds) Nature-based solutions for resilient ecosystems and societies. Disaster resil-
ience and green growth. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4712-6_17
Kuzyakov Y, Mason-Jones K (2018) Viruses in soil: nano-scale undead drivers of microbial life,
biogeochemical turnover and ecosystem functions. Soil Biol Biochem 127:305–317
Lamb D, Erskine PD, Wood V (2005) Restoration of degraded tropical forests: plantation and
assisted natural regeneration comparisons. Restoration Ecol 13(4):596–607
Miguel MF, Butterfield HS, Lortie CJ (2020) A meta-analysis contrasting active versus passive
restoration practices in dryland agricultural ecosystems. PeerJ 8:e10428
Nair PKR (1993) An introduction to agroforestry. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The
Netherland
Nair T (2011) India to launch a brave new initiative to save the critically endangered Gharial.
SPECIES–Mag Spec Surv Comm 21:53
550 S. Devi et al.
Nautiyal S, Singh H, Kamboj S, Kumar A, Panwar VP, Bala N (2022) Carbon regulating services
of a 30-year-old reclaimed Limestone mine area in Foothills of Himalaya. Indian Forester
148(3):338–343
Oerke EC (2006) Crop losses to pests. J Agric Sci 144(1):31–43
Padhan SR, Jat S (2023) Agronomy as an option for climate change mitigation. Agri Mirror: Future
India 2:148–154
Pan Y, Birdsey RA, Fang J, Houghton R, Kauppi PE, Kurz WA, Hayes D (2011) A large and per-
sistent carbon sink in the world’s forests. Science 333(6045):988–993
Philippot L, Raaijmakers JM, Lemanceauand P, van der Putten WH (2013) Going back to the
roots: the microbial ecology of the rhizosphere. Nat Rev Microbiol 11:789–799
PIB (2018) National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture. Press Information Bureau Government
of India Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
PIB (2019) National Afforestation Programme. Press Information Bureau Government of India
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. PIB 1596332
Quintero-Angel M, Ceron VA, Ospina-Salazar DI (2023) Applications and perspectives for land
restoration through nature-based solutions. Curr Opin Environ Sci Health:100518
Rao JV, Khan IA (2003) Research gaps in intercropping systems under rainfed conditions in India,
an On Farm Survey. Hyderabad, India, CRIDA
Reed MS, Stringer LC, Dougill AJ, Perkins JS, Atlhopheng JR, Mulale K et al (2017) Reorienting
land degradation towards sustainable land management: linking sustainable livelihoods with
ecosystem services in rangeland systems. J Environ Manage 161:455–464
Santini NS, Miquelajauregui Y (2022) The restoration of degraded lands by local communities and
indigenous peoples. Front Conserv Sci 3:873659
Seddon N, Chausson A, Berry P, Girardin CAJ, Smith A, Turner B (2020) Understanding the
value and limits of nature-based solutions to climate change and other global challenges. Philos
Trans B Biol Sci 375. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0120
Singh H, Kumar M (2022) Climate change and its impact on Indian Himalayan Forests: cur-
rent status and research needs. In: Rani S, Kumar R (eds) Climate change. Springer climate.
Springer, Cham, pp 223–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
Singh K, Tewari SK (2022) Does the road to land degradation neutrality in India is paved with
restoration science? Restoration Ecol 30(5):e13585
Singh S, Giri K, Mishra G, Kumar M, Singh RK, Pandey S, Mullick M, Sharma R (2023)
Pathways to achieve land degradation neutrality in India. Indian Council of Forestry Research
and Education, Dehradun, India
Singh SN, Bisaria J, Sinha B (2024) Developing a composite weighted indicator-based index
for monitoring and evaluating climate-smart agriculture in India. Mitig Adapt Strat Glob
Chang 29:12
Sisti CP, Santos HP, Kohhann R, Alves BJ, S. Urquiagaand R. M. Boddey. (2004) Change in car-
bon and nitrogen stocks in soil under 13 years of conventional or zero tillage in southern Brazil.
Soil Tillage Res 76:39–58
Srinivasarao CH, Venkateswarlu B, Lal R, Singh AK, Kundu S, Vittal KPR, Patel MM (2014)
Long-term manuring and fertilizer effects on depletion of soil organic carbon stocks under
pearl millet-cluster bean-castor rotation in Western India. Land Degrad Dev 25(2):173–183
Stanturf JA, Palik BJ, Williams MI, Dumroese RK, Madsen P (2014) Forest restoration paradigms.
J Sustain For 33(Suppl. 1):S161–S194
Suding KN, Higgs ER, Palmer MA (2015) Restoration in practice: reversing degradation of eco-
system function. Cambridge University Press
Swamy SL, Puriand S, Singh AK (2003) Growth, biomass, carbon storage and nutrient distribu-
tion in GmelinaarboreaRoxb. stands on red lateritic soils in Central India. Bioresour Technol
90:109–126
Tang L, Ke X, Chen Y, Wang L, Zhou Q, Zheng W, Xiao B (2021) Which impacts more seriously
on natural habitat loss and degradation? Cropland expansion or urban expansion? Land Degrad
Dev 32(2):946–964
Tracextech and Tracextech (2021). Ecosystem restoration for climate change mitigation |
reviving nature. Blockchain for Food Safety, Traceability and Supplychain Transparency.
Retrieved April 13, 2024, from https://tracextech.com/ecosystem-restoration-for-
climate-c hange-m itigation/#:~:text=Healthy%20ecosystems%2C%20such%20as%20
forests,resilience%2C%20and%20maximizing%20ecosystem%20services
UNCCD (1994) United nations convention to combat desertification in those countries experienc-
ing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa.
Vlek PLG, Khamzina A, Tamene L (eds) (2017) Land degradation and the sustainable develop-
ment goals: threats and potential remedies. CIAT Publication No. 440. International Center for
Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Nairobi, Kenya. 67 p
Xie X, Liao M, Yang J, Chai J, Fang S, Wang R (2012) Influence of root-exudates concentra-
tion on pyrene degradation and soil microbial characteristics in pyrene contaminated soil.
Chemosphere 88:1190–1195
Zhang Q, Wang L, Zheng H (2020) Impacts of urbanization on soil properties: a review of spatial
heterogeneity and mechanisms. Environ Sci Tech 54(20):12729–12740
Chapter 27
Climate Change and Forest Ecosystems:
Restoration and Rehabilitation Approaches
Bill Nelson Paul, Aman Mahajan, and S. Sarath
Abstract Climate change poses unprecedented challenges to forest ecosystems

worldwide, threatening their integrity and functionality. This chapter explores the
intricate relationship between climate change and forest ecosystems, focusing on
restoration and rehabilitation approaches to mitigate the adverse effects of climate
change on forests. Forests are crucial in carbon sequestration, biodiversity conser-
vation, and providing essential ecosystem services. However, anthropogenic activi-
ties, such as deforestation and habitat fragmentation, coupled with the impacts of
climate change, have led to the degradation and loss of forest ecosystems globally.
In response to these challenges, various restoration and rehabilitation approaches
have been developed to enhance forest ecosystems’ resilience and adaptive capacity
in the face of climate change. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of
the critical restoration and rehabilitation strategies employed to mitigate the impacts
of climate change on forest ecosystems. These approaches may significantly con-
tribute to forest ecosystems’ preservation and sustainable management, enhancing
their resilience to climate change impacts and ensuring long-term viability.
Keywords Biodiversity · Ecological resilience · Forest restoration ·

Climate change
B. N. Paul · A. Mahajan (*)

Genetics and Tree Improvement Division, ICFRE-Forest Research Institute,
S. Sarath
Silviculture and Forest Management Division, ICFRE-Institute of Wood Science and
Technology, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Ltd. 2024
554 B. N. Paul et al.
27.1 Introduction
Climate change is influencing the ecosystem’s structure and function globally. It

affects many aspects of forest ecology, including distribution, productivity, demog-
raphy, structure, and carbon storage (Phukon et al. 2022). In scientific research and
policymaking, it is essential to comprehend how the global ecosystem is responding
to climate change. The research on climate and vegetation has demonstrated that
specific climatic regimes are linked to particular plant communities or functional
types. Thus, it stands to reason that alterations in climate will also affect the struc-
ture of forest ecosystems (Prakash et al. 2022).
Forests, being dynamic ecosystems, typically experience minor composition,
structure, and function changes, even without external disturbances. However, they
remain relatively stable if the forest ecosystem constrains and regulates the changes
(Vásquez-Grandón et al. 2018; Sharma et al. 2018). These disturbances can cause
the ecosystem to respond by regulating the changes in its structure and ecological
processes; its dynamic ability will allow it to revert to a stable condition (Tivy 1993;
Singh et al. 2022). Adverse weather events, invasive species, fires, pests, diseases,
and drought affect over 100 million hectares of forest yearly (FAO and UNEP 2020).
An ecosystem’s interaction with a disturbance can lead to perturbations in them.
The same disturbance can cause varying degrees of perturbation in different ecosys-
tems. When subjected to the same disturbance, an ecosystem with fewer perturba-
tions exhibits higher resistance, while one with a greater degree of perturbation
shows lower resistance (Yi and Jackson 2021; Singh et al. 2023a, b). Broadly, this
ability of the ecosystem to withstand the effects generated by forest perturbations is
called resilience. Helfgott (2015) defined resilience as the capacity of a system to
handle disruption by resisting alteration (robustness), rebounding and adjusting to
change (stability), or adjusting and gaining advantages (beneficial adaptability) due
to a change. However, forests with either autogenic or allogenic disturbances cannot
be considered degraded unless their resilience, functionality, and ecosystem ser-
vices are affected. Forest degradation can be generally defined as the loss of specific
forest attributes or the reduction of a forest’s capacity to provide goods and services
such as water regulation, soil management, biomass, carbon sequestration, etc.
(FAO 2011).
The impact of climate change on forest ecosystem functioning is, in most cases,
detrimental. Plant populations that are isolated and unstable may arise because of
habitat fragmentation and climate change, increasing their vulnerability.
Additionally, it has led to reductions in the variety of plant species and changes in
species and functional diversity, which may lessen the advantages of diversity for
ecosystem functioning. Deforestation and degradation can also impair forests’ abil-
ity to adapt ecologically to climate change (Singh et al. 2018).
Lower levels of biodiversity in degraded forests can significantly impair the eco-
system’s ability to adapt, stabilize, and withstand changes brought on by climate
change. Restoring the productivity of degraded and deforested land has become a
global concern because over 2 billion hectares of land have lost their capacity to
27 Climate Change and Forest Ecosystems: Restoration and Rehabilitation Approaches 555
benefit people and other species (IUCN 2015a). Two of the most significant issues
facing global forest managers are sustainably recovering forests and effectively pro-
tecting their biodiversity (Singh et al. 2023a, b).
Restoring degraded land is a goal of several United Nations (UN) agreements
(UN 2014), and the 2015 New York Climate Summit featured a significant pledge
to restoration. The Bonn Challenge was established to further these efforts, a global
project to recover 150 million hectares of degraded forest and agricultural land by
2020 (IUCN 2015b). Such initiatives demonstrate that preserving pristine ecosys-
tems is the best way to conserve the environment. Still, when this is not feasible,
conservation efforts can be strengthened by restoration and rehabilitation approaches
(Devi et al. 2023).
Reintroducing native species, eliminating invasive non-native species, restoring
proper fire regimes, soil and hydrologic situations, and other actions promoting
natural regeneration are frequently included in revitalizing degraded forests (Kumar
et al. 2021). In addition, the spatial distribution, quantity, and quality of residual
vegetation should be considered, as they are a reliable indicator of the possibility of
natural regeneration (Singh et al. 2017; Verma et al. 2020). Lastly, a degraded or
entirely disrupted forest ecosystem should be “elevated” to a higher level of the
restoration ladder. A restoration project’s practical completion depends heavily on
careful planning, implementation using various techniques, consideration of biodi-
versity, roles of forest ecosystems, and dependent populations (Singh et al. 2020a, b).
27.2 Restoration of Forest Ecosystems
27.2.1 Restoration Planning
The initial step in any restoration approach is identifying the problem and defining
the restoration targets. Identifying degradation in forests for large areas is done
using remote sensing techniques. Several remote sensing methods, such as satellites
(SPOT-4, SPOT-5, Landsat, Sentinel-2, and Terra) and aerial photography, LIDAR,
and RADAR using manned and unmanned aerial vehicles, are used to detect forest
disturbances. Using remote sensing to track forest degradation can often be com-
plex, as degradation encompasses more than alterations in canopy cover. Specific
forms of degradation lead to modifications beneath the canopy that are difficult to
identify from an overhead perspective (Gupta et al. 2019; Yadav et al. 2019).
Moreover, changes in biomass don’t always align well with shifts in canopy cover.
For example, selective logging often results in minor gaps in the canopy, which can
get covered quickly, causing underreporting of logging when images have lower
special and temporal resolution (Gao et al. 2020; Singh et al. 2018). Therefore,
ground truthing is often done in addition to remote sensing to better detect perturba-
tions in forest ecosystems (Gupta et al. 2018; Kumari and Singh 2018).
Identifying the causes of degradation is pivotal before implementing any restora-

tion activities, as misidentification can cause the restoration approach to fail. The
causes of the degradation of forests are broadly divided into natural and anthropo-
genic causes. The anthropogenic degradation of forests is driven by activities such
as logging, agriculture practices, mining, and grazing (Dimson and Gillespie 2020).
Natural causes of degradation do not have any direct human involvement and can be
due to landslides, fire, damage caused by disease and pests, and extreme weather
conditions (Van Lierop et al. 2015). However, these can be exasperated by the
changing climatic factors to which human activities contribute significantly. Forest
disturbances resulting from changes in land use and climate change are mutually
interconnected, intensifying each other (Dale et al. 2001; Kumar et al. 2018). The
effect of climate conditions on forest disturbances can be direct, indirect, or due to
the interaction of climate factors. Direct effects refer to the immediate consequences
of climate factors on disturbance processes. These effects include alterations in the
occurrence or intensity of drought periods, lightning, and wind throw, as well as
climate-induced proliferation of pests and disease-causing pathogens (Seidl et al.
2017). Indirect effects refer to alterations in the disturbance patterns caused by cli-
mate impact on vegetation and ecosystem processes that are not directly linked to
disturbances. Interaction effects refer to interconnected or aggregate relationships
between factors that disrupt the environment. For instance, windfall can create a
higher likelihood of bark beetle infestations or drought, which increases their vul-
nerability against the beetles (Seidl et al. 2017; Singh et al. 2017). The perturbations
caused by anthropogenic pressures are often accessible to identify, mainly defores-
tation and habitat fragmentation (Prăvălie 2018). In contrast, the perturbations
caused by climate change are much more intricate and multifaceted (Kumar et al.
2017; Savita et al. 2017).
The participation and involvement of stakeholders are essential in the planning
process, as is a proper understanding of the extent of degradation, its causes, the
detrimental effects, the restoration approach, and the potential benefits of the pro-
posed plan. Traditional knowledge developed by the interaction of communities
with the ecosystem over generations can be helpful for restoration efforts (Uprety
et al. 2012). Active restoration of degraded ecosystems is often costly; therefore, a
clear and realistic boundary should be established for the restoration efforts. Threats
during the restoration process and those that can occur in the future should be con-
sidered before implementation. Restoration targets should be set to actualize the
short-term and long-term goals of the restoration project.
27.2.2 Placing Restoration into Practice
Since restoration projects often require a lot of resources, experiments on a small

scale or pilot studies are usually needed. The sites selected for this should represent
the area where restoration is intended. These pilot studies often help unravel defi-
ciencies that were not accounted for during the planning phase of the program and
constraints that might arise during the actual implementation of the program. The
pilot studies can give helpful insights into how the restoration program might pro-
ceed. The scaling up is done after evaluating the results of the pilot study and incor-
porating changes if necessary. During restoration, the area should be constantly
monitored and assessed to see if the project is moving in the right direction.
Degraded ecosystems are more likely to undergo degradation. Hence, adequate pro-
tection against external agents should be ensured for the restoration site. The con-
stant monitoring and evaluation also help implement changes in strategy, scale, and
actions, if necessary, to achieve restoration goals. Unexpected outcomes from ear-
lier efforts or shifts in conditions over time (like changes in the socioeconomic
environment) could modify the most desired restoration path. In certain instances,
this might even necessitate a revaluation and modification of the primary objectives
of the project (Mansourian et al. 2005).
27.2.3 Restoration Strategies
Based on strategies, restoration can be classified into rehabilitation, reconstruction,

reclamation, and replacement (Stanturf et al. 2014). Rehabilitation refers to reinstat-
ing the preferred species composition, structure, or functions in an ecosystem cur-
rently in a deteriorated state. Reconstruction implies the process of re-establishing
indigenous plant communities on lands that were recently utilized for other
resources, like agriculture or grazing. Reclamation is done on severely degraded
land generally devoid of vegetation, such as areas degraded by mining. Reclamation
might necessitate several intensive management steps, with the final intended func-
tion not being realized for many years. Replacement is done when changes in cli-
matic and site factors become unfavorable for a species, requiring a substitution by
a new species that can thrive in the new conditions (Apurva et al. 2017; Singh
et al. 2014).
Restoration approaches can be divided into active and passive restoration meth-
ods based on whether vegetation has to be introduced to an area. Passive restoration
encompasses natural regeneration and management practices to arrest disturbances,
whereas restoration methods that involve planting seeds or seedlings can be consid-
ered active restoration. Atkinson and Bonser (2020) suggested restructuring this
classification to include natural, assisted, and reconstructive restoration. In this clas-
sification, active restoration programs are broken down into assisted and reconstruc-
tive restoration. Restoration activities such as species introduction and weed removal
are considered assisted restoration. The restoration approach is considered recon-
structive only if most of the desired biota is actively introduced. However, for the
scope of this chapter, widely accepted terms active and passive restoration were
considered.
27.2.3.1 Passive Restoration
Passive restoration, also known as natural regeneration, is a process that does not
require active human intervention and is entirely dependent on the ability of a
degraded system to regenerate naturally. Passive restoration is affected by prevail-
ing site conditions, the extent and type of initial perturbations, biotic interactions,
short-term and long-term goals, and resource constraints. Natural regeneration takes
considerable time and is negatively affected if secondary disturbances affecting
regeneration, such as grazing, fire, brushwood collection, etc., are present at the
proposed site. Measures to control or arrest these disturbances should be taken
before leaving the area for natural regeneration to be established. Invasive species
and weeds can often suppress the growth of target species at the restoration site.
Therefore, management practices should be implemented to control the weed
growth in the restoration site and improve the chances that the preferred species will
establish themselves (Hobbs et al. 2009).
The management practices done at a site to improve the natural regeneration of
vegetation are called Accelerated Natural Regeneration or Assisted Natural
Regeneration (ANR). This method strives to speed up the process of natural
regrowth by reducing barriers to natural regeneration, which often involves soil
degradation, competition from exotic plants, and repeated disruptions like grazing,
harvesting, and fire (Shono et al. 2007). ANR helps in faster restoration than natural
regeneration and costs less than active restoration as the expenses incurred for prop-
agating, raising, and planting seedlings are eliminated. However, ANR is only suit-
able in regions with sufficient tree regeneration and some level of natural succession.
The colonization of pioneers, which forms vegetation clusters or patches of the
original vegetation, can facilitate the establishment of other species around them.
These patches are called nuclei, and the development and expansion of such clusters
are called nucleation (Corbin and Holl 2012).
In some instances, invasive species may not be detrimental to the targeted spe-
cies, and their removal might not be ideal as they can act as nurse plants for the
target species, facilitating their establishment (Becerra Osses and Montenegro
Rizzardini 2013; Kumar et al. 2020a, b). The initial biodiversity of the degraded
land often determines the nature and type of natural regeneration that can occur in
the region. Highly degraded areas are usually inconducive to passive restoration
methods, as the deficiency of biodiversity prevents the area from returning to its
pre-disturbed state. Therefore, passive restoration works best in natural landscapes
with lightly disturbed sites, moderate productivity, and low abiotic stress (Prach
et al. 2019). Edaphic, meteorological, and climatic conditions prevailing in the area
can also affect the success of passive restoration efforts. Sites with degraded soils
(low fertility, high pH values) or extreme mereological factors can negatively impact
natural regeneration, and assistance is often required (Skousen et al. 1994, Ninot
et al. 2001). The significant advantage of passive restoration is its costs are consid-
erably lower than active restoration.
In some cases, natural regeneration has the potential to achieve similar gains in
ecosystem services and biodiversity, especially in degraded areas with intact forests
nearby (Morrison and Lindell 2011). However, a complete restoration that relies
entirely on natural regeneration can take much time to actualize (Holl 2007). In
most cases, passively or spontaneously regenerated forests can result in vegetation
with less structural complexity or diversity, necessitating further enrichment plant-
ing to achieve the desired composition (Cava et al. 2018).
27.2.3.2 Active Restoration
Abrogating human activities such as agriculture, grazing, and firewood collection

can usually trigger the inherent capacity of a system to regenerate naturally.
However, active restoration is often necessary if the degradation has passed a certain
threshold (Lamb et al. 2005; Clewell and McDonald 2009). Restoration approaches
that use a range of human interventions to accelerate and influence the successional
trajectory of recovery can be termed active restoration (Meli et al. 2017). The pri-
mary approach to active restoration is the introduction of vegetation to the degraded
area to manage the course of the restoration process. Several factors must be consid-
ered when selecting the species and type of vegetation, such as site factors, climatic
conditions, soil conditions, cost incurred, and restoration goals. Severe degradation
can change the microclimate and soil conditions of an area. Regions already
degraded can further degrade due to erosion of fertile soil, loss of soil moisture, and
an increase in the daily temperature range. The lack of soil cover can heat the soil
during the day, removing soil moisture over time. Furthermore, the low thermal
inertia of dry soil can cause it to lose heat quickly at night through thermal radiation,
increasing the diurnal temperature range (Yadav et al. 2004). Several methods, such
as plantations, reestablishment, applied nucleation, direct seedings, etc., are utilized
for active restoration (Forbes et al. 2016).
27.2.3.2.1 Plantations
Undoubtedly, the most favored method of active restoration in tropical forests is the
setting up of plantations, which create a canopy cover, triggering the natural succes-
sion of the native forest (Bechara et al. 2016). Plantations can be established using
native species present in the region before degradation or with the help of exotics
(Kumar et al. 2020a, b). The species and methods used depend on the restoration
project’s goals and costs. Even though restoration plantations usually use indige-
nous trees for planting, exotics have some beneficial elements. In barren or heavily
degraded regions, planting exotics is often better than leaving the land exposed,
which can lead to further degradation (Lamb 1998). Exotics can also be used in
badly degraded regions where the growth and establishment of native species are
problematic. The biodiversity in monoculture plantations is low; therefore, certain
interventions should be taken to align with restoration goals. However, such planta-
tions should be carefully planned because they sometimes restrict indigenous spe-
cies’ growth due to excessive shading. Artificially creating canopy gaps in exotic
plantations is a strategy to increase the light reaching the understory with the benefit
of providing shelter for the native species planted under them. Other approaches,
such as creating species mosaics, mixed plantations, and forming an interconnected
matrix of natural vegetation between plantation compartments, improve biodiver-
sity (Lamb 1998). Species mosaics are groups of monocultures planted based on
their landscape compatibility instead of changing the entire landscape to suit a sin-
gle species. An understorey of natural vegetation develops over time in plantations,
improving biodiversity, nutrient cycling, and reducing erosion. Exotic plantations
can have various benefits, such as stabilizing soil, providing economic benefits,
sequestering carbon, etc. However, care should be taken about species selection and
their containment so that they do not escape the plantations and invade natural habi-
tats (Dodet and Collet 2012).
Seedlings of selected species are also planted to restore the degraded region to its
original condition. Re-establishing the original forests in a degraded area is often
more challenging than restoring at least some of the ecosystem functions.
Reestablishment can be done with a few fast-growing species in early successional
stages or with more diverse and dense planting in later successional stages (Lamb
et al. 2005). In the former method, fast-growing trees cover the canopy, suppress
weeds, and reduce fire hazards. However, the latter process relies heavily on further
natural regeneration from the seeds of nearby intact regions. In the latter method,
the restoration is faster, but it requires technical know-how about the propagation
and management of many species (Kumar et al. 2019).
Moreover, it is relatively expensive compared to other strategies and might not
be suitable in most cases. Framework species is another approach to restoring
degraded forests, especially in the tropics (Singh and Kumar 2022). The basis of the
technique is to establish species mixtures that act as ecosystem building blocks,
attracting seed dispersers. However, in this method, the region’s diversity heavily
depends on the availability of seed-dispersing wildlife and intact forests nearby.
Usually, a few indigenous tree species (Framework species) are planted to shade out
weeds and attract seed-disbursing animals (Elliott and Kuaraksa 2008). The frame-
work species are selected based on (a) Tolerance of open conditions, (b)
Attractiveness to seed-dispersing wildlife, (c) Early production of wildlife resources,
(d) Keystone species, (e) Ability to create new habitat away from planting sites, (f)
Rapid or persistent growth, and (g) Ease of germination (Goosem and Tucker 2013).
Even though planting is the most used restoration method, several constraints
include inaccessible terrain, labor shortages, high costs, and large areas to cover.
27.2.3.2.2 Applied Nucleation
Applied nucleation is another strategy that can be used for faster restoration of
degraded forest ecosystems than natural regeneration. Applied nucleation in resto-
ration refers to creating groups of woody plants dispersed across an open area.
These groups, also known as nuclei, will grow by attracting new saplings, similar to
the process of nucleation observed in natural succession. Commonly applied
nucleation refers to planting perennial seedlings of native trees. However, other

techniques have been employed, such as introducing brushwood and shelters, plant-
ing herbaceous plants to attract pollinators, and soil and seed translocation from
nearby intact forests (Reis et al. 2010). An integrated approach that combines sev-
eral of these techniques is often used. The nuclei’s size and space should be deter-
mined based on the extent of degradation, dispersal distance of the planted species,
and resources available. A smaller spacing between the nuclei and a larger size can
reduce the time required for canopy cover.
Moreover, larger nuclei sites had a higher visitation by seed dispersers, higher seed
rain, and better seedling recruitment (Holl et al. 2020). The costs involved in applied
nucleation are lower when compared to those of large-scale plantations. This meth-
od’s recovery time is higher, often producing forests where the dominant recovery
process is natural succession (Bechara et al. 2016; Reis et al. 2010). After a decade,
nucleation sites have shown an abundance and species richness comparable to plan-
tations (Holl et al. 2020).
27.2.3.2.3 Direct Seeding
Seedling planting is the most frequently used method for restoration, especially in
the tropics. However, direct seeding is a faster and more cost-effective method of
restoration where seeds of select species are introduced into the degraded area. Even
when considering a low rate of seedling establishment, the expense of direct seeding
for an area is significantly less than that of planting seedlings (Raupp et al. 2020).
Direct seeding is often used alongside other restoration methods, and generally, a
seed mixture of native species is used to improve diversity. Species germinating and
establishing quickly in degraded areas are preferred for direct seeding. On degraded
slopes, undergrowth (grasses, shrubs, legumes, etc.) can be rapidly established,
thereby preventing soil erosion and enriching the soil (Macdonald et al. 2015).
Direct sowing can also be an effective and economical method to incorporate late-
successional species, which don’t naturally populate in the initial phases of forest
restoration (Cole et al. 2011). Seeding in degraded areas uses different methods,
such as Hydroseeding, drilling, and broadcasting. Hydroseeding uses a slurry of
seed, water, mulch, etc., applied over an area under high pressure. Seeds can be
broadcast by hand or aerial seeding (Seed bombing) using unmanned or manned
aerial vehicles. Aerial seeding is opted under challenging terrains and regions with
large areas of exposed land devoid of significant vegetation. However, as the seeds
are lying unprotected in the open, many might be lost due to high degrees of seed
predation. Seeds are often primed, coated, and encapsulated before aerial seeding to
facilitate efficient sowing, better survival, and fast germination. Unlike other meth-
ods, drilling uses the least number of seeds, and agricultural machinery can be used
if the terrain permits (Macdonald et al. 2015). Direct seeding for tree growth is not
typically preferred in most forest restoration practices. Even though the seed
requirement for aerial seeding and broadcasting is very high, their survivability and
establishment are minimal. Furthermore, the growth of trees is often slow and
inconsistent, making the region prone to being overrun by weeds.
27.2.3.2.4 Agroforestry in Restoration Approaches
Restoration efforts can be tricky in regions where communities rely on them for
their daily needs. In such areas, the restoration goals have to be inclusive, properly
considering the requirements and concerns of such communities. Agro-successional
restoration is one such method that incorporates agroforestry measures as a transi-
tional phase in the restoration of forests (Vieira et al. 2009). Agroforestry systems
such as taunga allow the cultivation of crops alongside forest crops in the earlier
years of forest plantation. The farmers get income from the sale of agricultural pro-
duce, and their efforts extend to tending forest trees and reducing the management
cost of restoration (Kuma and Singh 2020). The farming activities are gradually
reduced and ultimately stopped when the canopy of the forest trees closes. Generally,
the budget allocation for restoration activities is restricted to short periods, which
forces farmers to ignore more critical species in later succession stages (Vieira et al.
2009). With the introduction of perineal agricultural and horticultural crops, the
land and forest trees are managed longer, considerably extending the restoration
time frame. Agro-successional restoration practices are a “win-win” solution for
farmers and forest managers. The farmers receive a means for their livelihood and
the forest manager’s benefit due to the reduced management costs and more effec-
tive restoration (Bisht et al. 2021; Manoj et al. 2021).
27.3 Climate Change Considerations for Restoration Efforts
Ecosystem restoration assists in recovering an ecosystem that has been destroyed,

damaged, or degraded. However, it should address the habitat-level changes and
complexities associated with a changing climate. Large-scale restoration can be
used to evaluate the effects of spatial patterns on ecological processes at broader
scales (Bell et al. 1997; Leite et al. 2013), as well as to proactively redesign and
manage ecosystems so that they provide the essential ecosystem services, conserve
biodiversity, and mitigate climate change (Seabrook et al. 2011). Ecosystem resto-
ration plays a vital role in helping communities address a variety of climate hazards,
such as coastal hazards, drought, heat, and extreme rainfall. A healthy ecosystem
typically acts as a buffer, moderating and mediating the effects of these hazards.
However, when degraded, their ability to perform these functions is diminished sig-
nificantly. Currently, the world’s ecosystems are deteriorating, often at an alarming
rate (UNEP 2021).
Considering the scenario of climate change, ecosystem restoration provides sev-
eral key benefits:
1. Increased resilience: Restoration enhances forest ecosystems’ resilience to cli-

mate change impacts, such as extreme weather events and rising sea levels, by
restoring natural defenses and improving ecosystem function.
2. Enhanced carbon sequestration: Restored ecosystems can effectively seques-
ter atmospheric carbon dioxide, contributing to climate change mitigation
efforts.
3. Preserving biodiversity: Restoration contributes to biodiversity conservation
by providing habitat for numerous threatened species affected by climate change
worldwide.
4. Improving human well-being: Restoration can improve the well-being of local
communities by providing valuable ecosystem services, such as clean water,
food security, and flood protection.
5. Promoting adaptation: Restoration can support adaptation to the changing cli-
mate by creating more resilient landscapes that can better withstand the harmful
effects of climate change.
One significant aspect of ecosystem restoration is maintaining and strengthening
available biodiversity. Restoration methods should not be formulated solely based
on steady conditions; they must also be resilient to fluctuating conditions over the
long term. Climate change raises the importance of genetic diversity in ecosystem
restoration, particularly for species capable of surviving under expected climato-
logical, socioeconomic, and ecological conditions. Diverse forest ecosystems can
protect societies and economies from extreme storms, floods, and fire events, which
are expected to increase in frequency and severity due to climate change.
27.3.1 Climate Change Impacts on Forest Ecosystem
Forest ecosystems, the global climate regulators (FAO 2018), are critical in modu-
lating nitrogen and carbon cycles (Reichstein and Carvalhais 2019). Therefore,
major disturbances in forests can affect the micro and macro-climates. Changing
climate, in turn, significantly impacts the growth and productivity of forests by
influencing the temperature and precipitation patterns, etc. Climate change induces
changes in the structure and functions of forest ecosystems, which can be deleteri-
ous to forest health and cause devastating consequences such as droughts, forest
fires, and pest outbreaks (Zhang et al. 2017). The alterations in the average precipi-
tation patterns due to irregular temperature regimes are a significant hurdle for the
survival of forest ecosystems, especially in temperate regions (Flannigan et al.
2013). These changes cause extreme stress and disturbances that adversely affect
the local vegetation (Rehman et al. 2021).
Ecosystems are swiftly adapting due to climate change and other global factors,
reacting not only to temperature shifts but also to alterations in rainfall, atmospheric
carbon dioxide levels, and the occurrence and intensity of extreme events (Kumar
et al. 2020a, b). The sensitivity and reaction of ecosystems to climate change differ
due to intricate interactions among organisms, disturbances, and other stressors.

Modifications in natural ecosystems pose a global threat to biodiversity and signifi-
cantly affect worldwide food production. The rapid climate change eventually
affects ecosystem carbon storage and drives terrestrial biodiversity loss directly by
land use change and indirectly via climate change-driven cropland expansion.
Quantitative models are essential to understanding and projecting the impact of
climate change and the associated disturbances in forest ecosystems. Even with the
uncertainties in biodiversity and carbon loss projections and despite large uncertain-
ties associated with land use projections, future cropland expansion will likely neg-
atively impact biodiversity and carbon storage (Molotoks et al. 2020).
Forest communities are especially vulnerable to climate change due to their live-
lihoods, socio-ecological linkages, and cultural and spiritual bonds. Extreme tem-
peratures and unpredictable rainfall can harm crops, decreasing growth and yield.
Farming communities dependent on forests must cope with the ambiguity of delayed
fruiting, more significant damage from pest outbreaks associated with the severe
temperature regimes, and changing rainfall patterns (Rahman and Alam 2016).
27.3.2 Effect of Climate Change on Restoration Efforts
Climate change complicates ecosystem restoration by modifying future biophysical

conditions in unforeseen ways, potentially leading to novel ecosystem configura-
tions (Hobbs et al. 2013). Over the next few decades, climate models predict rising
sea levels, rising temperatures, shifting precipitation patterns, and an increase in the
frequency of extreme weather events (IPCC 2014, 2021). Climate change affects
ecosystem structure, processes, species distribution, and ecosystem distribution
directly and indirectly (Leemans and Eickhout 2004). Ultimately, it may cause unfa-
vorable changes in biomes and habitats (IPCC 2008, 2018). The impact of more
frequent and intense weather events is a crucial factor influencing climate change’s
potential effects on restoration sites (IPCC 2014). Extreme temperatures, precipita-
tion, floods, droughts, winds, or wildfires can simultaneously decimate vast areas of
biomass. For instance, the 2021 wildfires in California scorched nearly one million
hectares of forest land (Strassburg 2020).
Extreme weather events can irreversibly alter ecosystem structure and cause spe-
cies declines or even local extirpation. Notably, changes in extreme weather event
patterns are acknowledged to have a much more significant impact on ecosystem
functioning than changes in average conditions (Jentsch and Beierkuhnlein 2008).
Therefore, the combined effects of gradual changes in temperature and precipita-
tion, coupled with more frequent extreme weather events, could significantly under-
mine restoration efforts. A degraded area’s climatic and site conditions may often be
unsuitable for the vegetation types initially present in the degraded region. Therefore,
restoration approaches that try to revert to the original forests may not be practical.
Climate change poses a formidable challenge to restoration efforts, demanding
careful consideration and adaptation strategies to ensure long-term success.
Some recent restoration activities, such as the Sloping Land Conversion

Programme in China and the Central American Dry Corridor Restoration, have been
formulated with a significant focus on climate change adaptation. The Sloping Land
Conversion Programme in China (SLCP) is one of the most significant Payments for
Ecosystem Services initiatives globally (Gutiérrez Rodríguez et al. 2016). The pri-
mary objectives of SLCP were to mitigate soil erosion, halt deforestation, and
reduce flood risks by restoring grasslands and forests in ecologically sensitive
regions (Liu and Lan 2015). Severe droughts, shrinking arable land, soil degrada-
tion, and intense rainfall pose significant challenges to the agricultural communities
primarily living in the Central American Dry Corridor. To address these concerns,
countries within the region have focused on functional restoration activities that
encompass climate change adaptation, revitalizing agricultural production, sustain-
able land management, agroforestry, and natural resource conservation, with a
prime focus on people’s livelihoods.
27.4 Challenges in Forest Ecosystem Restoration
Funding Shortages:
• Large-scale restoration projects require substantial financial support.
–– Overcoming budget limitations is crucial for ensuring the success and sustain-
ability of restoration initiatives.
Policy and Regulatory Barriers:
• Complex regulations and bureaucratic processes can impede restoration progress.
–– Aligning regulations with conservation goals, streamlining permitting, and creat-
ing supportive policies are essential for facilitating restoration efforts.
–– Harmonizing environmental protection with development regulations is crucial
in navigating these complexities.
Balancing Conservation and Development
• Striking a sustainable equilibrium between preserving ecosystems and meeting
development demands is a delicate challenge.
–– Thoughtful planning, incorporating ecological considerations into development
projects, and adopting environmentally friendly practices are crucial to sustain-
able development.
Addressing the Challenges
• Overcoming these challenges demands cooperation among stakeholders from
various sectors.
–– Innovative funding mechanisms are needed to support restoration efforts.
–– A commitment to integrating conservation and development priorities is essen-
tial for building a resilient and harmonious future.
–– Considering climate change while planning restoration efforts
27.5 Conclusion
Forest restoration and rehabilitation emerge as an alternative strategy for addressing

the degradation of tropical forest ecosystems, which are vital for global biodiversity
conservation. Prioritizing areas of high biodiversity value, integration of native spe-
cies reintroduction, and social, cultural, and economic frameworks are essential for
successful restoration efforts. As climate change intensifies, restoration becomes
crucial for enhancing forest resilience and mitigating impacts. Implementing diverse
reforestation approaches, integrating traditional knowledge, and conducting long-
term research and monitoring are vital for the effectiveness and sustainability of
restoration projects. Despite funding shortages and regulatory obstacles, global res-
toration initiatives are essential for replenishing the dwindling diversity of forest
ecosystems worldwide. While short-term solutions may offer immediate relief, sus-
tained restoration efforts are indispensable for preserving forest biodiversity and
enhancing ecosystem resilience in the face of climate change. Therefore, effective
global restoration initiatives are paramount to safeguarding forest ecosystems for
future generations amidst the looming threat of climate change.
References
Apurva K, Singh H, Kumar H (2017) Elucidating morphological and growth changes in Arjun Tree
Atkinson J, Bonser SP (2020) “Active” and “passive” ecological restoration strategies in meta-
analysis. Restor Ecol 28(5):1032–1035. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13229
Becerra Osses PI, Montenegro Rizzardini G (2013) The widely invasive tree Pinus radiata facili-
tates regeneration of native woody species in a semi-arid ecosystem. Appl Veg Sci 16:173–183.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-109X.2012.01221.x
Bechara FC, Dickens SJ, Farrer EC et al (2016) Neotropical rainforest restoration: comparing
passive, plantation and nucleation approaches. Biodivers Conserv 25:2021–2034. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10531-016-1186-7
Bell SS, Fonseca MS, Motten LB (1997) Linking restoration and landscape ecology. Restor Ecol
5:318–323. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1526-100X.1997.00545.x
Cava MG, Pilon NA, Ribeiro MC, Durigan G (2018) Abandoned pastures cannot spontaneously
recover the attributes of old-growth savannas. J Appl Ecol 55(3):1164–1172. https://doi.
org/10.1111/1365-2664.13046
Clewell A, McDonald T (2009) Relevance of natural recovery to ecological restoration. Ecol
Restor 27(2):122–124. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43441254
Cole RJ, Holl KD, Keene CL et al (2011) Direct seeding of late-successional trees to restore
tropical montane forest. For Ecol Manag 261(10):1590–1597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foreco.2010.06.038
Corbin JD, Holl KD (2012) Applied nucleation as a forest restoration strategy. For Ecol Manag
265:37–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.10.013
Dale VH, Joyce LA, McNulty S et al (2001) Climate change and forest disturbances: climate
change can affect forests by altering the frequency, intensity, duration, and timing of fire,
drought, introduced species, insect and pathogen outbreaks, hurricanes, windstorms, ice
storms, or landslides. Bioscience 51(9):723–734. https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2001)05
1[0723:CCAFD]2.0.CO;2
29(2):451–457
Dimson M, Gillespie TW (2020) Trends in active restoration of tropical dry forest: methods, met-
rics, and outcomes. For Ecol Manag 467:118150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118150
Dodet M, Collet C (2012) When should exotic forest plantation tree species be considered as
an invasive threat and how should we treat them? Biol Invas 14(9):1765–1778. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10530-012-0202-4
Elliott S, Kuaraksa C (2008) Producing framework tree species for restoring forest ecosys-
tems in Northern Thailand. Small-Scale Forestry 7:403–415. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11842-008-9070-2
FAO (2011) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Assessing forest
degradation- towards the development of globally applicable guidelines. Forest Resource
Assessment Working paper (177). https://www.fao.org/3/i2479e/i2479e00.pdf. Accessed 05
November 2023
FAO (2018). The state of world’s forests. Food and Agricultural Organization of United States.
https://www.fao.org/3/ca0188en/ca0188en.pdf. Accessed 21 November 2023
FAO and UNEP (2020) The state of the world’s forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people. The
State of the World’s Forests (SOFO). https://www.unep.org/resources/state-worlds-forests-
forests-biodiversity-and-people. Accessed 20 February 2023
Flannigan M, Cantin AS, De Groot WJ, Wotton M, Newbery A, Gowman LM (2013) Global
wildland fire season severity in the 21st century. For Ecol Manag 294:54–61. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.foreco.2012.10.022
Forbes AS, Norton DA, Carswell FE (2016) Artificial canopy gaps accelerate restoration within an
exotic Pinus radiata plantation. Restor Ecol 24(3):336–345. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.12313
Gao Y, Skutsch M, Paneque-Gálvez J et al (2020) Remote sensing of forest degradation: a review.
Environ Res Lett 15(10):103001. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/
abaad7/meta
Goosem SP, Tucker NI (2013) Repairing the rainforest, 2nd edn. Wet Tropics Management
Authority, Australia
Gutiérrez Rodríguez L, Hogarth NJ, Zhou W et al (2016) China’s conversion of cropland to forest
program: a systematic review of the environmental and socioeconomic effects. Env Evid 5:21.
Helfgott AER (2015) Operationalizing resilience: conceptual, mathematical and participatory
frameworks for understanding, measuring and managing resilience. Doctoral dissertation,. The
University of Adelaide
Hobbs RJ, Higgs E, Harris JA (2009) Novel ecosystems: implications for conservation and restora-
tion. Trends Ecol Evol 24(11):599–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.012
Hobbs RJ, Higgs ES, Hall CM (eds) (2013) Novel ecosystems: intervening in the new ecological
world order. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, USA
Holl KD (2007) Old field vegetation succession in the neotropics. In: Cramer VA, Hobbs RJ
(eds) Old fields: dynamics and restoration of abandoned farmland. Island Press, Washington,
pp 93–118
Holl KD, Reid JL, Cole RJ et al (2020) Applied nucleation facilitates tropical forest recov-
ery: lessons learned from a 15-year study. J Appl Ecol 57(12):2316–2328. https://doi.
org/10.1111/1365-2664.13684
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (2015a) Forest landscape restora-
tion. Available at https://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/forest/fp_ our_work/fp_our_
work_thematic/fp_our_work_flr/. Accessed 22 November 2023
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (2015b) Bonn challenge: what are the
benefits of restoration? http://www.bonnchallenge.org/content/restoration-benefits, Accessed
15 November 2023
IPCC (2008) Climate change. Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working
Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar4/wg2/. Accessed 25 Nov 2022
IPCC (2014) Climate change. Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part A: Global and sec-
toral aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2014). https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar4/
wg2/. Accessed 25 Nov 2022
IPCC (2018) Global warming of 1.5 °C. An IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming
of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in
the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable
development, and efforts to eradicate poverty. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar4/wg2/. Accessed
24 Nov 2022
IPCC (2021) Climate change. The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the
Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2021).
https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar4/wg2/. Accessed 20 Nov 2022
Jentsch A, Beierkuhnlein C (2008) Research frontiers in climate change: effects of extreme
meteorological events on ecosystems. Comptes Rendus Geosci 340:621–628. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.crte.2008.07.002
Kuma M, Singh H (2020) Agroforestry as a nature-based solution for reducing community depen-
Kumar N, Kumar A, Jeena N, Singh R, Singh H (2020a) Factors influencing soil ecosystem and
Sustain:55–70
Kumar N, Singh H, Sharma SK (2020b) Antioxidants: responses and importance in plant defense
system. In: Sustainable agriculture in the era of climate change, pp 251–264. https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-3-030-45669-6_11
Kumar N, Jeena N, Kumar A, Khairakpan R, Singh H (2021) Comparative response of rice culti-
mate change. J Pharmacog Phytochem 7(1):1374–1378
Lamb D (1998) Large-scale ecological restoration of degraded tropical forest lands:
the potential role of timber plantations. Restor Ecol 6(3):271–279. https://doi.
org/10.1046/j.1526-100X.1998.00632.x
Lamb D, Erskine PD, Parrotta JA (2005) Restoration of degraded tropical forest landscapes.
Science 310(5754):1628–1632. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1111773
Leemans R, Eickhout B (2004) Another reason for concern: regional and global impacts on eco-
systems for different levels of climate change. Glob Environ Change 14:219–228. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.04.009
Leite MD, Tambosi LR, Romitelli I et al (2013) Landscape ecology perspective in restoration proj-
ects for biodiversity conservation: a review. Nat Conserv 11:108–118. https://doi.org/10.4322/
natcon.2013.019
Liu Z, Lan J (2015) The sloping land conversion program in China: effect on the livelihood
diversification of rural households. World Dev 70:147–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
worlddev.2015.01.004
Macdonald SE, Landhäusser SM, Skousen J et al (2015) Forest restoration following surface
mining disturbance: challenges and solutions. New For 46:703–732. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11056-015-9506-4
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
Mansourian S, Vallauri D, Dudley N (eds) (2005) Forest restoration in landscapes: beyond planting
trees. Springer, New York
Meli P, Holl KD, Rey Benayas JM et al (2017) A global review of past land use, climate, and
active vs. passive restoration effects on forest recovery. PLoS One 12(2):e0171368. https://doi.
org/10.1371/journal.pone.0171368
Molotoks A, Henry R, Stehfest E et al (2020) Comparing the impact of future cropland expan-
sion on global biodiversity and carbon storage across models and scenarios. Phil Trans R Soc.
https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0189
Morrison EB, Lindell CA (2011) Active or passive forest restoration? Assessing restora-
tion alternatives with avian foraging behavior. Restor Ecol 19(201):170–177. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2010.00725.x
Ninot JM, Herrero P, Ferré A et al (2001) Effects of reclamation measures on plant colonization on
lignite waste in the eastern Pyrenees, Spain. Appl Veg Sci 4(1):29–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/
j.1654-109X.2001.tb00231.x
Prach K, Šebelíková L, Řehounková K et al (2019) Possibilities and limitations of passive restora-
tion of heavily disturbed sites. Landsc Res 45(2):247–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/0142639
7.2019.1593335
Prăvălie R (2018) Major perturbations in the Earth’s forest ecosystems. Possible implications for
global warming. Earth Sci Rev 185:544–571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.06.010
Rahman MH, Alam K (2016) Forest dependent Indigenous communities’ perception and adap-
tation to climate change through local knowledge in the protected area—a Bangladesh case
study. Climate 4(1):12. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli4010012
Raupp PP, Ferreira MC, Alves M et al (2020) Direct seeding reduces the costs of tree plant-
ing for forest and savanna restoration. Ecol Eng 148:105788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ecoleng.2020.105788
Rehman A, Ma H, Ahmad M, Irfan M, Traore O, Chandio AA (2021) Towards environmental sus-
tainability: devolving the influence of carbon dioxide emission to population growth, climate
change, forestry, livestock and crops production in Pakistan. Ecol Indic 125:107460
Reichstein M, Carvalhais N (2019) Aspects of forest biomass in the Earth system: its role and
major unknowns. Surv Geophys 40(4):693–707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-019-09551-x
Reis A, Bechara FC, Tres DR (2010) Nucleation in tropical ecological restoration. Sci Agric
67:244–250. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-90162010000200018
Seabrook L, McAlpine CA, Bowen ME (2011) Restore, repair or reinvent: options for sustain-
able landscapes in a changing climate. Landscape Urban Plan 100:407–410. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.02.015
Seidl R, Thom D, Kautz M et al (2017) Forest disturbances under climate change. Nat Clim Chang
7(6):395–402. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate3303
Shono K, Cadaweng EA, Durst PB (2007) Application of assisted natural regenera-
tion to restore degraded tropical forestlands. Restor Ecol 15(4):620–626. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2007.00274.x
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
org/10.1007/s13205-017-0690-0
Singh H, Kumar N, Kumar M, Singh R (2020a) Modelling habitat suitability of western trago-
region, in response to climate change. Clim Risk Manage 29:100241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
crm.2020.100241
Singh H, Bandyopadhyaya S, Kumar A, Singh M, Malik A, Kumari G, Raturi A, Yadav SK, Kumar
M, Barthwal S, Thakur A, Rawat PS (2022) Understanding the physiological and biophysical
response of urban roadside plantations for assessing adaptation and mitigation mechanisms
toward vehicular emissions. Urban Clim 44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2022.101183
Singh H, Kumar N, Singh R, Kumar M (2023a) Assessing the climate change impact on the habitat
Skousen JG, Johnson CD, Garbutt K (1994) Natural revegetation of 15 abandoned mine land sites
in West Virginia. Am Soc Agron Crop Sci Soc Am Soil Sci Soc Am 23:1224–1230. https://doi.
org/10.2134/jeq1994.00472425002300060015x
Stanturf JA, Palik BJ, Dumroese RK (2014) Contemporary forest restoration: a review emphasiz-
ing function. For Ecol Manag 331:292–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2014.07.029
Strassburg BBN (2020) Global priority areas for ecosystem restoration. Nature 586:724–729.
Tivy J (1993) Biogeography: a study of plants in the ecosphere. Longman Scientific and Technical,
New York
United Nations (UN) (2014) Forest action statements and action plans. Available at http://www.rff.
org/centers/management_of_ecological_wealth/Pages/ Forest-Conservation-Targeting-Tool.
aspx. Accessed 15 November 2023
United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP] (2021) Becoming generation restoration: eco-
system restoration for people, nature and climate. Nairobi, Kenya. https://www.unep.org/
resources/ecosystem-restoration-people-nature-climate. Accessed 27 November 2023
Uprety Y, Asselin H, Bergeron Y et al (2012) Contribution of traditional knowledge to eco-
logical restoration: practices and applications. Ecoscience 19(3):225–237. https://doi.
org/10.2980/19-3-3530
Van Lierop P, Lindquist E, Sathyapala S et al (2015) Global forest area disturbance from fire,
insect pests, diseases and severe weather events. For Ecol Manag 7(352):78–88. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.foreco.2015.06.010
Vásquez-Grandón A, Donoso PJ, Gerding V (2018) Forest degradation: when is a forest degraded?
Forests 9(11):726. https://doi.org/10.3390/f9110726
Vieira DL, Holl KD, Peneireiro FM (2009) Agro-successional restoration as a strat-
egy to facilitate tropical forest recovery. Restor Ecol 17(4):451–459. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2009.00570.x
Yadav RR, Park WK, Singh J et al (2004) Do the western Himalayas defy global warming?
Geophys Res Lett 31(17):L17201. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL020201
Yi C, Jackson N (2021) A review of measuring ecosystem resilience to disturbance. Environ Res
Lett 16(5):053008. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abdf09
Zhang M, Liu N, Harper R, Li Q, Liu K, Wei X, Liu S (2017) A global review on hydrological
responses to forest change across multiple spatial scales: importance of scale, climate, forest type
and hydrological regime. J Hydrol 546:44–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.040
Chapter 28
Enhancing Sustainability: Reclamation
and Rehabilitation Strategies for Restoring
Mined-Out Lands in India to Mitigate
Climate Change Impacts
Kumbhlesh K. Rana, Anish V. Pachu, V. Jeeva, N. Rama Rao, Ajin Sekhar,

A. N. Singh, and Sudhir Kumar
Abstract Mineral resources are wealth repositories for every nation to streamline
its socio-economic development. Exploration and exploitation of mineral resources
deteriorate the environment at diverse levels. Although mining significantly contrib-
utes to a nation’s economic prosperity, it adversely affects the biophysical and social
environment. Therefore, maintaining harmony and balance between extraction and
conservation becomes imperative to every participating nation in the interest of sus-
tainable development. This chapter explores the impact of mining on land, water,
biological and social environment, prudent considerations that are essential for eco-
system design, proven scientific steps of topographic reconstruction, and ways to
devise a holistic and integrated reclamation plan of opencast iron ore mined out
lands with its successful case studies that are amenable for site-specific replication
in India. The chapter aims to give the readers a glimpse of scientifically laid
Reclamation and Rehabilitation (R&R) plans developed by the Indian Council of
Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) towards stabilization and restoration of
degraded environment based on site-specific ecological drivers, engineering mea-
sures, and biological ways to render unhindered delivery of ecosystem services for
both humanity and nature, along with challenges and prospects.
Keywords Sustainability · Reclamation · Rehabilitation · Climate change

mitigation
K. K. Rana · V. Jeeva · N. R. Rao · A. Sekhar (*) · A. N. Singh · S. Kumar

Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
A. V. Pachu
Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE)—Institute of Forest Genetics
and Tree Breeding (IFGTB), Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Ltd. 2024
574 K. K. Rana et al.
28.1 Introduction
India is a rich repository of numerous minerals with substantial economic value that
streamlines the country’s socioeconomic development. India’s estimated potential
land area under mineral deposits is around 57.10 million hectares, 17% of the
nation’s whole land area. As stated in the 2021–23 annual report of the Ministry of
Mines (MoM), India produces 95 different minerals valued at Rs. 190,389 crores
(excluding atomic, fuel minerals & minor minerals): 3 atomic, 4 fuel, 23 non-
metallic, 10 metallic, and 55 minor minerals (including building and other materi-
als). The total number of mining leases reported for 2021–22 in India per the annual
report (2022–23) of the MoM is 1319, comprising 545 metallic and 774 non-metallic
minerals.
Development always comes at a cost, and mining is no exception. Mining has
substantial short and long-term effects on forestry and the environment. Exploration
and exploitation of mineral resources deteriorate the environment at diverse levels.
Numerous state-owned and private enterprises are mining different minerals across
the country. Mining, as it interferes with the environment and social structure, har-
mony and balance are to be maintained between extraction and conservation in the
interest of sustainable development. Every nation’s environmental protection and
economic development plan adheres to managing its mineral resources (Kumar and
Fatima 2023). Article 48 A of the Indian Constitution confers the onus on the states
to protect and improve the environment. In contrast, Article 51(A)(g) of the
Constitution forbids the citizens of India to protect and enhance the natural
environment.
Different methods and techniques of mining are employed to excavate the ore of
interest, the choice of which depends on the type of ore, size of the ore body, form,
and direction, as well as the grade of mineralization, the durability of the rock com-
ponents, and the depths at which it can be worked (Nautiyal et al. 2022). Each
method comes with a distinct or overlapping cost usually borne by the environment.
Generally, open-cast/surface mining methods are employed to mine out the miner-
als underneath. Still, when mineral ores are located far below the surface and cannot
be extracted through surface mining, underground mining is a possibility (Prakash
et al. 2022). Open-cast and underground mining drawbacks include land degrada-
tion, surface subsidence, abandoned shafts, enormous surface spoil heaps, mine
explosions, collapses, and flooding. Open-cast mining significantly alters the bio-
geo physical properties of the environment (Kundu and Ghose 1998; Singh and
Singh 2006; Padmavathiamma and Li 2007; Sheoran et al. 2009, 2010). In the case
of underground mining, numerous safety precautions, such as mine ventilation, are
required to preserve miner safety, along with vehicles, rail haulage, and several drill
units. While an array of materials, tools, and monetary resources are required for
underground mining, the environment is better saved through underground mining
than open-cast mining.
Numerous issues affect the mining sector (Price Waterhouse Coopers International
2013), making it challenging for individual businesses, countries, or the world to
28 Enhancing Sustainability: Reclamation and Rehabilitation Strategies for Restoring… 575
plan for sustainable mineral production and predict when different resources and
services can be available (Ali et al. 2017). Since extractive industries involve the
depletion of finite resources, sustainability is frequently seen as incompatible with
these businesses (Parameswaran 2016). Also, the capacity to recycle and repurpose
metals and other non-fuel minerals lessens the need to take them out of the soil,
extending reserves for future generations and making the idea of sustainability seem
more relevant to the mining industry (Reuter 2013). As a general thumb rule, min-
ing results in fragmentation of landmass, ultimately disrupting the ecological struc-
ture and functions of existing microhabitats. The impact of mining can be easily
manifested through changes in land-use land cover patterns, altered surface water
drainage, and biophysical contamination, viz. soil, air, and water, along with partial
or total loss of native flora and fauna. The cumulative impacts of these changes
further erode the landscape, forming a different microcosm over the area. The pro-
cess works in a cyclical mode known as the land degradation cycle. Managing envi-
ronmental impacts can ensure the long-term sustainability of mining operations as
it offers a chance to generate products and services through mining while simultane-
ously guaranteeing a more robust and sustainable ecosystem (Singh et al. 2016).
28.2 Statutory Framework and Legal Provisions

for Regulating the Mining Sector in India
Each country develops a policy for discovering, developing, and consuming its nat-
ural resources based on its geopolitical position, interests, and preferences to capi-
talize on its unique mineral prosperity (Randive 2017). Government organizations
in India, including the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(MoEF&CC), State Pollution Control Boards, and the Department of Mines and
Geology, have expressed their concerns surrounding the reclamation and rehabilita-
tion of waste dumps and mined-out areas by drafting specific laws and regulations
for all mines (Ranjan and Kumar 2015). India’s mineral and mining sector is regu-
lated under the federal structure enshrined in the Constitution, where the powers
and responsibilities for its regulation are decentralized between the central govern-
ment and the respective State governments and Union Territories under the Union
List, State List, and the Concurrent List contained in the Seventh Schedule of the
Constitution of India. The power of the central government to regulate mines and
mineral development is codified under entry 54 of the Union List to the extent that
such a regulation by the central government is ratified through Parliament to be in
the public interest. Apropos of its powers, the Central government has enacted the
Mines & Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act 1957 (MMDR Act), which is
the principal legislation governing the mineral sector (other than petroleum and
natural gas) in India. The MMDR Act and its successive amendments provide a
comprehensive legal framework for mine development, regulation, and the welfare
of people and areas affected by mining. The state governments have the power to
regulate mines and mineral development under entry 23 of the State List, which is
subject to the powers of the central government. The MMDR Act has undergone
significant amendments towards a more transparent and inclusive regime.
Sustainable growth for the mining-impacted community and the surrounding areas
in India’s mining sector was first legally mandated by the MMDR amendment in
2015, which institutionalized benefit sharing in the Indian mining sector by devel-
oping the District Mineral Foundations (DMFs). Significant amendments were
brought about in the parent Act in 2020 and 2021 to sustain & boost mineral produc-
tion. The MMDR Act also empowers the Central government to issue directions to
the State governments to ensure sustainable development and exploitation of miner-
als to reduce adverse impacts on air, ground, water, and ambient noise levels.
Mine closure operations are a continuous sequence of actions and plans that
begin on the first day of the mining project’s inception. Such Mine Closure Plans
address measures to alleviate potential negative impacts of the project along with its
timeline and budget. Therefore, in the realm of mine reclamation and rehabilitation,
it is essential to note that the Mineral Concession Rules, 1960, and the Mineral
Conservation and Development Rules, 1988, framed under the Mines and Minerals
(Development and Regulation) Act 1957, were amended through notification No.
GSR 329 (E) dated 10.04.2003 and no. GSR 330 (E) dated 10.04.2003, respectively,
which mandated all current mining lessees to submit the “Progressive Mine Closure
Plan”(PMCP) together with the specified financial guarantees not later than 180 days
from the notification date. The rules also obligated the mining lessee to submit a
“Final Mines Closure Plan”(FMCP) one year before the anticipated mine closure.
The notification also specifies that the “Progressive Closure Plan” and “Final
Closure Plan” must follow the structure and criteria laid down by the Indian Bureau
of Mines.
As a result, the progressive mine closure plan will be included as a chapter of the
current mining plan and evaluated every five years in the Mining Scheme. Since a
progressive mine closure plan is a continuous set of actions, it is apparent that sci-
entific mining proposals have incorporated the major bulk of activities pertinent to
the project. The Mineral Concession and Mineral (Conservation and Development)
Rules are amended with similar PMCP and FMCP clauses provisions.
Rules 21–27 of the Mineral (Conservation and Development) Rules, 2017 men-
tion multiple features and details about mine closure, such as abandonment of
mines, progressive mine closure, Final mine closure, submission and modification
of various closure plans, the responsibility of leaseholders on implementation and
reporting, financial assurance, etc. The statutory framework for mine closure has
also provided an advance guaranteed deposit as a bank guarantee. The closure of the
mine is not limited to the mined-out land as far as rehabilitation and reclamation are
considered. But, the reclamation proposal also considers the development of mine-
affected areas. A dedicated fund under the District Mineral Foundation (DMF) has
been created for effective utilization in districts impacted by mining activities as a
revenue-sharing model.
The National Mineral Policy 2008 accentuated the requirement of prudent prin-
ciples in mining to safeguard posterity and enhance conventional mineral resources
for optimal usage. The policy gave the clarion call to undertake mining within the
comprehensive Sustainable Development Framework that provides for the doctrine
of sustainable closure of mines, with adequate measures for sustaining the ecologi-
cal state of the region/landscape. National Mineral Policy 2019 is grounded in pub-
lic trust, inter-generational equity, and natural resource ownership as a common
good. The state is the custodian of the resources to ensure that future generations
benefit from inheritance and has called for strict regulations to provide socially and
economically responsible mining practices.
Several legislative actions and judicial pronouncements have also resulted in
enhanced compensations, re-evaluation of socio-environmental aspects, and sus-
pension of mining defaulting leases, often favoring sustainable development. The
Supreme Court, in its landmark judgment in Samata vs. state of Andhra Pradesh,
1997, provided for the first time that 20% of mining profits be utilized for the overall
development of mining-affected regions.
The Companies Act, enacted by the Government of India in 2013, provides for
companies under Sect. 135 to undertake Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
activities to build social capital and enhance the livelihood status of the mine-
affected population. Companies are mandated to spend a minimum of 2% of their
net profit over the preceding three years on CSR (Fig. 28.1).
28.3 Environmental Cost of Mining
Mining disproportionately impacts different environmental components, viz., land,

water, air, and society. Escalating the need for minerals also accelerates the degrada-
tion rate of natural habitats, as most of the mining areas are within forested regions
(Dhyani et al. 2021). Consequently, the exploitation of minerals leads to accelerated
erosion of biological diversity, livelihood security, and abrupt changes in the weather
and microclimate of the area. Unscientific mining and dumping of mine overburden
waste threaten to topple the vital cycle of economic, ecological, and social sustain-
ability (Nirmal and Singh 2021). The major environmental concerns linked to the
mining sector in the country are briefly discussed below:
28.3.1 Land Degradation
Land degradation begins as early as the commencement of mining operations by

clearing vegetation cover that overlies the ore body (Singh et al. 2021). Overburden
(OB) removal generates considerable inert solid materials, usually dumped and
stacked within the mining lease area. The open-cast mines produce 8–10 times
more overburden waste than underground mines and are subsequently considered
more detrimental to the environment. Waste dumping will disturb the soil cover and
natural forest vegetation in and around the mine lease area, causing silt and
Mines Act, 1952
The Mines and Minerals Development and Regulation Act, 1957

(MMDR)
Coal Bearing Areas (Acquisition and Development) Act, 1957
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
The Coal Mines (Conservation & Safety) Act, 1974
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 (Amended in 2023)
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
Environment Protection Act (EPA), 1986 (amended in 2006)
The Mineral Conservation and Development Rules, 1988 (Amended in 1998)
The Noise Pollution Rules, 2000
Ozone Depleting Substances Rules, 2000
The National Environmental Policy, 2006
The Forest Rights Act, 2006
Land Acquisition Act, 2013
The Companies Act, 2013
Hazardous and Other Wastes Rules, 2016
Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016
Sustainable Development Framework (SDF) Roll Out & Star Rating Scheme for Mines, 2016
The Sustainable Sand Mining Guidelines, 2020
Fig. 28.1 Major acts, rules, and regulations having implications in the indian mining sector
sedimentation in the nearby water courses through erosion. Deforestation, topsoil

loss, and soil erosion leading to contamination of water bodies are some of the
prime drawbacks associated with dumping (Joshi et al. 2021). The land use pattern
of the premises will significantly change, ongoing to the extraction of ore, the build-
ing of haulage roads and other infrastructure, and dumping of waste, and the land
under mining is a forested landscape (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d). The likely effects
of mining are multifarious. Therefore, changing the landscape’s structure will alter
the region’s drainage pattern.
Along with mined-out overburdens, associated and allied mining operations like
excavation, mineral stocking, and formation of tailing dams due to mineral benefi-
ciation, service buildings, and roads have been proven to degrade the land environ-
ment significantly. Additionally, subsidence, erosion from OB dumps during the
rainy season, and contamination of surface water with toxic heavy metals such as
mercury, arsenic, lead, chromium, zinc, and cadmium are the major drivers of land
degradation due to mining. Mining and beneficiation of ores also generate tailings
and other deleterious silica minerals, sulfur, and phosphorous, aggravating the cause
of land degradation.
Mine overburden waste is highly erosion-prone, leading to choking of drainages
and often resulting in acid mine drainage. During open-cast mining, overburdening
materials consisting of iron disulphide (FeS2, pyrite) minerals undergo oxidation
upon exposure to air and moisture, producing acid and soluble salts. Such outflow
of acidic water from mine areas to surface water bodies results in acid mine drain-
age. Acid drainage deleteriously affects the receiving waters’ fish, wildlife, micro-
flora, and plant life. Similarly, “red mud,” produced when aluminum is extracted
from bauxite, for instance, has a high concentration of caustics, sodium aluminates,
and sodium carbonates—all of which are alkaline by nature and seriously harm the
environment. The dry season renders the red mud particles airborne, while the wet
season aggravates the soda leaching from mud, eventually polluting the groundwater.
However, the amount and relevance of mining’s environmental impact vary by
mineral and the ability of the surrounding environment to absorb the adverse effects
of mining, the geographical location of mineral resources, and the size and the
extant mining operations. Most of India’s mineral wealth lies within pristine for-
ested areas, whose prospecting and subsequent excavation indubitably deteriorates
the environment. India, being the fifth and fastest growing economy with an annual
projected growth of 6–7% of its GDP and its global commitment to transition to a
lower carbon economy, calls for augmented demand for the exploitation of mineral
resources.
28.3.2 Ecology & Biodiversity Loss
Mining-induced land degradation has direct and indirect spillover effects on the
ecology and biodiversity of the area at multiple spatial scales (Singh et al. 2020a, b).
The impacts of mining on vegetation cover significantly affect the area’s ecology
since it is likely to cause habitat fragmentation, leading to loss of quality environ-

ment of the endemic and rare, endangered, and threatened species. In addition to the
altered physico-chemical and biological characteristics like soil quality, the local
climate, altitude, etc., the area’s plant cover is the primary determinant for the sur-
vival of the local wildlife (Singh et al. 2020a, b). Due to habitat fragmentation,
small creatures such as invertebrates, herpeto-fauna, burrowing rodents, and small
mammals are more vulnerable to the perils of mining. In the case of open-cast min-
ing, there is a considerable risk of erosion from open-pit mine tailings (OB dumps)
contaminating surface water courses during the monsoon, dust pollution on native
vegetation and crops in the surrounding villages, noise pollution, vibration impact
on human and animal life from blasting and movement of Heavy Earth Moving
Machineries (HEMMs) etc. Mining activity also, directly and indirectly, impacts
aquatic life, affecting water quality through silt and sediment erosion on surface
water flow. The infiltration of surface materials, such as overburdened waste or
other materials, by waterways (natural, process, or wastewater) impacts the ground-
water quality (Thakur et al. 2013). Extensive silt and mineral fines accumulate along
regional flood plains due to erosion and sedimentation processes, which alter the
aquatic habitat and surface water storage capacity (Barve and Muduli 2011). In
addition to impairing aquatic productivity, an increased concentration of suspended
particulate matter in surface water can have toxic effects (both acute and chronic) on
aquatic life, including aquatic avifauna (Savita et al. 2017; Kumari and Singh 2018,
Kumar et al. 2019a, b, 2022; Sharma et al. 2018; Gupta et al. 2019). To effectively
manage biodiversity in mining zones, conservation planning and decision-making
must consider the full extent and distribution of threats at different spatial levels.
The direct effects of mining at the site level are the subject of current research. Still,
insights into the multiple impacts of these variables on biodiversity require knowl-
edge across the entire range of scales and contexts.
Most of the nation’s mineral reserves are dispersed among the same areas, home
to most of its forests, river networks, and indigenous people (Verma et al. 2020).
Across the 50 largest mineral-producing districts in the country, the average per-
centage of forest cover is 28%. These districts comprise 1,18,90,400 ha of total
forest cover or roughly 18% of the nation’s total forest land. Approximately
179892.3 ha of forest land were diverted for mining in these locations in the country
between 2013 and 2021. Most iron ore reserves in India are located near the courses
and watersheds of the Indravati, Baitarani, Tungabhadra, and Mandovi rivers. In
contrast, coal reserves are found in the river basins of the Damodar, Godavari, Son,
Kanhan, Mahanadi, and Brahmani, which explains the magnitude of biodiversity at
stake due to mining operations.
28.3.3 Chemical Contamination
Mining is regarded as the primary cause of environmental heavy metal contamina-

tion. Water is the elixir of life, and contamination of freshwater with pollutants and
heavy metals poses a major threat to living organisms’ survival and existence (Yadav
et al. 2019). Mining is bound to contaminate surfaces and water bodies with heavy
metals without the necessary safeguards. Gallons of water are utilized for mine
drainage, mine cooling, and allied operations. The extent of ground and surface
water chemical contamination in the absence of proper water treatment, filtration,
and wastewater disposa (Sharma et al. 2017). The pumped-out water from under-
ground mines, if let out to the natural water course without adequate treatment, can
cause significant effects on the aquatic environment. Water contamination from oil
and grease, etc., used for machinery on mining premises is also a serious concern
that needs to be addressed with effective management measures.
Although few metal ions have been proven beneficial for plants in their physio-
logical functioning, the concentration of these metals above the critical threshold
level becomes toxic (Sharma et al. 2018). Concerns have also grown over the loss of
valuable soil microbes caused by wastewater in irrigation, which leads to land
desertification over time (Kumar et al. 2019a, b). Groundwater is still the dominant
source of drinking water in rural India, and the presence of metals, even at deficient
concentrations, can be harmful and life-threatening (Singh et al.). The poisoning of
watersheds caused by unforeseen chemical leakages or outflows can wipe out the
existing biota of the affected region. Hydrologists and geologists henceforth per-
form meticulous studies in mines to rule out any water pollution produced by min-
ing activities.
28.3.4 Air Quality Impairment
Mining also contaminates the air environment. The degree of mechanization, opera-
tion, and maintenance of HEMMs, pollution control techniques, and other allied
factors affect the air quality in and around the mine lease area. Removing ore stacks
and trash dumps will also improve air quality (Singh et al. 2017a, b). Significant
airborne particles are produced during mine development and production, altering
ambient air quality. Particulate matter emanating from excavation, blasting, and
vehicle traffic is the leading cause of air pollution (Kumar et al. 2020a, b). Exhaust
and gaseous emissions from all operational processes, including those from vehi-
cles, along with fugitive emissions, can aggravate the overall air pollution load.
Living beings in the vicinity are at perpetual risk due to these contaminants. Dust
and other gaseous pollutants have harmful consequences for human beings,
animals, and vegetation (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d). The high concentration of
particulate matter in the ambient air badly affects the survival characteristics of sur-
rounding vegetation and crops. Therefore, periodic monitoring and implementation
of mitigation measures are essential to ensure that the ambient air and water pollut-
ant levels lie within the permissible limits prescribed by the standards (Kumar et al.
2021a, b, c, d).
28.3.5 Social Damage
Any damage inflicted on the land, air, water, and biodiversity will ultimately be
borne by communities living near the mine. Mine exploration warrants population
displacement from its vicinity, resettlement and rehabilitation, inequality, cultural
and social disruption, and conflicts. Forest fringe communities and villages near the
mine lease area are the most affected social components in all mining scenarios. The
poor per capita land availability of around 0.27 ha (agriculture land around 0.15 ha)
in India and the displacement due to land acquisition for mining cause significant
concern for the overall social sector development in mining-affected regions.
Therefore, it becomes pertinent for the proponents to address the social cause asso-
ciated with every mining project. Although mining generates considerable direct
and indirect employment avenues, the mostly unskilled Project Affected Persons
(PAPs) seldom get eligible for the same. However, developmental activities under
CSR, including the VTCs targeting the PAFs, can empower them with many
avenues.
Addressing these harmful effects of mining on the environment requires meticu-
lous planning and judicious use of resources to alleviate the environmental hazards
and render the ecosystem productive and self-sustainable post-mining operations.
Scientifically proven reclamation and rehabilitation measures offer viable solutions
for mined-out lands in the country. Reclamation is defined as an intentional activity
that initiates or accelerates the recovery of a degraded, damaged, or destroyed eco-
system concerning its health, integrity, services, and sustainability to render the land
into a productive state without essentially returning the system to its original struc-
ture and composition (Cooke 2005) while ‘Rehabilitation’ of an ecosystem seeks to
repair and replace the essential or primary ecosystem structures and functions which
have been altered or eradicated by disturbance (Cooke 2005). Cairns et al. (1992)
defined “restoration” as the “turn of an ecosystem to a close approximation of its
condition before disturbance”.
28.4 Mine Reclamation & Rehabilitation (R&R)
Reclamation and Rehabilitation (R & R) of the mining environment is a systematic

process involving various physical and biological measures to restore the degraded
ecosystem where landform and productivity are made to re-establish to a near nor-
mal stage. It is an integral component of sustainable mining and is often heralded as
a benchmark indicator against which the environmental performance of a mining
company is judged. Poorly rehabilitated mines cause significant ecological, socio-

economical, and legal problems for all stakeholders, including the affected com-
munities and governments. R & R is considered at every stage of mine development
and production to build back land use/land cover that reflects approved post-mining
land use plan objectives. R & R Plan requires the judicious integration of multi-
source data mainly related to the technical and operational attributes of the mine
that are specific to the site, stage of operation, and types of minerals mined from the
lease area. Critical reclamation and rehabilitation activities aim to implement site-
specific measures that reduce potential damage and mitigate adverse environmental
impacts in and around the mined-out areas. A comprehensively constructed R & R
Plan that deliberates on stage-specific interventions with a definite timeline allows
the proponent to adopt nature-based solutions, reduce recurring costs, and lower
residual risk. Specific reclamation and rehabilitation measures essential for appro-
priately managing a mine project are discussed below.
28.5 Physical Measures Under the R&R Plan
28.5.1 Topographic Reconstruction
Topographic reconstruction is the most critical and pivotal step in the reclamation
process, as the rebuilt land forms the foundation for all the successive reclamation
measures adopted in the area of interest. At the landscape level, emphasis is given
to the type and arrangement of landforms, the nature and extent of resources/
reserves, and the quantum of the overburdened waste to be mined, processed, han-
dled, and transported. It is also vital to consider the watershed basins, drainage
density, and the biological diversity to be rehabilitated. All these considerations
about topographic reconstruction are taken care of to form a functional landscape
that is likely to be near normal. A detailed assessment of the land use land cover
under mining and allied activities and their potential impacts on various aspects of
the environment, along with prevailing slope stability and drainage density at the
site, decides the measures to be implemented like boundary pillars for demarcation
of the area, safety zone plantation for protection of the outside environment from
mining impacts, stabilization of waste dumps by implementing erosion control
measures and surface water retention structures that include slope stabilizing vege-
tation, geo-textile coir mat, retaining wall, garland drain, catch drains, silt settling
tanks, check dams, gully plugs, etc.
Engineering measures are the first line of defense in controlling erosion, and they
also facilitate the quick re-establishment of vegetation cover in disturbed areas. The
disturbed mined-out ecosystem requires suitable site-specific management mea-
sures for restoration to limit the damage caused by mining and maximize the
resumption of original features. A primary objective of the R&R Plan is to establish
an adequate vegetation cover to stabilize the site and prevent or control erosion.
Reclamation by afforestation is necessary to maintain biodiversity and ecological

balances and combat the issues of drought, land degradation, desertification, and the
consequent global warming. The tree root helps hold the soil layer firmly and pre-
vents erosion. Thus, by planting more and more trees, the top layer of the soil
becomes less prone to erosion by wind, water, or anything else likely, and the soil
becomes rich in humus by leaf litter, leading to the encroachment of soil organic
carbon. The trees absorb toxic chemicals effectively and filter these pollutants from
the air. Also, planting more trees increases active carbon sinks that absorb and store
carbon from the earth. Hence, afforestation and reforestation can ensure ecological
improvements and contribute to sustainable development. Green cover in mining
areas not only helps reduce air, water, and noise pollution levels but also improves
the ecological conditions and aesthetic value and beneficially influences the micro-
climate of the surroundings to a great extent.
28.5.2 Management of Waste Dumps
The primary aim of the dump management measures is to offer firm toe protection
at the foot of the dump and to control surface water flow along the dump slopes to
achieve faster stabilization of waste materials, leading to early colonization of native
vegetation cover (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d).
The waste dump has to be appropriately maintained so that there is no subsid-
ence or slump of the material disposed in the dump or any rill/gully formation on the
surface. Therefore, it has to be stabilized and strengthened by taking various bio-
engineering protective measures such as a well-designed stone masonry retaining
wall at the toe and at intermediate levels (terraces) and garland drains in front of the
toe, as well as geotextile/coir-mat, followed by vegetation cover for slope
stabilization.
28.5.2.1 Toe Wall
Retaining walls are constructed at the steep slope to arrest sliding/erosion. The
structure is made so that its bottom width is two-thirds of its height, and the width
is reduced in steps at the top. Its steps may be kept inward or outward per the site’s
suitability. The toe wall constructed at the toe of the waste dump is the primary
requirement to protect waste materials from erosion. The slope of the dump is made
into terraces of appropriate height and width. Berms should be provided at the toe
of each terrace to facilitate water flow over the slope area and hassle-free draining
downstream. The dump’s overall height and slope angle should be strictly main-
tained per the measurement given in the relevant statutory clearances (Fig. 28.2).
Fig. 28.2 Toe wall & Drain along Overburden Dump
28.5.2.2 Garland Drains
Garland drains are constructed below the retaining walls and connect the natural
water courses downstream to facilitate the natural flow of runoff water from the
disturbed areas. It should be designed per the quantum of rainwater influx in the
area. It is generally made at 1–2 m below the toe wall with dimensions of typically
2.0 m top width, 1.0 m bottom width, and 1.0 m depth/height. The garland drain is
connected to those drains receiving flow from berms through vertical drains. It is
finally channelized through the silt-arresting structures such as check dams, settling
tanks, etc., before draining into the adjoining natural water courses.
It is essential to provide stone-pitched catch water drains along the haul road and
mine approach road and connect them to the runoff control/grade stabilization
structures to control sediment load in the surface water movement outside the ML
area (Fig. 28.3).
28.5.3 Surface Water Management Measures
Open-cast mining involves topographic reconstruction that eventually alters local

stream channels, diverting the course of surface water flow. To restore the prevailing
natural flow, mining and dumping near water channels should invariably be regu-
lated or permitted with effective management measures. The surface water manage-
ment measures primarily aim for appropriate practices of soil and water conservation
Fig. 28.3 Retaining wall along with garland drain
in the nearby catchments and henceforth encompass meticulous planning, preven-

tion of deterioration in land quality, maintaining soil quality and fertility appropriate
afforestation practices, management of local stream channels, thereby controlling
surface water flow, erosion, and sediment deposition.
The main objective of the surface water management plan is to suggest suitable
site-specific bio-engineering measures for
1. Protect drainage system from silt and sedimentation.
2. Prevent erosion of waste dumps, mine pits, and sub-grade dumps due to rainwa-
ter influx.
3. Scientific control of polluted water outflow from the lease area through grade
stabilization engineering structures along dump slopes and natural water courses.
4. Enable effective soil moisture conservation through geotextile/coir mats, appro-
priate afforestation practices, etc.
Suitable site-specific management practices include water harvesting structures/
measures, including planting native species, primarily along vulnerable areas like
stream banks and mine drainage discharge areas. The following descriptions, in
general, provide the basic information about the various physical measures of soil
and water conservation for effective implementation of R&R measures.
28.5.4 Soil and Water Conservation Measures
28.5.4.1 Gully Control
Mining is mainly carried out on undulating hill ranges characterized by valleys with
catchments of many seasonal streams downstream. Hilltop mining and waste dis-
posal at the slopes are most likely to significantly impact the flow of surface water
courses downstream during the rainy season. Hence, erosion control along surface
water channels is the most important objective of the surface water management
plan, for which suitable site-specific management measures are proposed.
Control of erosion is important during both mining and post-mining periods. The
waste materials emanating from the fragmented areas, such as mine pits and waste
dumps, can cause detrimental impacts on the local environment, including soil,
water, air, agriculture, etc. The main objective of the gully control measures is to
protect the reclaimed area from erosion/runoff due to rainwater flow. The gully con-
trol measures effectively retain silt/sediment/boulders behind it and allow only
water to flow downstream. Due to silt/sediment retention, the channel gradient, flow
velocity, and consequent carrying capacity of the watercourse will be reduced, thus
controlling the further advancement of the gully and leading to its reclamation.
28.5.4.2 Check Dams
Check Dams are structures (checks) used to protect gullies along a steep gradient
from top to bottom that cannot be adequately protected in any other way. It works
primarily by flattening out the steep uniform longitudinal gradient of the gully into
a set of steps with low risers and long flat treads and by facilitating the establish-
ment of vegetation to lower erosive velocities of runoff. It is invariably made of
material readily/easily available in the locality. They are also to be constructed out-
side the mine lease to promote vegetation growth, arrest water flow, and prevent
further deepening of gullies and erosion. Different types of check dams, such as
masonry and rock filled, are known, and the selection of which can be made is based
on site suitability.
Check dams are erected in small and medium-sized gullies (side slopes less than
45°) using available wooden poles (brushwood). Depending upon the size of the
gully and area of catchments, wooden poles of about 7.5 cm diameter are fixed into
the ground in a single row, or a double row across the stream/rivulet at a right angle
to the flow, and brushwood is packed on the upstream face of the check dam.
Accordingly, these are called single-row or double-brush wood Check Dams
(BWCDs). Single-row BWCDs find application in small gully heads not more pro-
found than 1.0 m. For single-row BWCDs, wooden poles are driven 90 cm deep and
60 cm apart. The poles should be fixed to form a deep concave curve at the top to
allow water to flow over it. The upstream and downstream faces of the poles are
respectively packed and laid matting with brushwood to offer protection from
erosion downstream. An average height of 0.3–0.7 m is considered satisfactory for

a brushwood check dam. Double-row BWCDs are used in medium-sized gullies of
depth up to about 2.0 m and width up to about 6.0 m. In the case of double-row
BWCDs, two parallel rows of poles are fixed about 90 cm apart (should not be more
than 120 cm). Each wooden pole of the two rows is laid across with straw and brush-
wood, and the poles are tied up with GI wire.
This structure is usually recommended for narrow gullies with a width of about
3-6 m. For the implementation of LWCD, sprouting wooden logs of tree species
such as Bombax ceiba, Erythrina suberosa, E. indica, Ficus spp., Lannea coroman-
del, Vitex negundo, etc., would be installed up to a depth of about 30 cm across the
gully at a distance of about 30 cm apart. Up to 1.0 m in depth, boulders larger than
40 cm can be manually placed between risers and logs. The sprouting tree species
on the plugged gully would eventually be established by rooting on the soil, thereby
preventing further erosion.
The Loose Boulder Check Dams (LBCDs) are Random Rubble Dry Stone
Masonry in nature and are recommended for gullies/first order stream channels with
5–10 m width and whose bed slope is 10% or less and receiving small quantities of
runoff/ debris. In areas with a large quantum of runoff, it is advisable to provide the
structure with a notch at the top sealed by concrete or wire netting cover for the top
portion. Interspaces may be planted with brushwood and log wood of sprouting
plants for additional support after their growth. The life of the design usually lasts
for 3–5 years (Fig. 28.4).
28.5.4.3 Settling Tanks
These structures shall be connected to garland drains to slow water flow, arrest loose
sediments from the waste dumps, and store water for watering the green belt. The
settling tanks can be constructed in stone masonry with cement sand mortar in a 1:5
ratio and plastered from inside (Fig. 28.5).
28.5.4.4 Culverts
Seasonal streams/rivulets exist at many places across the network of mine roads
outside and within the lease area. Streams flow over the mine roads during higher-
intensity rainfall and create wide gullies. This warrants proper channelization of the
streams at the crossings by providing culverts.
Fig. 28.4 Check the dam
Fig. 28.5 Settling ponds/tanks
28.5.5 Biological Measures
Vegetation is the bedrock of any ecosystem and forms the fundamental basis of all
food chains. Vegetation acts as a green guard to mitigate local weather vagaries.
Fig. 28.6 OB Dump stabilization through engineering and biological measures
Mining and its allied activities, such as excavation, ore processing, transportation,
waste disposal, etc., create complex situations in the natural environment. Large-
scale mining operations in forest landscapes will significantly affect the ecosystem
through land degradation, deforestation, desertification, drought, displacement, and
loss of native species. For the above reasons, it is paramount to save the environ-
ment through sustainable use of vegetation, and it is necessary to take mitigating
measures to prevent damage from indiscriminate mining. The biological measures
proposed broadly aim at the restoration of the ecosystem and the establishment of
almost all the components relatively similar to that of the condition that existed
earlier. Hence, implementing a biological management plan and its effective imple-
mentation is suggested to bring the ecosystem back to a productive state (Fig. 28.6).
28.5.5.1 Species Selection and Plantation
The success of the mined soil recovery depends on myriad factors, including the
type of mine soil, height, slope of the overburdened piles, geo-climatic conditions,
and mining methods. In addition, the proper choice of species to be planted is a criti-
cal deciding factor (Gairola et al. 2023; Pinto et al. 2020). Another study conducted
by Ahirwal and Pandey (2020) concentrated on the selective planting of plants
native to the study area, resilient to climate change, and able to withstand stress.
Region-specific native plant species best suited to the conditions prevailing in the
region are vital for the afforestation programme. Utmost care should be taken when
selecting the species so that the natural habitat surrounding the mine lease area is
not altered. The balance between soil, micro-flora, and the surrounding environment
must be maintained. The ultimate objective of biological measures is to restore the
natural vegetation in and around the area and provide a habitat and a corridor for the
free movement of wildlife. The native species in the forest area are the best and most
appropriate candidates for this purpose. Exotic and weedy species that have the
potential to colonize and invade the natural habitat should not be planted. The prac-
tice of monoculture methods must be avoided. Among the vegetation, grasses and
legumes play an important role in improving soil nutrients by retaining soil mois-
ture and enriching the degraded soil with nitrogen in the initial stages of reclamation
of waste dumps. They also help in slope stabilization by binding together the loose
soil of waste dumps with their network of extensive root systems.
28.5.5.2 Importance of Grasses
Grasses are drought tolerant and can colonize fast in low-nutrient soil. The fibrous
root system that binds together the loose soil of waste dumps on the slope will help
in the early stabilization of waste dumps. Locally available grass species may be
selected and planted in rows at a distance of one foot apart along the dump slopes
(Kumar et al. 2020a, b). The grasses can also be collected and multiplied in the
nursery for large-scale utility. The most common grass species suitable for stabiliza-
tion of mine disturbed areas are Bambusa arundinacea, Bothriochloa pertusa,
Chrysopogon fulvus, Cymbopogon martini, Cymbopogon flexuosus, Cymbopogon
nardus, Cynodon dactylon, Dendrocalamus strictus, Heteropogon contortus,
Dichanthium annulatum, Saccharum spontaneum, etc.
28.5.5.3 Importance of Leguminous Plant Species
Legumes are important in increasing the soil nitrogen content and revitalizing the
soil. When plants perish, fixed nitrogen will be released into the soil and made avail-
able to other plants. Species like Atylosia scarabaeoides, Cassia auriculata,
Crotalaria albida, C. juncea, C. retusa, C. verrucosa, Indigofera cassioides,
Stylosanthes fruticosa, Tephrosia purpurea, T. villosa etc., are usually suggested for
mined out areas and OB dumps. Cost-effective hydro-seeding/seed broadcasting is
also suggested for improved survival rate of planted species.
28.5.5.4 Afforestation Through the Plantation
As recorded in the natural forests, the species selected for the afforestation process
should be a proper combination of all life forms, such as grasses, herbs, shrubs, and
trees. The aim of restoration should be emphasized, as well as the protection of soil
erosion from loose overburden dumps, soil moisture retention, and enrichment of
soil fertility. To protect the inactive waste dump from erosion, physical measures
such as contour trenching, wherever appropriate, followed by biological measures,
must be implemented to achieve faster restoration. Depending upon dump stability
and age, planting on dumps can be done by seed broadcasting, hydro-seeding, or

seedling.
At the conceptual stage, the overburdened waste should be filled back into the
excavated pits, followed by leveling to achieve a natural terrain similar to the pre-
mining condition. The direction of the flow should remain the same. The topsoil
collected and stacked during the initial stages of mining should be used in the plan-
tation programme. For gentle slopes of OB dumps, terraces must be made, followed
by seed broadcasting and planting of seedlings of recommended plant species as
provided in the table below.
An ideal way to stabilize steep barren slopes of the OB dumps is the use of geo-
textile or coir mat followed by seed broadcasting and planting of seedlings of suit-
able plant species. Seed broadcasting must be undertaken using hydroseeding or
manually spreading slurry. Hydro seeding is being successfully practiced to stabi-
lize barren, steep slopes and fragile, unstable surfaces. The system requires water,
seeds, FYM, and mulch, which can be applied to the surface as a fine spray. Regular
de-silting has to be carried out, i.e., before and after the monsoon season, and the silt
material can be used for plantation purposes (Fig. 28.7).
Fig. 28.7 Plantation and geo matting at OB dump for stabilization

28.5.5.4.1 Methods of Planting
Different planting methods can be applied to propagate desired plant species in

mined-out areas. Plant species’ propagation mainly depends on their reproductive
behavior and seed size. The following techniques can be adopted to propagate dif-
ferent plant species for afforestation in mined-out areas.
Direct Seed Sowing

A number of species can be directly propagated through direct seed sowing/ broad-
casting. The selected species’ seeds can be collected from adjoining forest areas or
purchased from the local market. Before the broadcasting, the seeds are cleaned to
remove impurities. The selected species may have multiple uses, such as timber,
fodder, medicinal, edible, soil binding, and enrichment.
Seed Mix Soil Ball/Slurry

The species whose seeds are tiny and adapted to those climatic conditions are sown
by preparing the seed mix soil balls or slurry. Seed mix soil balls and slurry sow
many grass species. The composition recommended for seed mix soil balls of
8–10 cm diameter is generally 60% soil plus 40% organic manure, readily available
locally. Seed mix soil balls can be prepared and broadcasted over the area to restore
the degraded mine overburden. Similarly, for the preparation of seed mix slurry, the
seeds are first mixed with soil and manure, and then the slurry is prepared by adding
an appropriate quantity of water. The seed mix slurry is then spread over the area
either manually or through applying hydraulic pressure.
Hydroseeding
Hydroseeding is the application of seed, fertilizer, fiber, mulch, and water mixture
to the soil by means of a hydraulic applicator. Hydraulic seeding is successfully
practiced to stabilize barren, steep slopes of OB dumps and fragile, unstable sur-
faces. The system requires large volumes of water, seed, fertilizer, and mulch, which
are applied on the surface as a fine spray. If a hydraulic seeder is unavailable, the
slurry can be prepared as discussed above and spread manually over the area.
Seedling Planting
The plant species are planted through seedlings primarily raised in the nurseries,
then at specific sites in the mined areas. When planting, the polybags raised seed-
lings require careful removal from the polybags and planted into the previously
dugout pits of size 2 × 2 × 2 feet, particularly for mined areas and on the OB dumps.
The dugout pits are to be filled with a mixture of pit excavated material, topsoil, and
farmyard manure in the ratio of 2:1:1 and also bio-fertilizers like AM fungi,
Phosphobacteria and Azospirillum (for non-leguminous plants of all trees) or
Fig. 28.8 Distinct row plantations for greenbelt development
Rhizobium (for leguminous plants like Acacia, Dalbergia, Pongamia, Red Sanders,
etc.) should be applied into the pits.
28.5.5.5 Greenbelt Development
A safety zone of 7.5 m width all around the mining lease has to be developed as a
thick green belt to minimize mining impacts outside the mine lease area. The green-
belt will also be a barrier to trap the suspended dust particles and suppress noise
pollutants. It is also necessary to create a greenbelt with tall seedlings (>1 m in
height) of fast-growing native species to establish a good survival percentage as
soon as possible (Fig. 28.8).
28.5.6 Management of Approach/Haul Roads
Mine haulage roads should be adequately maintained by regularly sprinkling with

water to avoid dust during transportation. Proper drainage systems should be main-
tained all along the haul roads. Suitable fast-growing avenue tree species should be
planted to suppress dust and noise pollution (Fig. 28.9).
Fig. 28.9 Roadside plantations within Mine Lease for dust and noise control
28.5.7 Soil Management Plan
Re-vegetation of mined-out areas is often difficult due to its chemical and physical
traits. Establishing steady nutrient cycles from plant growth and microbiological
processes is necessary for long-term mining spoil reclamation (ICFRE 2020; Singh
et al. 2002; Lone et al. 2008; Kavamura and Esposito 2010). The absence of topsoil
is one of the most common features of the mine spoils or OB waste dumps. If pres-
ent, it is inferior in nitrogen content, which is essential for plant growth. This is due
to the absence of soil organic matter from dead plant material’s decay. Moreover,
the lack of soil microbes restricts the decay of plant material.
28.5.7.1 Techniques for soil and moisture conservation
Soil moisture is necessary for plant survival and growth, accelerating succession in
degraded sites. In mining areas, the soil moisture retention capacity is almost negli-
gible. Therefore, soil moisture conservation measures are required to succeed in
restoration works. To enhance the soil moisture status of barren, exposed mine
slopes, various measures such as Mulching, application of geotextiles, and topsoil
spread on OB dump have to be adopted.
28.5.7.1.1 Mulching
MulcMulchingOB dump slopes can help conserve soil moisture and may accelerate
the establishment and growth of planted and naturally occurring plant species.
Materials such as plant residue, wood-cellulose fiber, paper, agro-mulch, sawdust,
shredded leaf, and hay can be used as mulch material. Besides conserving soil mois-
ture, these mulch materials can also add nutrients to the exposed OB dump through
decomposition. Plant residues (twigs, leaves, woody matter) uprooted during quar-
rying operations can be utilized as mulch material to spread over OB dumps. On a
low scale, mulch is easily prepared using a small crushing machine that can produce
enough material to cover the necessities. Still, for large areas and large quantities,
other considerations are needed.
28.5.7.1.2 Geotextiles
Geotextiles are used for protection and greening large exposed rocky dump slopes,
which is common in mining areas. Geo-textiles are combinations of Geo-composites,
Geo-grids, Geo-nets, Geo-membrane and other materials. Geo-textiles serve multi-
ple functions, such as to arrest downward and outward movement of soil owing to
lateral support and anchorage. Geo-textiles made of jute and coir are used for
anchoring and supporting the plantation base (Mukhopadhyay et al. 2011). These
materials could be used in dumps with unfavorable characteristics such as steep
inclines, low soil fertility, unstable soil, and dryness. Seed broadcasting and plant-
ing suitable plant species over geotextile can be done to vegetate the areas over the
OB dumps slopes. Seed broadcasting may be done using a hydro-seeder or by man-
ually spreading slurry.
28.5.7.1.3 Topsoil Spreading
Topsoil is a rich source of nutrients and dormant seeds/rhizomes of plant species. It

is essential to conserve the topsoil over an earmarked area and later use it to spread
on the technically reclaimed areas before the onset of the monsoon. Hence, it is sug-
gested that the project authorities spread the topsoil over on the inactive OB dumps
before the onset of monsoon after the completion of technical reclamation so that
the dormant seeds, grass rhizomes, and other herbs and shrubs can regenerate and
stabilize the OB dumps. The topsoil spread in mine OB dumps may help conserve
soil moisture and perform other functions, such as obtaining nutrients, seeds, rhi-
zomes, and other plant propagules. Good topsoil is reasonably porous and can retain
the water and gas necessary for plant growth. The nutrients at the top are provided
and distributed from the decay of organic plant and animal matter within the upper
few inches of topsoil. As plant and animal matter decay, soil microorganisms such
as nematodes promote the formation of rich soil aggregates called humus. Topsoil
rich in humus is incredibly fertile.
28.5.7.1.4 Soil Amendments
The most practical way to increase the nitrogen capital of ecosystems is to establish
nitrogen-fixing plants, usually legumes, which can quickly increase the nitrogen
levels in the soil system. The easiest method is to broadcast the seeds of Horse gram
(Macrotylomauniflorum) immediately after the first showers. After the plants are
fully grown, they should be mulched. Vesicular ArbuscularMycorrhizal (VAM)
fungi and Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) can also be applied along
with fully composted farmyard manure and vermicompost to increase the growth of
the plants as well as the fertility of the soil.
The following measures concerning soil management can be adopted in the rec-
lamation and rehabilitation of mined areas:
• Beneficial microbes are present in the topsoil. Hence, the topsoil must be
removed during mining and stacked separately in an area earmarked for the
approved land use plan. It can also be used for reclamation and rehabilitation of
mined areas.
• During the land rehabilitation process, the topsoil containing the site’s beneficial
microflora must be spread over the mined-out areas, including OB dumps and
backfilled areas.
• In addition, the beneficial microorganisms such as AM fungi and PGPR can be
applied as bio-fertilizers along with fully composted farmyard manure and ver-
micompost during the raising of seedlings of fast-growing native plants in the
nursery to improve the health and growth of the seedlings. The inoculated plants
should be used for field planting during afforestation of mined-out areas, includ-
ing OB dumps.
28.5.8 Social Management Plan
In eco-restoration, the significance of considering the relationships between human

well-being and ecosystems (also known as social-ecological systems) in environ-
mental planning and management has become more widely acknowledged. It is
because the process enables the assessment of biodiversity’s social benefits to com-
munities (Fernández-Manjarrés et al. 2018; Martin and Lyons 2018; Rosa and
Sánchez 2016; Swart et al. 2018). To minimize the adverse effects on adjoining
communities and guarantee the restoration process’s success, mining companies are
now lawfully required to involve stakeholders in the planning process for post-
mining land use (ICMM 2008; 2019; Metcalf et al. 2015; Swart et al. 2018). While
mining directly affects comparatively small areas globally (Hooke et al. 2012), it
frequently affects high biodiversity areas (Tibbet 2015) and their ecosystem services.
Gaining community support for mining activities depends on successfully restor-
ing ecosystem services in places disrupted by mining (Aronson et al. 2010; Sánchez
et al. 2014). It will also be crucial to protect people’s well-being in areas where
locals rely heavily on ecosystem-derived benefits (Swart et al. 2018). Social benefits
and related indicators had seldom attention before, since a large portion of the min-
ing has concentrated on ecological restoration using only biophysical indicators and
targets (Martin and Lyons 2018; Kollmann et al. 2016; Lamb et al. 2015; Vogt et al.
2011; Aronson et al. 2010; Ruiz-Jaen and Aide 2007). Recently, any mining firm
needs to consider sustainable development with utmost concern. Works done by
many researchers across the globe (Bouyoud 2007; CEC 2012; ICMM 2010;
Huybens et al. 2012; Pegg 2003; Pembina Institute 2008) shows that CSR policies
and their involvement in studies and initiatives are becoming more and more signifi-
cant globally.
This social management plan focuses on interventions and strategies to lessen
the adverse social effects of mining. It prioritizes strengthening social infrastruc-
ture, encouraging chances for sustainable livelihood, expanding access to health-
care and education, empowering women, and attending to the particular needs of the
surrounding communities. Routine monitoring and assessment of the social man-
agement plan ensure the proper implementation of measures and the general well-
being of the affected communities. Reducing the detrimental social effects of
mining operations and building a more inclusive and resilient social environment
for the impacted communities by prioritizing social welfare, community develop-
ment, and sustainable practices is feasible.
28.6 Way Forward
Rapid growth in the Indian economy stems from the mining sector; hence, tailor-
made measures must be in place to ensure sustainable mining in the region. Ensuring
sufficient capital, stringent compliance with the regulations for post-mining recov-
ery, and a continuous monitoring plan are crucial to its success. Suitable monitoring
mechanisms, including community-based monitoring at the regional level, should
be in place for mineral extraction, environmental and social regulations, and sus-
tainable development projects with government policies that support them. New and
ongoing mining projects have to be proposed in line with sustainable mining prac-
tices to whittle down the negative impacts borne by the environment due to mining
and ancillary operations. Sustainable Development Framework (SDF) has been
framed and adopted under which “Mining that is financially viable; socially respon-
sible; environmentally, technically and scientifically sound; with a long-term view
of development; optimally utilizing mineral resources, ensuring sustainable post-
closure land uses have been codified.” Minerals are a natural heritage trusted for
social security and economic development. This warrants that user agencies and
mining companies shift from conventional extraction methods to sustainable and
eco-friendly mining practices.
28.7 Conclusion
Reclamation and rehabilitation of degraded land due to mining activities are inevi-
table for the region’s sustainable development. Arresting structures should be built
as per the plan design to secure waste dumps and walls and catch water drains (gar-
land drains) at the toe of the waste dumps silt. The dump height and terraces should
be strictly maintained per the design approved in the statutory clearances such as
E.C., Mining Plan, Scheme of Mining, etc. Waste should be dumped afresh using
the receding method, which involves building terraces every 10 meters in height
with a top width of 6 to 8 meters. The terraces should be built from the bottom up.
Each terrace should have berms at the toe to prevent water from flowing over the
dump slopes. In order to control runoff from the slopes, garland drains should be
installed where needed and connected to the vertical drains, check dams, and then
Silt Settling Tanks (SSTs). Haul road and mine approach road should also have
stone-pitched drains. After constructing terraces, inactive dumps should be immedi-
ately covered with appropriate planting methods. To maximize precipitation bene-
fits, all plantation operations should ideally be undertaken during the monsoon
season. For dumps with unfavorable characteristics such as steep slopes, low soil
fertility, instability, and low moisture content, geo-textile or coir mat may be used.
This will also enable the appreciable growth of vegetation cover over the dump
slopes. Enriched plantations may also be adopted on top flat and sloping areas based
on suitability. Different types of gully plugs, such as BWCD, LWCD & LBCD, are
proposed to be constructed for rills and gullies that formed on waste dumps to pre-
vent further erosion from them, and they should be constructed wherever necessary
according to the design suggested in the surface water management plan. No R and
R plan is complete without a social management plan. Addressing the grievances of
the communities involved and building the region’s social capital is essentially an
integral part of the plan, which is not only warranted by law but also required for the
harmonious execution of mining activities planned by the proponent. India cannot
do away with mining minerals as the industry is pivotal in streamlining the coun-
try’s socioeconomic development. With the impending climate crisis threatening
humankind’s existence and continued survival and other life forms, sustainability
and implementing methods to achieve sustainable development have become the
foremost priority. A meticulously crafted R and R plan facilitates sustainability in
the mining sector and builds ecosystem resilience for posterity.
References
Ahirwal J, Pandey VC (2020) Restoration of mine degraded land for sustainable environmental
development. Restor Ecol 29:4
Ali SH, Giurco D, Arndt N, Nickless E, Brown G, Demetriades A, Durrheim R, Enriquez MA,
Kinnaird J, Littleboy A, Meinert LD, Oberhänsli R, Salem J, Schodde R, Schneider G, Vidal O,
Yakovleva N (2017) Mineral supply for sustainable development requires resource governance.
Nature 543:367–372
Aronson J, Blignaut JN, Milton SJ, Maitre DL, Esler KJ, Limouzin A, Fontaine C, de Wit MP,
Mugido W, Prinsloo P, Elst LVD, Lederer N (2010) Are socioeconomic benefits of restoration
adequately quantified? A meta-analysis of recent papers (2000-2008) in Restoration Ecology
and 12 other scientific journals. Restor Ecol 18(2):143–154
Barve A, Muduli K (2011) Challenges to environmental management practices in Indian mining
industries. In: IPEDR, vol 14. IACSIT Press, Singapore
Bouyoud F (2007) The institutionalization of corporate social responsibility: theoretical principles.
Communication at the 5th ADERSE Congress, Grenoble, 10-11 January 2007, 8 p
Cairns J Jr, Best GR, Brezonik PL, Carpenter SR, Cooke GD, Hey DL, Kusler JA, Schelske CL,
Shabman L, Sharitz RR, Sorooshian S, Sparks RE, Tripp JTB, Willard DE, Zedler JB (1992)
Restoration of aquatic ecosystems. National Academy Press, Washington, DC
Chair in Eco-Consulting (2012) Social acceptability of mining projects: the contribution of partici-
patory processes. University of Quebec at Chicoutimi, Saguenay
Cooke GD (2005) Ecosystem rehabilitation. Lake Reservoir Manage 21(2):218–221. https://doi.
org/10.1080/07438140509354431
Fernández-Manjarrés JF, Roturier S, Bilhaut AG (2018) The emergence of the socialecological
restoration concept. Restor Ecol 26(3):404–410
Gairola SU, Bahuguna R, Bhatt SS (2023) Native plant species: a tool for restoration of mined
lands. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 23:1438–1448
145(6):509–515
Hooke TL, Martín-Duque JF, Pedraza J (2012) Land transformation by humans: a review. GSA
Today 22(12):4–10
Huybens N, Segers I, Dessureault PI, Villeneuve C (2012) Social acceptability of mining proj-
ects: the contribution of participatory processes. University of Quebec at Chicoutimi, Chair of
Research and Intervention in Eco-Consulting, Saguenay
ICFRE (2020) A handbook on mine reclamation. Indian Council of Forestry Research and
Education, Dehradun, India
International Council on Mining & Metals—ICMM (2008) Planning for integrated mine closure:
toolkit. ICMM, London. Retrieved from https://www.icmm.com/website/publications/pdfs/
mine-closure/310.pdf
International Council on Mining and Metals (2010) Guide to good practice: Indigenous peoples
and mining. ICMM, London
Kavamura VN, Esposito E (2010) Biotechnological strategies applied to the decontamination of
soil polluted with heavy metals. Biotechnol Adv 28:61–69
Kollmann J, Meyer ST, Bateman R, Conradi T, Gossner MM, Mendonça MS, Fernandes GW,
Hermann J, Koch C, Muller SC, Oki Y, Overbeck GE, Paterno GB, Rosenfield MF, Toma
TSP, Weisser WW (2016) Integrating ecosystem functions into restoration ecology—recent
advances and future directions. Restor Ecol 24(6):722–730
Kumar A, Fatima N (2023) The Indian mining sector: effects on the environment and policy impli-
cation. J Emerg Technol Innov Res 10(4):g538–g544
org/10.1007/s13205-019-1700-1

Sustain:55–70
ological traits during seasonal regimes. Urban Forest Urban Green 58:126900. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
49(1):38–44
A, Kaushal R (2022) Adaptive resilience of roadside trees to vehicular emissions via leaf
enzymatic, physiological, and anatomical trait modulations. Environ Pollut 313. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120191
Kundu NK, Ghose MK (1998) Studies on the Existing Plant Communities in Eastern Coal Field
Areas with a view to Reclamation of Mined Outlands. J Environ Biol 19(1):83–89
Lone MI, He ZL, Stoffella PJ, Yang X (2008) Phytoremediation of heavy metal polluted soils and
water: progress and perspectives. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 9(3):210–220
Martin DM, Lyons JE (2018) Monitoring the social benefits of ecological restoration. Restoration
Ecol 26(6):1045–1050
Metcalf EC, Mohr JJ, Yung L, Metcalf P, Craig D (2015) The role of trust in restoration success:
public engagement and temporal and spatial scale in a complex socialecological system. Restor
Ecol 23(3):315–324
Mukhopadhyay MK, Adak L, Banerjee P, Skaria V, Bhattacharjee PK (2011) Advances in coal
mining technology to meet requirements of environmental and social needs. MECON
Indian J Hill Farm, 34:272-276. (ISSN: 0970-6429)
Padmavathiamma PK, Li LY (2007) Phytoremediation technology: hyper accumulation metals in
plants. Water Air Soil Pollut 184(1-4):105–126
Parameswaran K (2016) Sustainability considerations in innovative process development. In:
Innovative process development in metallurgical industry. Springer International Publishing,
Switzerland, pp 257–280
Pegg S (2003) Poverty reduction or poverty exacerbation? World Bank Group Support for extrac-
tive industries in Africa. Indianapolis, Department of Political Science, Indiana University
Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
Pinto LFS, Stumpf L, Miguel P (2020) Reclamation of soils degradedby surface coal mining. In:
Soni A (ed) Mining techniques- past, present and future
Price Waterhouse Coopers International (2013) Mine—a confidence crisis. Review of global
trends in the mining industry—2013, 59 p. Available online at http://www.pwc.com/en_GX/
gx/mining/publications/assets/pwc-mine-a-confidence-crisis.pdf, last accessed 14 March 2017
Randive K (2017) National mineral policy and its impact on Indian mineral sector. J Geosci
Res 1:1–15
Ranjan V, Kumar D (2015) A review on dump slope stabilization by re-vegetation with reference
to indigenous plants. Ecol Process 4:14
Reuter M (2013) Metal recycling: opportunities, limits, infrastructure. United Nations
Environmental Programme (UNEP) Retrieved from. http://www.resourcepanel.org/reports/
metal-recycling
Rosa JCS, Sánchez LE (2016) Advances and challenges of incorporating ecosystem services into
impact assessment. J Environ Manag 180:485–492
Sánchez LE, Silva-Sánchez SS, Neri AC (2014) Guide for mine closure planning. IBRAM—
Brazilian Mining Association, Brasília. Retrieved from: http://www.ibram.org.br/
sites/1300/1382/00004552.pdf
or nutraceuticals properties of medicinal plants. J Pharmacog Phytochem 8(1):1924–1926
Sheoran V, Sheoran AS, Poonia P (2009) Phytomining: a review. Miner Eng 22(12):1007–1019
Sheoran V, Sheoran AS, Poonia P (2010) Soil reclamation of abandoned mine land by revegeta-
tion: a review. Int J Soil Sediment Water 3(2):Article 13
Singh AN, Singh AN (2006) Experiments on ecological restoration of coal mine spoil using native
trees in a dry tropical environment, India: a synthesis. New For 31:25–39
Singh AN, Raghubanshi AS, Singh JS (2002) Plantations as a tool for mine spoil restoration. Curr
Sci 82(12):1436–1441
Singh R, Singh PK, Singh S (2016) Environmental and social impacts of mining and their
mitigation
region, in response to climate change. Clim Risk Manag 29:100241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
crm.2020.100241
Swart JAA, Zevenberg J, Ho P, Cortina J, Reed M, Derak M, Vella S, Zhao H, van der Windt HJ
(2018) Involving society in restoration and conservation. Restor Ecol 26(S1):S3–S6
Thakur BK, Gupta V, Chattopadhyay U (2013) Arsenic groundwater contamination related socio-
economic problems in India. In: Issues and challenges. Knowledge systems of societies for
adaptation and mitigation of impacts of climate change environmental science and engineering,
pp 163–182
The Pembina Institute (2008) Boom to bust: social and cultural impacts of the mining cycle. The
Pembina Institute, Calgary
Tibbet M (2015) Mining in ecologically sensitive landscape. CSIRO Publishing /CRC Press,
Clayton South/Leiden
Vogt JV, Safriel U, Von Maltitz G, Sokona Y, Zougmore R, Bastin G, Hull J (2011) Monitoring
and assessment of land degradation and desertification: towards new conceptual and integrated
approaches. Land Degrad Dev 22:150–165
Chapter 29
The Importance of Conserving Existing
Forest Areas and Protecting Biodiversity
in Addressing Climate Change Issues
Prachi Upadhyay and Thiyam Seityajit Singh
Abstract Forests and biodiversity are essential for human survival and climate
change mitigation. However, human activities have exerted immense pressure on
them, leading to forest degradation and biodiversity loss, endangering these ecosys-
tems. This chapter delves into various aspects to enhance scientific understanding of
forests and biodiversity and their significance. It explores the roles of forests and
biodiversity in promoting human welfare and maintaining environmental and cli-
matic balance. Furthermore, it sheds light on the recent threats forests and biodiver-
sity face, elucidating their impacts. Besides, the chapter provides an overview of
conservation measures to gauge their effectiveness in achieving the desired goals.
This chapter offers insights into redirecting conservation efforts for optimal out-
comes by comprehensively examining the current state of forests and biodiversity,
including their roles in the environment, climate change, and the threats they con-
front. Given the urgency of the issue in the face of climate change, a multifaceted
approach is necessary for thorough examination and appropriate mitigation
strategies.
Keywords Forest · Biodiversity · Climate change · Deforestation · Conservation ·

Sustainable development
29.1 Introduction
Life originated on Earth around 3.5 billion years ago, and with time, it has evolved
into numerous life forms through speciation. During this process, when new life
forms emerged, many also got lost because of extinction. Whatever species exist in
P. Upadhyay (*)
Forest Research Institute Deemed to be University, Dehradun, India
Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, India
T. S. Singh
Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
Ltd. 2024
606 P. Upadhyay and T. S. Singh
the current time results from speciation and extinction coinciding. Approximately
1.75 million species of plants, animals, and microorganisms have been identified.
Some reports even claim that up to 100 million species live on Earth. However,
based on fossil records, these numbers go to more than 50 billion species that existed
on Earth at various times, of which 98% have gone extinct (Yadav et al. 2019; Palita
and Panda 2021). The biodiversity we are witnessing today has resulted from the
ongoing process of evolution for billions of years, forming a web of life (Rawat and
Agrawal 2015).
Biodiversity is an umbrella term that describes the variety and variation within
natural systems in terms of number and frequency (Rawat and Agrawal 2015). All
life forms on Earth depend on one another for survival and are all interconnected by
the web of life (Palita and Panda 2021). Scientists have confidence that there are
around 13 million species, whereas according to the UNEP, there are around 9–52
million species on the planet (Mora et al. 2011; Rawat and Agrawal 2015).
Biodiversity includes species diversity, endemism, and genetic diversity and is
unequally distributed, giving rise to the differences among and within the forests
around the globe (Hill et al. 2019). The role and significance of biodiversity are
beyond the species used by humans for food, fuel, medicines, and other purposes
(Palita and Panda 2021).
Forests are linked with many ecosystem services that are significant for humans
and, hence, precious ecosystems (Verma et al. 2020). Although biodiversity and its
conservation are the topmost priority among all ecosystem services, other services
like carbon storage, water regulation and supply, wood and non-wood products,
recreation, soil protection, and nutrient cycling also hold equal importance (Singh
and Verma 2013). Forests have 30% of the earth’s surface area and host 60,000 tree
species, 80% of all known amphibians, 75% of all bird species, and 68% of all
mammals (Xofis et al. 2023). Forests play a crucial role in maintaining the overall
balance of carbon in the atmosphere and in mitigating the effects of global warming.
Carbon sequestered by forests potentially reduces the amount of greenhouse gases
accumulating in the atmosphere (Robalino and Herrera 2010; Singh 2024).
Economic development, population increase, and the changing consumption pat-
tern have increased pressure on the resources and forest areas. The increased
demand has led to altering natural forests into agricultural land and degradation due
to fragmentation, pollution, and other anthropogenic activities (Börner et al. 2020).
The resource utilization by humans is 25% more than the planet can sustain, which
puts severe pressure on habitats and species’ survival (Singh et al. 2017). These
issues are impacting the biodiversity residing in these forests. Besides this, habitat
loss, overexploitation of resources, non-native invasive species, and climate change
pose a severe threat that could affect our steps for sustainable development (Palita
and Panda 2021).
The changes happening on Earth concerning its climate, biotic communities,
human population and growth, and pattern of land use and cover are swift (Singh
et al. 2023). These issues are getting attention from several scientists and decision-
makers (Sharma et al. 2019). The consequences of these changes and their impact
have been studied and well understood through different research (Prakash et al.
29 The Importance of Conserving Existing Forest Areas and Protecting Biodiversity… 607
2022). For example, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment has unveiled how
issues like habitat loss, invasive species, overexploitation, climate change, etc., have
negatively impacted the Earth. But these changes are also associated with other fac-
tors, and their interaction is, in turn, affecting the natural systems as well as people
(Mauro 2022).
Changes in land use, land cover, and forest activities have resulted in a 13% off-
set of total CO2 emissions in the USA between 1990 and 2003. So, whenever defor-
estation takes place, the carbon that has been sequestered gets released into the
environment. It has also been evaluated that 11–39% of all the carbon emissions
from anthropogenic sources come from the forest sector. For global warming, it is
crucial to balance forest conservation and deforestation to minimize the impact of
forest sector activities (Kumari and Singh 2018; Phukon et al. 2022). The green-
house gas emissions due to deforestation are pretty high. Forest loss is mainly attrib-
uted to land conversion and agricultural expansion, and it is seen more in developing
regions like Africa and South America (Raturi et al. 2022). These issues will not halt
anytime soon and will continue to rise in the coming times as the increase in the
global population will increase the demand for food and agricultural products
(Robalino and Herrera 2010).
Conserving biodiversity is important because it offers humans numerous ser-
vices, including food, medicinal plants, and other services (Kumar and Singh 2020).
Forests contribute significantly to the world’s biological diversity but face many
challenges today (Kumar et al. 2020). The long-term sustainability of biodiversity
hotspots is threatened by extensive deforestation occurring in tropical forests, which
are of global importance, and by converting land for agriculture. Deforestation
occurs at a considerable scale and rarely ensures significant economic benefits.
Also, the loss of habitat and biodiversity is enormous. It is estimated that since
1990, around 420 million hectares of forest have been lost. Despite this massive
decrease in forests, every year, forests are still losing around ten million hectares of
forest (Xofis et al. 2023). Between 2000–2005 and 1990–2000, around seven mil-
lion hectares and eight million hectares of forest were destroyed, respectively
(Robalino and Herrera 2010). Due to the loss of forests and other anthropogenic
activities, around one million species face the threat of extinction, which suggests
that the world is facing the sixth mass extinction (Xofis et al. 2023). Ecosystems
with high biodiversity show complex interactions between the species, which helps
the ecosystem remain intact and healthy regarding disturbance and environmental
change. That is why assessing biodiversity is an excellent parameter for knowing
about the ecosystem’s health. The approach must be holistic to ensure sustainability,
and biodiversity and natural habitat conservation must be prioritized (Palita and
Panda 2021).
29.2 Forest, Biodiversity, and Its Importance
29.2.1 What Is a Forest?
Forest ecosystems are integrated ecosystems where biotic communities (plants, ani-
mals, microorganisms), primarily trees, interact with the abiotic environment (light,
heat, soil, water, air etc.). They convert energy and circulate the material through
different processes. This ecosystem is biodiverse, complex in its structure, functions
pretty well, can improve the ecological environment, and is important for the wel-
fare of humans. The ecological functions performed by forests, services regulated,
and ecological security ensure humans’ survival and development (Guo et al. 2023).
Forest ecosystems throughout the globe vary widely and can be classified into broad
categories:
1. tropical rain forests, which have very high diversity;
2. tropical deciduous forests with relatively low diversity compared to tropical rain
forests;
3. tropical dry forests, which have a few species growing in open stands;
4. temperate mixed forests, which have several mixed broadleaved species;
5. temperate evergreen forests, which have many coniferous species; and
6. Boreal forests have one dominant woody species (Burley 2002).
Among the different forest types, the tropical forest has 60% of the world’s vascular
plants (Xofis et al. 2023).
Different countries and agencies have different definitions of forest. The US
National Vegetation Classification System defines areas with a 60% tree cover,
whereas UNEP uses a 40% tree cover threshold to distinguish closed forests. A 20%
tree cover threshold is used for European forests, as per Kohl and Päivinen (1996).
The Vegetation Resource Inventory for the Canadian forests defines treed areas as
areas with 10% tree cover. The FAO uses a threshold of 10% MCC to find whether
an area has been deforested. Hansen et al. (2010) have suggested values of 25%
MCC to measure global deforestation across different biomes. Tropical and more
forested countries define their forests using higher tree cover. Zimbabwe defines
forest using a tree cover of 80, whereas Australia takes a tree cover of 20–50% (Hill
et al. 2019). In India, the forest is defined based on crown cover, the stand’s mini-
mum area, and the trees’ height. It is land of more than one hectare in the area with
a tree canopy density of more than 10% (ISFR 2021).
29.2.1.1 Significance of Forests
Loss of forests has consequences at both local and global levels, which also hinders
the capability of intact forests to fight against the impact of climate change (Scullion
et al. 2019).
Over 1.6 billion people’s lives and livelihoods rely on forests and their produce.
Approximately 70 million, including the indigenous community, live in the forest
and call it their home. Forests provide oxygen, shelter, jobs, water, nourishment, and
fuel. They also provide multiple ecosystem services, resources, and cultural benefits
to local communities and others (Scullion et al. 2019). With this many people rely-
ing on forests, it can be undoubtedly said that the fate of forests also decides the fate
of humans. Forests are home to nearly 80% terrestrial biodiversity, including 80%
of amphibians, 75% of birds and 68% of mammals. Forest ecosystems are a source
of many critical ecosystem services and play vital roles, such as being a green water
reservoir, green carbon pool, green oxygen bar library, and green gene pool. These
factors are associated with the importance of forests in water conservation, carbon
fixing, atmospheric purification, and biodiversity conservation, respectively, includ-
ing human welfare. (Guo et al. 2023).
Forests play a critical role in preventing soil erosion and help in enriching and
conserving soil (Kumar et al. 2020). This also helps to protect communities from
disasters like landslides and floods and produces rich topsoil, which is crucial for
healthy vegetation. Forests also play a significant role in the hydrological cycle,
which moves water across the planet from vapors until it gets captured as rainfall
(Kumar et al. 2017; Kumar et al. 2022). They filter out the pollutants and chemicals
from water, improving its quality for human use. Destroying forests will severely
affect agriculture and, eventually, food production. Even human health is related to
forest health, as the destruction of forests increases the risk of diseases, especially
zoonotic diseases, which can cross from animals to humans. It has been proved that
spending time in the forest will positively affect health, reducing the risk of cardio-
vascular disease, respiratory concerns, diabetes, and mental health. Forests harbor
immense biodiversity, especially in moist tropical regions representing the most
species-rich habitat type. The distribution of forests is unequal across the globe,
with the tropics having the most significant proportion of the world’s forests, fol-
lowed by boreal, temperate, and subtropical domains (Brockerhoff et al. 2017).
29.2.2 What Is Biodiversity?
Biodiversity is the variety and variation of different lifeforms on Earth, including

terrestrial, marine, and other ecosystems. This variety ranges through genes, popu-
lations, species, communities, ecosystems, and ecological processes. An area’s bio-
diversity is a unique community of organisms interacting with air, water, soil, and
the surroundings to form an ecosystem (Palita and Panda 2021). It is the variability
from all sources, including taxonomic, phylogenetic, and functional diversity
(Naeem et al. 2016). The distribution of biodiversity is uneven throughout the
planet. The wealthiest biodiversity is in the tropics. Species diversity also changes
with latitude. Biodiversity is usually clustered in hotspots (Rawat and Agrawal
2015). It is well known that biodiversity is a major driving force in ecosystem func-
tion. Many studies have talked about the diversity of tree species and their effect on
the ecosystem, the functions of forests, and primary productivity. It is also widely
known that tree diversity can improve the functions of forest ecosystem and associ-
ated services (Brockerhoff et al. 2017).
Biodiversity is considered at three major levels;
1. Genetic diversity: It deals with the variety in genetic information in individuals
within the population of a species. Simply put, it is the variety of genes present
within species and populations.
2. Species diversity: It refers to the different types of species and is measured in the
form of species richness i.e. the total number of species within a defined area,
and species abundance i.e. relative numbers of individuals among the species.
The species also differ based on their functions and can be classified as—(a)
Functional types—Species which perform different ecological functions. (b)
Functional analogues—Distinct taxa which perform ecological functions which
are alike.
3. Ecosystem diversity: It refers to the variety of habitats, biotic communities, and
ecological processes in the biosphere.
The biodiversity distribution is uneven on Earth, with the tropics being the richest.
The warm climate of the tropics and primary productivity are very high, and this
region has high terrestrial biodiversity (Gaston 2000; Field et al. 2009; Rawat and
Agrawal 2015). Marine biodiversity is higher along the coasts of the West Pacific
Ocean as the sea surface temperature is highest in this area. Latitudinal gradients
also maintain species diversity (Rawat and Agrawal 2015).
29.2.2.1 Significance of Biodiversity
Utilitarian benefits: Biodiversity plays a very significant role in the material well-
being of humans and provides us with various products (Rawat and Agrawal 2015).
The agroecosystems provide food for human consumption and the associated eco-
systems, and they support marine and freshwater fishers and overall food security
(Palita and Panda 2021). Many aquatic species and fish serve as sources of nutrition
for different communities. Biodiversity also provides medicinal plants and animals
that can be used as drugs (Rawat and Agrawal 2015). Around 6000 species have
been cultivated by humans at some point in time. However, 95% of the food con-
sumed by humanity comes from only about 30 crop species, and it is said that the
world is currently overly dependent on a few plant species. Nature provides a vast
diversity of materials for construction, fuel, oil, and wood, all obtained from wild or
cultivated species. 34% of the world’s forests are utilized for wood and non-wood
production. Currently, producing energy from renewable sources, especially bio-
logical materials, is very interesting. This can be achieved by cultivating biomass
crops and manufacturing ethanol to replace petrol and other fossil fuels. Also, dif-
ferent sources like algae are being explored as a potential biofuel. However, with a
decline in forested areas, the supply and productivity of the forest are likely to
decrease and will also further go down because of fragmentation in left forests
(Palita and Panda 2021).
Ecosystems are essential in providing, regulating, and purifying water resources
(Kumar et al. 2018). Today, water use is dominated by agricultural, industrial, and
domestic requirements. Vegetations, especially forests, play a significant role in
regulating the quantity of water in the watershed. Also, forests’ root systems and
ground cover regulate the water flow and improve water quality. But today, with
land conversations at such a large scale, cloud formation and rainfall patterns are
varyingly affecting the hydrological cycle on Earth (Palita and Panda 2021).
Genetic resources: Genetic resources and their diversity help improve crop pro-
duction and resilience to pests and climate variations. It also helps in breeding pro-
grams to get a range of desired characters. Today, with improved and advanced
technology, breeding programs are achieving the desired success by utilizing genetic
diversity (Palita and Panda 2021).
Ecosystem services: Ecosystem services are the processes and conditions of the
natural system that support the activities of humans, and biodiversity plays a critical
role in them. It helps mitigate climate change by sequestering carbon in different
biomes. It is due to biodiversity that the CO2 and O2 balance is maintained. It also
helps regulate different biochemical cycles of the earth and break down pollutants.
Determining the climate at the micro, local or regional level is also affected and
influenced by temperature, precipitation, and air turbulence. Biodiversity strength-
ens the ecosystem’s resilience and helps reduce disaster risks. Forests, wetlands,
and mangroves are crucial in impact reduction for extreme events like tsunamis,
floods, etc. Management of natural hazards by coral reefs is estimated to be around
US$ 18 million per square kilometer per year; for tourism, it is around US$ 100
million, more than US$ five million for genetic material and bioprospecting, and
US$ 331,800 for fisheries. Apart from these protective services from extreme events,
the world’s food crop production depends on pollination by insects, bats, and birds
directly or indirectly. Wild species also help in pest management and regulation, as
bats, toads, birds, snakes, etc., consume numerous pests in cropland or forest areas,
helping crop production and maintaining forest health. It is estimated that a single
brood of woodpeckers is capable of consuming 8000 12,000 harmful insect pupae
per day, which in turn helps to maintain a healthy forest and in case plantation or
cropped area, it helps in improved production (Rawat and Agrawal 2015).
Ethical and moral values: Apart from all the benefits of the forests, biodiversity,
and ecosystems, it is also crucial to understand that every life form on earth is
unique and important regardless of its importance to humans. This is said to be the
ecosystem right of an organism. They have the right to exist despite their value to
human beings. The well-being of our future generation depends on the present gen-
eration; therefore, it is our duty to act responsibly, considering the survival and
welfare of all (Rawat and Agrawal 2015).
Aesthetic value: The natural environment is an excellent source of human enjoy-
ment. Human senses are stimulated by the different shapes, structures, and colours,
enriching human culture. This is often seen in the conservation and protection mea-
sures that many other organizations take up. Humans enjoy nature and wildlife
through various leisure activities, such as seeing and hearing plants and animals. It
is also seen in human art and culture (Rawat and Agrawal 2015).
However, pressure from anthropogenic activities has led to biodiversity decline
and homogenization. This decline will continue, especially in Central and South
America forests, South and Southeast Asia, and Africa (Brockerhoff et al. 2017).
The ability to stop biodiversity loss is highly dependent on our efforts and ability to
stop forest loss. Destruction of forests does not just include the removal of trees; it
also makes the ecosystem fall apart. Between 2000 and 2018, 90% of the deforesta-
tion was related to agriculture, 52.3% was from the increase in cropland, and 37.5%
from the expansion of livestock grazing. Cropland has caused more than 75% of
deforestation in Asia and Africa. Livestock grazing was the most significant driver
of deforestation in South America and Oceania, and in Europe, it was the develop-
ment of infrastructure and urban expansion (FAO 2022).
Forests are the habitat of most plants and animals present on earth. But today,
various issues affect forests and their biodiversity, leading to harmful consequences.
Habitat loss is one of the major causes of the loss of biodiversity in which land use
shifts. This has severely affected the forest-dwelling species. Amazon has seen an
average decline of 69% in the species (mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians)
since 1970. In some tropical forests, deforestation can result in the loss of 100 spe-
cies per day. After oceans, forests are the most enormous storehouse of carbon as
they absorb carbon, which reduces greenhouse gas emissions in the air. Therefore,
cutting forests or deforestation leads to the release of vast quantities of carbon,
eventually contributing to the climate crisis. Stopping deforestation and restoring
forests are musts to fight the climate crisis.
Also, increased dependence on a few species has led to a loss of native genetic
resources. Failure to maintain genetic diversity will add to both economic and social
costs. For example, the potato famine in Ireland in the nineteenth century is attrib-
uted to the low genetic diversity of potatoes, making the entire crop susceptible to
potato blight fungus. At present, biodiversity can be promoted by extending organic
or integrated farming. With the increasing population, it is believed that the global
food demand will rise by 50% in the next four decades, putting pressure on our
resources to expand the area under production to fulfill the food requirements (Palita
and Panda 2021).
After the Kyoto Protocol came into force, the importance of forests was realized
for climate change mitigation. Expanding forests has become important in solving
emissions and energy issues and withstanding and coping with climate change.
Several projects like the Roosevelt Project” in the United States, the “Great Plan for
Transforming Nature” in Russia, the “Three-North Shelterbelt Project,” the “Natural
Forest Protection and Restoration Project,” and the “Gain for Green Project” in
China, were implemented to increase the global forest cover. It did help increase
forest cover to some extent. However, forest loss, fragmentation, and degradation
are caused by human activities. Also, many of the natural forests are being replaced
by plantations, resulting in homogenous forests in composition and age, low biodi-
versity, reduced resilience, and poor ecosystem services. This indicates the urgent
need to put efforts into quality improvement in forests. And now, ecological quality
is getting attention in forest conservation (Guo et al. 2023).
29.3 Threats to Forest and Biodiversity
The natural forest diversity is constantly threatened by immense pressure from

intensive human activities. The interaction of anthropogenic threats such as habitat
loss and degradation, resource exploitation, invasive organisms, pollution, etc. are
major drivers for biodiversity loss worldwide (Johnson et al. 2017; Ceballos et al.
2017). During this time, significant rapid changes have occurred in the natural pro-
cesses that can interact synergistically with anthropogenic threats, which include
disrupted climate and fire regimes, enhancing negative impacts (Geary et al. 2019).
We depend on our diverse biodiversity for our survival, directly or indirectly, pro-
viding habitat, food, and ecosystem services for all living things in more ways than
we realize.
Deforestation of forests for various purposes is one of the foremost causes of the
destruction of forest habitat. The Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) of
FAO defines deforestation as “the conversion of forest to other land use indepen-
dently of whether human-induced or not” (FAO 2018). The world lost 420 million
ha hectares of forest between 1990 and 2020, with an estimated rate of ten million
ha of forest deforested each year in 2015–2020 (approx. 0.25%/year) (FAO 2022).
This loss and destruction of forest habitat are critical to our biodiversity, as forests
contribute most of what belongs to terrestrial biodiversity (Kumar et al. 2021a, b;
Joshi et al. 2021). Rampant land altercation and land use changes like the expansion
of agriculture and pasture land and the construction of infrastructures are the great-
est threats to the declining diversity, health, and abundance of our forest and biodi-
versity. With the growing pressure of ecosystem services from our ever-expanding
global human population, areas of high biodiversity are coveted for their values in
crop production and raising livestock. This results in clearing more forest areas and
creating habitat fragmentation and degradation. Infrastructure development is nec-
essary for economic growth and a better quality of life. However, suppose environ-
mental safeguards do not accompany it. In that case, it can be a consequential driver
for biodiversity loss (Maxwell et al. 2016), altering ecosystem properties or frag-
mentation (Tulloch et al. 2019). The increase in road access and forest fragmenta-
tion would result in many wildlife species and other species of immense monetary
value at risk of being exploited. The expansion of urban spaces to accommodate the
growing population in cities will subsequently lead to a change in the natural habi-
tat, resulting in major changes in the abundance and composition of the local habitat
(Geschke et al. 2018). McDonald et al. (2018) estimate that urban growth could
threaten 290,000 km2 of natural habitat between 2000 and 2030, leading towards
edge effects, with a decrease in habitat patch sizes and lack of connectivity between
the remnant fragments, which will further contribute to ecological degradation and
limit the ability of biodiversity to persist in urban areas. Fire is another significant
contributor to habitat and biodiversity loss. It is reported that fires damaged about
4% of the tropical forest area and an estimated 98 million ha of forest globally in
2015, threatening biodiversity, water, health, life on land, and climate (FAO 2020).
Logging and mining can have severe implications for our forest biodiversity.
Overexploitation of natural resources, poaching, hunting, and plants from their nat-
ural habitats will decrease their abundance and even extinction. In addition, humans
introduce invasive species into an ecosystem that threatens the local biodiversity.
When species that are not native arrive or are introduced, they affect the ecosystem
disproportionately and modify the habitat, importing pathogens, and are herbivo-
rous on plants in the native ecosystem, leading to a decline of genetic diversity by
hybridizing with natives, for the resources they directly compete with and prey on
the native species (Doherty et al. 2016).
Global climate change is significantly associated with changes in our biodiver-
sity. Human activities have rapidly accelerated the pace of climate change and are a
major threat to our future survival. Climate change has brought many extreme
events, such as fires, floods, droughts, etc. It has also been altering the natural habi-
tats of several species and their capability to acclimatize, enhancing biodiversity
loss. However, climate change is not yet the dominant factor responsible for biodi-
versity loss; instead, it is driven by several important actions, dominated by land-use
change and over-exploitation (Caro et al. 2022). Several anthropogenic threats to
biodiversity loss are also leading causes of pollution, such as air pollution, water
pollution, noise pollution, soil pollution, etc. These pollutions also severely threaten
biodiversity and the environment and significantly contribute to climate change
(Kumar et al. 2021a, b).
The decline has been seen in the forest specialist species, particularly the ones
associated with primary forest (Gupta et al. 2018). Hence, there is an immediate
need to study the impact of management on forest ecosystems and develop potential
mitigation measures so that the services and functions supported by biodiversity are
maintained. Most forest species respond negatively to the degradation and fragmen-
tation of their ecosystem. So, increasing fragmentation and decline of primary for-
ests is altering both species and function composition in the forested landscapes of
the earth (Brockerhoff et al. 2017).
Extinction is a natural phenomenon occurring globally. Between 1600 and 1950,
the rate of species extinction was around one species per year. But in the last
100 years, humans have accelerated the extinction rate around 1000 times. Today,
12% of birds, 23% of mammals, and 32% of amphibians face the threat of extinc-
tion, and current estimates predict the species loss range between 10–50% in the
coming 20–50 years (Palita and Panda 2021).
Forests and biodiversity face multiple threats simultaneously. These threats inter-
act with each other and create more complex and challenging situations that threaten
the survival of species and biodiversity. These interactions can bring forth an addi-
tive effect that can substantially impact the forest ecosystem and biodiversity. As
such, it is critical to manage these interactions. Therefore, it is necessary to adopt a
comprehensive and integrated approach to understand the interaction of these
threats from a multidisciplinary angle. This will help identify the underlying causes
and the nature of the interacting factors, which will be critical in tackling the loss of
our forests and biodiversity.
29.4 Conserving Forest and Biodiversity
Conserving the forests of the earth is a global priority. Therefore, there is a need to
understand the causes and possible solutions to improve conservation efforts
(Scullion et al. 2019) that should consider ecosystem services and the social and
economic systems well connected to biodiversity, not just the physical environment.
Multiple factors continuously threaten forests and biodiversity, and the interactions
of these factors bring unwanted changes in species’ habitats. The association of
numerous threats and their interaction is a topic that needs to be researched thor-
oughly, as the management of these threat interactions is critical to biodiversity
conservation (Craig et al. 2017). The magnitude of the changes and loss to our forest
and biodiversity during these few decades has been phenomenal. These can have
irreversible effects if we do not halt these changes and create a more sustainable
way of dealing with the environment to minimize the impact of these threats. We
need to develop and frame strategies that can limit the threats by being inclusive of
all decision-makers and those affected by those decisions and bring in new tech-
nologies that can handle and mitigate the needs of our population without bringing
more destruction to the already harmed biodiversity.
Biodiversity and its conservation were highlighted in 1972 at the United Nations
Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm. Negotiations to develop legally
binding instruments for biodiversity conservation led to the Convention on
Biological Diversity in 1992, whose objectives were the conservation of biological
diversity, sustainable use of its components, and fair and equitable sharing of its
benefits. There were many other initiatives at the global level for conserving biodi-
versity. A few of the major ones are listed below-
• The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)/
Earth Summit;
• African Convention on Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources;
• The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance;
• International Union for the Conservation of Nature (World Conservation Union);
• Convention on International Trade for Endangered Species (CITES);
• International Convention for the Protection of Birds;
• International Board for Plant Genetic Resources
• World Resources Institute; World Wide Fund for Nature (n.d.);
• Convention on Conservation of migratory species of wild animals;
• International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling;
• UNESCO Programme on Man and Biosphere (Rawat and Agarwal 2015).
The establishment of protected areas and reserve areas is found to be the most effec-
tive measure to conserve our forests and biodiversity. This in-situ way of
conservation has seen an increasing number of evidence presented by several

researchers that the creation of protected areas and fair maintenance of ones already
existing can help global climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration
and storage (UNEP 2019; Dinerstein et al. 2020). Dinerstein et al. (2020) estimated
that the currently protected areas store approximately 12–16% of carbon stocks.
They suggested that protected areas should cover 50.4% of the terrestrial realm to
reverse biodiversity loss and stabilize the climate. The Global Forest Resource
Assessment (2020) reported that 424 million ha, 11% of forest area, have been
assigned primarily for biodiversity conservation in 2020 in 165 countries, represent-
ing 91% of the world’s forest area (FAO 2020). The total forest area in legally pro-
tected areas is estimated at 726 million ha (18% of the total forest area in 173
countries). Establishing ecological corridors connecting these protected areas is
vital to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of protected areas in fragmented
ecologies (Keeley et al. 2018; Littlefield et al. 2019). They also efficiently store
carbon stocks, as carbon densities in most ecological corridors are similar to those
in the protected areas they connect (Jantz et al. 2014).
However, setting aside large areas as protected and reserves creates problems for
the people living in the forest and depending on it for their sustenance. This can also
result in conflict between the decision-makers and the communities, where policy
implementations and their effectiveness could be hindered. Communities living in
the forest for generations have their traditional knowledge system and know the
region’s biodiversity best. Understanding the importance of this indigenous knowl-
edge of forests and ecology, incorporating the local community, and making them
participate directly in conservation efforts are crucial for biodiversity conservation.
The traditional understanding of the indigenous communities, which have been
deeply rooted in nature for centuries, will be constructive and help sustain resource
management and biodiversity conservation (Batdorf 2023).
Establishing biosphere reserves can promote a well-balanced integration of peo-
ple and nature to achieve sustainable development. This can be achieved by having
participatory dialogue, increasing awareness through sharing knowledge, moving
towards reducing poverty and improving human well-being, respecting cultural val-
ues, and improving societies’ ability to cope with climate change. Also, community
forest management (CFM) has dealt with the deforestation crisis and improved
indigenous communities’ livelihoods. However, Ota et al. (2020) opine that the suc-
cess of CFM practices might be geographically biased, and it might not be possible
to draw generalized conclusions that such management practices would bear the
same results across different geographical and sociopolitical conditions.
The conservation of important species in ex-situ conditions that are out of their
natural ranges is another vital way of ensuring the protection of genetic diversity.
Ex-situ conservation can be used to conserve species populations that face the threat
of habitat loss and are challenging to maintain in the wild environment. Seed/
embryo storage conservation is usually used as a convenient method for genetic
conservation. It involves collecting and transferring samples to a gene bank for stor-
age, usually at sub-zero temperatures. This method is efficient and reproducible and
can also be used for secure storage in the short, medium, and long term. Other
essential methods include botanical and zoological gardens, in vitro conservation,

Field Gene Bank/Livestock Park Conservation, and Pollen/Semen/Ovule/DNA
Conservation. Botanical and zoological parks can preserve wild species that have
not received priority for conservation along with other species. However, being con-
fined to a limited space and a small representation of each species being held in the
garden restricts the genetic diversity.
In-vitro conservation is widely used for vegetatively propagated and recalcitrant
seeded species. It involves the preservation of explants in a sterile, pathogen-free
environment. Field gene banks or livestock parks collect and preserve plant or ani-
mal specimens from one place, then transfer and store them elsewhere. Storing pol-
len grains, semen, ovules, and DNA is a cost-effective way to maintain species’
genetic diversity. In this way, ex-situ conservation can provide a chance for survival
for organisms that have been extinct in their natural habitats by returning and rein-
troducing rare and endangered animals and plants to their natural habitats and guar-
anteeing the restoration and reconstruction of wild populations. Conserving genetic
diversity and resources is crucial for biodiversity conservation, especially when cli-
mate change is evident (Xofis et al. 2023). Many studies have suggested how we
need to use the present conservation measures. Huang et al. (2022) studied different
populations of Camellia chekiangoleosa and saw significant differences in genetic
diversity and high differentiations between the populations. They suggested adopt-
ing appropriate measures to maintain diversity in populations with high diversity
and increase gene exchange where diversity is low. Zhou et al. (2022) studied popu-
lations of Triadica sebifera with limited genetic variations and a shallow within-
population genetic diversity and reported the existence of some rare alleles, which
may prove to be of great significance for genetic diversity and its maintenance.
Ex-situ conservation is also suggested to maintain the diversity of ecologically and
economically important species. Kinho et al. (2023) indicate a combination of ex-
situ and in-situ conservation for the endangered species Pericopsis mooniana and
introducing it into areas that might suit it due to climate change.
Restoration of degraded land with forests has been an effective mitigation mea-
sure to deal with the forest loss crisis, which can also significantly affect biodiver-
sity loss. Edwards et al. (2021) reported that restoring degraded forests and woodland
with indigenous species in the region played a role in addressing biodiversity losses
and nature’s contribution to people, including recovering the soil carbon stocks of
these ecosystems. It has been determined that the reforestation of up to 3.7 million
km2 of degraded tropical forest (less than half of the area that can be potentially re-
forested) could support a carbon uptake rate of 5.5 GtCO2e year−1 by 2030 while
contributing to the conservation of forest-dependent vertebrate species (Kemppinen
et al. 2020). However, the plantation culture of monoculture species not indigenous
to the region poses a significant risk to nature, and the ecosystem services it can
provide are limited (Reisman-Berman et al. 2019).
‘Rewilding’ is another effective mitigation that involves the restoration and pro-
tection of natural ecosystem processes without or with minimal human interference
following an initial restoration process and allowing nature to take its course and
restore natural habitats. Rewilding followed by the reintroduction of animals will
improve their ecosystem function as the presence or absence of animals and the
relative abundance of different animal groups affect ecosystem functioning.
Rewilding is a potentially significant way for climate change mitigation, as it
enables plants to regrow and remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which is
then stored in biomass and soil, which helps to reduce carbon emissions. Several
studies, including Arneth et al. (2021), Smith et al. (2020), and Strassburg et al.
(2020), have emphasized the significance of rewilding as a means of addressing
climate change.
In 1992, Stolton introduced the term ‘forest quality’ in the World Wide Fund
(WWF) report, and Dudley defined it as the ‘sum of all the forest functions and
values of in terms of ecological, social and economic benefits,’ and this brought
attention to the quality of environment and forests. Although it is a general term and
despite much work done, it still has not been widely accepted. It comprehensively
measures the forest ecosystem’s ecological services, growth, and function. Another
important term in maintaining and conserving forest ecosystems is Forest sustain-
ability, which focuses on forest management and helps to promote the sustainable
development of society, economy, resources, and the environment by protecting,
managing, and developing forest ecosystems, maintaining their health and meeting
the demand for forest products and services (Guo et al. 2023). Research has been
ongoing for decades to understand the causes of forest loss and develop mitigation
measures (Scullion et al. 2019). The integrated landscape approach has evolved
throughout the last several decades, has facilitated the implementation of actions
across social, economic, and environmental dimensions, and offers the possibility
of addressing climate-smart objectives through adaptive and integrated manage-
ment systems. This approach extends beyond merely conserving biodiversity for
ecosystem services. It aims to explore how heterogeneity can be effectively man-
aged across all scales to mitigate changes essential for environmental sustainability
(Sayer and Cassman 2013). It addresses sustainability in both social and ecological
systems and their interactions. Axelsson et al. (2011) broke down the process of
landscape approach. They identified five core features: (1) to keep a focus on large
areas of tens of thousands, up to millions, of hectares depending on the sustainabil-
ity issues; (2) a need for collaboration among multi-level partners that can represent
all societal sectors and fields of interest; (3) to have a commitment towards sustain-
able development and an analytic approach to address sustainability; (4) producing
new knowledge and identify valuable traditional knowledge for socially impactful
solutions; and (5) and to share the knowledge and experience. Bogardi et al. (2012)
advocated using the integrated landscape approach to address the growing concern
of pressures on land, water, and other resources and achieve sustainability.
Biodiversity conservation requires understanding how the elements of biodiver-
sity constantly change over time to reach a practical approach in all scales of con-
servation and address the contradiction between economic and social development
and biodiversity conservation. The survey and monitoring of biodiversity can estab-
lish baseline data on biodiversity, understand dynamic changes and trends, identify
major threat factors, and analyze the effectiveness of conservation (Wang et al.
2020). Biodiversity conservation today is a global priority since it will help
maintain the balance of ecosystems, ensure essential ecosystem services, and save
the planet’s future.
Public awareness and education are equally important for biodiversity conserva-
tion as they will help develop a society that recognizes the value of nature and is
actively involved in its protection. It is the collective efforts that will help to create
a sustainable future where biodiversity thrives. The issues need urgency through
public awareness campaigns for biodiversity conservation. People should under-
stand the impact of their actions and can get motivated to make behavioral changes
by which they can reduce the harm being caused. Public awareness can also support
and promote sustainable agriculture, responsible consumption, and initiatives for
habitat restoration. The public should involve all stakeholders, from the local com-
munity to policymakers, businesses, and educational institutions. By collaborating,
efforts put into conservation can become more inclusive for all.
29.5 Conclusion
Forests and biodiversity are essential for the survival of all species, including
humans, as they harbor a vast array of plants and animals. However, human activi-
ties in recent times have exerted immense pressure on forests, posing a grave threat
to their ecology and biodiversity. Urgent action is imperative to secure the existing
diversity and strive for a sustainable future. Given current trends, sustainability, a
cornerstone of global development agendas like the UN’s Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) for 2030, is increasingly challenging to achieve sustainability. The
loss of biodiversity and degradation of forests not only exacerbate climate change
but also escalate public health risks through the spread of zoonotic diseases like the
recent Ebola epidemic. Preserving natural forests and their biodiversity is para-
mount, given their crucial role in storing carbon and mitigating climate change.
Educating people about the significance of conserving existing forests and conserv-
ing biodiversity is imperative, especially in the face of unprecedented environmen-
tal threats. Recognizing the pivotal role of forests in maintaining biodiversity should
be a priority for society. This understanding can catalyze efforts towards biodiver-
sity conservation. Concerted action is needed to conserve and enhance biodiversity
and acknowledge the critical importance of forests and biodiversity in ecological
balance and survival. Halting the current trend of land conversion and ensuring the
protection and expansion of forested areas are crucial steps in reversing the loss of
forests and biodiversity. In light of scientific warnings about the ongoing mass
extinction event compounded by climate change, collaborative efforts beyond bor-
ders are essential to safeguarding our remaining natural heritage and restoring eco-
logical equilibrium. Building upon existing mitigation measures and innovating
new strategies are critical to ensuring sustainable development and securing a viable
future for future generations. We can only address the urgent challenges confronting
our forests and biodiversity through such collective endeavors and pave the way for
a sustainable tomorrow.
References
Arneth A, Olsson L, Cowie A, Erb KH, Hurlbert M, Kurz WA, Mirzabaev A, Rounsevell
MDA (2021) Restoring degraded land. Annu Rev Env Resour. https://doi.org/10.1146/
annurev-environ-012320-054809
Axelsson R, Angelstam P, Elbakidze M, Stryamets N, Johansson K-E (2011) Sustainable devel-
opment and sustainability: Landscape approach as a practical interpretation of principles and
implementation concepts. J Landsc Ecol 4(3):5–30
Batdorf J (2023) Indigenous groups and the vital role they play in biodiversity preservation. J
Biodivers Biopros Dev 9:27
Bogardi JJ, Dudgeon D, Lawford R, Flinkerbusch E, Meyn A, Pahl-Wostl C et al (2012) Water
security for a planet under pressure: interconnected challenges of a changing world call
for sustainable solutions. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 4:35–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cosust.2011.12.002
Börner J, Schulz D, Wunder S, Pfaff A (2020) The effectiveness of forest conservation policies and
programs. Ann Rev Resour Econ 12(1):45–64
Brockerhoff EG, Barbaro L, Castagneyrol B et al (2017) Forest biodiversity, ecosystem function-
ing and the provision of ecosystem services. Biodivers Conserv 26:3005–3035. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10531-017-1453-2
Burley J (2002) Forest biological diversity: an overview. UNASYLVA-FAO, pp. 3–9
Caro T, Rowe Z, Berger J, Wholey P, Dobson A (2022) An inconvenient misconception: climate
change is not the principal driver of biodiversity loss. Conserv Lett 15(3):e12868
Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR, Dirzo R (2017) Biological annihilation via the ongoing sixth mass
extinction signaled by vertebrate population losses and declines. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
114(30):E6089. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1704949114
Craig LS, Olden JD, Arthington AH, Entrekin S, Hawkins CP, Kelly JJ et al (2017) Meeting the
challenge of interacting threats in freshwater ecosystems: a call to scientists and managers.
Elem Sci Anth 5:72
Dinerstein E, Joshi AR, Vynne C, Lee AT, Pharand-Deschênes F, França M et al (2020) A “Global
Safety Net” to reverse biodiversity loss and stabilize Earth’s climate. Sci Adv 6(36):eabb2824
Doherty TS, Glen AS, Nimmo DG, Ritchie EG, Dickman CR (2016) Invasive predators and global
biodiversity loss. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113:11261–11265
Edwards DP, Cerullo GR, Chomba S, Worthington TA, Balmford AP, Chazdon RL, Harrison RD
(2021) Upscaling tropical restoration to deliver environmental benefits and socially equitable
outcomes. Curr Biol 31(19):PR1326-R1341
Field R, Hawkins BA, Cornell HV, Currie DJ, Diniz Filho J, Alexandre F et al (2009) Spatial
species-richness gradients across scales: a meta-analysis. J Biogeogr 36(1):132–147. https://
doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2008.01963.x
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2018) Terms and definitions—FRA 2020. Forest
Resources Assessment Working Paper 188. Rome. Retrieved from https://www.fao.org/3/
I8661EN/i8661en.pdf
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2020) Global forest resources assessment 2020—main
report. FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9825en
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2022) The State of the World’s Forests 2022. In: Forest
pathways for green recovery and building inclusive, resilient and sustainable economies.
FAO, Rome
Gaston KJ (2000) Global biodiversity. Nature 405(6783):220–227. https://doi.
org/10.1038/35012228
Geary WL, Nimmo DG, Doherty TS, Ritchie EG, Tulloch AIT (2019) Threat webs: reframing the
co-occurrence and interactions of threats to biodiversity. J Appl Ecol 56(8):1992–1997. https://
doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13427
Geschke A, James S, Bennett AF, Nimmo DG (2018) Compact cities or sprawling suburbs?
Optimising the distribution of people in cities to maximise species diversity. J Appl Ecol
55(5):2320–2331
Guo K, Wang B, Niu X (2023) A review of research on forest ecosystem quality assessment and
prediction methods. Forests 14(2):317. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14020317
Hansen MC, Stehman SV, Potapov PV (2010) Quantification of global forest cover loss. Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A 107:8650–8655. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0912668107
Hill SLL, Arnell A, Maney C, Butchart SHM, Hilton-Taylor C, Ciciarelli C et al (2019) Measuring
forest biodiversity status and changes globally. Front For Glob Change 2:70. https://doi.
org/10.3389/ffgc.2019.00070
Huang B, Wang Z, Huang J, Li X, Zhu H, Wen Q, Xu L-A (2022) Population genetic structure
analysis reveals significant genetic differentiation of the endemic species Camellia chekiango-
leosa Hu with a Narrow Geographic Range. Forests 13:234
Indian State of Forest Report (ISFR) (2021) Forest survey of India. (Ministry of Environment
Forest and Climate Change)
Jantz P, Goetz S, Laporte N (2014) Carbon stock corridors to mitigate climate change and pro-
mote biodiversity in the tropics. Nat Climate Change 4(2):138–142. https://doi.org/10.1038/
nclimate2105
Johnson CN, Balmford A, Brook BW, Buettel JC, Galetti M, Guangchun L, Wilmshurst JM (2017)
Biodiversity losses and conservation responses in the Anthropocene. Science 356:270–275.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aam9317
Keeley ATH, Basson G, Cameron DR, Heller NE, Huber PR, Schloss CA et al (2018) Making hab-
itat connectivity a reality. Conserv Biol 32(6):1221–1232. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13158
Kemppinen KMS, Collins PM, Hole DG, Wolf C, Ripple WJ, Gerber LR (2020) Global refores-
tation and biodiversity conservation. Conserv Biol 34(5):1221–1228. https://doi.org/10.1111/
cobi.13478
Kinho J, Suhartati S, Husna H, Tuheteru FD, Arini DID, Lawasi MA, Ura R, Prayudyaningsih R,
Yulianti Y, Subarudi S et al (2023) Conserving potential and endangered species of Pericopsis
mooniana Thwaites in Indonesia. Forests 14:437
Kohl M, Päivinen R (1996) Definition of a system of Nomenclature for mapping European forests
and for compiling a Pan-European Forest Information System. Space Applications Institute of
the Joint Research Centre and the European Forest Institute; Office for Official Publications of
the European Communities, Luxembourg
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021a) Impact of plant functional traits on infiltration
49(1):38–44
org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120191
Littlefield CE, Krosby M, Michalak JL, Lawler JJ (2019) Connectivity for species on the move:
supporting climate-driven range shifts. Front Ecol Environ 17(5):270–278. https://doi.
org/10.1002/fee.2043
Mauro L (2022) Environmental dynamics in a transition world. J Biodivers Biopros Dev 8:13
Maxwell SL, Fuller RA, Brooks TM, Watson JE (2016) Biodiversity: the ravages of guns, nets and
bulldozers. Nature 536(7615):143–145
McDonald RI, Güneralp B, Huang CW, Seto KC, You M (2018) Conservation priorities to protect
vertebrate endemics from global urban expansion. Biol Conserv 224:290–299
Mora C, Tittensor DP, Adl S, Simpson AG, Worm B (2011) How many species are there on Earth
and in the ocean? PLoS Biol 9(8):e1001127. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127
Naeem S, Chazdon R, Duffy JE, Prager C, Worm B (2016) Biodiversity and human well-being:
an essential link for sustainable development. Proc R Soc B 283:20162091. https://doi.
org/10.1098/rspb.2016.2091
Ota T, Lonn P, Mizoue N (2020) A country scale analysis revealed effective forest policy affect-
ing forest cover changes in Cambodia. Land Use Policy 95:Article 104597. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104597
Palita SK, Panda D (2021) Book chapter in biodiversity conservation, environmental challenges
and and sustainable livelihood. Daya Publishing House, Darya Ganj, New Delhi, pp 3–25
Assess 194(50). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09721-8
Rawat U, Agarwal N (2015) Biodiversity: concept, threats and conservation. Environ Conserv J
16(3):19–28. https://doi.org/10.36953/ECJ.2015.16303
Reisman-Berman O, Keasar T, Tel-Zur N (2019) Native and non-native species for dryland affor-
estation: bridging ecosystem integrity and livelihood support. Ann For Sci 76(4):114. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s13595-019-0903-2
Robalino J, Herrera LD (2010) Trade and deforestation: a literature review, WTO Staff
Working Paper, No. ERSD-2010-04. World Trade Organization (WTO), Geneva. https://doi.
org/10.30875/a6679776-en
Sayer J, Cassman KG (2013) Agricultural innovation to protect the environment. Proc Natl Acad
Sci 110(21):8345–8348. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1208054110
Scullion JJ, Vogt KA, Drahota B, Winkler-Schor S, Lyons M (2019) Conserving the last great for-
ests: a meta-analysis review of the drivers of intact forest loss and the strategies and policies to
save them. Front For Glob Change 2:62. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2019.00062
tion of endangered Pinus gerardiana. Int J Chem Studies 7(1):1635–1638
productivity of Acacia auriculiformis under CO2-enriched environment. Ind Crop Prod
210:118186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2024.118186
org/10.1007/s13205-017-0690-0
Smith P, Calvin K, Nkem J, Campbell D, Cherubini F, Grassi G et al (2020) Which practices co-
deliver food security, climate change mitigation and adaptation, and combat land degradation
and desertification? Glob Chang Biol 26(3):1532–1575
Strassburg BB, Iribarrem A, Beyer HL, Cordeiro CL, Crouzeilles R, Jakovac CC et al (2020)
Global priority areas for ecosystem restoration. Nature 586(7831):724–729
Tulloch AI, Gordon A, Runge CA, Rhodes JR (2019) Integrating spatially realistic infrastructure
impacts into conservation planning to inform strategic environmental assessment. Conserv Lett
12(4):e12648
UNEP (2019) Emissions Gap Report 2019. UNEP—UN Environment Programme. http://www.
unep.org/resources/emissions-gap-repor t-2019
Wang W, Feng C, Liu F, Li J (2020) Biodiversity conservation in China: a review of recent studies
and practices. Environ Sci Ecotechnol 2:100025
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) (n.d.). Retrieved from https://wwf.panda.org/discover/
our_focus/forests_practice/importance_forests/
Xofis P, Kefalas G, Poirazidis K (2023) Biodiversity and conservation of forests. Forests 14:1871.
https://doi.org/10.3390/f14091871
Zhou P, Zhou Q, Dong F, Shen X, Li Y (2022) Study on the genetic variation of Triadica sebifera
(Linnaeus) small populations based on SSR markers. Forests 13:1330
Chapter 30
Mangrove Forest Ecosystem: Services,
Conservation, Restoration and Carbon
Finance
Subhajit Chanda
Abstract Mangrove forests are one of the most complex forest ecosystems on
earth. Focusing on the unique vegetation composition of mangrove ecosystems,
these forests are classified as true mangroves, riveting attention to their distinct
ecological significance. The world has 64 mangrove species distributed throughout
coastal ecosystems. 18.75% of the total mangrove species have been considered
‘threatened’ by the IUCN. 14.93% of the world’s 2.1 million km of coastline is
protected by mangrove ecosystems, which sequester approximately 1% of the car-
bon in terrestrial ecosystems. Mangrove forest ecosystems also provide habitat to
many important fauna and multiple ecosystem services to coastal communities.
Mangrove ecosystems are situated in such a complex biome between the terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems that 14% of the carbon considered blue carbon is stored
within the mangrove ecosystems. Multiple climatic, edaphic, and hydrological con-
ditions are behind the complex mangrove ecosystems. Due to various factors, man-
grove ecosystems have been significantly degraded in the past two decades.
However, the conservation efforts of multiple organizations at the global level have
potentially reduced the degradation. Other threats to these forest biomes include
anthropogenic disturbances, indirect impacts of climate change, etc. Thus, the con-
servation and restoration of mangrove forests are major challenges to mitigating the
adverse effects of climate change in the riverine, coastal, deltaic, and estuarine
zones where these forests exist. Conservation and restoration of the aquatic and ter-
restrial components of mangrove ecosystems through the implementation of activi-
ties, namely afforestation, reforestation, and revegetation (ARR), wetland restoration
and conservation (WRC), and REDD+ are important tools for the protection of
mangrove forest ecosystems.
Keywords Mangrove ecosystem · Mangrove vegetation · Ecosystem services ·

Carbon sequestration · Blue carbon · REDD · ARR · Emission reduction ·
Carbon credits
S. Chanda (*)
The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi, Delhi, India
Ltd. 2024
626 S. Chanda
30.1 Introduction
Forest ecosystems, specifically mangroves composed of woody halophytes, are

dynamic. This dynamic nature of the mangrove ecosystem makes it complex and
vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Mangrove ecosystems are stated as
true ecotones (Alongi 2012) where vegetation compositions are driven by multiple
edaphic and hydrological factors such as soil surface elevation change, accretion
rates, and soil subsurface change across salinity gradient (Howard et al. 2020). The
interplay between extreme trait plasticity and specialized adaptations characterizes
mangroves, which, along with intertidal environments, form biocomplexity (Feller
et al. 2010), the distinguishable feature of mangrove ecosystems (Kumar et al.
2020a, b; Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c; Manoj et al. 2021).
A detailed discussion of ecosystem characteristics was set forth by several works
of E. Odum (Odum and Barrett 1971) and H.T. Odum (Odum 1971). Mangroves are
natural systems that are open systems with the exchange of energy and matter (Lugo
and Snedaker 1974) between terrestrial and coastal ecosystems (Ellison 2019).
Mangrove forest structure is characterized by “zones” reflecting different tree spe-
cies preferences to inundation frequency depending on the elevation and microto-
pography (Watson 1928; Ellison 2009; Friess and Watson 2017), in the pattern of
perpendicular to the shoreline or river mouth seaward margins (Ellison 2019).
Zonation of the mangrove ecosystem is a dominant theme in the vast available
literature on mangroves (Frith 1977; Rollet 1981). Mangrovezonationshave been
studied under multiple studies conducted over USA (Lugo and Snedaker 1974),
Australia (Elsol and Saenger 1983), Malaysia (Watson 1928), East Africa (Macnae
1968), West Africa (Thomson 1946), Papua New Guinea (Johnstone 1983),
Indonesia (Prawiroatmodjo et al. 1985), India (Sidhu 1963), Burma (Stamp 1925),
and Panama (Rabinowitz 1978a, b, c). The diversity of mangrove ecosystems, each
having specific structure and function characteristics, is a potential result of differ-
ent geomorphological settings, each in combination with different ecological types
(Twilley 1995).
As per Global Mangrove Watch (GMW) v3.0 data, sixty-four (64) species of
mangroves are distributed over 147,358.99 km2 around the globe. While the species
richness of trees is a significant biodiversity component of mangrove ecosystems
(Twilley et al. 1996), mangrove ecosystems also support a wide range of marine and
estuarine food webs (Robertson and Duke 1990). The biodiversity and complex
ecosystem of the mangroves thus have critical roles at all levels of the ecosystem
service hierarchy (Mace et al. 2012).
Vegh et al. (2014) categorized ecosystem services provided by mangroves into
seven distinct categories (i.e., fisheries, fuelwood & timber, coastal protection, cli-
mate protection/gas regulation i.e. carbon sequestration, biodiversity, filtration, and
tourism) based on four valuation methods of region-specific valuation studies across
Africa, America, Asia, Pacific, and Global levels.
The effects of climate change, directly or indirectly through anthropogenic
impacts, have received much attention of late mainly because mangrove habitat
30 Mangrove Forest Ecosystem: Services, Conservation, Restoration and Carbon… 627
degradation and deforestation are occurring at a rate of 1–2% per year (Alongi
2002; Gupta and Singh 2017; Joshi and Singh 2020; Kumar et al. 2020a, b; Nautiyal
et al. 2022); that is why mangrove habitat has decreased by 5245.24 km2 within
1996–2020 (Bunting et al. 2022). The major role in the present scenario includes
mangroves as a nature-based solution being considered as a part of Agriculture,
Forestry, and Other Land-Use or AFLOU (Smith et al. 2014) as well as Forest, Land
and Agriculture or, known as SBTiFLAG (Moreno 2022) to reduce and remove
GHG emission from the atmosphere. Being more specific, global carbon markets
have observed that at a global scale, mangrove ecosystems alone store around 6.4
billion tons of carbon (Lecerf et al. 2021). As per a study of Zeng et al. (2021),
the climate mitigation potential of mangrove ecosystems in total is
26,164,000 ± 4,664,000 tCO2e/year, valued at 1,188,889,000 ± 241,216,000 USD/
year in a global scale. Hence, mangrove ecosystems have an important role in
mitigating climate change impacts.
In 2015, following the UNFCCC COP 21 in Paris, 70% of the participating coun-
tries acknowledged the climate change vulnerability of coastal and marine ecosys-
tems, the role of communities for ocean-based solutions along with marine
renewable energy and shipping within the scope of ‘The Paris Agreement’ (Gallo
et al. 2017; Lecerf et al. 2021). However, the mangrove vegetation is declining rap-
idly while the habitat change is not uniform across the range. The most tremendous
mangrove ecosystem losses have occurred in Southeast Asia, which lost 2457 km2
(4.8%) of mangroves from 1996 to 2020, where the driver of degradation and defor-
estation was commodities development, particularly aquaculture (Bunting et al.
2022). North and Central America and the Caribbean also observed significant man-
grove loss due to natural factors such as erosion and extreme meteorological events,
of which cyclones were major drivers behind total losses of 1122 km2 (4.7%)
(Goldberg et al. 2020).
To conserve mangrove ecosystems as a part of blue carbon projects, countries
that participated in the Paris Agreement 2015 set forth new NDCs. Significant
improvements in policy and project implementation across the globe include adding
new mangrove habitats and restoring degraded ecosystems. Countries talk about
“forests” within the context of nature-based solutions for mitigation without listing
specific activities for individual forest types. Several methodologies, such as
UNFCCC and voluntary markets, are boosting the implementation of blue carbon
projects in its overall forestry-related activities, including Afforestation/
Reforestation (A/R) or Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation of
Forests (REDD+) (Herr and Landis 2016).
30.2 Mangrove Vegetation
According to the oldest fossil records, mangroves emerged shortly after the emer-
gence of flowering plants. (Dolianiti 1955) explained the earliest records of Nypa in
the late Cretaceous period to the early Palaeocene era. Based on evolutionary
628 S. Chanda
history (Saenger 1998) compiled four broad views suggesting the geographical cen-
ter of origin and dispersal of mangrove flora. The four of the origins and dispersal
are described in Table 30.1.
In the geographic literature, mangrove, mangrove vegetation, mangrove forest,
mangrove forest trees, and mangle are synonyms that describe the trees, plants, and
shrubs in and around the tropics (Hamilton and Hamilton 2020). In general, many
common traits are exhibited in many species that are referred to as mangroves, such
as (a) Physical adaptations to cope with the waterlogged and anaerobic environ-
ment, (b) Adaptive mechanism to thrive in highly saline water and soils, (c) Presence
of vivipary/crypto-vivipary embryonic structure, (d) geographic fidelity, and (e)
Taxonomic isolation form terrestrial relatives (Hamilton and Hamilton 2020).
“Mangrove forests” often need to be taxonomically isolated from their terrestrial
cousins or at least dominate the aquatic environment instead of the terrestrial envi-
ronment to be grouped into ‘True Mangroves’. When a tree or a shrub species is
present in saltwater along with the terrestrial environment but has a dominant pres-
ence in the terrestrial environment, they are termed as ‘Mangrove Associates’
“(Lugo and Snedaker 1974; Tomlinson 2016; Hamilton and Hamilton 2020).”
Similarly, mangroves have been categorized and designated in different terms, such
as ‘exclusive mangroves’ and ‘non-exclusive mangroves’ (Saenger et al. 1983;
Jayatissa et al. 2002).
Species composition analysis (Singh 2012) shows that mangroves occur in two
distinct biogeographically regions, namely, (a) The Indo-west Pacific: including
Asia, Austria, Oceania, and the Eastern coast of Africa, and (b) The Atlantics:
Caribbean East Pacific region which covers the Americas and Western coast
of Africa.
Water availability plays a vital role in fulfilling water requirements and maintain-
ing salinity. Mangroves develop unique root structures as they are covered with tidal
water for at least two-quarters of a day. Requirements such as brackish water or
saline conditions and a wide tidal range are required to establish new mangrove
plantations and established mangrove vegetation (Dhargalkar et al. 2014). A few of
the morphological adaptations that help the mangroves withstand changes in
hydrography are described in Table 30.2.
Land suitability criteria suggest that >20.01–30% site salinity is very suitable for
mangrove plantation, 20–10% land salinity falls inappropriate, and below it are
Table 30.1 Origin and dispersal of mangroves

Origin Dispersal References
(a) Eastern Eastward dispersal; Across the Pacific through the Muller and Caratini
Tethys Sea Panama gap into the Atlantic Ocean Eastwards (1977)
(b) Eastern North-West dispersal; the Atlantic and then through Specht (1981),
Tethys Sea Panama gap into the Eastern Pacific Rico-Gray (1993)
(c) Western Southward dispersal; through Africa to Eastern Tethys Duke (1995)
Tethys Sea sea
(d) Central Two-way dispersal Bousquet-Melou
Tethys Sea (1996)
Table 30.2 Morphological Adaptations of Root Systems in Different Genera of Mangroves

Morphological adaptations of the root system
Genera of mangroves to flooding
Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Avicennia Stilt roots
(sporadically)
Avicennia, Sonneratia, Laguncularia Pneumatophores
(facultative)
Bruguiera and Ceriops, Lumnitzera, Root knees
Xylocarpus
Xylocarpus Plank roots
Pelliciera Fluted buttresses
Aegiceras, Aegialitis, Kandelia Without special aerial roots
unsuitable land salinity levels for mangrove plantation as per the study conducted
by Ruzanna et al. (2019). Table 30.3 shows the mangrove species’ salinity tolerance
based on Reef and Lovelock’s analysis (2015).
Large-scale mangrove replacement by aquaculture and fisheries is a phenome-
non that causes distinct mangrove habitat losses in some countries.
Heritierafomesknown as ‘Sundari’ an important species and a distinct mangrove
signifying the Sundarbans becoming increasingly confined in its distribution to the
Eastern Sundarbans in Bangladesh as a result of tectonic changes in combination
with anthropological impacts (Blasco et al. 1996). In the Indian subcontinent, spe-
cifically in the Bay of Bengal, cyclone-induced saltwater intrusion raises salinity,
which in turn causes mangrove degradation. Global reforestation initiatives affect
mangrove variety and abundance; however, they differ in scope.
30.3 Mangrove Ecosystem Services
To fulfill and sustain human life, natural ecosystems and species go through condi-
tions and processes, which in term is called ‘Ecosystem Services’ (Daily 1997).
King (1997) first introduced the conceptualization and valuation of ecosystem
services.
As per the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), the ecosystem services
have been identified into four major categories. Such as,
(a) Provisioning Services of Mangroves/Mangrove Forests: Resources from
mangrove ecosystems include food (e.g., fish, crabs), non-timber forest prod-
ucts, and timber for coastal communities, supporting livelihoods through suste-
nance and construction materials. Other than that, commercial dependencies
such as firewood, honey, wax, etc., can be considered valuable. These encircle
the provisioning services of mangroves. According to Wells and Ravilious
(2006), the provisioning of ecosystem services includes Subsistence and
630 S. Chanda
Table 30.3 Salinity tolerance of different family of Mangroves

Family Genus Species Salinity tolerance
Palmae Nypa fruticans Low
Phoenix paludosa Mid
Plumbaginaceae Aegialitis annulata High
rotundifolia High
Myrsinaceae Aegiceras Corniculatum Mid
floridum N/A
Pellicieraceae Pelliciera rhizophorae Low
Acanthaceae Acanthus ebracteatus N/A
ilicifolius Low
Avicenniaceae Avicennia alba Mid
bicolor High
geminans High
integra Mid
marina High
officinalis High
rumphiana Mid
schaueriana N/A
Euphorbiaceae Excoecaria agallocha Low
indica N/A
Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera cylindrica Low
exaristata High
gymnorrhiza Mid
hainesii N/A
parviflora Mid
sexangula Low
Ceriops australis High
decandra Low
tagal Mid
Kandelia candel Mid
Rhizophora apiculata Mid
mangle High
mucronata Low
racemosa Low
samoensis Mid
stylosa High
Sterculiaceae Heriteria fomes Low
globosa N/A
littoralis Mid
Combretaceae Conocarpus erectus Mid
Laguncularia racemosa Mid
Lumnitzera littorea High
racemosa High
(continued)

Family Genus Species Salinity tolerance
Lythraceae Sonneratia alba Mid
apetala Low
caseolaris Low
griffithii N/A
lanceolata Low
ovata N/A
Myrtaceae Osbornia octodonta High
Meliaceae Xylocarpus granatum Low
mekongensis Mid
c ommercial fisheries, Aquaculture, Honey, Fuelwood, Building materials, and

Traditional medicines.
• Subsistence and Commercial Fisheries: Hutchinson et al. (2014) found
that fish productivity is high in high-productivity mangrove areas, where
there is high freshwater input from rivers and rainfall and mangroves are in
good condition. Fishing is an essential livelihood. It employs 38.4 million
people globally, of whom 90% are used in small-scale fisheries (FAO 2012).
The leaves and woody matter of the mangroves form important components
that support capture fisheries along with the marine food chain (Hutchison
et al. 2014). Fish productivity is also enhanced by incoming nutrients from
rivers and other adjacent ecosystems that support the mangroves (McKinnon
et al. 2002). For the advantages, many marine species use mangroves for
protection in their early stages of life. One in many examples shows that
West African mangrove forests provide oyster fisheries, which is an essential
safety net to solve food scarcities in impoverished coastal communities (Lau
and Scales 2016). In India, the inland and marine fish species found in man-
grove forests include states such as Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Kerala, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamilnadu, West Bengal, Andaman and
Nicobar Islands (Nandan et al. 2021). The mangrove-dependent marine fish
catch (Anneboina and Kumar 2017; CMFRI 2018; Nandan et al. 2021) in
India is explained in the map (Fig. 30.1).
• Timber and Fuelwood: Even recently, Mangrove forests have been the
source of timber and charcoal for local use (Walters et al. 2008) and com-
mercial forestry (Friess 2016). Mangrove forest species such as the genus
Rhizophora are highly valued as firewood due to their high calorific value
(Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2000). Rhizophora mucronata, Ceriops tagal, and
Bruguiera gymnorrhizahas have been observed as the major resources for
house construction and fuel wood. Sonneratia alba and Xylocarpus grana-
tum were reported to be useful for boat building in Kenya. A study con-
ducted by Hussain and Badola (2010) revealed that the mangroves in the
Bhitarkanika Conservation area along the Indian Eastern coast met 14.2% of
the fuel needs of 324 households from 36 villages.
632 S. Chanda
Fig. 30.1 State-wise Total Mangrove Dependent Fish Catch (tonnes) in India, 2018
• Non-Timber Forest Produces: Local communities extract various non-

timber forest products, such as food, honey, wax, animal feed, medicine,
etc., from the mangrove forests (Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2000; Walters et al.
2008). Krishnamurthy (1990) and Datta et al. (2011) focus on mangroves as
the source of honey and wax as an essential commercial industry in the local
communities of Sundarbans, India. Table 30.4 shows some of the uses of
mangroves in Orissa, India, as provisioning services (Pattanaik et al. 2008)
(b) Regulating and Supporting Services of Mangrove Forests: The regulating
and supporting services in mangrove forests are entangled in one thread, which
is why they can be discussed together or interchangeably. As per De Groot
(1992), the regulating services include climate and gaseous regulation, preven-
tion of disturbances, water supply and regulation, formation and nutrient regu-
lation in soils, pollination, waste treatment, and biological control in a broad
way. Some of the regulating and supporting ecosystem services provided by the
mangrove ecosystem are as follows,
• Disturbance Prevention: Mangrove vegetation is a buffer to mitigate and/
or minimize natural hazards such as cyclones, storms, floods, etc. Mangrove
forests reduce the hydrodynamic force due to their unique root systems, pro-
ducing friction and blocking incoming high-velocity waves. Numerous stud-
ies are focused on quantifying the processes and degree of attenuation under
Table 30.4 Utilization and Different Ethnomedicinal Properties of Mangrove species

Species Uses
Acanthus ilicifolius L. Aphrodisiac, Asthma, Diabetes, Rheumatism,
Snakebite
Acrostichum aureum L. Applied on wounds & Boils, Rheumatism, Dried fonds
as thatching material
Aegialitis rotundifoliaRoxb. Timber, Construction, Honey Collection
Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco Timber for furniture making and boats, Asthma,
Diabetes, Leaves as Fish Poison
Aglaia cucullattaPellegrin Timber
Avicennia alba Bl. Antifertility, Skin Diseases, Ulcers, Contraceptive,
Fodder, Fuelwood
Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh Astringent, Small Pox, Fodder, Fuelwood, Timber,
Honey Collection
Avicennia officinalis L. Diuretic, Leprosy, Relieving Ulcers, Aphrodisiac
Bruguiera cylindrical (L.) Bl. Timber, Fuelwood, Hepatitis, Tannin
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk. Hypocotyls eaten as vegetable, Fodder, Wood for
fishing boat, Firewood
Bruguiera parviflora (Roxb.) Wight Firewood, Timber, Wood for Poles, Fishing Traps and
&Arn. Ex Griff Fishing Stakes
Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir. Timber, Firewood, Tannin, Tender leaves and
hypocotyls are consumed as vegetables
Ceriops decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou. Timber, Malaria, Fruit paste used against ulcers,
Fuelwood, Honey Collection
Ceriops tagal (Perr.) Robins Purgative, stopshemorrhages, Leprosy, Charcoal,
Shoot decoction for Malaria, Fuelwood
Excoeria agallocha L. Milky Latex used against paralysis
Finlaysonia obovata Wall. Leaves as Salad, Asthma
Heritiera fomes Buch.-Ham. Making Poles, Boat Building, Timber for Construction
Heritiera littoralis Dryand ex Ait. Wood for Boats, Canoes, and Ships, Furniture,
Diarrohea, Firewood, Timber
Kandelia candel (L.) Druce Charcoal, Diabetes, Firewood, Fodder, Dye used to
enhance durability of fishing nets
Lumnitze raracemosa Willd. Asthma, Antifertility, Snakebite
Myriostachya wightiana (Nees ex Fodder
Steud.) Hook.f.
Nypa fruticans Wurmb. Beverage, Diabetes, Edible Fruits, Thatching Material,
Snakebite
Pandanus Fascicularis Lam. Used in Perfumes, Mats & Baskets
Phoenix paludosa Roxb. Edible Fruits, Fencing, Thatching Material
Rhizophora apiculata Bl. Astringent for Diarrhoea, Nausea, Skin Diseases,
Fodder, Tannin, Fuelwood
Rhizophora mucronata Lamk. Hepatitis, Diabetes, Firewood, Tannin
Sonneratia alba J. Smith Vegetable, Skin disorders, Foddder, Timber, and
Fuelwood
Sonneratia apetala Buch.-Ham. Edible Fruits, Timber, Fuelwood, Fodder
(continued)
634 S. Chanda

Species Uses
Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engler Leaf decoction as Diarrohea medicine, vegetable, and
fuelwood
Thespasia populnea (L.) Soland ex Fodder, Dermatitis, Scabies and Stomach ailments
Correa
Xylocarpus granatum Koenig Timber, Firewood, Malaria & Insect bite
Xylocarpus mekongensis Pierre Timber and Tannin
Xylocarpus miluccensis (Lamk.) Firewood, Malaria Fever, Tannin
different hydrodynamic and meteorological conditions (Barbier 2016;

Friess 2016).
• Control of Erosion and Accretion: Influence on the sediment budget is an
essential feature of mangrove vegetation. The morphodynamic response of
the shoreline and the role of the mangrove have a significant relationship and
are depicted in the work by Woodroffe (1992). Shoreline progression
depends on the load of fine-grained and clay-dominant particles. This sedi-
mentation process influences the characteristics of the soil characteristics
(e.g., soil formation), groundwater reach (i.e., water supply and regulation),
and salinity of the substrate, which finally determines the mangrove species
distribution and zonation (Chaudhuri et al. 2019). Mangrove vegetation-
dominated shorelines are remarkable sediment sinks (Chaudhuri et al. 2019)
characterized by the long-term import of sediments underlining the man-
grove forests and coastal plains. The sediments generated within the man-
grove forest ecosystem are termed’ Authocthonous’; the incoming sediments
from tidal current and drift are known as ‘Allochthonous’. In many cases
mangrove forest floor underlined by organic peat, originated from mangrove
root systems.
(c) Cultural Services and Significance of Mangrove Forests: MEA (2005)
explained a range of tangible and intangible social benefits such as tourism,
recreational, spiritual and aesthetic values, which are described as the cultural
services provided by ecosystems. Only a few contemporary studies show that
ecosystems provide cultural services associated with mangroves (James et al.
2013; Bimrah et al. 2022). Ecotourism has its value as a cultural ecosystem
service where the recreational and aesthetic value of the mangroves are assessed.
Many studies conducted by authors such as Mandal et al. (2013), Banerjee and
Shiva (2014), and Pathy (2018) have shown the potential ecotourism signifi-
cance of mangrove forests as a cultural value.
30.4 Climate Change Impacts and Mangrove Vegetation
The IPCC attributed global warming and the impacts of climate change on natural
and human systems under warming scenarios in Representative Concentration
Pathways (RCPs) and Shared Socio-economic Pathways (SSPs) above pre-industrial
levels. IPCC (2018) assessed the impacts of climate change under warming sce-
narios of 1.5 °C and 2 °C above pre-industrial levels. This has drawn a lot of atten-
tion to the anthropogenic effects on mangroves. Besides providing critical habitat
for organisms occupying the land-water interface, mangroves sequester five times
more carbon than an upland tropical forest (Siikamäki et al. 2012). Understanding
large-scale mangrove distribution response to climate change is crucial for ecosys-
tem services dependent on diversity and distribution. Friess et al. (2022) listed sev-
eral climate change stressors, which are CO2 enrichment, temperature increases,
sea-level rise, precipitation increase, precipitation decrease, increased cyclone fre-
quency & intensity, increase in hydrodynamic energy, and changes in climatic oscil-
lations. Table 30.5 explains the impacts of climate change on mangrove biomass
and the extent as Friess et al. (2022) described.
These climate change stressors also directly impact the carbon sequestration
mechanism and wetland restoration projects. Such stressors are,
• Sea-Level Rise: The world will experience a level rise at rates between 0.36 m
to 0.87 m by 2100 if the temperature rises by 2 °C, as per IPCC (2018). These
excessive rates of sea-level rise will be one of the major climate change factors
that affect the survival of mangroves over a long period (Saintilan et al. 2020).
Mangroves face vulnerability to rising sea levels, leading to inundation stress
and lateral erosion. Adaptation mechanisms (e.g., Physical, Chemical, and
Biological)exist but face challenges with accelerated rise (Friess et al. 2022). But
mangrove mortality from sea-level rise causes mangrove area loss termed
‘coastal retreat’ (Giri et al. 2011). Coastal retreat is a major indicator of risks
associated with sea-level rise (Dwarakish et al. 2009; Yin et al. 2012; Ellison
2015). Mangrove seaward retreat has been attributed to relative sea-level rise on
a local scale (Gilman et al. 2007) using spatial change analysis. Hence, man-
grove seaward retreat is used as an indicator to determine mangrove area sensi-
tivity (Ellison 2015). If the net vertical accretion in the mudflats and coasts of
mangrove forests keeps up with the sea-level rise, it can be well adapted to net
change in the sea-level rise. However, when the net vertical accretion cannot
keep up, the adaptive strategy is through inland migration. Inland migration
depends on topography and available areas (Faraco et al. 2010). Effective, sus-
tainable management promotes mangrove resilience (Field and Barros 2014).
Relative sea-level rise causes the tidal range to shift upward, which makes man-
grove forests vulnerable to many factors, such as the relocation of intertidal habi-
tats in microtidal areas compared to macrotidal areas (Ellison 2015).
Along with the impact of sea-level rise due to climate change, mangrove forests
are vulnerable to other stressors (Gupta et al. 2019; Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c; Singh
636 S. Chanda
Table 30.5 Climate change impacts on Mangrove species

Climate change Expected impacts
stress factor Vegetation biomass Areal extent
CO2 enrichment • Increased growth & • Increased competition with
productivity salt marsh plants
Increased • Increased growth and • Increased extent at latitudinal
temperature productivity range limits, replacing salt
• Reduced growth in arid areas marshes
• Reduced extent in arid areas
Sea-level rise • Reduced growth in intertidal • Reduced extent
(SLR) zones • Landward migration
• Increased growth in upper in locations with no barriers
inter-tidal zones
Increased • Increased plant growth in • Decrease in area due to
precipitation response to freshwater input, scouring, sediment deposition
salinity reduction, and nutrients and smothering during floods
Decreased • Reduced growth and • Decrease in area in arid
precipitation productivity regions
Increased cyclone • Reduced aboveground biomass • Decrease in area where
frequency & and tree height cyclones lead to large-scale
intensity mortality
Increased wave • Single plant mortality, reduced • Decrease in area due to
energy recruitment erosion
Climate change • Reduced growth due to • Decrease in area due to
oscillations physiological stress dieback
• Decreased productivity from
mechanical damage, winds, and
inundation
• Increased productivity from
nutrient input from floodwaters in
arid estuaries
2021; Singh et al. 2023; Devi et al. 2023). All the vulnerabilities(Fig. 30.2) can be
scoped by dividing them into dimensions, then breaking down dimensions into
components and measuring them using predictive studies.
30.5 Carbon Sequestration in Mangrove Forests
‘Carbon Sequestration’ describes natural and deliberate processes by which carbon

dioxide (CO2) is removed from the atmosphere or diverted from sources of emission
and stored in terrestrial ocean ecosystems, along with geological formations (Eric
et al. 2008). The world depends on fossil fuels in one way or another, and this
increase in atmospheric CO2 is unavoidable. As per the Global Carbon Project,
2009, the combination of fossil fuel and land use change contributes to the emission
of 8.8 ± 0.86 GtC per year, whereas atmospheric growth and sequestration by
Fig. 30.2 Vulnerability scoping diagram of mangrove ecosystem (Derived from the work of
Ellison (2015))
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems together accounted for 8.8 ± 1.12 GtC per year
(Ray et al. 2011). Global terrestrial carbon sequestrated in the forests ranges from
60–70%, of which 70% is stored in soil (Schimel 1995). Tropical forests process six
times more carbon because of anthropogenic emissions (Ray et al. 2011). The
global climate change process could be altered by employing changes in carbon
dynamics in tropical forests with a 50% contribution to gross primary production
(GPP) (Grace et al. 2001) in the terrestrial systems. As mangroves occur in both
tropics and sub-tropics, there is a difference in carbon stock per region. In the trop-
ics, it is 895 ± 90 MgC/ha; in the sub-tropics, it is 547 ± 66 MgC/ha (Sanders et al.
2016). Region-wise carbon stock in mangroves has been quantify by Kauffman and
Bhomia (2017) and Kandasamy et al. (2021). Alongi (2020) estimated organic car-
bon stocks of mangrove biomass (i.e., above ground and below ground) and soil
organic carbon up to 1 m depth.
Carbon stock within mangrove forests in biomass and soil is often termed as
‘Blue Carbon’ ecosystems along with salt marshes and seagrasses (Singh and Verma
638 S. Chanda
2013; Kumar et al. 2019; Sharma et al. 2019; Sharma and Singh 2021; Prakash et al.
2022; Phukon et al. 2022). Mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrasses are character-
ized by their large carbon storage capacity even in their mature stage, mainly within
sediments (Duarte et al. 2005). For this reason, carbon sequestration by mangroves
has gained national and international attention as a natural solution (Nbs)/tool
because it has high carbon sequestration and storage potential (Mcleod et al. 2011).
As per Alongi’s (2012) and Tillardat et al.’s (2018), carbon sequestration assessment
studies in mangroves revealed sequestration rates of about 168 ± 36 gC/m2/yr.
Mangrove forests, part terrestrial and aquatic, store more organic carbon unevenly
due to their unique land-water interaction and sedimentation processes (Duarte
et al. 2005). Carbon in mangrove forests is predominantly stored in waterlogged
sediments rather than biomass, so sudden carbon loss from factors, particularly fire,
is not associated (Taillardat et al. 2018). However, continuous sediment mixing by
bioturbation, organic carbon re-mineralization, and pore water discharge deteriorate
the soil organic carbon stocks in the sediments (Maher et al. 2017). However, the
soil/sediment organic carbon sequestrated in blue carbon ecosystems such as man-
groves can also directly be re-emitted into the atmosphere as CO2 and influence the
calcium carbonate cycling, making the carbon budget unclear (Macreadie et al.
2017). Estrada and Soares (2017) derived values of the rate of carbon sequestration
in mangroves for above-ground biomass consecutively 5.4 ± 2.6 tC/ha/yr., 4.5 ± 2.5
tC/ha/yr., and 2.9 ± 2.6 tC/ha/yr. based on past studies. Alongi (2020) has assessed
the carbon sequestration rate derived from soil accretion rates in the case of man-
groves. The average accretion rate derived from the carbon sequestration rate is
179.6 g Corg/m2/yr. and a median value of 103 g Corg/m2/yr. with rates deviat-
ing1–1722.2 g Corg/m2/yr.
Kandasamy et al. (2021) studied organic carbon sequestration in planted man-
groves (i.e., in stands of Avicennia marina) along the South-East coast in the Bay of
Bengal. Their study outcome suggests that, on average, tree biomass carbon is
36.75 Mg C/ha and soil carbon is 23.52 Mg C/ha in the planted Avicennia marina
plantations ranging in age group between 16 to 27.2 years. Gujarat is situated in the
West coast of India and has enormous plantations of mangroves, which is domi-
nated by Avicennia marina (Pandey and Pandey 2013). Their study suggests man-
grove plants, including recruits, sequester carbon of 31 tonne/ha in Kachchh,
12 tonne/ha in the Gulf of Kachchh, 7 tonne/ha in Saurashtra, and 18 tonne/ha in
South Gujarat. In mangrove plantations in Gujarat, the carbon stock has also been
calculated based on plant density, which is 36 tonnes/ha in dense mangrove planta-
tions. In moderately dense it is 19 tonnes/ha; and in sparse mangroves, it is 10 tonne/
ha, (Pandey and Pandey 2013). The high gross primary productivity (GPP) and net
primary productivity (NPP) make mangroves the most suitable choice regarding
issues related to their permanence.
The carbon assessments previously done by volume equations are constantly
upgraded by modeled biomass calculation methods, also termed ‘allometric equa-
tions’. Most allometric equations have been developed for single-stemmed man-
grove species but for multi-stemmed species such as Avicenniasp. And Excoecariasp
(Clough et al. 1997) equations are available too. Several authors have developed
allometric equations based on the availability of parameters for climatic and regional
conditions. Some of the equations are in Table 30.6 (based on the work of Rahman
et al. 2021).
30.6 GHG Removal or Carbon Finance Projects

in Mangroves
Most studies around the world have focused on the importance of coastal ecosys-
tems, including mangroves, mitigating climate change by acting as a carbon reser-
voir (Alongi et al. 2016). When the coastal ecosystems, including mangrove forest
ecosystems, are degraded, they fail to act as a carbon reservoir and contribute to
carbon emissions by releasing sequestrated carbon into the atmosphere (Alongi
et al. 2016). Globally, these coastal and mangrove forest ecosystems release between
0.15 and 1.02 billion tonnes of carbon into the atmosphere yearly for annual loss of
blue carbon ecosystems between 0.7% and 7% (Pendleton et al. 2012). Coastal
wetland projects are intended to mitigate climate change, which significantly affects
the blue carbon ecosystem and causes degradation (Brown and Murdiyarso 2014).
The international community became interested and began to evaluate how man-
grove forest ecosystems can be more effectively included within policy frameworks,
including carbon financing mechanisms. The carbon financing mechanisms include
categories such as UNFCCC mechanisms, Reducing Emissions from Deforestation
and Degradation of Forests (REDD+); Afforestation, Reforestation, and Revegetation
(ARR) and others (Herr et al. 2012).
Holloway and Giandomenico (2009) described reducing deforestation as the
most enormous cost-effective opportunity for immediate carbon emission reduc-
tion. The concept of REDD was within the Kyoto Protocol, which became formal in
2007 in Bali during COP 13. REDD+ creates economic value for stored carbon in
forest ecosystems, including mangrove forests. That is why IUCN, jointly with the
Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad), initiated Mangroves for
the Future (MFF) to promote investment in coastal ecosystem conversion to address
sustainable development in 2017. Governments want to enable communities that
depend on forests to manage them sustainably. Financial incentives and community
involvement are essential to reducing carbon emissions while promoting the regen-
eration of mangroves and seagrass. The Paris Agreement has sparked the emergence
of voluntary markets in response to the fall of compliance markets after the fall of
the Kyoto Protocol. However, the voluntary carbon market has declined in retire-
ments and issuance, mainly due to REDD+ project inspection and apprehensions
regarding ghost credits. Implementing ARR (Afforestation, Reforestation, and
Revegetation) initiatives are becoming more prevalent; key components include
stakeholder consultation, additionality, and transparency. However, difficulties
exist, such as adding new components to projects to set them apart and guarantee
community benefits. The American Carbon Registry (ACR), The Gold Standard
Table 30.6 Site and species-specific allometric models of Mangrove species
640
Site, species Allometric model Reference

A. Species specific
Sundarbans
Aegialitis rotundifolia AGB = 5.49GCH2 − 251.36H − 0.07 HCH + 0.75 (GCH × H × HCH) Siddique et al. (2012)
Ceriops decandra AGB = 4.70 × GCH2.41 Hossain et al. (2016a)
Aegiceras corniculatum AGB = 0.48 DBH − 0.13 Hossain et al. (2016b)
Kandelia candel AGB = 0.21DBH2 + 0.12 Hossain et al. (2016a)
B. Generic models
(i) Sundarbans
Aglaia cucullata (a) ln (AGB) = − 1.9272 + 2.3517 ln (DBH) Mahmood et al. (2019)
Avicennia officinalis (b) ln (AGB) = − 2.437 + 2.1341 ln (DBH) + 0.4953 ln (H)
Avicennia marina (c) ln (AGB) = − 6.7189 + 2.1634 ln (DBH) + 0.3752 ln (H) + 0.6895 ln (WD)
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
Bruguiera sexangula
Excoeriaa gallocha
Heritiera fomes
Lumnitzera racemosa
Rhizophora apiculata
Rhizophora mucronata
Sonneratia apetala
Sonneratia caseolaris
Xylocarpus granatum
Xylocarpus moluccensis
S. Chanda
30
(ii) Pantropical or world

All Species, Pan-tropical AGB = 0.0673 × (WD × DBH2 × H)0.976 Chave et al. (2014)
Mangrove Species, Pan-tropical AGB = 0.0509 × (WD × DBH2 × H) Chave et al. (2005)
AGB = WD × exp (−1.349 + 1.980 ln (DBH) + 0.207(ln(DBH))2 − 0.0281(ln(DBH))3) Chave et al. (2005)
Mangrove Species, South-East Asia AGB = 0.251 × WD × DBH2.46 Komiyama et al. (2005)
Mangrove Forest Ecosystem: Services, Conservation, Restoration and Carbon…
641
642 S. Chanda
(GS), and Verra (VCS) have emerged as leading registries in carbon finance proj-
ects, although others exist with credibility concerns. Transparency and continual
methodology improvements shape the evolving landscape of carbon offset markets
(Fig. 30.3).
Currently, there are two methodology categories for mangrove-related projects
in Verra. They are the VM0007 (REDD+ framework) and VM0033 (ARR & WRC
framework). Currently, as per the open registry source of Verra, there are 36 regis-
tered projects of REDD, and 67% of the projects are from Latin America, 17% from
Africa, 8.3% from Asia, and the rest from Oceania and North America. These 36
projects of REDD, a few of which are together with Improved Forest Management
(IFM) and ARR, account for 36 million emission reductions or carbon credits.
Almost all are done with the VM0007 and the REDD methodology. While listed
many, the registered Afforestation, Reforestation, and Revegetation (ARR) along
with Westland Restoration and Conservation (WRC) project numbering is just one
alone, accounting for a net GHG emission reduction of two million tonnes annually.
Major mangrove restoration in India occurs in the Sundarbans, West Bengal, and
Gujarat coasts. Sundarbans attract attention from international and national bodies
for restoration efforts. The previous CDM methodology (AR-AM0014) has only
one registered project, ‘India Sundarbans Mangrove Restoration’, generating an
estimated annual reduction of 51,249 over 4675 ha of restored area till 2030. The
benefits of credits for local communities remain unclear. Upgraded frameworks and
retired CDM methodologies enforce stricter regulations. Focus and observations
have been given to the ecological processes of existing and restored mangrove sys-
tems (McKee and Faulkner 2000; Alongi 2002; Lewis III 2005). The relationship
between the areas of restored mangrove vegetation and adjoining ecosystems of
seagrass (Hogarth 2015) and salt marsh (Saintilan and Hashimoto 1999) is also a
focus area. The primary concern behind the key to successful mangrove restoration
is understanding hydrology (Wolanski et al. 1992) (Table 30.7).
Above are a few important ongoing mangrove projects in the Indian Sundarbans
region that deal with the reforestation of degraded mangrove habitats and the affor-
estation of newly developed mudflat areas. The oldest of the projects is the ‘India
Sundarbans Mangrove Restoration’ project, which follows the CDM methodology
and only claims the emission reductions from the pools of above-ground biomass
(AGB) and below-ground biomass (BGB). The project has been registered, claim-
ing emission reductions from the baseline year 2010. The project is a grouped proj-
ect, which means it will add further plantation and restoration instances with its
progress. The project covers parcels of 4675 ha and a net GHG removal rate of
11.1 tCO2e/ha/year. The methodology’ AR-AM0014: Afforestation and reforesta-
tion of degraded mangrove habitats—Version 3.0′, which was a CDM-based meth-
odology, has been replaced for the new projects by Verra with the ‘VM0033
Methodology for Tidal Wetland and Seagrass Restoration, v2.1.’ The factors behind
this can be attributed to
Choose a potential Voluntary Carbon

Stakeholder Consultation, Engagement and Registry of voluntary carbon market to
Training to initiate a ‘Carbon finance generate potential offsets and giving
project’ community benefits along with Carbon
sequestration
Identification and Quantification of Risks

involved or can potential occur to the project Choosing potential ‘Quantification
activities till the project crediting period & Methodology’ based on ‘Project
creation of buffer pools Eligibility‘criteria to adopt for the offset project
Calculation of Potential offsets

/ERs created because of the project Preparation of the ‘Project
activities based on prediction Document’
models and literature
Listing of the project in

‘Validation’ by the third-party agency theregistry by preparing the
termedVVB (Validation and Verification ‘Project Document’
body)
Data collection and quantification of the

on-ground Emission Reductions (ERs) or Preparation of the ‘Monitoring Report’(MR)
Carbon Credits termed as ‘Monitoring’
After compliance with all the

requirements and standards ‘Issuance’ ‘Verification’ by the
of the carbon creditsoften known as VVB
VERsby the registry for the
‘Monitoring Cycle’
Fig. 30.3 A General Approach and Major Steps for the Development of Carbon Finance Project
as ARR (Afforestation, Reforestation, and Revegetation) and REDD+ for Voluntary Carbon Market
• The end of the Kyoto Protocol in 2015 and Compliance Markets.

• While SOC is the major pool in mangroves and tidal wetlands, it could be con-
servatively excluded from the pool estimations.
• Not accounting risks properly.
• No need for adaptive mechanisms and management
• Not having an ‘activity method’ for additionality accounted for projects and
stated it as a ‘project method.’
• Did not have any Westland Restoration and Conservation (WRC) compo-
nents etc.
644 S. Chanda
Table 30.7 Carbon financing projects in Indian Sundarbans: case study (https://verra.org)
Crediting Estimated
period start AFLOU annual
Project name date Platform activities Methodology Status ERs
India Sundarbans 28/09/2010 Verra ARR AR-AM0014: Registered 32,618
Mangrove Afforestation
Restoration and
reforestation
of degraded
mangrove
habitats—
Version 3.0
Developing 01/10/2018 Verra ARR, VM0033 Under 57,587
Voluntary Carbon WRC Methodology Development
market project for for Tidal
Sundarban Tiger Wetland and
Reserve in India Seagrass
Restoration,
v2.1
Sundari mangrove – Verra ARR, VM0033 Under 51,249
restoration project WRC Methodology Validation
in the Indian for Tidal
Sundarbans Wetland and
Seagrass
Restoration,
v2.1
The new methodology accounts for internal, external, and natural risks to man-
groves, ensuring compliance and permanence. Additionality is proven through the
‘activity method’. Digital non-permanence risk tool enhances credit credibility. Soil
Organic Carbon pool inclusion is enabled. Land ownership remains a concern, with
foreign investors partnering with NGOs lacking land rights. Transparency and
proper land ownership are vital for project legitimacy, especially in public lands like
coastal forests controlled by relevant government bodies.
Comprehensive, undisturbed research, mainly focusing on species identification,

ecological roles, and genetic responses to environmental stressors, is essential to
preserving mangroves. These findings support efficient administration and the cre-
ation of fresh offset initiatives to mitigate climate change. Mangrove ecosystems
have strong potential to mitigate climate change and promote sustainable develop-
ment because of their dynamic character and capacity to sequester carbon. Rising
sea levels, however, call for increased resilience, which calls for participation and
benefit-sharing with coastal populations. Various animals are supported by biodi-
versity and regulatory services, making conservation efforts that align with
community needs necessary. As carbon financing programs increase, it is critical to

guarantee the legality of mangrove afforestation projects. To confirm emission
reductions, precise measurement, monitoring, and handling of hazards such as
deforestation are essential. Transparent accounting practices are crucial to avoid
duplicate counting, especially regarding the crossover of carbon storage into other
ecosystem services. Adequate mangrove protection also requires taking major haz-
ards, such as climate change, and other dangers due to the effects of climate change
(e.g., Sea-Level Rise, Globally Temperature Rise, Fluctuation in Weather Patterns,
etc.) into account.
30.8 Conclusion
The mangrove ecosystem is essential for delivering a wide range of ecosystem ser-
vices, with a focus on its capacity to absorb and retain carbon. Mangroves are cru-
cial carbon sinks that absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and lessen the
effects of climate change. Through carbon finance programs, the preservation and
restoration of mangrove environments aid in preserving biodiversity and provide
accurate financial advantages. The significance of acknowledging mangrove eco-
systems’ role in mitigating climate change is underscored by the possibility of car-
bon credits and financial incentives for their preservation. Thus, funding for the
sustainable management of mangroves promotes a balanced approach between
environmental conservation and economic viability by protecting vital ecosystem
functions and offering a viable path for carbon finance schemes.
References
Alongi DM (2002) Present state and future of the world’s mangrove forests. Environ Conserv
29(3):331–349
Alongi DM (2012) Carbon sequestration in mangrove forests. Carbon Manage 3(3):313–322
Alongi DM (2020) Global significance of mangrove blue carbon in climate change mitigation.
Science 2(3):67
Alongi DM, Murdiyarso D, Fourqurean JW, Kauffman JB, Hutahaean A, Crooks S et al (2016)
Indonesia’s blue carbon: a globally significant and vulnerable sink for seagrass and mangrove
carbon. Wetl Ecol Manag 24:3–13
Anneboina LR, Kumar KK (2017) Economic analysis of mangrove and marine fishery linkages in
India. Ecosyst Serv 24:114–123
Banerjee M, Shiva P (2014) Eco-tourism in Sunderbans—a life line for local people and the ecol-
ogy. Int J Sci Res 3:25–202
Barbier EB (2016) The protective service of mangrove ecosystems: a review of valuation methods.
Mar Pollut Bull 109(2):676–681
Bimrah K, Dasgupta R, Saizen I (2022) Cultural ecosystem services of mangroves: a review of
models and methods. In: Assessing, mapping and modelling of mangrove ecosystem services
in the Asia-Pacific Region, pp 239–250
646 S. Chanda
Blasco F, Saenger P, Janodet E (1996) Mangroves as indicators of coastal change. Catena

27(3-4):167–178
Bousquet-Melou A (1996) Biosystématique des palétuviers du genre Avicennia: recherche de nou-
veaux marqueurstaxonomiques. (Doctoral dissertation, Toulouse 3)
Brown B, Murdiyarso D (2014) Guiding principles for delivering coastal wetland carbon projects.
United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP)
Bunting P, Rosenqvist A, Hilarides L, Lucas RM, Thomas N, Tadono T, Rebelo LM (2022) Global
mangrove extent change 1996–2020: Global mangrove watch version 3.0. Remote Sens
14(15):3657
Chaudhuri P, Chaudhuri S, Ghosh R (2019) The role of mangroves in coastal and estuarine sedi-
mentary accretion in Southeast Asia. Sedimentary Processes-Examples from Asia, Turkey and
Nigeria, pp 203–218
Chave J, Andalo C, Brown S, Cairns MA, Chambers JQ, Eamus D et al (2005) Tree allometry and
improved estimation of carbon stocks and balance in tropical forests. Oecologia 145:87–99
Chave J, Réjou-Méchain M, Búrquez A, Chidumayo E, Colgan MS, Delitti WB et al (2014)
Improved allometric models to estimate the aboveground biomass of tropical trees. Glob
Chang Biol 20(10):3177–3190
Clough BF, Dixon P, Dalhaus O (1997) Allometric relationships for estimating biomass in multi-
stemmed mangrove trees. Aust J Bot 45(6):1023–1031
CMFRI (2018) Data—http://www.cmfri.org.in/fish-catch-estimates.html
Dahdouh-Guebas F, Mathenge C, Kairo JG, Koedam N (2000) Utilization of mangrove wood
products around Mida Creek (Kenya) amongst subsistence and commercial users. Econ
Bot:513–527
Daily GC (1997) Introduction: what are ecosystem services. Nature’s Serv: Societal Depend Nat
Ecosyst 1(1)
Datta D, Chattopadhyay RN, Deb S (2011) Prospective livelihood opportunities from the man-
groves of the Sunderbans, India. Res J Environ Sci 5(6):536
ment and decision making. Wolters-Noordhoff BV
29(2):451–457
Dhargalkar VK, D’Souza R, Kavlekar DP, Untawale AG (2014) Mangroves of Goa. Government
of Goa, Forest Department
Dolianiti E (1955) Frutos de Nipa no paleoceno de Pernambuco, Brasil. Ministério da Agricultura,
Departamento Nacional da Produção Mineral, Divisão de Geologia e Mineralogia
Duarte CM, Middelburg JJ, Caraco N (2005) Major role of marine vegetation on the oceanic car-
bon cycle. Biogeosciences 2(1):1–8
Duke NC (1995) Genetic diversity, distributional barriers and rafting continents—more thoughts
on the evolution of mangroves. In: Asia-Pacific symposium on Mangrove ecosystems: pro-
ceedings of the international conference held at The Hong Kong University of Science &
Technology, September 1–3, 1993. Springer, Netherlands, pp 167–181
Dwarakish GS, Vinay SA, Natesan U, Asano T, Kakinuma T, Venkataramana K et al (2009) Coastal
vulnerability assessment of the future sea level rise in Udupi coastal zone of Karnataka state,
west coast of India. Ocean Coast Manage 52(9):467–478
Ellison JC (2009) Geomorphology and sedimentology of mangrove swamps. In: Coastal wetlands:
an ecosystem integrated approach, pp 564–591
Ellison JC (2015) Vulnerability assessment of mangroves to climate change and sea-level rise
impacts. Wetl Ecol Manag 23:115–137
Ellison JC (2019) Biogeomorphology of mangroves. In: Coastal wetlands. Elsevier, pp 687–715.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63893-9.00020-4
Elsol JA, Saenger P (1983) A general account of the mangroves of Princess Charlotte Bay with
particular reference to zonation of the open shoreline. In: Biology and ecology of mangroves.
Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp 37–46
Eric S, Robert B, Stephen F, Robert G, Jennifer H, Yousif K, Mark W (2008) Carbon sequestration
to mitigate climate change. US Geological Survey, Fact Sheet, p 3097
Estrada GC, Soares ML (2017) Global patterns of aboveground carbon stock and sequestration in
mangroves. An Acad Bras Cienc 89:973–989
FAO (2012) The state of world fisheries and aquaculture. Fisheries and Aquaculture Department,
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
Faraco LF, Andriguetto-Filho JM, Lana PC (2010) A methodology for assessing the vulnerability
of mangroves and fisherfolk to climate change. Pan-Am J Aquat Sci 5(2):205–223
Feller IC, Lovelock CE, Berger U, McKee KL, Joye SB, Ball MC (2010) Biocomplexity in man-
grove ecosystems. Annu Rev Mar Sci 2:395–417
Field CB, Barros VR (eds) (2014) Climate change 2014—impacts, adaptation and vulnerability:
regional aspects. Cambridge University Press
Friess DA (2016) Ecosystem services and disservices of mangrove forests: insights from historical
colonial observations. Forests 7(9):183
Friess DA, Watson JG (2017) Inundation classes, and their influence on paradigms in mangrove
forest ecology. Wetlands 37:603–613
Friess DA, Adame MF, Adams JB, Lovelock CE (2022) Mangrove forests under climate change in
a 2C world. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Clim Chang 13(4):e792
Frith, D. W. (1977). A selected bibliography of mangrove literature
Gallo ND, Victor DG, Levin LA (2017) Ocean commitments under the Paris Agreement. Nat Clim
Chang 7(11):833–838
Gilman E, Ellison J, Coleman R (2007) Assessment of mangrove response to projected relative
sea-level rise and recent historical reconstruction of shoreline position. Environ Monit Assess
124:105–130
Giri C, Ochieng E, Tieszen LL, Zhu Z, Singh A, Loveland T et al (2011) Status and distribution
of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data. Glob Ecol Biogeogr
20(1):154–159
Global Mangrove Watch (n.d.). https://www.globalmangrovewatch.org/?bou
nds=[[53.2039739014252,9.139583112349342],[66.2767840164382,55.311917103057766]]
Goldberg L, Lagomasino D, Thomas N, Fatoyinbo T (2020) Global declines in human-driven
mangrove loss. Glob Chang Biol 26(10):5844–5855
Grace J, Malhi Y, Higuchi N, Meir P (2001) Productivity of tropical rain forests.In: Terrestrial
global productivity, pp. 401–426
Gupta SK, Singh H (2017) Observations on Sporadic Flowering in Ficus benjamina L. and
Hamilton SE, Hamilton SE (2020) Botany of mangroves. Mangroves and aquaculture. In: A five
decade remote sensing analysis of Ecuador’s Estuarine environments, pp. 1–40
Herr D, Landis E (2016) Coastal blue carbon ecosystems. Opportunities for Nationally Determined
Contributions. Policy Brief
Herr D, Pidgeon E, Laffoley DDA (2012) Blue carbon policy framework 2.0: based on the discus-
sion of the International Blue Carbon Policy Working Group. IUCN
Hogarth PJ (2015) The biology of mangroves and seagrasses. Oxford University Press
Holloway V, Giandomenico E (2009) Carbon Planet white paper: the history of REDD policy.
Carbon Planet Limited, Adelaide, p 6
Hossain M, Shaikh MAA, Saha C, Abdullah SR, Saha S, Siddique MRH (2016a) Above-ground
biomass, nutrients and carbon in Aegiceras corniculatum of the Sundarbans. Open J For
6(2):72–81
648 S. Chanda
Hossain M, Saha C, Rubaiot Abdullah SM, Saha S, Siddique MRH (2016b) Allometric biomass,
nutrient and carbon stock models for Kandelia candel of the Sundarbans. Bangladesh Trees
30:09–717
Howard RJ, From AS, Krauss KW, Andres KD, Cormier N, Allain L, Savarese M (2020) Soil
surface elevation dynamics in a mangrove-to-marsh ecotone characterized by vegetation shifts.
Hydrobiologia 847(4):1087–1106
Hussain SA, Badola R (2010) Valuing mangrove benefits: contribution of mangrove forests to
local livelihoods in Bhitarkanika Conservation Area, East Coast of India. Wetl Ecol Manag
18:321–331
Hutchison J, Spalding M, Zu Ermgassen P (2014) The role of mangroves in fisheries enhancement.
Nat Conserv Wetlands Int 54:434
IPCC (2018) Special report: global warming of 1.5_C. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
James GK, Adegoke JO, Osagie S, Ekechukwu S, Nwilo P, Akinyede J (2013) Social valuation
of mangroves in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Int J Biodiv Sci Ecosyst Serv Manage
9(4):311–323
Jayatissa LP, Dahdouh-Guebas F, Koedam N (2002) A review of the floral composition and distri-
bution of mangroves in Sri Lanka. Bot J Linn Soc 138(1):29–43
Johnstone IM (1983) Succession in zoned mangrove communities: where is the climax? In:
Biology and ecology of mangroves. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp 131–139
Kandasamy K, Rajendran N, Balakrishnan B, Thiruganasambandam R, Narayanasamy R (2021)
Carbon sequestration and storage in planted mangrove stands of Avicennia marina. Reg Stud
Mar Sci 43:101701
Kauffman JB, Bhomia RK (2017) Ecosystem carbon stocks of mangroves across broad envi-
ronmental gradients in West-Central Africa: global and regional comparisons. PLoS One
12(11):e0187749
King DM (1997) Comparing ecosystem services and values. US Department of Commerce,
NOAA, Damage Assessment and Restoration Program, Silver Spring, MD
Komiyama A, Poungparn S, Kato S (2005) Common allometric equations for estimating the tree
weight of mangroves. J Trop Ecol 21(4):471–477
Krishnamurthy K (1990) The apiary of the mangroves. In: Wetland ecology and management: case
studies. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp 135–140
org/10.1007/s13205-019-1700-1
i7/1098-1103
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
49(1):38–44
Lau JD, Scales IR (2016) Identity, subjectivity and natural resource use: how ethnicity, gender and
class intersect to influence mangrove oyster harvesting in The Gambia. Geoforum 69:136–146
Lecerf, M., Herr, D., Thomas, T., Elverum, C., Delrieu, E., Picourt, L. (2021) Coastal and marine
ecosystems as nature-based solutions in new or updated Nationally Determined Contributions:
provisional analysis as of June 2021
Lewis RR III (2005) Ecological engineering for successful management and restoration of man-
grove forests. Ecol Eng 24(4):403–418
Lugo AE, Snedaker SC (1974) The ecology of mangroves. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 5(1):39–64
Mace GM, Norris K, Fitter AH (2012) Biodiversity and ecosystem services: a multilayered rela-
tionship. Trends Ecol Evol 27(1):19–26
Macnae W (1968) A general account of the flora and fauna of mangrove swamps in the Indo-
Pacific region. Adv Mar Biol 6:73–270
Macreadie PI, Serrano O, Maher DT, Duarte CM, Beardall J (2017) Addressing calcium carbonate
cycling in blue carbon accounting
Maher DT, Santos IR, Schulz KG, Call M, Jacobsen GE, Sanders CJ (2017) Blue carbon oxi-
dation revealed by radiogenic and stable isotopes in a mangrove system. Geophys Res Lett
44(10):4889–4896
Mahmood H, Siddique MRH, Rubaiot Abdullah SM, Costello L, Matieu H, Iqbal MZ, Akhter M
(2019) Which option best estimates the above-ground biomass of mangroves of Bangladesh:
pantropical or site-and species-specific models? Wetl Ecol Manag 27:553–569
Mandal M, Dandapath PK, Shukla J (2013) Emerging dimension of coastal eco-tourism resources
along the coast of West Bengal, India. Int J Adv Res Manage Soc Sci 2(1):58–73
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
McKee KL, Faulkner PL (2000) Restoration of biogeochemical function in mangrove forests.
Restor Ecol 8(3):247–259
McKinnon AD, Trott LA, Alongi DM, Davidson A (2002) Water column production and nutrient
characteristics in mangrove creeks receiving shrimp farm effluent. Aquac Res 33(1):55–73
Mcleod E, Chmura GL, Bouillon S, Salm R, Björk M, Duarte CM, Silliman BR (2011) A blueprint
for blue carbon: toward an improved understanding of the role of vegetated coastal habitats in
sequestering CO2. Front Ecol Environ 9(10):552–560
MEA (2005) Ecosystems and human wellbeing. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Geneva,
Switzerland
Moreno P (2022) SBTi Forest, Land and Agriculture (FLAG) project FAQs
Muller J, Caratini C (1977) Pollen of Rhizophora (Rhizophoraceae) as a guide fossil
Nandan SB, Sreelekshmi S, Harikrishnan M (2021) Fishery production potential of the mangroves
in India—a review
Odum HT (1971) Environment, power, and society. Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY
Odum EP, Barrett GW (1971) Fundamentals of ecology, vol 3. Saunders, Philadelphia, p 5
Pandey CN, Pandey R (2013) Carbon sequestration in mangroves of Gujarat, India. Int J Bot Res
3(2):57–70
Pathy SP (2018) Interpreting eco-tourism: the scenario of Odisha. Int J Curr Res Life Sci
7(2):874–876
Pattanaik C, Reddy CS, Dhal NK, Das R (2008) Utilisation of mangrove forests in Bhitarkanika
wildlife sanctuary, Orissa
650 S. Chanda
Pendleton L, Donato DC, Murray BC, Crooks S, Jenkins WA, Sifleet S, Baldera A (2012)
Estimating global “blue carbon” emissions from conversion and degradation of vegetated
coastal ecosystems
sustainable progression: floristic perspectives and Arboreal avenues as a viable sequestration
Prawiroatmodjo S, Sapulete D, Pratignyo SE, Budiman A (1985) Structural analysis of mangrove
vegetation in Elpaputih and Wailale, Ceram, Indonesia. Coasts and Tidal Wetlands of the
Australian Monsoon Region. North Austr. Res. Unit, Austr. Nat. Univ., Mangrove Monograph, 1
Rabinowitz D (1978a) Dispersal properties of mangrove propagules. Biotropica:47–57
Rabinowitz D (1978b) Early growth of mangrove seedlings in Panama, and an hypothesis concern-
ing the relationship of dispersal and zonation. J Biogeogr:113–133
Rabinowitz D (1978c) Mortality and initial propagule size in mangrove seedlings in Panama. J
Ecol:45–51
Rahman MS, Donoghue DN, Bracken LJ, Mahmood H (2021) Biomass estimation in mangrove
forests: a comparison of allometric models incorporating species and structural information.
Environ Res Lett 16(12):124002
Ray R, Ganguly D, Chowdhury C, Dey M, Das S, Dutta MK, Jana TK (2011) Carbon sequestration
and annual increase of carbon stock in a mangrove forest. Atmos Environ 45(28):5016–5024
Reef R, Lovelock CE (2015) Regulation of water balance in mangroves. Ann Bot 115(3):385–395
Rico-Gray V (1993) Origen y rutas de dispersión de los mangles: una revisión con énfasisen las
especies de América. Acta Bot Mexicana 25:1–13
Robertson AI, Duke NC (1990) Mangrove fish-communities in tropical Queensland, Australia:
spatial and temporal patterns in densities, biomass and community structure. Mar Biol
104:369–379
Rollet B (1981) Bibliography on mangrove research, 1600–1975. UNESCO, Paris. 479pp
Ruzanna A, Dewiyanti I, Yuni SM, Purnawan S, Setiawan I (2019) The suitability of land analysis
to prepared mangrove rehabilitation in Kuala Langsa, Indonesia. In: IOP conference series:
earth and environmental science, vol 348, No. 1. IOP Publishing, p 012106
Saenger P (1998) Mangrove vegetation: an evolutionary perspective. Mar Freshw Res
49(4):277–286
Saenger P, Hegerl EJ, Davie JD (eds) (1983) Global status of mangrove ecosystems (No. 3).
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
Saintilan N, Hashimoto TR (1999) Mangrove-saltmarsh dynamics on a bay-head delta in the
Hawkesbury River estuary, New South Wales, Australia. In: Diversity and Function in
Mangrove Ecosystems: Proceedings of Mangrove Symposia held in Toulouse, France, 9–10
July 1997 and 8–10 July 1998. Springer Netherlands, pp 95–102
Saintilan N, Khan NS, Ashe E, Kelleway JJ, Rogers K, Woodroffe CD, Horton BP (2020)
Thresholds of mangrove survival under rapid sea level rise. Science 368(6495):1118–1121
Sanders CJ, Maher DT, Tait DR, Williams D, Holloway C, Sippo JZ, Santos IR (2016) Are global
mangrove carbon stocks driven by rainfall? J Geophys Res Biogeo 121(10):2600–2609
Schimel DS (1995) Terrestrial ecosystems and the carbon cycle. Glob Chang Biol 1(1):77–91
Asparagus racemosus in response to elevated atmospheric CO2 Concentration. Environ Sci
Siddique MRH, Hossain M, Chowdhury MRK (2012) Allometric relationship for estimating
above-ground biomass of Aegialitisrotundifolia Roxb. of Sundarbans mangrove forest, in
Bangladesh. J For Res 23:23–28
Sidhu SS (1963) Studies on the mangroves of India. I East Godavari region. Indian Forester
89:337–351
Siikamäki J, Sanchirico JN, Jardine SL (2012) Global economic potential for reducing carbon
dioxide emissions from mangrove loss. Proc Natl Acad Sci 109(36):14369–14374
Singh LJ (2012) Mangrove plant diversity in Bay Islands, India and its significance. Mar
Biodivers:119–126
Impacts on Sustainable Natural Resource Management. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group,
USA, pp 336–361
Smith P, Bustamante M, Ahammad H, Clark H, Dong H, Elsiddig EA et al (2014) Agriculture,
forestry and other land use (AFOLU). In: Climate change 2014: mitigation of climate change.
Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, pp 811–922
Specht RL (1981) Biogeography of halophytic angiosperms (saltmarsh, mangrove and sea-grass).
Ecol biogeogr Aust 1:575–589
Stamp LD (1925) The aerial survey of the Irrawaddy Delta Forests (Burma): notes embracing the
observations of Messrs. AW Moodie CR Robbins and CW Scott, compiled and edited with
permission. J Ecol 13(2):262–276
Taillardat P, Friess DA, Lupascu M (2018) Mangrove blue carbon strategies for climate change
mitigation are most effective at the national scale. Biol Lett 14(10):20180251
Thomson RM (1946) Studies on the breeding places and control of Anopheles gambiae and
A. gambiae var. melas in coastal districts of Sierra Leone. Bull Entomol Res 36(2):185–252
Tomlinson PB (2016) The botany of mangroves. Cambridge University Press
Twilley RR (1995) Properties of mangrove ecosystems related to the energy signature of coastal
environments. In: Maximum power: the ideas and applications of HT Odum, pp 43–62
Twilley RR, Snedaker SC, Ya ez-Arancibia A, Medina E (1996) Biodiversity and ecosystem pro-
cesses in tropical estuaries: perspectives of mangrove ecosystems. Scope-scientific committee
on problems of the Environment International Council of Scientific Unions 55:27-370.
Vegh T, Jungwiwattanaporn M, Pendleton L, Murray B (2014) Mangrove ecosystem services valu-
ation: state of the literature. NI WP:14-06
Walters BB, Rönnbäck P, Kovacs JM, Crona B, Hussain SA, Badola R et al (2008) Ethnobiology,
socio-economics and management of mangrove forests: a review. Aquat Bot 89(2):220–236
Watson JD (1928) Mangrove forests of the Malay Peninsula. Malay Forest Rec 6:1–275
Wells S, Ravilious C (2006) In the front line: shoreline protection and other ecosystem services
from mangroves and coral reefs (No. 24). UNEP/Earthprint
Wolanski E, Mazda Y, Ridd P (1992) Mangrove hydrodynamics. In: Tropical mangrove ecosys-
tems, vol 41, pp 43–62
Woodroffe C (1992) Mangrove sediments and geomorphology. In: Tropical mangrove ecosystems,
vol 41, pp 7–41
Yin J, Yin Z, Wang J, Xu S (2012) National assessment of coastal vulnerability to sea-level rise for
the Chinese coast. J Coast Conserv 16:123–133
Zeng Y, Friess DA, Sarira TV, Siman K, Koh LP (2021) Global potential and limits of mangrove
blue carbon for climate change mitigation. Curr Biol 31(8):1737–1743
Chapter 31
Significance of Ethnobotanical Studies
in Unravelling Biodiversity Change Under
Changing Climatic Scenario
in the North-Western Himalayas of India
Astha Chauhan, Vaneet Jishtu, and Hukum Singh
Abstract The North Western Himalayas of India represent immense ecological

significance and are characterized by unique biodiversity and rich cultural diversity.
In recent years, the climate change impressions have become increasingly evident,
affecting ecosystems and communities in this fragile mountainous landscape. This
chapter discusses the significance of ethnobotanical studies in understanding and
mitigating climate change’s consequences on biodiversity in the North Western
Himalayas of India. The Himalayan people have a strong linkage with their natural
environment and resources, and they have accumulated knowledge over generations
regarding the uses of local flora and fauna for sustenance, medicine, and cultural
practices. Further, ethnobotanical assessment provides insights into the interlink
between human communities and their surroundings, shedding light on how these
interactions adapt or transform in response to climate change. Climate change has
brought about shifts in temperature, precipitation patterns, and plant and animal
species distribution in this region. Traditional knowledge may guide the identifica-
tion of resilient and adaptive plant species that may be alternatives for combating
climate change. Researchers and conservationists may formulate strategies that
safeguard both traditional knowledge and fragile ecosystems by utilizing indige-
nous knowledge in biodiversity monitoring and management in the era of climate
change. This chapter may help researchers, policy-makers, and conservationists to
develop holistic and culturally sensitive approaches to combat climate change by
A. Chauhan (*)
Forest Ecology and Climate Change Division, Himalayan Forest Research Institute,
Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India
Mukand Lal National College, Yamunanagar (Kurukshetra University),
Yamuna Nagar, Haryana, India
V. Jishtu
Forest Ecology and Climate Change Division, Himalayan Forest Research Institute,
H. Singh
Forest Research Institute, PO New Forest, Dehradun, India
Ltd. 2024
654 A. Chauhan et al.
considering traditional knowledge. Such implementations will ensure the resilience

of ecosystems and communities, ensuring an additionally sustainable future for this
ecologically and culturally diverse region.
Keywords North Western Himalaya · Ethnobotany · Climate change ·

Biodiversity · Conservation and sustainable
31.1 Introduction
The Himalayas are formed due to a knock between the Indian and Eurasian conti-
nents, creating the world’s lengthiest and highest mountain chain (Wadia 1931). The
biological variability of the fragile ecosystem of the North-West Himalayas has
been under study for a long time due to its utmost importance. The Himalayas have
been held in supremacy because of their immensely high biodiversity and rich cul-
ture (Chauhan et al. 2022). The North-West Himalaya encompass the area from the
Indian states of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and its Union Territory of Jammu
and Kashmir. The geographical extent varies between 28°43′–37°05’ N latitude and
72°40′–81°02′ E longitude, circumscribing a vast area of nearly 33 million hectares
comprising 10% of the total geographic location of the country. This well-defined
biogeographic zone lies west of river Sutlej. Nepal, Pakistan, and China share the
international boundary with the North-West Himalayas (zone 2A of Rodgers and
Panwar 1992; Kashyap et al. 2014).
The floristic abundance in the region is contributed by the various habitats,
diverse climatic conditions, and geography (Polunin and Stainton 1984; Singh,
2024). Early botanical records from the North-West Himalayas date back to the
nineteenth century, with Collett (1921) enumerating 1236 species in his record
Flora Simlensis. Other classical records comprise that of Hooker (1906), Duthie
(1906), Champion and Seth (1968) whereas Stainton (1977), Nair (1977),
Chowdhery and Wadhwa (1984) and Aswal and Mehrotra (1994) are much more
contemporary ones. In totality, the India Himalayan Region (IHR) constitutes
18,440 species of plants, of which 40% are endemic to the region (Singh and Hajra
1996). The Indian Himalayas have also been designated as one of the important
biodiversity hotspots of the world. Based on literature reports, the Indian Himalayas
house 960 species of orchids belonging to 158 genera. Himachal Pradesh records
explicitly 57 species of orchids (Pangtey et al. 1991; Samant 2015). A sum of 1748
species of medicinal plants from 915 genera and 223 families have been docu-
mented from the Indian Himalayas, of which nearly 25% are native to the Himalayas
(Samant 2021). Seventeen regional medicinal plants are in the Red Data Book of
Indian Plants (Nayar and Sastry 1987, 1988, 1990; Samant et al. 1998).
Saussureacostus, Aconitum deinorrhizum, Dioscoreadeltoides, Inula racemose,
Picrorhizakurroa, etc., are some threatened plants enlisted in the Red Data Book.
Research indicates that we are expected to lose half of the ten million species of
living organisms by the end of this century (Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1981). Samant
31 Significance of Ethnobotanical Studies in Unravelling Biodiversity Change… 655
(2015) enlisted 925 plant species in the Trans, North-West, and Western Himalayas.
Biodiversity is also linked with ethnobotany, which provides a primary ground-level
understanding of plant use and the culture syndicated to it.
The Himalayas are experiencing a rise of 4°–5 ° C in their local temperature and
a 20–30% increase in rainfall, according to the United Nations Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC; Singh et al. 2023) in its fourth assessment report.
Such changes in the climatic pattern tend to bring despoliation and accelerate biodi-
versity loss. Climate change is also known to alter and degrade habitats, thus caus-
ing a threat to wild flora (Devi et al. 2023). It has also caused the shifting of tree
lines as the high-altitude plants tend to shift upwards to seek cooler climates. From
an ethnobotanical point of view, climate change is known to alter wild flora. It is
known to cause regional extinction of plant species (Kumar et al. 2022). The alpine
pastures of the Himalayas are vulnerable to climate change and will eventually
threaten the area’s medicinal plants at length (Salick et al. 2009; Singh et al. 2022).
Ethnobotanical knowledge can accelerate the ability of local people to adapt and
mitigate in the climate-changing era. The study of ethnobotany is a perfect example
of learning from the past to shape and manage our future (Raturi et al. 2022).
31.2 Significance of Ethnobotanical Studies and Its Relation

to Climate Change
John William Harshberger initially described Ethnobotany as the utilization of

plants by the native people, followed by Schultes as the association of indigenous
people with plants (Harshberger 1896; Martin and Ethnobotany 1995). Ethnobotany
has been regarded as the science crucial to the existence of humanity (Prance 2007).
It has also been considered as the anthropological viewpoint in botany. It is the well-
knit dependence of people and plants. It comprises floristic identification, customs,
and management of plant diversity (Nautiyal et al. 2022). The biodiversity of the
Himalayas has varied utilities, including medicine, fuel, fodder, timber, agricultural
implements, and religious and magical plants (Prakash et al. 2022). Ethnobotanists
are crucial in resolving and recording significant plant-people interlinkages based
on various surveys and interrogations.
Ethnobotany acts as a connection between this traditional knowledge and mod-
ern science and also holds immense possibilities in overcoming various global chal-
lenges, such as combating climate change and stimulating sustainability (FAO
2009; SDG 2015). The study of ethnobotany shall lay the foundation for opening
new possibilities with the help of bioprospecting (Dhyani et al. 2021). Knowledge
of medicinal plants is also ancient and is important when discussing modern drugs
and medicine systems (Nirmal and Singh 2021). The concept of sustainability
through traditional knowledge can help mitigate climate change-related issues, pre-
vent biodiversity losses, and reduce desertification and land degradation (Singh
2021). Global problems call for not only documentation of traditional knowledge
but also restoration. Correct identification, employment, and conservation of flora

of medicinal urgency can also aid in improving healthcare facilities in rural regions,
particularly in developing nations (Sofowora et al. 2013; Karunamoorthi et al. 2013).
Ethnobotanical knowledge also provides information on medicinal plants, which
treat ailments like memory loss, skin trouble, stomach-related disorders, etc., and
help earn revenue. Ethnobotanists provide meaningful feedback to the indigenous
people on modern problems of climate change and biodiversity loss because of their
close interaction with the locals (Sharma and Singh 2021). Ethnobotanical compre-
hension acknowledges life’s intricate patterns, including customs, traditions, and
culture. Ethnobotany can serve as an important tool for biodiversity conservation by
implementing efficacious management that directly impacts the framing of various
related policies (Singh et al. 2011; Kumar et al. 2011). Conservation is also based
on ecosystem, species, and genetic levels. This subject is clustered with ecology,
forestry, anthropology, economy, sociology, and environment, which can help better
manage biodiversity resources. The extinction of plants is directly related to climate
change. Therefore, it is also important to document wild plants and their threat sta-
tus. The plants that may become extinct due to climate change are ethnobotanically
relevant to the local communities because they depend on wild flora. Studying eth-
nomedicinal plants supports primary medicinal management in rural areas.
The ethnobotanical relationship between humans and plants has been distin-
guished as absolute and concrete by the Father of Indian Ethnobotany, Dr. S.K. Jain.
The absolute ethnobotanical relationship includes knowledge based on religious
ideologies, taboos, magical beliefs, folk tales, and mythos. On the other hand, con-
crete ethnobotany encompasses information regarding the tangible use of plants like
fuel, food, fodder, construction material, and household and agricultural utilities
(Jain 1987). Documenting qualitative information on ethnobotany includes enlist-
ing various plants, including their local name, scientific name, family, habit, habitat,
plant description, plant part used, and most importantly, its usage to the local com-
munity. This data gives more theoretical insight into the species. It also includes
information about the respondents, such as their age, sex, education status, and
number. This is the more traditional method of documenting ethnobotanical knowl-
edge. However, in recent times, ethnobotanical research has advanced and follows a
quantitative approach. It comprises various indices, giving the data a more practical
and authentic outlook. The quantitative application engages multiple indicators,
including Informant Consensus Factor (ICF), Use Value (UV), Relative Frequency
of Citation (RFC), Fidelity Level (FL), Relative Importance Index (RII), Cultural
Value Index (RVI), etc. Such indices serve as an empirical foundation to quantify
ethnobotanical information. Quantification provides us with information like the
number of respondents having a consensus on naming the plants for specific usage.
It denotes the domestic eminence of flora in the study area. Analysis of this empiri-
cal research gives us an approximation of the species that are facing the risk of over-
exploitation and the conservation methodology that is best suited for the region
(Umair et al. 2017; Dapar and Alejandro 2020; Jabeen et al. 2021). Such exploration
helps identify the most approved and multifaceted plant species. It also gives us an
account of the ecological accessibility of plant species in the region. The abrupt
variation in the recent climate has primarily affected water resources and agricul-
ture, which impacts the nation’s economy (Shekhar et al. 2010).
Climate change is known to reorient the altitudinal organization of floristic com-
ponents in the mountains, and natives can make similar observations because of
their day-to-day interaction with nature. Such information is also crucial for the
livelihood of mountain people because of their dependence on forests(Singh
et al. 2021).
Local communities provide us with first-hand records of climate change scenar-
ios, followed by their adaptation and mitigation schemes. Ethnobotanical conserva-
tion should be systematized and, therefore, be regarded as one of the important
types of environmental conservation (Schultes 1997). Alteration in plant diversity
due to climate change reduces plant population over time, which can be studied by
carrying out phytosociological surveys and documenting ethnobotanical knowledge
(Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e, f). It is of supreme importance to have local people’s
outlook on issues related to climate change. Ethnobotanical surveys give an insight
into possible future impacts of climate change and the attainability of wild flora to
the natives. Putting native people in a pivotal position for conservation will prevent
biodiversity loss and conserve their plant-based cultural and traditional knowledge
(Araújo and Rahbek 2006; Feeley and Silman 2012; Thuiller et al. 2008; Rodríguez
et al. 2018). Local communities provide experiential information on the migration
of plant species, especially in the sub-alpine zones due to global warming. This
scenario will ultimately threaten the Himalayan flora (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c,
d, e, f).
It is essential to realize that ethnobotanical studies estimate biodiversity loss cor-
responding to climate change, encompassing hastened glacier melting, disease
infestation, forest fires, and inclement weather conditions (Verma et al. 2021). The
study of ethnobotany provides us with glimpses of climate change patterns, which
further includes details about the threat status of floral diversity, upward migration
of plants, alteration in phenology, etc. (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e, f).
31.3 Indigenous Communities
India is the abode of nearly 54 million tribals and more than 5000 forest-subjugated
villages, constituting 15% of the entire geographical area (Nath and Khatri 2010).
The various major ethnic communities embracing primarily the Trans Himalayas
and North-West Himalayas are Gaddis, Bakarwals, Kinnauras, Gujjars, Pangwals,
Lahulas, and numerous minor indigenous groups. Bhotias, Rajees, Tharus, Buxas,
and Jaunsarees belong to the Western Himalayas, while Bhutias and Lepchas come
from the Central Himalayas. Regarding the East Himalayas, Chakma and Nagas are
predominant in this region (Samant 2021; Kumar and Gupta 2023). Most of these
groups are nomadic pastoralists, and the rest are subsistence farmers. People living
near nature depend on forests for various purposes, such as fuel, fodder, food, fiber,
medicine, timber, etc. Wild plants also hold an important place in the cultural being
of the locals, like festivals, religion, and magical purposes. Native people are the
source of this traditional knowledge and its custodian. The conventional knowledge
among the indigenous people is known to flow from one generation to another.
Written records are barely present in the recent past, making this form of knowledge
a cardinal piece of information.
The local communities of North-West Himalaya uphold its cultural traditions
and are the direct personification of nature (Joshi et al. 2021). The majority of the
people from the indigenous communities are economically weaker and depend
totally on the forests for basic needs and earning a livelihood. Apart from this,
income is generated from horticulture, agriculture, and animal rearing. On a posi-
tive note, indigenous people are self-sustained. The interaction of locals with its
closely correlated biodiversity is an important example of harmony (Kumar et al.
2021a, b, c, d, e, f).
Numerous ideologies of humans have shown the way and influenced their actions
even in the past. The comradeship between biodiversity and locals brings about
human prosperity with the help of the concept of sustainability, which will ulti-
mately lead to the conservation of biological resources (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d,
e, f). Locals possess an interlinked relationship between socio-cultural and religious
ideologies. Sacred groves witness such relationships and are a chief instrument for
long-term biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation (Kumar et al.
2021a, b, c, d, e, f). At the time of the colonial era in the mountains, the concept of
sacred groves was prevalent and was well-recognized by the Britishers to avoid
mutiny by the locals. Securing the cultural bequest of the locals is weighty in carry-
ing long-term conservation programs as it provides a record that has been allocated
over generations (Daniel et al. 2012). Research has revealed that locals harvest
plants sustainably, guaranteeing natural conservation and making these local com-
munities live instruments for biodiversity conservation (Lone 2014). Hilly regions
are deprived of proper road connectivity, thereby disconnecting far-flung areas from
the main region, which is solely responsible for locals’ dependence on the region’s
biodiversity and conservation of traditional knowledge. In order to ensure sustain-
able harvest, the village communities follow the rules and regulations framed by the
aged and experienced people of the communities. They co-exist with nature and are
God-fearing, eventually forcing them to follow these mandates. A date is generally
decided for harvesting wild plants, especially those holding medicinal importance,
to prevent immature plant harvesting (Adhikary 2017).
31.4 Threats to Biodiversity and the Need

for Its Conservation
Demand for economically important plants is ever-increasing, resulting in the ruth-

less harvesting of plants from the wild. Human-induced damage to biodiversity
results from habitat alteration, alien species invasion, population, environmental
pollution, deforestation, and global climate change scenarios (Singh et al. 2020a, b).
Overgrazing is another factor that adds to the loss of biodiversity, leading to deserti-
fication and expansion (Singh et al. 2020a, b). Anthropogenic oppression, such as
the construction of highways, hydroelectric projects, and agriculture sprawl, cou-
pled with natural disasters such as earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, etc., are
responsible for biodiversity loss. Changed climatic patterns, such as increased rain-
fall and decreased snowfall, have resulted in migration and loss of flora in the fragile
mountain ecosystem (Rawat 2012). Faulty land use practices like forest encroach-
ment for agriculture and horticulture have significantly threatened biodiversity
(Verma et al. 2020).
Climate change, population pressure, and poverty threaten biodiversity, espe-
cially in the most frangible ecosystems. The attested vegetation status is required,
which can be recorded using qualitative and quantitative research. Constant surveil-
lance is necessary to understand Himalayas vegetation dynamics (Joshi and Singh
2020). Conservation should be incorporated aptly in-situ (national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries, sacred groves, etc.) and ex-situ(herbal gardens, home gardens, germ-
plasm establishment, etc.). Phytosociological studies, including species richness,
density, frequency, distribution, nativity, similarity index, etc., are crucial to keeping
track of the biodiversity of a region. Biodiversity is an integral representation of
day-to-day requirements and an integral portion of our future generations. The
younger generation has migrated to the cities for better job opportunities and life-
style. They have lost interest in identifying the plant species and its importance.
Loss of traditional knowledge is equivalent to losing a plant (Kumar et al. 2020).
31.5 Interpretation of Some Ethnobotanically Significant

Flora from the North-West Himalayas
The ethnobotanical plants in this chapter result from numerous field surveys and
interconnection with village communities and Himachal Pradesh Forest Department
field staff. Several literatures were also scanned to compile information on some of
the ethnobotanical plants of North-West Himalaya. The description below is based
on a primary survey, and some secondary literature was recorded from various
sources (Rana and Samant 2011; Chauhan et al. 2014; Singh and Thakur 2014; Pal
et al. 2020; Prakash et al. 2021; Shah 2018; Kumar and Gupta 2023). The nomen-
clature followed is by the Plants of the World Online (https://powo.science.kew.
org/), an online database published by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. The
Fig. 31.1 From top left to bottom right 1. Prunus cerasoidesBuch.-Ham.exD.Don 2. Berberis
aristata DC. 3. Rhododendron arboreum Sm. 4. Rosa macrophyllaLindl. 5. Taxus wallichiana-
Zucc. 6. Aconitum violaceumJacquem. ex Stapf
ethnobotanical plants are listed below in alphabetical order. Some of the notable
plants are given in Fig. 31.1. Pictures of the field survey and interaction with the
locals are depicted in Fig. 31.2, while Fig. 31.3 shows the use of local flora in their
daily lives (Table 31.1).
31.6 Conclusion
Biodiversity conservation demands a comprehensive understanding of regional

flora and its interconnectedness with human communities. It necessitates curbing
exploitative practices like unregulated tourism, overgrazing by livestock, and
Fig. 31.2 Snapshots from the study area in North-West Himalaya and ethnobotanical surveys
being conducted in the region
unsustainable extraction of local flora. Ethnobotanical studies are pivotal, reflecting

diverse cultural perspectives on plant usage. This knowledge is invaluable for envi-
ronmental conservation, as it incorporates insights from social sciences, traditions,
and folklore. The erosion of traditional knowledge underscores the urgency of docu-
mentation. Such knowledge, often transmitted orally, risks vanishing without proper
documentation. Scientific community involvement is crucial for compiling this
information, which can serve as a foundation for advanced research in medicine and
bio-prospecting. In-situ conservation efforts, led by native communities, play a vital
role in safeguarding local biodiversity. Ethnobotanical research addresses universal
concerns like climate change and food security and enriches scientific understand-
ing of indigenous conservation methods. A community-based approach focusing on
grassroots research is essential, particularly for vulnerable groups facing climate
change impacts. Biodiversity, climate change, and ethnobotany are deeply
Fig. 31.3 1. Edible Corylus jacquemontiiDecne. Seeds 2. Fuelwood stored in villages for severe
winter months. 3. Local deity temple constructed using Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don
wood. 4. A local using Zanthoxylum armatum DC. twigs to clean teeth. 5. Traditional house deco-
rated with Rhododendron arboreum Sm. flowers on the occasion of the Baisakhi (Bishu/bashesaja)
festival.6. Brooms prepared from PinusroxburghiiSarg. needles
interconnected, emphasizing the need for holistic conservation strategies.

Conserving habitats and promoting rural knowledge necessitates capacity-building
initiatives facilitated by research institutions and governmental bodies. Failure to
document traditional knowledge risks losing invaluable insights into plant resources,
especially in biodiversity-rich regions. Further, prioritizing conservation and resto-
ration efforts is imperative to mitigate climate change and ensure the well-being of
both ecosystems and communities.
Table 31.1 Flora of significant importance from the Nort-West Himalayas, India
Common/local
Species [family] name Habit Ethnobotanical usage
Abies pindrow (Royle ex West Himalayan Tree Use of wood for construction and
D.Don) Royle [Pinaceae] silver fir/Tosh fuel wood purposes
Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Himalayan silver Tree Use of wood for construction and
Mirb.[Pinaceae] fir/Tosh fuel wood purposes
Acer caesium Wall. ex Bluish grey Tree Fuel wood, folders, and young
Brandis [Aceraceae] maple/Kanjal leaves are a favorite food in the
Himalayan language
Achyranthes aspera Prickley chaff Herb Plant’s smoke with hookah to treat
L.[Amaranthaceae] flower/ asthma
puthkanda
Aconitum Violet Herb Tuberous roots are used in treating
violaceumJacquem. ex Stapf Monkshood/ colds and coughs. The plants act
[Ranunculaceae] Patish as an antidote against snake
poison
Acorus calamus L. Sweet flag/ Herb The plant is aromatic and used to
[Acoraceae] Bachh treat cough
Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Indian horse Tree The flour prepared from kernels is
Cambess.) chestnut/Khanor known as khesaithat, which is
Hook.[Sapindaceae] used to prepare halwa (sweet
pudding).
The leftover residue is given to
cattle, whereas leaves are lopped
for fodder
Angelica glaucaEdgew. Smooth Herb Dried roots are used to cure
[Apiaceae] angelica/Chora stomach-related problems
Ainsliaea aptera DC. Wingless Herb Roots are used to treat stomach-
[Asteraceae] Ainsliaea/ related disorders
Shathjari
Arnebiabenthamii(Wall ex Himalayan Herb Roots treat wounds and also yield
G. Don) I.M.Johnst. Arnebia/Ratanjot dye used for coloring hair and
[Boraginaceae] clothes
Arisaema tortuosum(Wall.) Whipcord cobra Herb Locals consume water boiled with
Schott [Araceae] lily/Sapalu root tubers. The leafy plant part is
eaten as a vegetable
Bauhinia variegataL. Orchid tree/ Tree Fruits are consumed as vegetables,
[Fabaceae] Kachnar, Kareltu and flowers are edible when
consumed as raita (curd)
Berberis aristata DC. Nepal barberry, Shrub Roots are churned to make them
[Berberidaceae] Indian barberry/ mushy and spread over the
Kashmal wounds afterward
Berberis lyciumRoyle Indian lycium/ Shrub Green leaves are consumed to treat
[Berberidaceae] Kashmal jaundice, and their juice is used to
treat piles. The roots are boiled,
and the liquid helps treat eye
troubles
(continued)

Common/local
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Frilly Bergenia/ Herb Kidney stone patients eat leaves
Sternb.[Saxifragaceae] Patharchatt raw, and pakora (fritters) are a
local food many enjoy
Betula utilis D. Don Himalayan Tree The bark is used to prepare tea for
[Betulaceae] birch/Bhojpatra curing colds and coughs. The
peeling bark is water-resistant and
covers roofs under slates to
prevent water from seeping in
Boenninghauseniaalbiflora White Herb The plants repel insects like mites
(Hook.) Rchb. Ex. Meisn. Himalayan Rue/ and mosquitoes
[Rutaceae] Pissumar
Buxus wallichianaBaill. Himalayan Tree Combs were made in early times,
[Buxaceae] boxwood/ and leaves were boiled in water
Samsad, papdi consumed by people with asthma
Cannabis sativa L. Marijuana/ Herb Seed oil is spread over burnt areas,
[Cannabaceae] Bhang and the seed is used as stuffing in
various local food items, such as
siddur, old, and nature (fermented
wheat bread)
Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex Himalayan Tree Locals used wood for temple
D.Don) G.Don[Pinaceae] Cedar/Diyar, construction. Wood is also a
Kelo source of fuel. The oil from the
needles is applied to cattle to
eliminate maggots
Celtis australis L. [Ulmaceae] Nettle tree, Tree Source of fuel and fodder. Paste
Mediterranean from bark is spread over the
Hackberry/ physically injured area
khirak
Corylus jacquemontiiDecne. Hazelnut/ Tree Nuts are edible and possess high
[Betulaceae] Shadoi, thangi nutritional value. It is mixed with
moodi (roasted rice), and the
garland is made of nuts. Leaves as
fodder for cattle
Cynodondactylon(L.)Pers. Common lawn Herb It cures nose bleeding and is
[Poaceae] grass, Bermuda mandatorily used to perform
grass/Doob religious ceremonies
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex Indian Tree Relief from a sprain is attained
DC. [Fabaceae] rosewood/ when the leaves are compressed
Shisham and mixed with Himalayan pink
salt. Wood is utilized for
construction purposes
Elaeagnus umbellate Thunb. Autumn olive, Shrub Fruits are edible. Seeds in powder
[Hydrangeaceae] Japanese form are used to treat cough
Silverberry/
Ghein
(continued)

Common/local
Ficus palmate Forssk. Wild fig/Phedu Tree The locals consume the fruits.
[Moraceae] After drying, the wood is a source
of winter fuel. The white latex
oozing out of leaves and twigs
helps extract thorns from the skin
Ficus auriculata Elephant ear fig, Tree Fruits are edible. It is fodder and
Lour.[Moraceae] Roxburgh fig/ fuelwood species. Cups and plates
Tremble are made locally by leaves
Girardiniadiversifolia(Link) Bhabhar Herb Fibers from the plant are used to
Friis [Urticaceae] make ropes
Grewia optiva J. R. Drumm. Beul Tree The fruits are edible. The bark,
ex Burret [Tiliaceae] which has long fibers, is used to
make ropes. It is a fuelwood
species, serving as fodder in lean
winter months
Hedera nepalensis K. Koch Himalayan ivy/ Climber The plant is used as fodder
[Araliaceae] Karbaru
Hymenidiumbrunonis(DC.) Brown’s paper Herb Leaves are added to cooked food
Lindl. [Apiaceae] cup flower/ to enhance flavor. Locals keep the
Lossar, Nesar leaves in their pockets to ward off
evil spirits
Hypericum Pendant St. Herb Flowers taken in powdered form
oblongifoliumChoisy John’s Wort treat jaundice
[Hypericaceae]
Indigofera heterantha Wall. Himalayan Shrub Used as fuel and fodder
ex Brandis [Fabaceae] indigo/Kathi
Juglans regia L. Walnut/khod Tree Nuts are edible. The bark’s color
[Juglandaceae] is obtained from it, and local
women use it as a substitute for
lipstick. Twigs and peeling bark
help clean teeth. Wood is used to
make furniture and carved ceilings
in local houses
Leucaena Wild tamarind/ Tree The tree is used for fodder and
leucocephala(Lam.) de Wit Subabul fuelwood purposes
[Fabaceae]
Melia azedarach Chinaberry/ Tree The tree is used for fodder and
L.[Meliaceae] Bakain fuelwood.
Morus serrataRoxb. Himalayan Tree Fruits are edible. According to
[Moraceae] Mulberry/Kimu native folklore, the locals boiled
and ate tree bark when the region
was hit by severe drought long
ago. The bark is also used to clean
teeth. The leaves serve as excellent
fodder during lean months
(continued)

Common/local
Neolitseapallens (D.Don) Pale litsea/ Tree Oil from the seeds helps treat
Momiy. &H.Hara Narkhi muscular cramps, and wild
[Lauraceae] animals relish the fruits
Phytolacca acinose Roxb. Indian Herb Leaves are consumed as
[Phylolaccaceae] pokeweed// vegetables, and a traditional food
Jharga locally known as pateed is made
from them after applying a paste
of gram flour and cooking in
steam
Podophyllum Himalayan may Herb The fruit is edible, and its rhizome
hexandrumRoyle apple/Bankakri heals cuts and wounds
[Berberidaceae]
Populus ciliata Wall. ex Himalayan Tree Wood is an important fuel source;
Royle [Salicaceae] poplar/ leaves are collected for fodder
Pahalipeepal,
Chilon
Potentilla indica (Andrews) Himalayan Herb Its fruit is a wild edible
Th. Wolf [Rosaceae] strawberry/
bhumbde
Piceasmithiana(Wall.) Boiss. Himalayan Tree Wood is utilized for fuel and
[Pinaceae] spruce/ Rai construction
Pinus roxburghiiSarg. Chir pine/Chir Tree Resin is applied on cracked feet.
[Pinaceae] Wood and pine cones are burnt as
fuel. Small brooms are made up of
pine needles
Pinus wallichiana Himalayan blue Tree It is one of the major timber
A.B. Jacks. [Pinaceae] pine/Kail species of the region. It is also a
main species deployed for house
construction and fuelwood. Pine
needles are spread beneath cattle
to provide warmth, and resin is
applied to cracked feet
Pistacia chinensis Bunge Chinese Tree The gall is burnt and powdered,
[Anacardiaceae] pistachio/ then taken with honey and warm
Kakarsinghi water to treat a bad cough. The
leaves are utilized as fodder. This
is a fuelwood species
Prinsepia utilis Royle Himalayan Shrub The seed oil is known to treat
[Rosaceae] cherry prinsepia/ muscular pain after topical
Bhekhal application. The aerial plant part is
known to ward off evil spirits
(continued)

Common/local
Prunus cerasoidesBuch.- Wild Himalayan Tree Leaves are used to decorate houses
Ham.exD.Don[Rosaceae] cherry/Pajja on the occasion of Shivratri, and
they are also crushed, mingled
with ghee, and burnt to perform
puja on Makar Sankranti. Direct
application of crushed green
leaves helps to get rid of burning
sensations on the skin
Prunus armeniaca L. Wild apricot/ Tree Oil is prepared from edible seeds
[Rosaceae] Chuli, khurmani and relieves muscular cramps after
topical application. Raw and dried
fruits are also edible. Oil is also
used to relieve earaches
Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Himalayan bird Tree Fruits are edible, and wood is used
Royle) Steud. [Rosaceae] cherry/Jamun as fuel. It is rarely given as fodder
to animals, and furniture is made
from wood
Prunus miraKoehne Behmi Tree Twigs are known to clean teeth,
[Rosaceae] and the kernel oil treats joint pain.
Wood is also utilized for fuel
purposes
Punica granatum L. Pomegranate/ Tree Best fodder during lean winter
[Lytheraceae] Anar, Daru months. The wood is used as
fuelwood. Wood is also used to
prepare charcoal
Quercus floribunda Lindl. ex Green oak/ Tree Best fodder during lean winter
A.Camus[Fagaceae] Mohru months. The wood is used as
fuelwood. Wood is also used to
prepare charcoal
Quercus leucotrichophoraA. White oak/Ban Tree Best fodder during lean winter
Camus[Fagaceae] months. The wood is used as
fuelwood
Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. Brown oak, Tree Best fodder during lean winter
[Fagaceae] Himalayan oak/ months. The wood is used as
Kharshu fuelwood
Rhamnus virgata Roxb. Cane buckthorn/ Tree It is used as a source of fuelwood
[Rhamnaceae] Chatain
Rhododendron arboreum Red Tree Chutneys, jams, and squash are
Sm. [Ericaceae] rhododendron, prepared from its flowers. The
tree flowers are considered auspicious,
rhododendron/ and garlands are prepared and
Buransh hung on doors during the Bishu
(Baisakhi) festival. The local caps
are decorated with flowers and
leaves. A paste of dried flowers
treats stomachaches
(continued)

Common/local
Rhododendron Pink Shrub/ Flower is offered to local deities,
campanulatumD.Don rhododendron, small and the plant is known to treat
[Ericaceae] bell tree skin troubles
rhododendron/
Simbar
Rhododendron Pink scaly Shrub Leaves are used to prepare tea,
lepidotumWall.exG. rhododendron/ which cures colds and coughs
Don[Ericaceae] talish
Rhododendron anthopogon Dwarf Shrub Leaves are used to prepare tea,
D. Don [Ericaceae] rhododendron/ which cures colds and coughs
talishpatra
RobiniapseudoacaciaL. White locust Tree The tree is the source of fodder
[Fabaceae] tree/Robinia and fuel
Rosa macrophyllaLindl. Himalayan rose/ Shrub Fruits are edible. The flowers are
[Rosaceae] Kui offered to deities and used during
puja on various auspicious
occasions
Rosa sericeaLindl. Silky rose/ Shrub Fruits are edible. The dried fruits
[Rosaceae] Jungligulab bring relief in case of jaundice and
fever
Rosa Musk rose/ Shrub Flowers are used for adorning
moschataHerrm[Rosaceae] Jungligulab purposes. In earlier times, wood
was used to make hooka pipes,
which were used to smoke tobacco
Rubus ellipticus Sm. Yellow Shrub Fruits are edible; the plant is also
[Rosaceae] Himalayan used as a biological fence around
raspberry/Hinsar orchards
RubusniveusThunb. Mysore Shrub Fruits are edible. The root extract
[Rosaceae] raspberry/ is known to control menstrual flow
Kadkhe
Rumex hastatusD.Don Arrowleaf dock/ Herb The plant is the source of fodder,
[Polygonaceae] Khati-mithi and locals prepare chutney
Rumex nepalensisSpreng. Nepal dock/ Herb Leaf paste is spread over burns to
[Polygonaceae] Jungli palak, cool them and relieve the stinging
marmaila sensation of Urtica dioica
Salix denticulataAndersson Elegant willow/ Tree Wood is used to make handles for
[Salicaceae] Bashal agricultural implements. The
fodder from the tree is not given to
cattle
SkimmiaanquetiliaN.P.Tay West Himalayan Shrub During auspicious days, dried
lor& Airy Shaw [Rutaceae] Skimmia/Sashri, leaves are churned using ghee and
Patti Dhoop burnt with coal, which emits
smoke. The leaves adorn local
caps and are also offered to the
local deities
(continued)

Common/local
Sunhangia elegans (DC.) Elegant Shrub Twigs of the plant help maintain
H.Ohashi&K. desmodium/ oral hygiene and are also a source
Ohashi[Fabaceae] mataru of fuelwood
Taraxacum sect. Taraxacum Dandelion/ Herb The plant is known to treat
F.H.Wigg. [Asteraceae] Dudhli jaundice and inflammation
Taxus wallichianaZucc. Himalayan yew/ Tree Green tea, prepared from the bark,
[Taxaceae] Thoono, rakhal is known to treat coughs and
colds. Traditionally, the gate of the
houses is decorated with taxus
branches during wedding
ceremonies. Fruits are edible
Trillium govanianum Wall. Himalayan Herb Dried roots of the plant cure
ex D.Don [Melanthiaceae] Trillium/Nag arthritis, stomachache, and fever
chattri
Ulmuswallichiana Planch. Himalayan elm/ Tree The bark is known to join bones,
[Ulmaceae] Parmandi wrapped around broken bones in
humans and cattle. It is a crucial
fodder and fuelwood species
Urtica dioica L. [Urticaceae] Stinging nettle/ Herb The juice extracted after boiling
Kunkshi the green leaves is effective in
treating jaundice. Green leaves are
stuffed after grinding to prepare
various items of local cuisine.
Leaf paste is applied to sprains to
reduce swellings
Viburnum grandiflorum Grand viburnum/ Shrub Ripe fruits are edible
Wall.ex DC. [Viburnaceae] thalain
Viola canescens Wall. Himalayan white Herb The plant is boiled in water, and
(Violaceae) violet/Banaksha the resulting concentrate is
consumed in case of cold or cough
Verbascum Thapsus L. Great mullein/ Herb The plant is known to ward off
[Scrophulariaceae] Tamakhu evil spirits. The flowers are known
to treat cough
Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Winged prickly Shrub The woody plant part is used to
(Rutaceae) ash/Timur clean teeth. Its wood is known to
ward off evil spirits. Wood is
utilized to prepare walking sticks
References
Adhikary K (2017) Ethnobotany, commercialisation and climate change: consequences of the

exploitation of Yarsagumba in Nepal. Eur Bull Himal Res 49:35–58
Araújo M, Rahbek C (2006) How does climate change affect biodiversity? Science 313:1396–1397
Aswal BS, Mehrotra BN (1994) Flora of Lahaul-Spiti. BSMPS, Dehra Dun
Chauhan A, Jishtu V (2022) Important Ethnomedicinal Arboreal Flora in Nogli Watershed of
Sutlej River Catchment, District Shimla, North-West Himalaya, India. J Plant Resources
20(2):156–164
Chauhan PP, Nigam A, Santvan VK (2014) Ethnobotanical survey of trees in Pabbar Valley_ distt.
Shimla, Himachal Pradesh. Life Sci Leaflets 52:24
Chowdhery HJ, Wadhwa BM (1984) Flora of Himachal Pradesh: Botanical Survey of India.
Calcutta, pp. 1–3
Collett H (1921) Flora Simlensis. Revised Thacker Spink and Co., Calcutta
Daniel TC, Muhar A, Arnberger A, Aznar O, Boyd JW, Chan KM et al (2012) Contributions of
cultural services to the ecosystem services agenda. Proc Natl Acad Sci 109(23):8812–8819
Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD (2020) Ethnobotanical studies on indigenous communities in
the Philippines: current status, challenges, recommendations and future perspectives. J
Complementary Med Res 11(1):432–446
29(2):451–457
Duthie JF (1906) The Orchids of North-Western Himalaya, Calcutta
Ehrlich P, Ehrlich A (1981) Extinction: the causes and consequences of the disappearance of species
Feeley K, Silman M (2012) Land-use and climate change effects on population size and extinction
risk of Andean plants. Glob Chang Biol 16:3215–3222
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2009) Food and Agriculture: key to
achieving the 2030 agenda for sustainable development
Harshberger JW (1896) The purpose of Ethnobotany. Bot Gaz 21:146–154
Jabeen T, Akhtar A, Shah AH, Khan KR, Farooq M (2021) Qualitative and quantitative ethno-
botanical evaluation of plant resources of Kiwai, Kaghan valley, district Mansehra, Pakistan.
Indian J Tradit Knowl 20(1):141–153
Jain SK (1987) Ethnobotany, its scope and various sub-disciplines. In: A manual of ethnobot-
any, pp 1–11
Karunamoorthi K, Jegajeevanram K, Vijayalakshmi J, Mengistie E (2013) Traditional medicinal
plants: a source of phytotherapeutic modality in resource-constrained health care settings. J
Evid Based Complementary Altern Med 18:67–74
Kashyap SD, Dagar JC, Pant KS, Yewale AG (2014). Soil conservation and ecosystem stabil-
ity: natural resource management through agroforestry in North-western Himalayan Region.
Springer India
Kumar R, Khare A and Singh H (2011) Phytosociological and ecological profiling of angiospermic
weeds flora of Pantnagar. Indian J Forestry 34:221–224
Kumar S, Gupta D (2023) Forest biodiversity and livelihood of Tribal people in North Western
Himalaya with special reference to Himachal Pradesh, India. Int J Plant Soil Sci 35(19):888–907
(2020) Carbon mineralization and inorganic nitrogen pools under Terminalia chebula Retz.-
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
49(1):38–44
Kumar A, Tewari S, Singh H, Kumar P, Kumar N, Bisth S, Kushwah S, Nidhi KR (2021e) Biomass
Kumar N, Jeena N, Kumar A, Khairakpan R, Singh H (2021f) Comparative response of rice culti-
org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120191
Lone MA (2014) An interrogation into the relationship of North Western Himalayan tribes and the
natural resources. Online Int Interdiscip Res J 4:623–632
Martin GJ, Ethnobotany A (1995) A methods manual. Chapaman and Hill, London, pp 1–251
Nair NC (1977) Flora of the Bashahr Himalaya. Today and Tomorrow Publi, Delhi
Nath V, Khatri KP (2010) Traditional knowledge on ethno-medicinal uses prevailing in tribal
pockets of Chhindwara and Betul Districts, Madhya Pradesh, India. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol
4(9):662–670
Nayar MP, Sastry ARK (1987) 1988 and 1990. Red Data Book of Indian Plants, Vol. I–III. Botanical
Survey of India, Calcutta
Hill Farm 34:272–276. (ISSN: 0970-6429)
Pal DK, Dutt B, Dhiman R, Attri V (2020) Studies on traditional medicinal plants in mid Himalayan
region of Himachal Pradesh. J Pharmacog Phytochem 9(5S):876–883
Pangtey YPS, Samant SS, Rawat GS (1991) Orchids of Kumaun Himalaya. Bishen Singh
Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, p. 193
Polunin O, Stainton A (1984) Flowers of Himalaya. Oxford University Press, New Delhi, p 580
Prakash P, Radha, Kumar M, Kumari N, Prakash S, Rathour S et al (2021) Therapeutic uses of
wild plants by rural inhabitants of Maraog region in district Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India.
Horticulturae 7(10):343
Prance GT (2007) Ethnobotany, the science of survival: a declaration from Kaua’i. Econ Bot
61(1):1–2
Rana MS, Samant SS (2011) Diversity, indigenous uses and conservation status of medicinal
plants in Manali wildlife sanctuary, North Western Himalaya
Assess 194(50). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09721-8
Rawat GS (2012) Patterns of plant species richness, diversity and endemism in the Alpine Zone of
Western Himalaya. Divers Conserv Plants Tradit Knowl:253–268
Rodgers WA, Panwar HS (1992) Planning Wildlife Protected Area Network in India, (Revised).
WII, Dehradun
Rodríguez MA, Angueyra A, Cleef AM, Van Andel T (2018) Ethnobotany of the Sierra Nevada
del Cocuy-Güicán: climate change and conservation strategies in the Colombian Andes. J
Ethnobiol Ethnomed 14(1):1–12
Salick J, Zhendong F, Byg A (2009) Eastern Himalayan alpine plant ecology, Tibetan ethnobotany,
and climate change. Glob Environ Chang 19:147–155
Samant SS (2015) Assessment, Valuation and Conservation Prioritization of Floristic Diversity
in Trans, North Western and Western Himalaya. D. Sc. Thesis, Kumaun University, Nainital,
Uttarakhand
Samant SS (2021) Floristic diversity of the Himalaya in relation to climate change: status, values
and conservation. J Graphic Era Univ:31–54
Samant SS, Dhar U, Palni LMS (1998) Medicinal plants of Indian Himalaya: diversity, distribu-
tion. Pot Values, Gyanodaya, Prakashan, Nainital
Schultes RE (1997) The importance of ethnobotany in environmental conservation. Monografías
del Real JardínBotánico de Córdoba 5:157–164
Shah NC (2018) Plants of Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary. In: Rai ID, Singh G, Rawat GS (eds)
Western Himalaya: a fieldguide. M/s Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun (India)
Shekhar MS, Chand H, Kumar S, Srinivasan K, Ganju A (2010) Climate-change studies in the
western Himalaya. Ann Glaciol 51(54):105–112
Singh KJ, Thakur AK (2014) Medicinal plants of the Shimla hills, Himachal Pradesh: a survey. Int
J Herb Med 2(2):118–127
Singh H, Verma A, Kumar R, Joshi B, Meena D (2011) Diversity of woody and non woody forestry
species in Budaun District of Uttar Pradesh, India. Researcher 3(12):1–7
region, in response to climate change. Clim Risk Manag 29:100241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
crm.2020.100241
Sofowora A, Ogunbodede E, Onayade A (2013) The role and place of medicinal plants in the strat-
egies for disease prevention. Afr J Tradit Complementary Altern Med 10:210–229
Stainton JDA (1977) Some problems of Himalayan plant distribution (99–120) in Himalaya.
Ecologie- ethnologie. Editions du centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris
The Sustainable Development Goals Report (2015)
Thuiller W, Albert C, Araújo M, Berry P, Cabeza M, Guisan A, Hickler T, Midgley G, Paterson J,
Schurr F, Sykes M, Zimmermann N (2008) Predicting global change impacts on plant species’
distributions: future challenges. Perspect Plant Ecol Evol System 9:137–152
Umair M, Altaf M, Abbasi AM (2017) An ethnobotanical survey of indigenous medicinal plants in
Hafizabad district, Punjab-Pakistan. PLoS One 12(6):e0177912
Wadia DN (1931) The syntaxis of the northwest Himalaya: its rocks, tectonics, and orogeny. Rec
Geol Surv India 65:189–220
Chapter 32
Human-Induced Soil Acidification
in the Indian Sundarbans: Implications
for Carbon Dynamics in Mangrove Soil
Abstract Mangrove forests are known for their unique ability to store organic car-
bon, about three to five times more than terrestrial forests. The underlying soil sub-
stratum of mangrove trees holds a considerable quantum of organic carbon, thus
justifying the efficacy of mangrove soil as a vital sink of carbon. However, the soil
pH gradually dipped with the increase of anthropogenic footprints in the mangrove
forests. We present the decadal variation of Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) and Soil pH
at four stations, namely Kakdwip (Stn. 1) and Sagar South (Stn. 2) in the western
sector and Sajnekhali (Stn. 3) and Harinbhanga (Stn. 4) in the eastern sector of
Indian Sundarbans based on field survey between 2012 and 2022. The stations in the
western sector are exposed to anthropogenic influences of different degrees due to
unplanned urban development and the proliferation of shrimp farms coupled with
the construction of fish landing stations at the cost of mangroves. The SOC values
increased by 47.17% and 14.29% at Kakdwip and Sagar South, respectively. The
Surface soil pH values decreased by 1.82% and 0.84% at Kakdwip and Sagar South,
respectively, which is a clear footprint of soil acidification. In the eastern sector with
luxuriant mangrove vegetation, the SOC values increased by 10.26% and 5.03% at
Sajnekhali and Harinbhanga, respectively, during our survey period after a decadal
interval. The surface soil pH values exhibited a relatively lesser degree of decrease
by 0.49% and 0.24% at Sajnekhali and Harinbhanga, respectively. The high man-
grove diversity and density and fewer anthropogenic footprints in the eastern sector
may be the reason for the minimum deviation in the values of SOC and soil pH in
this region. The western sector, with an extremely low density of mangroves,
showed considerable variations in the soil parameters. This may have far-reaching
negative consequences on the biotic community in the western Indian Sundarbans
as mangroves serve as bio-buffers against acidification in the tropical estuarine eco-
system by shifting the soil pH towards neutrality.
S. Ahmed · P. Pramanick · S. Zaman

Department of Oceanography, Techno India University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
A. Mitra (*)
Department of Marine Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Ltd. 2024
676 S. Ahmed et al.
Keywords Mangroves · Soil organic carbon (SOC) · Soil pH · Indian Sundarban
32.1 Introduction
Mangroves are a specialized type of vegetation that thrives in brackish water with
different salinity gradients. They offer several valued ecosystem services broadly
divided into provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services (Figs. 32.1,
32.2, 32.3 and 32.4).
Amongst the various services, the regulating service of mangroves encompasses
the carbon-storing potential of true mangroves and associate flora (Jana et al. 2013;
Ouyang and Lee 2013; Sengupta et al. 2013; Kumar and Singh 2020; Quintana-
Alcantara 2014; Zaman et al. 2014; Das et al. 2015; Ashuri and Patria 2020; Paul
et al. 2021, 2022; Sangma et al. 2022; Khokher et al. 2023). The underlying soil
substratum of mangrove forests is the principal reservoir of the ecosystem carbon
stock (Donato et al. 2011; Kauffman et al. 2011, 2014; Jones et al. 2014; Sharma
and Singh 2021).
The intertidal mudflats’ Soil Organic Carbon (SOC)originates from the overly-
ing mangrove vegetation and marine and terrestrial sources (Joshi et al. 2021;
Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d). Several research findings show significant variations in
SOC levels exist across different mangrove forests (Jardine and Siikamäki 2014;
Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c) and within the same mangrove forests (Adame et al. 2015).
Hence, understanding the distribution and spatio-temporal variations of SOC in the
mangrove ecosystem can serve as a natural mode to sequester carbon in the soil
compartment and combat the pace of climate change (Singh et al. 2023; Dhyani
et al. 2021). According to Howard et al. (2017), “… accurate estimates and an
understanding of the spatial distribution of mangrove soil carbon stocks are a criti-
cal first step in understanding climatic and anthropogenic impacts on mangrove
carbon storage and in realizing the climate mitigation potential of these ecosystems
Fish
Timber/fuel wood/fodder
Mangrove Wax
Provisioning
Services Honey
Medicinal plants
Migratory Route of Fish
Fruits with high nutritional
Fig. 32.1 Provisioning services of mangroves

32 Human-Induced Soil Acidification in the Indian Sundarbans: Implications… 677
Fig. 32.2 Regulating Climate-related parameters like

services of mangroves temperature, CO2, etc.
Wind velocity
Mangrove Water quality

Regulating
Services Soil quality
Water flow
Erosion
Pollination
Tourism
Education and Research
Mangrove Recreation
Cultural
Services Mental well being
Spiritual and Religious
Health benefit
Cultural identification and

heritage
Fig. 32.3 Cultural services of mangroves
through various policy mechanism....”. This research attempts to critically analyze

the spatiotemporal variations of SOC in two different sectors with contrasting
anthropogenic footprints after a decadal gap (survey conducted between 2012 and
2022) and link the same with the existing carbon credit system.
32.2 Materials and Methods
32.2.1 Selection of Stations
In the present study, four stations were selected in the western and eastern sectors of
the Indian Sundarbans, which are significantly different in anthropogenic footprints.
The stations in the west of sectors were Kakdwip (Stn. 1) (21°52″26.5’N;
88°08″04.5′E) and Sagar South (Stn. 2) (21°38″51.6’N; 88°02″20.9′E) whereas, in
678 S. Ahmed et al.
Fig. 32.4 Supporting Breeding ground of fishes and

services of mangroves other fauna
Nursery site for fish and fauna

Mangrove
Protection of fauna and flora
Supporting
Services
Nutrition of fauna and fauna
Life cycle of fauna and flora
Dynamics of ecosystem
processes
Maintenance of biodiversity
through mangrove-based food
webs
Fig. 32.5 Four sampling stations, two each in the western and eastern Indian Sundarbans, were
selected to study surface SOC and surface soil pH between 2012 and 2022
the eastern sector two other stations Sajnekhali (Stn. 3) (22°07″24.9’N; 88°49″30.2′E)
and Harinbhanga (Stn. 4) (21°57″17.9’N; 88°59″33.2′E) were selected (Fig. 32.5).
The soil samples from each station was collected during the low tide phase from the
surface layer of the intertidal mudflats randomly from ten sites in the 10 m × 10 m
quadrats and mixed to get a representative picture of the station.
32.2.2 Sample Processing and Analysis of SOC
The sampling was conducted during the low tide period to evaluate SOC in the sur-
face soil of selected stations in the western and eastern sectors of Indian
Sundarbans.“Soil samples were collected from the surface layer (0–10 cm) of the
selected stations during low tide conditions and brought to the laboratory for esti-
mating the SOC level in percentage following the standard method of Walkley and
Black method (Walkley and Black 1934) (Fig. 32.6).
32.2.3 Estimation of Soil pH
The surface soil pH of the intertidal mudflats was directly recorded with a soil pH
meter (sensitivity ±0.01) after the instrument was standardized with buffers 4.0
and 7.0.
32.3 Results
The values of SOC in the selected stations are shown in Fig. 32.7. The soil pH val-
ues are presented in Fig. 32.8. It was observed that SOC values followed the order
Kakdwip (Stn. 1) > Sajnekhali (Stn.3) > Harinbhanga (Stn. 4) > Sagar South(Stn. 2)
during 2012 and 2022. Also, it was observed that SOC values increased in all the
stations after a decade. The increased percentage was 47.17%,14.29%,10.26%, and
5.03% at Stn. 1, Stn. 2, Stn.3, and Stn. 4, respectively.
In the case of soil pH, the order in 2012 was Sagar South(Stn.2) > Kakdwip
(Stn.1) > Harinbhanga (Stn. 4) > Sajnekhali (Stn.3). However, in 2022 the order
changed to Sagar South (Stn. 2) > Harinbhanga (Stn. 4) > Sajnekhali (Stn.
3) > Kakdwip (Stn.1). The pH value of surface soil decreased in all the stations after
a decade. Still, the decrease was maximum at Kakdwip (1.82%), followed by Sagar
South(0.84%), Sajnekhali (0.49%), and Harinbhanga (0.24%).
32.4 Discussion
Soil substratum is the vital compartment in the mangrove habitats as it supplies

nutrients not only for the growth of mangroves but also as a significant platform for
the endemic biotic communities that provide a wide array of ecosystem services
(Gupta and Singh 2017; Joshi and Singh 2020; Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c; Nautiyal
et al. 2022; Singh et al. 2023). The content of SOC often evaluates the productivity
of the mangrove soil. The SOC level in the mangrove habitats is regulated by several
680 S. Ahmed et al.
Fig. 32.6 Flow chart for estimation of Soil Organic Carbon by Walkley and Black method
environmental factors like tidal action, mangrove vegetation diversity, human-

induced actions in and around the region, the magnitude of soil erosion, current
patterns, the topography of the area, etc.
The present study area is noted for maximum anthropogenic activities in the
western sector (encompassing the stations Kakdwip and Sagar South). In contrast,
the eastern sector, spotted with stations Sajnekhali and Harinbhanga, exhibits luxu-
riant mangrove vegetation. Table 32.1 presents the significant sources of organic
carbon in the surface soil of these two sectors.
2.5
2.3
2.1
1.9
1.7
SOC (%)
1.5
1.3
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
2012 2022 2012 2022 2012 2022 2012 2022
Kakdwip Sagar South Sajnekhali Harinbhanga
Fig. 32.7 Spatiotemporal variation of Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) in the study site
6.4
6.35
6.3
6.25
pH
6.2
6.15
6.1
2012 2022 2012 2022 2012 2022 2012 2022
Fig. 32.8 Spatio-temporal variation of Soil pH in the study site
32.4.1 Soil Organic Carbon
The range of SOC in the present study area varied from 1.26% (at Sagar South -Stn.
2) to 1.99% (at Harinbhanga -Stn. 4) during 2012. The values increased after a
decade, during 2022, when the lowest value was observed at Sagar South Stn.
(1.44%) and highest value at Kakdwip Stn. (2.34%). The relatively high values of
SOC in the western part of Indian Sundarban may be attributed to increased anthro-
pogenic footfall in this sector that encompasses fish landing, agriculture, tourism,
pilgrimage, industrial discharge (vide Table 32.2 for list of industries along the
lower stretch of the Hooghly estuary in the western Indian Sundarban), etc.
682 S. Ahmed et al.
Table 32.1 Major sources of SOC in the western and eastern sectors of Indian Sundarbans with
respective degree of magnitude (denoted by “+” sign) of each source
Station name Coordinates Major activity Magnitude
Kakdwip (Stn. 21°52″26.5’N; 1. Fish landing station +++
1) 88°08″04.5′E 2. Shrimp culture farm +
3. Tourism +
4. Market place +++
5. Brick kilns ++
6. Mangrove vegetation +
7. Pilgrims −
8. Industrial activity from the adjacent ++a
port-cum-industrial belt of Haldia
Sagar south 21°38″51.6’N; 1. Fish landing station +
(Stn. 2) 88°02″20.9′E 2. Shrimp culture farm +
3. Tourism +++
4. Market place −
5. Brick kilns −
6. Mangrove vegetation +
7. Pilgrims +++
8. Industrial activity from the adjacent ++a
port-cum industrial belt of Haldia
Sajnekhali (Stn. 22°07″24.9’N; 1. Fish landing station −
3) 88°49″30.2′E 2. Shrimp culture farm −
3. Tourism ++
4. Market place −
5. Brick kilns −
6. Mangrove vegetation +++
7. Pilgrims −
8. Industrial activity from the adjacent −
Harinbhanga 21°57″17.9’N; 1. Fish landing station −
(Stn. 4) 88°59″33.2′E 2. Shrimp culture farm −
3. Tourism −
4. Market place −
5. Brick kilns −
6. Mangrove vegetation +++
7. Pilgrims −
8. Industrial activity from the adjacent −
+, ++, +++ signs represent low, medium, and high intensity, respectively, for the major activities in
the study area, and ‘−’ sign indicates the absence of activity in the respective station
a
Sign indicates that the activity is not within the station, but the station is exposed to wastes gener-
ated from the adjacent Haldia port-cum- industrial complex
Fig. 32.9 Diagrammatic representation of the major activities influencing the SOC level of the
mangrove soil in the western sector of Indian Sundarban; the red arrow indicates activity(s) with
the highest magnitude, the blue arrow represents medium level activity, and the black arrow indi-
cates activity of shallow magnitude
Figure 32.9 represents the various human-related activities witnessed in the western
Indian Sundarbans.
32.4.2 Soil pH
According to Shahid et al. (2014), soil pH measures soil alkalinity or acidity, which
plays an essential role in controlling the availability of nutrients and fixation in
mangrove soil. The acid-base balance of mangrove soil imparts the chemical trans-
formation of most nutrients and their availability to the plants. Most mangrove soil
exhibits a pH range between 6.0 and to7.0, but in some forests, the pH dips to
around 5.0 (Banerjee et al. 2012). In the present study, the soil pH value ranged
from 6.23 (at Stn. 3 -Sajnekhali)to 6.29 (at Stn. 2 -Sagar South) in 2012. In 2022,
the soil pH value decreased considerably in all the stations, ranging from 6.13 (at
Stn. 1 -Kakdwip) to 6.24(at Stn. 4 -Harinbhanga).
The major actors regulating the soil pH in the mangrove ecosystem are listed here:
1. Local-level air pollution leading to acid rain
2. Acidification of estuarine water that impacts the shoreline and adjacent inter-
tidal mudflats
684 S. Ahmed et al.
3. Conversion of mangrove patches to aquaculture farms

4. Release of shrimp culture pond wastes (very common in the western sector)
5. Release of industrial and domestic wastes
6. Indiscriminate use of pesticides in the agricultural fields
7. Absence of treatment system in the fish landing stations, shrimp culture units,
tourism units and pilgrims that are present in the western sector
8. Dredging activities to maintain the draft for navigation of ships and vessels
9. Irresponsible fishing
10. Mangrove litter fall and its subsequent decomposition in the inter-tidal mudflats
32.4.3 Inter-relationship Between Surface Soil pH and SOC
The intertidal mudflat in the mangrove ecosystem receives organic matter through
natural and anthropogenic pathways (Phukon et al. 2022). However, anthropogenic
wastes from domestic units, tourists, pilgrims, shrimp farms, fish landing stations,
etc., undergo decomposition, leading to organic acids that lower pH (Verma et al.
2020). This is the reason behind higher percentage of decrease of soil pH in the
anthropogenically stressed western Indian Sundarbans (mean value of two sta-
tions = 1.33%) compared to the eastern Indian Sundarbans (mean value of two sta-
tions = 0.37%), where mangrove forests are well protected with luxuriant growth
(Mitra and Zaman 2015, 2016, 2020, 2021; Mitra et al. 2022; Kumar et al. 2021a,
b, c, d).
We observed that mangrove soil pH and SOC in the present study have a negative
correlation (rSOC×Soil pH = −0.9423; p < 0.01 in 2012 and rSOC×Soil pH = −0.7629;
p < 0.01 in 2022). This implies that the soil pH level goes down due to organic mat-
ter accumulation. Similar observations were witnessed in different mangrove habi-
tats. These two variables generally follow a weak negative correlation at the
European continental scale. Soil with higher organic carbon (OC) content typically
contains higher organic matter (OM), which secretes organic acids, making the Soil
acidic and, thus, resulting in a lower pH value (Fabian et al. 2014; Kumar et al.
2017, 2020a, b, c; Joshi et al. 2021; Nirmal and Singh 2021; Manoj et al. 2021).
It is to be noted that during our investigation period, the soil pH decreased in all
four selected stations distributed in both sectors of the Indian Sundarbans after a
decadal interval (Fig. 32.10), which confirms the pulse of acidification in the
region’s mangrove soil.
Acidification of the mangrove soil can adversely impact the endemic biotic com-
munity, preferably the bivalves and gastropods with calcareous protective shells.
However, the lower pace of reduction of soil pH in the eastern sector compared to
the stations in the western sector may be attributed to the variation of mangrove
species type, distribution, and density (Fig. 32.11) coupled with anthropogenic fac-
tors. The presence of dense mangrove vegetation in the eastern sector played a criti-
cal role in buffering the soil acidification process. Mangroves can buffer the pH of
nearby water by metabolizing organic matter from oxygen-poor Soil. This releases
2.5
1.5
1
% pH decrease
0.5
0
-0.5 -0.24
-0.50
-1 -0.84
-1.5
-2 -1.82
-2.5
Fig. 32.10 Decreased percentage of surface soil pH in the selected stations of Indian Sundarbans
Fig. 32.11 Comparative picture of mangrove density in the western and eastern sectors of Indian
Sundarbans
alkaline substances into the estuarine water, which can help create equilibrium in
the adjacent intertidal mudflats.
Hence, it can be advocated that mass-scale plantation of mangroves is the need
of the hour to retard the pace of acidification in the mangrove soil (Kumar et al.
2019, 2021a, b, c, d). The species’ plantation must be in sync with the ambient
aquatic salinity, as the growth and survival of mangroves in the present study area
are significantly salinity-specific. Several studies and publications have highlighted
the importance of mangrove forests as carbon sinks, in which mangrove soil may
play a significant role (Mitra et al. 2023; Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d; Joshi et al.
2021). With carbon credits, mangrove forests (preferably the soil compartment)
could become a new market for carbon trading.
686 S. Ahmed et al.
32.5 Conclusion
Indian Sundarban mangrove forest is known for its unique floral and faunal diver-
sity. The biotic community of this unique ecosystem regulates the levels of SOC and
pH of the Soil. The detritivores control the SOC budget of the mangrove soil. Hence,
conserving the habitat is important to maintain the SOC level of this vulnerable
ecosystem presently witnessing anthropogenic pressure of varying intensity. The
pulse of acidification in this ecosystem is because of the increased trend of anthro-
pogenic activities, which has caused the soil pH to decrease over time. Less devia-
tion of surface soil pH in the eastern sector compared to the western sector confirms
the role of mangrove vegetation as bio buffer. The inverse relationship of soil pH
with SOC reveals the acceleration of soil acidification through organic matter accu-
mulation. Hence, conservation and mass-scale plantation of mangroves should be
given priority not only to retard the pace of acidification but also to control the
organic matter accumulation by promoting the detritus food web.
Annexure 1
Table 32.2 List of industries situated at Haldia port-cum-industrial complex

Sl.
No. Name of industry Product
1. Indian Oil Corporation Ltd., L.P.G., Motor Gasoline, Naptha, ATF, MTO, HSD, JBO,
Haldia Kerosene, Furnace Oil, Lubes, Bitumen
2. KoPT/Haldia Dock Complex Port Services
3. Tata Chemicals Ltd., Haldia Industrial Phosphate and Acids
4. Exide Industries Ltd., Haldia Automotive Batteries, Heavy Duty Batteries, Containers,
Special Types of Separators, etc.
5. Shaw Wallace, Haldia Pesticides
6. MCC PTA India Corpn. Pvt. P.T.A
Ltd., Haldia
7. Haldia Petrochemicals Ltd., LLDPE, HDPE, Naptha Cracker, etc.
Haldia
8. IOCL, Paradip-Haldia Oil Petroleum Storage and Transportation
Pipeline
9. IOC Petronas Ltd., Haldia L.P.G
10. Shamon Ispat Ltd. Steel Rolling
11. Dhunseri Petrochem and Tea Petroleum residues
Ltd.
12. Greenways Shipping Containers Freight Station (CFS)
Agencies Pvt. Ltd.,
13. IOC Ltd., Haldia Petroleum Storage
(continued)

Sl.
No. Name of industry Product
14. Hindustan Petroleum Petroleum and allied products
Corporation Ltd.
15. Bharat Petroleum Petroleum and allied products
Corporation Ltd., Haldia
16. Hindustan Unilever Limited. Detergents
17. Marcus Oils and Chemical Polyethylene Waxes
Pvt. Ltd.
13. IOC Ltd., Haldia Petroleum Storage
18. Ruchi Soya Industries Ltd. Edible Oil
19. Manaksia Ltd. Aluminum and Steel
20. Sanjana Cryogenic Storages Ammonia Storage and handling terminal
Ltd
21. R. D. B. Rasayans Ltd., PP Jumbo Bag and Small bag
22. Reliance Industries Limited Storage and handling of Petroleum Products
23. Adani Wilmar Ltd. PEdible Oil Refinery
24. Electrosteel Castings Ltd. Coke Oven Plant, sponge iron plant, power plant
25. URAL India Ltd. Automobile
26. K.S. Oils Ltd. Edible Oil Refinery
27. DPM Net Pvt. Ltd. Fishing net
28. Hooghly Met Coke and Coke Oven Plant
Power Co. Ltd.
29. Ruchi Infrastructure Pvt. Ltd. 3rd Party liquid storage tank terminal
30. Shree Renuka Sugars Ltd. Sugar Refinery and Food Complex
31. Gokul Refoils and Solvent Edible Oil Refinery
Ltd.
32. Emami Biotech Ltd. Bio-diesel Plant
33. Ennore Coke Private Ltd., Coke Oven Plant
34. West Bengal Waste Industrial waste/municipal waste management complex
Management Ltd.
35. Lalbaba Seamless Tubes Pvt. Seamless Tube
Ltd.
36. Modern India Con-cast Ltd. Ferro Alloy Plant
37. Rohit Ferro Tech Ltd. Ferro Alloy”
Source: Haldia Development Authority—An Autonomous Body under the Government of West
Bengal, India (www.nltr.org)
References
Adame MF, Santini NS, Tovilla C, V’Azquez-Lule A, Castro L, Guevara M (2015) Carbon stocks
and soil sequestration rates oftropical riverine wetlands. Biogeosciences 12:3805–3818
Anonymous (n.d.). www.Nltr.Org
Ashuri NM, Patria MP (2020) Vegetation and carbon stock analysis of mangrove ecosystem in
Pancer Cengkrong, Trenggalek, East Java, Indonesia. IOP Conf Series: Earth Environ Sci
481:012029. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/481/1/012029
688 S. Ahmed et al.
Banerjee K, Roy Chowdhury M, Sengupta K, Sett S, Mitra A (2012) Influence of anthropogenic and
natural factors on the mangrove soil of Indian Sundarbans wetland. Arch Environ Sci 6:80–91
Das S, Zaman S, Pramanick P, Pal N, Mitra A (2015) Suaeda Maritima: a potential carbon reservoir
of coastal zone. Int Adv Res J Sci Eng Technol 2(5):61–65
Donato DC, Kauffman JB, Murdiyarso D, Kurnianto S, Stidham M, Kanninen M (2011) Mangroves
among the most carbon-richforests in the tropics. Nat Geosci 4:293–297
Fabian C, Reimann C, Fabian K, Birke M, Baritz R, Haslinger E (2014) GEMAS: spatial distri-
bution of the pH of European agricultural and grazing land soil. Appl Geochem 48:207–216
Howard J, Sutton-Grier A, Herr D, Kleypas J, Landis E, Mcleod E, Pidgeon E, Simpson S (2017)
Clarifying the role of coastaland marine systems in climate mitigation. Front Ecol Environ
15:42–50
Jana HK, Zaman S, Chakraborty S, Pramanick P, Mondal KC, Mitra A (2013) Spatio-temporal
variation of stored carbon in Porteresia coarctata along the east and west coasts of India. Int J
Eng Manag Sci 4(3):377–381
Jardine SL, Siikamäki JV (2014) A global predictive model ofcarbon in mangrove soils. Environ
Res Lett 9:104013
Jones TG, Rakoto Ratsimba H, Ravaoarinorotsihoarana L, Cripps G, Bey A (2014) Ecological
variability and carbon stock estimatesof mangrove ecosystems in northwestern Madagascar.
Forests 5:177–205. https://doi.org/10.3390/f5010177
Kauffman JB, Heider C, Cole TG, Dwire KA, Donato DC (2011) Ecosystem carbon stocks
of Micronesian mangrove forests. Wetlands 31:343–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s13157-011-0148-9
Kauffman JB, Heider C, Norfolk J, Payton F (2014) Carbon stocksof intact mangroves and carbon
emissions arising from their conversion in The Dominican Republic. Ecol Appl 24:518–527
Khokher FK, Khan AU, Bargali HS, Ahmed S, Gobato R, Zaman S, Mitra A (2023) Stored carbon
in dominant mangrove species in Indian Sundarbans: a situation analysis with two different
methods. Parana J Sci Edu 9(1):1–9
Himalayan foothills. India Current Science 118:1098–1103. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v118/

i7/1098-1103
ological traits during seasonal regimes. Urban Forest Urban Greening 58:126900. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
49(1):38–44
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
Mitra A, Zaman S (2015) Blue carbon reservoir of the blue planet, vol XII. Springer, p 299. https://
doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-2107-4
Mitra A, Zaman S (2016) Basics of marine and estuarine ecology, vol XII. Springer, p 483. https://
doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-2707-6
Mitra A, Zaman S (2020) Environmental science—a ground zero observation on the Indian sub-
continent, vol XIV. Springer, p 478. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49131-4
Mitra A, Zaman S (2021) Estuarine acidification: exploring the situation of mangrove dominated
Indian Sundarban estuaries, vol XII. Springer, p 402. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84792-0
Mitra A, Zaman S, Pramanick P (2022) Blue economy in Indian Sundarbans: exploring livelihood
opportunities, vol XIV. Springer, p 403. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07908-5
Mitra A, Ahmed S, Gobato R, Mitra S, Zaman S (2023) Carbon trading: is the concept very vola-
tile? Par J Sci Edu 9(6):1–13. https://sites.google.com/site/pjsciencea
Ouyang X, Lee SY (2013) Carbon accumulation rates in salt marsh sediments suggest high carbon
storage capacity. Biogeosci Discuss 10:19155–19188
Paul DK, Pramanick P, Zaman S, Mitra A (2021) Respondent analysis in context to impact of
climate change on the regulating services of mangrove vegetation. J Mech Continua Math Sci
16(11):26–33. https://doi.org/10.26782/jmcms.2021.11.00003
Paul DK, Ahmed S, Pramanick P, Zaman S, Mitra A (2022) Stored carbon in Porteresia coarctata
along the Hooghly estuary: a unique regulating service of the mangrove associate species. Jag
Univ J Life Earth Sci 8(2):133–140
Quintana-Alcantara CE (2014) Carbon sequestration in tidal salt marshes and mangrove ecosys-
tems. Master'sProjects and Capstones 19. https://repository.usfca.edu/capstone/19
690 S. Ahmed et al.
Sangma PSW, Rani V, Padmavathy P, Zuala V (2022) Differential capacity of carbon sequestration
potential: analyzing avicennia marina and Salicornia brachiata along the south-eastern coast
of India. J Coast Res 38(2):377–388. https://doi.org/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-21-00040.1
Sengupta K, Roy Chowdhury M, Bhattacharyya SB, Raha A, Zaman S, Mitra A (2013) Spatial
variation of stored carbon in Avicennia alba of Indian Sundarbans. Discovery Nat 3(8):19–24
Shahid SA, Abdelfattah MA, Wilson MA, Kelley JA, Chiaretti J (2014) United Arab Emirates keys
to soil taxonomy, vol XXXIV. Springer, p 108. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7420-9
suitability of the range restricted bird species (Catreus wallichii) in the Indian Himalayan ecosys-
gate heat stress impacts on crop growth and development. Plant Phys Rep 25:627–644. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s40502-020-00550-4
Walkley A, Black IA (1934) An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic
matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci 37:29–38
Zaman S, Pramanick P, Biswas M, Mondal B, Mukherjee SN, Ganguly G, Chakraborty D, Mitra A
(2014) Ecosystem services of mangrove associate floral species inhabiting Indian Sundarbans.
Int J Inst Pharm Life Sci 4(6):29–39
Chapter 33
Spatial Variability in Carbon Storage
Among Dominant Mangrove Species
in the Indian Sundarbans
Abstract Mangroves thrive on wetlands at land-sea interface and river mouths

with significant capacity to store carbon because of their high productivity and low
organic matter decomposition rates. The Indian Sundarban Biosphere Reserve
(ISBR), with an area of 9630 km2. is in the lower stretch of the Gangetic delta and
is a conglomeration of some 105 islands of varying sizes, each covered with man-
groves. This study area is one of the World Heritage sites sustaining 34 species of
true mangroves. We present here the carbon storage variability of five dominant
mangrove species in 24 ISBR stations with varying salinity profiles. The Above
Ground Biomass (AGB) was estimated for 110–125 trees per species in 120 plots
(10 m × 10 m) from the intertidal mudflats of these 24 stations in low tide conditions
during July 2023. The estimated mean AGB and the carbon stock were of the order
Avicennia alba (AGB = 26.53 tonnes/ha; AGC = 12.78 tonnes/ha) > Avicennia
marina (AGB = 20.88 tonnes/ha; AGC = 10.00 tonnes/ha) > Avicennia officinalis
(AGB = 14.90 tonnes/ha; AGC = 7.10 tonnes/ha) > Sonneratia spp. (AGB = 6.52
tonnes/ha; AGC = 3.07 tonnes/ha) > Excoecaria agallocha (AGB = 5.56 tonnes/ha;
AGC = 2.60 tonnes/ha) at stations with high salinity, but the order is Sonneratia spp.
(AGB = 22.97 tonnes/ha; AGC = 10.98 tonnes/ha) > Avicennia alba (AGB = 17.75
tonnes/ha; AGC = 8.43 tonnes/ha) > Avicennia marina (AGB = 13.90 tonnes/ha;
AGC = 6.56 tonnes/ha) > Avicennia officinalis (AGB = 9.73 tonnes/ha; AGC = 4.57
tonnes/ha) > Excoecaria agallocha (AGB = 5.41 tonnes/ha; AGC = 2.53 tonnes/ha)
at stations exposed to relatively low saline water. The present mangrove system
registered a significant oscillation in carbon storage potential with variation in
aquatic salinity, which is the critical moderator of mangrove diversity, growth, and
carbon storage potential in coastal and estuarine regions of the tropics.
Keywords Mangroves · Indian Sundarban Biosphere Reserve (ISBR) · Above

Ground Biomass (AGB) · Above Ground Carbon (AGC) · Aquatic salinity
S. Ahmed · P. Pramanick · S. Zaman

Department of Oceanography, Techno India University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
A. Mitra (*)
Department of Marine Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Ltd. 2024
692 S. Ahmed et al.
33.1 Introduction
Climate change is one of the most pressing issues in the present era. Recent events
like intense floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, erosion, alteration of seawater quality,
and forest fires point toward the negative impacts of climate change (Dhyani et al.
2021; Kumar et al. 2019a, b). Climate change harms several sectors, such as agri-
culture, aquaculture, biodiversity, human health, etc., by damaging food crops, ris-
ing sea levels, acidification, erosion in coastal regions, increasing the magnitude of
natural calamities, species extinction, and spreading vector diseases (Joshi et al.
2021). According to Mitra et al. (2021), “the impact of climate change on the aquatic
ecosystem is a cause-effect phenomenon between the melting of polar ice or gla-
ciers feeding the rivers and subsequent alteration of salinity in the riverine and estu-
arine waters of the tropical, temperate, and sub-temperate zones. Thus, salinity
alterations of the oceans, seas, bays, and estuaries are an indirect but potentially
sensitive indicator for detecting changes in sea level, precipitation, evaporation,
river run-off, and ice melt that are the deliverables of climate change. The pulse of
climate change is transmitted to the biological world through modification, adapta-
tion, and species extinction”.
Mangroves exhibit considerable resilience to climate change and are essential
pillars of blue carbon (Mitra and Zaman 2016; Mitra 2020). Mangrove wetlands are
important in global carbon dynamics due to their high capacity to store carbon,
referred to as blue carbon (Bridgham et al. 2006). These wetlands are recognized for
their most significant capacity to store carbon, which exceeds two to three times the
amounts stored by terrestrial systems (Donato et al. 2011; Adame et al. 2013). The
ability to store carbon is due to their high productivity and the low rates of organic
matter decomposition, which tends to occur under total or partial flooding condi-
tions (Adame et al. 2015; Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d). Despite their regulatory mode
of ecosystem services, mangroves are exposed to severe threats due to agricultural
frontier expansion, poaching, logging, forest fires, siltation, and hydrological modi-
fications (Tovilla-Hernández et al. 2007; Adame et al. 2015; Kumar et al. 2019a, b).
In the Indian Sundarban mangrove ecosystem, anthropogenic factors like unplanned
expansion of shrimp farms, tourism, brick kilns, salt pans etc. have caused massive
destruction of mangroves (Mitra 2013, 2023; Mitra and Zaman 2014, 2015, 2016,
2020, 2021; Mitra et al. 2021, 2022; Mukherjee et al. 2021; Manoj et al. 2021). In
addition to these human-induced influences, natural disasters uproot mangrove
flora, as witnessed during the super-cyclone Aila in Indian Sundarban on 27th May
2009. Integrating anthropogenic and natural factors results in the loss of significant
mangrove areas at global, regional, and local scales. Studies have been performed in
the Indian Sundarban delta complex to determine the carbon storage dynamics of
mangroves, focusing on the influence of geomorphology and the salinity gradient
33 Spatial Variability in Carbon Storage Among Dominant Mangrove Species… 693
(Trivedi et al. 2016). However, these studies were mostly limited to a few stations
and could not represent the entire ISBR.
ISBR in the lower Gangetic stretch of the Indian sub-continent is noted for its
biological productivity and taxonomic diversity. It serves as the platform for some
4.5 million island dwellers in the tiger-inhabited mangrove system of Indian
Sundarbans. The deltaic complex has two distinct physico-chemical setups. The
rivers in the western sector (Hooghly and Muriganga Rivers) fed by the Himalayan
glaciers get the freshwater discharge via several barrages (Mitra et al. 2009; Kumar
et al. 2021a, b, c, d), but the central part of the deltaic lobe has lost its connection
with the Ganga-Bhagirathi system since late fifteenth century due to heavy siltation
(Chaudhuri and Choudhuri 1994; Mitra 2013). The rivers in the central sector
(Matla and Thakuran Rivers) are mostly tide-fed, showing an increasing trend in
salinity. The footprints of global warming are therefore perceived in contrasting
ways in two sectors of the deltaic complex—freshening of the estuaries in the west-
ern sector due to the retreat of the Gangotri glacier that feeds the estuaries of the
western sector with fresh water (Mitra et al. 2009) and salinification of the central
sector estuaries due to expansion of adjacent sea (Bay of Bengal) water coupled
with heavy siltation of the Bidyadhari channel (Mitra 2000, 2013; Banerjee et al.
2013; Mitra and Zaman 2014, 2015, 2016, 2021; Agarwal et al. 2016; Pal et al.
2016). The direct thrust of climate change-induced salinity alteration can be
observed in the mangrove community by ways of differential growth of the species
and gradual vanishing of the fresh water-loving mangrove species Heritiera fomes
(locally referred to as Sundari) from the central sector of the Gangetic delta.
The gradual extinction of the mangroves is a warning signal for humankind, as
these halophytes act like a natural defense against cyclones and wave actions. The
defensive role of mangroves against the super-cyclone Aila that hit the lower Ganges
region on 27th May 2009 confirms the protective and regulating role of the halo-
phytes. The satellite imageries of the pre and post-Aila period (Figs. 33.1a, b)
exhibit insignificant changes to mangroves, although land areas of eight islands in
the Indian Sundarbans have changed significantly between years (Mitra and Zaman
2015; Phukon et al. 2022).
The significant change in land area between years (p < 0.01) may be the effect of
erosion or sea level rise coupled with the subsidence of the deltaic region.
Apart from being a natural coast guard against high wind and wave actions in the
coastal region, mangroves are also noted for another important regulating service,
namely carbon sequestration/storage, based on which this study aims to assess the
spatial variation of stored carbon in five dominant mangrove tree species (Avicennia
alba, Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis, Sonneratia spp., and Excoecaria
agallocha) distributed in 24 stations in the ISBR in the lower stretch of the
Gangetic delta.
694 S. Ahmed et al.
Fig. 33.1 (a) Alteration of island area and mangrove patch area before and after the super-cyclone
Aila. (b) Alteration of island area and mangrove patch area before and after the super-cyclone Aila
33.2.1 Study Area
The Indian Sundarban delta region lying between 21°13′N and 22°40′N latitude and
88°03′E and 89°07′E longitude is the hotspot of marine and estuarine biodiversity
that provides a wide range of ecosystem services. The delta supports the existence
of around 100 islands, which are exposed to saline water of varying degrees based
on their location, topography, and distance from the Bay of Bengal in the south. We
conducted a field survey at 24 stations in ISBR from 5th July to 31st July 2023 dur-
ing the low tide phase (Fig. 33.2).
33.2.2 Above Ground Biomass (AGB) Estimation of Trees
Above-ground biomass (AGB) of mangrove tree species refers to the summation of

the biomasses of stems, branches, and leaves exposed above the soil. In this study,
the estimation process of AGB was adopted as per the procedure of Mitra and
Sundaresan (2016), as stated in the manual published by CSIR-National Institute of
Science Communication And Information Resources (NISCAIR).
1. Stem Biomass Estimation
The volume of the main stem (V) of each species in each plot (10 m × 10 m)
was estimated using the standard formula based on the diameter at breast height
(DBH), basal diameter, and height of the tree. We measured tree height with a
laser-based instrument (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d).
Specific gravity (G) of the wood or wood density was estimated by taking the
stem cores by boring 4.5 cm deep and compared with the standard data of FAO
(n.d.). These field-based data sets were used to assess the stem biomass (BS) as
per the expression BS = GV. The stem biomass of individual trees was finally
multiplied by the number of trees of each species in all the selected plots and the
species–wise mean values were expressed in tonnes/ha (Singh et al. 2022;
Prakash et al. 2022).
In this study, aerial images were taken by a drone camera (Phantom-3
Professional, Djibouti), which has four propellers, a camera, a GPS (Global
Positioning System) receiver, and a gimbal (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d; Singh
and Kumar 2022). Further, it has an exclusive remote controller. The camera
used for the experiment can take 1.2 M-pixel images and video with 4 K
(3840 × 2160) images. We used this parallel system to estimate the exact height
of the trees in meters, number of branches, and number of leaves in each branch
(Fig. 33.3).
696 S. Ahmed et al.
Fig. 33.2 Location of sampling stations
2. Branch Biomass Estimation

Branches of three different size groups (1–5 cm, 6–20 cm, and >20 cm) were
cut and dried after removing the leaves. Dry weights of the branches after oven
drying their pieces at 70 °C for 12 h were estimated as per the expression stated
by Chidumaya (1990).
Bdb = n1bw1 + n 2 bw 2 + n 3 bw 3 = ∑ n i bw i
Where Bdb is the dry branch biomass per tree, ni is the number of branches in the ith
branch group, bwi is the average weight of branches in the ith group and i = 1, 2,
3, …n are the branch groups. The mean branch biomass of individual trees was
finally multiplied by the number of trees of each species in all the plots for each
site and expressed in tonnes/ha.
Fig. 33.3 Capture of the aerial image by drone to know the height, number of branches, and leaves
of the trees
698 S. Ahmed et al.
3. Leaf Biomass Estimation

The leaves from all the selected branches were removed and oven-dried at
70 °C overnight and weighed to get the biomass of the leaves per tree. The num-
ber of trees per species was then multiplied by the species-wise leaf weight to
record the total weight of leaves separately for all the five selected species
(Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d; Sharma et al. 2018). This exercise was performed
for all the selected 24 stations, and the mean results were finally expressed in
tonnes/ha.”
33.2.3 Above Ground Carbon (AGC) Estimation of Trees
Species-wise carbon percentage analysis was done by CHN analyzer, after grinding
and random mixing the oven-dried stem, branches, and leaves separately for each
species (Kumar et al. 2020; Sharma et al. 2017). For this, a portion of the fresh stem,
branch, and leaf samples from trees (of each species) was oven-dried at 70 °C, and
ground to pass through a 0.5 mm screen (1.0 mm screen for leaves). The carbon
content (in %) was finally analyzed for each of the vegetative parts separately for the
selected five species through a Vario MACRO elementar CHN analyser.
The summation of carbon values of each of these vegetative parts was considered
the stored carbon in the AGB of each species (referred to as AGC).”
The flowchart of the mangrove tree biomass and carbon estimation is presented
in Fig. 33.4.
33.2.4 Estimation of Surface Water Salinity
An in situ analysis of surface water salinity was carried out at the selected stations
during high tide conditions with the help of a refractometer (VEEGEE STX-3). For
cross-checking, water samples from the selected stations were brought to the labo-
ratory in an ice box, analyzed for chlorinity by the Argentometric method, and con-
verted into salinity through the standard equation.
33.2.5 Statistical Analysis
The impact of salinity on the AGC of the respective species was determined through
correlation coefficient values considering the AGC of the individual as a dependent
variable and salinity as the independent variable. It is worth noting that the correla-
tion coefficient was computed separately by considering (1) all the 24 selected sta-
tions in the ISBR, (2) low saline stations, and (3) stations exposed to high salinity.
Diameter at Breast
Height of the tree Basal diameter Wood density
Height
Correction Factor
Leaf Biomass Stem Biomass Branch Biomass
Above Ground Biomass (AGB)
%C %C %C
(CHN analyser) (CHN analyser) (CHN analyser)
Above Ground Leaf Above Ground Leaf Above Ground Leaf

Carbon (AGLC) Carbon (AGLC) Carbon (AGLC)
Above Ground Carbon (AGC)
Fig. 33.4 Flowchart of estimation of AGB and AGC of mangroves
33.3 Results
The salinity profile in the present geographical locale may be differentiated into
relatively low saline (10–20 psu) and high saline (21–30 psu) zones. The low saline
stations (Stns. 1, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 23, and 24) are con-
fined in the western and eastern sectors, whereas the high saline stations (Stns. 2, 3,
5, 6, 7, 15, 20, and 21) are in the central sector of Indian Sundarbans (Fig. 33.5).
It is observed that in the low saline stations, the dominant species are Sonneratia
spp. Considering only the low saline stations, the AGB ranged from 13.55 tonnes/ha
(at Station 24) to 27.74 tonnes/ha (at Station 9). The AGC values ranged between
6.31 tonnes/ha (at Station 24) to 13.64 tonnes/ha (at Station 9).
The high saline stations exhibited considerable growth of Avicennia alba,
Avicennia marina and Avicennia officinalis. The AGB of A. alba ranged from 18.44
tonnes/ha (at Station 15) to 36.77 tonnes/ha (at Station 21) and the AGC ranged
from 8.59 tonnes/ha (at Station 15) to 18.05 tonnes/ha (at Station 21).
In the case of A. marina, the AGB ranged from 14.61 tonnes/ha (at Station 15) to
28.02 tonnes/ha (at Station 21) and the AGC ranged from 6.75 tonnes/ha (at Station
15) to 13.66 tonnes/ha (at Station 21). In the case of A. officinalis, the AGB ranged
from 10.53 tonnes/ha (at Station 15) to 19.88 tonnes/ha (at Station 20) and the AGC
ranged from 4.84 tonnes/ha (at Station 15) to 9.62 tonnes/ha (at Station 20).
700 S. Ahmed et al.
Fig. 33.5 Station-wise salinity variation in psu; green indicates low saline and brown indicates
high saline stations in ISBR
Fig. 33.6 Species-wise AGB variation in the selected 24 stations
Excoecaria agallocha is almost uniformly distributed in all the stations irrespec-

tive of salinity and seems to have a broad range of salinity tolerance (Mitra et al.
2017; Khokher et al. 2023). The AGB of the species ranged from 1.79 tonnes/ha (at
Station 24) to 7.45 tonnes/ha (at Station 5) and the AGC ranged from 0.80 tonnes/
ha (at Station 24) to 3.50 tonnes/ha (at Station 5). Figures 33.6 and 33.7 represent
salinity–based species–wise variation of AGB and AGC.
Our study also highlights that relatively low saline stations exhibit luxuriant
growth of the chosen mangroves with more stored carbon compared to high saline
stations in ISBR, as confirmed through the data of AGB and AGC (Figs. 33.8
and 33.9).
Fig. 33.7 Species-wise AGC variation in the selected 24 stations
Fig. 33.8 Station-wise AGB variation (green bars indicate low saline and brownish bars indicate
high saline stations) in ISBR
33.4 Discussion
Mangroves are noted for their unique potential to store carbon (Suratman 2008;
Alongi 2014; Sahu et al. 2016; Ragavan et al. 2019; Tue et al. 2020). Like man-
groves in other parts of the World, the Indian Sundarban delta complex sustaining
34 species of true mangroves and a variety of mangrove associate species have
exhibited their eligibility in this domain (Burden et al. 2013; Chmura 2013; Ouyang
702 S. Ahmed et al.
Fig. 33.9 Station-wise AGC variation (green bars indicate low saline and brownish bars indicate
high saline stations) in ISBR
and Lee 2013; Yu et al. 2014; Das et al. 2015; Drake et al. 2015; Miller et al. 2023;
Banerjee et al. 2013; Mitra 2013; Mitra and Zaman 2014, 2015, 2016). However,
mangroves’ growth and carbon sequestration potential are a function of ambient
aquatic salinity (Noor et al. 2015; Banerjee et al. 2017; Barik et al. 2018; Singh
et al. 2023).
Interestingly, it has been documented that all mangroves do not exhibit uniform
growth in a particular salinity range. Instead, the growth process of these halophytes
is significantly salinity-specific. In this study, we observe that Sonneratia spp. pre-
fers a relatively low saline environment, whereas Avicennia spp. thrive well in high
saline regions, a feature of central Indian Sundarbans. Excoecaria agallocha showed
a wide range of tolerance to salinity.
We compared our results of AGC with data available from mangrove forests in
different regions of the World (Alongi 2012) considering the dominant species. We
observed almost a similar value with many mangrove-rich areas in the global man-
grove map, although the ages of the tree species are unavailable in our study
(Table 33.1).
We also attempted to investigate the influence of salinity as the major driver on
the AGB and AGC of the individual species in three different scenarios considering
(1) all the 24 stations with different salinity profiles, (2) only the low saline stations
in ISBR, and (3) high saline stations in ISBR (Table 33.2).
This statistical exercise revealed three significant salinity oriented outputs viz.
(1) for Sonneratia spp., the correlation coefficient values considering the salinity
levels of 24 stations, low saline stations and high saline stations are −0.8874
(p < 0.01), −0.9081 (p < 0.01) and − 0.3832 (p = IS) respectively, (2) for Avicennia
alba, the correlation coefficient values considering the salinity levels of 24 stations,
Table 33.1 Inventory of AGC in the different mangrove forests of the World (Source: Alongi 2012)
Region-wise, AGC
dominant mangrove Age (tonnes/
Location tree species (years) ha)
Peninsular Malaysia Rhizophora apiculata 80 312
R. apiculata 18 193
R. apiculata 5 87
Southern Vietnam R. apiculata 6 54
R. apiculata 20 72
R. apiculata 35 153
Southern China Kandelia candel NA 64
K. candel NA 43
K. candel NA 7
Indonesia Avicennia marina NA 24
Rhizophora stylosa NA 19
Sonneratia caseolaris NA 28
Southern Thailand R. apiculata 25 138
R. apiculata 5 20
Ceriops decandra 3 29
Western Australia R. stylosa NA 115
A. marina NA 55
Queensland, Australia R. stylosa NA 297
Sundarban, India (data sets represent the sum of Avicennia marina NA 389.37
both high saline central Indian Sundarbans and Avicennia alba NA 496.20
relatively low saline western and eastern Indian Avicennia officinalis NA 274.77
Sundarbans)
Sonneratia apetala NA 419.69
Excoecaria agallocha NA 131.08
low saline stations and high saline stations are 0.6647 (p < 0.01), −0.9090 (p < 0.01)
and 0.8617 (p < 0.01) respectively, (3) for Avicennia marina, the correlation coef-
ficient values considering the salinity levels of 24 stations, low saline stations and
high saline stations are 0.6252 (p < 0.01), −0.8490 (p < 0.01) and 0.8577 (p < 0.01)
respectively, (4) for Avicennia officinalis, the correlation coefficient values consid-
ering the salinity levels of 24 stations, low saline stations and high saline stations are
0.6088 (p < 0.01), −0.6227 (p < 0.01) and 0.8438 (p < 0.01) respectively, and (5) for
Excoecaria agallocha, the correlation coefficient values considering the salinity
levels of 24 stations, low saline stations and high saline stations are −0.0793
(p = IS), −0.7555 (p < 0.01) and 0.2350 (p = IS) respectively.
These values confirm the increased carbon storage by Sonneratia spp. in the low
saline zone and Avicennia spp. in areas with high and low salinity. It is also observed
that Excoecaria agallocha exhibits considerable carbon storage in areas with low
salinity. Still, considering its low biomass, the species cannot be identified as a
potential carbon scrubber in ISBR. The species-wise growth and carbon storage
potential of the selected mangrove species in ISBR is thus impacted by the ambient
aquatic salinity.
704 S. Ahmed et al.
Table 33.2 Species-wise inter-relationship between aquatic salinity and AGC

Scenario and variable combination species r-value p-value
High and low saline stations Sonneratia spp. −0.8874 <0.01
Combination: salinity × AGC Avicennia alba 0.6647 <0.01
Avicennia marina 0.6252 <0.01
Avicennia officinalis 0.6088 <0.01
Excoecaria agallocha −0.0793 IS
Relatively low saline stations Sonneratia spp. −0.9081 < 0.01
Combination: salinity × AGC Avicennia alba −0.9090 <0.01
Avicennia marina −0.8490 <0.01
Avicennia officinalis −0.6227 <0.01
Excoecaria agallocha −0.7555 <0.01
High saline stations Sonneratia spp. −0.3832 IS
Combination: salinity × AGC Avicennia alba 0.8617 <0.01
Avicennia marina 0.8577 <0.01
Avicennia officinalis 0.8438 <0.01
Excoecaria agallocha −0.2350 IS
IS insignificant
33.5 Conclusion
Mangroves are noted for their wide range of ecosystem services, of which carbon
storage is one of the vital regulating services. The present study focuses on the
impact of aquatic salinity on the carbon storage potential of Indian Sundarban man-
groves. The results generated from the study confirm the significant effect of salin-
ity on the selected species’ AGB and AGC. Low saline belts in the delta complex are
ideal habitats for the growth and carbon storage potential of Sonneratia spp.,
whereas Avicennia spp. exhibit a wide range of tolerance to salinity. Hence,
Avicennia spp. can be considered the most effective species with significant salinity
resilience. To sum up, it can be stated that Avicennia spp. may be the best choice for
plantations to combat climate change-induced sea level rise and subsequent salinity
increase in the region.
References
Adame MF, Kauffman JB, Medina I, Gamboa JN, Torres O, Caamal JP, Reza M, Herrera-Silveira
JA (2013) Carbon stocks of tropical coastal wetlands within the karstic landscape of the
Mexican Caribbean. PLoS One 8:e56569. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0056569
Adame M, Santini N, Tovilla C, Vázquez-Lule A, Castro L, Guevara M (2015) Carbon stocks and
soil sequestration rates of tropical riverine wetlands. Biogeosciences 12:3805–3818. https://
doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-3805-2015
Agarwal S, Zaman S, Biswas S, Pal N, Pramanick P, Mitra A (2016) Spatial variation of mangrove
seedling carbon with respect to salinity: a case study with Bruguiera gymnorrhiza seedling. Int
J Adv Res Biol Sci 3(8):7–12
Alongi DM (2012) Carbon sequestration in mangrove forests. Carbon Manag 3:313–322. https://
doi.org/10.4155/cmt.12.20
Alongi DM (2014) Carbon cycling and storage in mangrove forests. Annu Rev Mar Sci 6:195–219
Banerjee K, Sengupta K, Raha AK, Mitra A (2013) Salinity based allometric equations for biomass
estimation of Sundarban mangroves. Biomass Bioenergy 56:382–391
Banerjee K, Gatti RC, Mitra A (2017) Climate change-induced salinity variation impactson a
stenoecious mangrove species in the Indian Sundarbans. Ambio 46:492–499
Barik J, Mukhopadhyay A, Ghosh T, Mukhopadhyay SK, Chowdhury SM, Hazra S (2018)
Mangrove species distribution and water salinity: an indicator species approach to Sundarban.
J Coast Conserv 22(2):361–368
Bridgham SD, Megonigal JP, Keller JK, Bliss NB, Trettin C (2006) The carbon balance of north
American wetlands. Wetlands 26:889–916
Burden A, Garbutt RA, Evans CD, Jones DL, Cooper DM (2013) Carbon sequestration and bio-
geochemical cycling in a saltmarsh subject to coastal managed realignment. Estuar Coast Shelf
Sci 120:12–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2013.01.014
Chaudhuri AB, Choudhuri A (1994) Mangroves of the Sundarbans, vol 1. IUCN, Bangkok,
Thailand
Chidumaya EN (1990) Above ground woody biomass structure and productivity in a Zambezian
woodland. For Ecol Manag 36:33–46
Chmura GL (2013) What do we need to assess the sustainability of the tidal salt marsh carbon
sink? Ocean Coast Manag 83:25–31
Das S, Zaman S, Pramanick P, Pal N, Mitra A (2015) Suaeda maritima: a potential carbon reservoir
of coastal zone. Int Adv Res J Sci Eng Technol 2(5):61–65
Donato DC, Kauffman JB, Murdiyarso D, Kurnianto S, Stidham M, Kanninen M (2011)
Mangroves among the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics. Nat Geosci 4:293–297. https://
doi.org/10.1038/NGEO1123
Drake K, Halifax H, Adamowicz SC, Craft C (2015) Carbon sequestration in tidal salt marshes of
the Northeast United States. Environ Manag 56:998–1008
FAO (n.d.). https://www.fao.org/3/w4095e/w4095e0c.htm
Khokher FK, Khan AU, Bargali HS, Ahmed S, Gobato R, Zaman S, Mitra A (2023) Stored carbon
in dominant mangrove species in Indian Sundarbans: a situation analysis with two different
methods. Parana J Sci Edu 9(1):1–9
org/10.1007/s13205-019-1700-1
(2020) Carbon mineralization and inorganic nitrogen pools under Terminalia chebula
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
706 S. Ahmed et al.
49(1):38–44
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
Miller LC, Smeatan C, Yang H, Austin WEN (2023) Carbon accumulation and storage across
contrasting saltmarshes of Scotland. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 282:108223
Mitra A (2000) Chapter 62. The northeast coast of the bay of Bengal and deltaic Sundarbans.
In: Sheppard C (ed) Seas at the millennium—an environmental evaluation. Elsevier Science,
pp 143–157
Mitra A (2013) Sensitivity of mangrove ecosystem to changing climate, vol XIX. Springer, p 323.
Mitra A (2020) Mangrove forests in India: exploring ecosystem services, vol XV. Springer, p 361.
Mitra A (2023) Impact of COVID-19 lockdown on environmental health: exploring the situation of
the lower Gangetic Delta, vol XIII. Springer, p 310. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27242-4
Mitra A, Sundaresan J (2016) How to study stored carbon in mangroves. CSIR-National Institute
of Science Communication and Information Resources (NISCAIR), New Delhi
Mitra A, Zaman S (2014) Carbon sequestration by coastal floral community. The Energy and
Resources Institute (TERI) TERI Press, India
Mitra A, Zaman S (2015) Blue carbon reservoir of the blue planet, vol XII. Springer, p 299. https://
doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-2107-4
Mitra A, Zaman S (2016) Basics of marine and estuarine ecology, vol XII. Springer, p 483. https://
doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-2707-6
Mitra A, Zaman S (2020) Environmental science - a ground zero observation on the Indian subcon-
tinent, vol XIV. Springer, p 478. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49131-4
Mitra A, Zaman S (2021) Estuarine acidification: exploring the situation of mangrove dominated
Indian Sundarban estuaries, vol XII. Springer, p 402. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84792-0
Mitra A, Gangopadhyay A, Dube A, Andre CKS, Banerjee K (2009) Observed changes in water
mass properties in the Indian Sundarbans (Northwestern Bay of Bengal) during 1980–2007.
Curr Sci 97(10):1445–1452
Mitra A, Sundaresan J, Banerjee K, Agarwal SK (2017) Environmental coastguards-understanding
mangrove ecosystem and carbon sequestration (climate change series 3). CSIR-National
Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources (NISCAIR), New Delhi
Mitra A, Pramanick P, Zaman S, Mitra A (2021) Chapter 10. Influence of change in land use pat-
tern on near surface air temperature. In: Mitra A, Calma MM, Chakrabarty SP (eds) Natural
resources and their ecosystem services, vol II. HSRA Publication, pp 161–168
Mitra A, Zaman S, Pramanick P (2022) Blue economy in Indian Sundarbans: exploring livelihood
opportunities, vol XIV. Springer, p 403. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07908-5
Mukherjee P, Pramanick P, Zaman S, Mitra A (2021) Phytoremediation of heavy metals by the
dominant mangrove associate species of Indian Sundarbans. J Environ Eng Landsc Manag
29(4):391–402. https://doi.org/10.3846/jeelm.2021.15773
Noor T, Batool N, Mazhar R, Ilyas N (2015) Effects of siltation, temperature and salinity on man-
grove plants. Eur Acad Res II 11:14172–14179
Ouyang X, Lee SY (2013) Carbon accumulation rates in salt marsh sediments suggest high carbon
storage capacity. Biogeosci Discuss 10:19155–19188
Pal N, Gahul A, Zaman S, Biswas P, Mitra A (2016) Spatial variation of stored carbon in Avicennia
alba seedlings of Indian Sundarbans. Int J Trend Res Dev 3(4):100–103
Ragavan P, Sivakumar K, Jayaraj RSC, Mohan PM, Rana TS (2019) Carbon storage potential of
mangroves—are we missing the boat? Curr Sci 116(6):889–891
Sahu SC, Kumar M, Ravindranath NH (2016) Carbon stocks in natural and planted mangrove for-
ests of Mahanadi mangrove wetland, East Coast of India. Curr Sci 110(12):2253–2260
or nutraceuticals properties of medicinal plants. J Pharmacogn Phytochem 8(1):1924–1926
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
uclim.2022.101183
Suratman MN (2008) Carbon sequestration potential of mangroves in Southeast Asia. In:
Bravo F, Jandl R, LeMay V, von Gadow K (eds) Managing forest ecosystems: the challenge
of climate change. Managing forest ecosystems, vol 17. Springer, pp 297–315. https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8343-3_17
Tovilla-Hernández C, Salas HR, De la Presa PJC, Romero-Berny EI, Ovalle F, Gómez R,
Hernández J, Cruz E, Hernández A (2007) Estudio diagnóstico: situación actual de los
Inventario Forestal de los bosques de manglar de la costa de Chiapas. ECOSUR, Tapachula,
Chiapas, México, p 136
Trivedi S, Zaman S, Ray Chaudhuri T, Pramanick P, Fazli P, Amin G, Mitra A (2016) Inter-annual
variation of salinity in Indian Sundarbans. Indian J Geo-Mar Sci 45(3):410–415
Tue NT, Thai ND, Nhuan MT (2020) Carbon storage potential of mangrove forests from northeast-
ern Vietnam. Reg Stud Mar Sci 40:101516
Yu X, Ye S, Nicholas LY, Edward AL, Guangming Z, Yuan H, Ding XG, Wang JW (2014) Carbon
sequestration along vegetation coverage gradient in the Suaeda salsa marsh from the Liaohe
Delta. Geo China 41(2):648–657
Chapter 34
Quantifying Carbon Stock Variability
and Aspect-Slope Impact in Sal
and Pine-Dominated Forests of Nepal
Santosh Ayer, Rajeev Joshi, Anil Poudel, Aman Prabhakar,

Dinesh Prasad Joshi, Sandip Poudel, Jeetendra Gautam,
and Kishor Prasad Bhatta
Abstract Forests play a crucial role in mitigating climate change by storing carbon
dioxide. However, different tree species and forest types have varying carbon stock
potentials. Therefore, this study delved into a comparative analysis of two contrast-
ing forest types: Sal (Shorea robusta) dominated and pine (Pinus roxburghi) domi-
nated forests to understand their unique contributions to carbon storage. We also
aimed to evaluate the carbon stocks of these forest types across environmental vari-
ations, including factors like slope and aspect. We employed a systematic random
sampling approach with a 1% sampling intensity. Specifically, we established a total
of 64 sample plots, with 27 in Sal-dominated forests and 37 in pine-dominated for-
ests, each covering an area of 250 m2. We measured trees and saplings in these plots
using dendrometric methods and collected leaf litter samples and herbaceous veg-
etation. Sal-dominated forest (158.56 ± 15.23 ton ha−1) exhibited significantly
higher carbon stocks than pine-dominated forest (77.38 ± 6.44 ton ha−1). Only
aboveground sapling carbon showed a significant difference in Pine-dominated for-
ests, with ‘moderate’ slopes (p < 0.05). However, no significant differences were
found in carbon pools in Sal-dominated forests across the different slope categories.
Similarly, in the pine-dominated forest, the north aspect had significantly higher
(p < 0.05) aboveground tree carbon (40.11 ± 5.38 ton ha−1), belowground tree
S. Ayer
College of Natural Resource Management, Agriculture and Forestry University, Katari, Nepal
Eudoxia Research University, New Castle, DE, USA
R. Joshi (*) · A. Poudel · A. Prabhakar · S. Poudel
College of Natural Resource Management, Agriculture and Forestry University, Katari, Nepal
D. P. Joshi · J. Gautam
Faculty of Forestry, Agriculture and Forestry University, Hetauda, Nepal
K. P. Bhatta
Faculty of Forest Science and Forest Ecology, Georg-August-Universität,
Göttingen, Germany
Ltd. 2024
710 S. Ayer et al.
c arbon (8.02 ± 1.08 ton ha−1) and deadwood carbon (5.29 ± 0.71 ton ha−1) than
south aspect. Aspect-wise, the Sal-dominated forest did not yield significant differ-
ences in the carbon pools. These findings highlight the complex interplay between
forest type, environmental gradients, and carbon dynamics. While slope and aspect
variations had a notable impact on certain carbon pools within pine-dominated for-
ests, Sal-dominated forests exhibited more consistent carbon stocks across these
gradients. Given the critical role of soil carbon dynamics, including them in future
research is imperative. Additionally, investigations into the impacts of diverse forest
management practices on carbon stocks within pine-dominated and Sal-dominated
forests are essential for a comprehensive understanding of guiding strategies that
optimize carbon sequestration and ecosystem well-being.
Keywords Forest types · Climate change mitigation · Environmental gradients ·

Sustainable forest management
34.1 Introduction
Forest ecosystems are integral components of the global terrestrial carbon cycle,
where they perform a multifaceted role by absorbing carbon dioxide (CO2) through
photosynthesis, subsequently storing it in various forms, and releasing it through
processes like respiration, decomposition, and combustion (Stephenson et al. 2014).
However, these essential ecosystems are facing considerable challenges due to
anthropogenic activities, most notably deforestation and land use changes, which
have been associated with a substantial 30% reduction in carbon (C) stock (Awasthi
et al. 2022; Manral et al. 2023). The burgeoning population, expanding agricultural
practices, and infrastructure development have collectively contributed to biodiver-
sity threats (Bargali et al. 2022), resulting in increased CO2 levels in the atmosphere.
Beyond their role in the carbon cycle, forest ecosystems offer a wide array of eco-
system goods and services to local communities (Fartyal et al. 2022). Nonetheless,
the loss of plant diversity poses a significant challenge to maintaining ecosystem
stability and functionality (Bisht et al. 2023), especially given that carbon sequestra-
tion, a crucial ecosystem function, is intrinsically influenced by plant diversity
(Isbell et al. 2018).
Furthermore, forests are central to the global carbon cycle, with their capacity to
store a substantial percentage of terrestrial biomass carbon, ranging from 70 to
90%, and serving as a critical carbon sink. This capacity is closely tied to plant spe-
cies diversity within different forest types (Manral et al. 2023; Pandey et al. 2023).
Forests and their associated soils collectively hold roughly half of the planet’s ter-
restrial carbon, with forest carbon representing the most substantial terrestrial car-
bon reserve, encompassing over three-quarters of all aboveground terrestrial carbon
(Houghton 2007).
34 Quantifying Carbon Stock Variability and Aspect-Slope Impact in Sal… 711
Research on a global scale involving extensive forest biomass and soil surveys
has uncovered widespread geographic trends in forest biomass carbon and soil
organic carbon (SOC) stocks (Singh and Verma 2013; Yadav et al. 2019; Verma
et al. 2020; Singh et al. 2020a, b). Some previous studies have also pointed the sig-
nificant influence of vegetation types in shaping these spatial patterns (Nath et al.
2018; Piao et al. 2019; Sheikh et al. 2020; Yang et al. 2007). Similarly, a compre-
hensive review of available studies in Nepal has also revealed significant variations
in carbon stocks across various forest types (Tripathi et al. 2017; DFRS 2015; Ghale
et al. 2020; Gurung et al. 2022; Sharma et al. 2020; Ayer et al. 2023a). These studies
have reported diverse estimates of total carbon stock, encompassing both biomass
and soils, specific to distinct regions and forest categories. Ghale et al. (2020)
reported carbon stock from bamboo forests ranging from 113.82 to 137.32 ton/ha in
Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. Gurung et al. (2022) reported mean tree car-
bon stock ranging from 22.5 to 87.13 ton/ha in middle mountain forest types in
Central Nepal. Sharma et al. (2020) reported a mean Carbon Stock of 107.5 ton/ha
in the Chir Pine plantation forest of Kathmandu Valley of Central Nepal. The total
biomass and carbon of the forest were found to be 50.80–108.09 ton/ha in the
Schima-Castanopsis Forest in Mid Hills of Nepal (Tripathi et al. 2017). The esti-
mated total carbon stock of the Terai forests and Churia forests of Nepal were
reported to be 124.14 ton/ha and 116.94 ton/ha, respectively (DFRS 2015). These
variations in carbon stocks can be attributed to a combination of factors, including
the specific forest types, tree species composition, land use patterns, and prevailing
climatic conditions (Hinge et al. 2018; Sheikh et al. 2020).
In forest ecosystems, the interplay of topographical factors such as aspect and
slope plays a pivotal role in shaping the distribution of tree species and, by exten-
sion, influencing carbon storage dynamics (McEwan et al. 2011; Valencia et al.
2009). Slope and aspect jointly determine local temperature regimes by controlling
the amount of sunlight and heat that different forest areas receive due to their orien-
tation with respect to the sun (Holland and Steyn 1975; Bruun et al. 2006). This
interaction leads to variations in microclimates, where sites with different aspects
experience distinct durations and intensities of sunlight (Moeslund et al. 2013).
These microclimatic variations are closely associated with carbon storage, as vari-
ous aspects affect the amount of solar energy reaching specific forest areas, subse-
quently impacting plant growth and, thus, the overall biomass and carbon stock
(Holland and Steyn 1975). Moreover, aspect, when considered alongside slope, sig-
nificantly influences the distribution patterns of vegetation within the forest (Titshall
et al. 2000). Slope affects vegetation carbon by influencing nutrient availability,
water availability, root systems, species composition, and forest structure (Sharma
et al. 2011; Simegn and Soromessa 2015) whereas aspect creates variation over
incoming sun rays and water availability (Moeslund et al. 2013). This complex
interplay between aspect and slope and other abiotic factors, such as soil conditions
and precipitation, underscores the multifaceted nature of carbon storage in forest
ecosystems (Holland and Steyn 1975; Yohannes et al. 2015; Simegn and
Soromessa 2015).
712 S. Ayer et al.
We can find several studies in Nepal assessing biomass and carbon stock levels
under contrasting management regimes (Gurung et al. 2015; Joshi et al. 2020; Joshi
et al. 2021a, b; Subedi et al. 2022; Lamsal et al. 2023) and land use types (Poudel
et al. 2014; Ghimire et al. 2018; Paudyal et al. 2019; Paudel et al. 2023). Notably,
studies (Ghale et al. 2020; Gurung et al. 2022; Sharma et al. 2020; Tripathi et al.
2017; DFRS 2015; Ayer et al. 2023a) have contributed significantly to our under-
standing of biomass and carbon stocks in different Nepalese forest types. However,
a noticeable research gap exists in topographic variables, specifically the influence
of slope and aspect, on these carbon dynamics (Bohara et al. 2021; Pariyar et al.
2019). This gap is particularly evident when studying specific forest types, such as
Sal-dominated and Pine-dominated forests, where the role of topographical vari-
ables such as slope and aspect remains underexplored. To fill this void, further stud-
ies that examine the relationship between topographic variables and carbon stocks
in these specific forest types are necessary. This would provide crucial insights for
sustainable forest management, conservation efforts, and climate change mitigation
strategies across these topographical factors in Nepal. Recognizing and addressing
this research gap is vital for comprehensively understanding carbon dynamics in the
country’s diverse ecosystems (Kumar et al. 2017, 2020a, b; Joshi et al. 2021a, b;
Nirmal and Singh 2021).
34.2.1 Study Area
The Udayapur district is located between latitudes (26° 57′0″N) N and longitudes
86° 22′12″E in Eastern Nepal, with an elevational gradient from 300 to 3000 m
above sea level (Fig. 34.1). It borders Sunsari district to the east, Okhaldhunga,
Khotang, and Bhojpur districts to the north, Sindhuli district to the west, and Siraha
and Saptari districts to the south. Owing to its distinctive geographical attributes and
diverse climatic conditions, ranging from lower tropical to temperate, the region
provides excellent habitats for various flora and fauna (Ayer et al. 2023b). The topo-
graphical and altitudinal variations have given rise to three distinct physiographic
zones: Inner Terai, Churia, and Mahabharat range. The forest cover within the area
is highly varied, encompassing tropical evergreen and alder forests. With over 80%
of the region falling within a high-temperature zone, the remainder experiences
temperate climates. Steep slopes characterize the northern part of Chure/Siwalik.
Noteworthy vegetation in the study area includes species such as Shorea robusta,
Terminalia chebula, Adina cordifolia, Acacia catechu, Terminalia bellirica, Bombax
ceiba, Dalbergia sissoo, Schima wallichii, Castanopsis indica, Pinus roxburghii,
Alnus nepalensis, Rhododendron arboreum, Lyonia ovalifolia, Myrica esculenta
and others (Lamichhane and Karna 2009). The tropical and subtropical climate pre-
vailing in the study area is marked by an annual minimum temperature of 16.8 °C,
Fig. 34.1 Map of study area showing Sal-dominated forest (Sangam CF) and Pine-dominated
forest (Hariyali CF)
an annual maximum temperature of 28.1 °C, and an annual rainfall of approxi-

mately 1349.2 mm (DoHM 2017).
The selected two community forests (CF) for this study were Hariyali CF and
Sangam CF. Sangam CF is located at Katari Municipality-6 and covers an area of
78.53 hectares with 0–30° slope in the Chure region of the Udayapur district.
Similarly, Hariyali CF is located at Katari Municipality-11 and covers an area of
91.5 ha with a slope up to 50° in the Mahabharat region of Udayapur district. These
CFs exhibit distinct characteristics in terms of vegetation composition. Shorea
robusta (Sal) trees predominantly dominate Sangam CF, while Hariyali CF is char-
acterized by a prevalence of Pinus roxburghi (Pine) trees.
34.2.2 Data Collection
This study adopted systematic random sampling with a 1% intensity to collect car-
bon pool data from two community forests: Hariyali CF (Pine-dominated) and
Sangam CF (Sal-dominated). A total of 64 concentric circular plots (37 from
Hariyali CF and 27 from Sangam CF) were selected for carbon inventory. Sampling
of trees (DBH ≥ 5 cm) and saplings (1 cm ≤ DBH <5 cm) was conducted in con-
centric circular plots of 8.92 m and 5.64 m radius, respectively (Subedi et al. 2010).
714 S. Ayer et al.
Similarly, leaf litter, herbs, and grass were sampled at the center of a circular plot
with a radius of 0.56 m. The DBH of trees and saplings was measured using a tape
measuring diameter. The trees’ height and plot slope were measured using a clinom-
eter, while the aspect was measured using a compass. To collect leaf litter, grasses,
and herbaceous plants, the vegetation within a 0.56 m radius was clipped from the
ground, and the fresh weight of the sample was measured using an electronic spring
balance. Representative sub-samples of 200 g were then taken to the laboratory for
oven-drying, which was carried out for 72 h at 60 °C (Bocock 1964).
34.2.3 Biomass and Carbon Estimation
This study adopted a non-destructive biomass and carbon estimation method using
the following procedures.
(a) Aboveground tree biomass (AGTB) and sapling biomass (AGSB):
The allometric equation developed by Chave et al. (2005) was adopted for
calculating AGTB,
AGTB = 0.0509 × D 2 × p × H (34.1)
Where D, p, H in the equation refers to diameter at breast height (DBH in cm),

wood density (g cm−3) (Sharma and Pukala 1990), and height of the tree (m),
respectively.
However, this AGTB equation was imprecise for saplings (DBH < 5 cm). To
estimate the AGSB, national algometric biomass tables developed by the
Department of Forest Research and Survey (DFRS 2015) and the Department
of Forest, Tree Improvement, and Silviculture Component (TISC) (Tamrakar
et al. 2000) were adopted.
log ( AGSB ) = a + b log ( D ) (34.2)
Where Log = natural log (dimensionless); a = intercept of allometric relationship

for saplings (dimensionless); b = slope allometric relationship for saplings
(dimensionless); and D = over bark diameter at breast height (cm).
(b) Leaf, herb, and grass biomass (LHGB)
To estimate the biomass of leaves, litter, twigs, grass, and herbs, the study
utilized the formula outlined by Lasco et al. (2005).
ODWt [ TFWTFWSFWSODW ] / SFW (34.3)
Where ODW = Total oven dry weight (t ha−1); TFW = Total fresh weight (g);
SFW=Sample fresh weight (g) and SODW = Sample oven dry weight (g).
(c) Belowground biomass (BGB)
BGB was calculated using a root and shoot ratio of 1:5, i.e., 20% of AGTB
(MacDicken 1997).
BGB = AGTB × 0.20 (34.4)
Where AGTB = Aboveground tree biomass and BGB=Below-ground biomass.

(d) Dead wood biomass (DWB)
DWB is calculated by adding AGTB, AGSB, and BGB, and then the sum is
multiplied by a constant factor of 0.11 (IPCC 2006). It assumes that deadwood
biomass accounts for approximately 11% of the total biomass of a forest eco-
system (IPCC 2006).
(e) Total carbon (TC)
The IPCC (2006) default carbon fraction of 0.47 converts biomass stock
densities to carbon stock densities. Then, the carbon stock densities of its indi-
vidual carbon pools are summed to calculate a forest stratum’s total carbon
stock density.
TC = C ( AGTB ) + C ( AGSB ) + C ( LHG ) + C ( BGB ) + C ( DWB )
Statistical tests were employed using R studio, with a predetermined significance

level (α) 0.05. Welch's independent t-test was used to determine significant differ-
ences in carbon pools between forest types. In a Sal-dominated Forest, where only
two slope categories were present (gentle with slopes less than 15° and moderate
with slopes between 15 and 30°), specific t-tests were performed to evaluate differ-
ences in carbon pool across slope categories. In contrast, Pine-dominated forests
featured three slope categories (gentle with slopes greater than 15°, moderate with
slopes between 15 and 30°, and steep with slopes exceeding 30°). Therefore, a one-
way ANOVA was applied to investigate variations in carbon pools among these
slope categories in Pine-dominated forests. A post-hoc TukeyHSD test was per-
formed to identify significant pairs when the ANOVA results were significant.
Similarly, within each forest type, t-tests were conducted to explore differences in
carbon pools between two aspects (North and South).
34.3 Result Section
34.3.1 Carbon Stock in Forest Types
The mean aboveground tree carbon (AGTC) and sapling carbon (AGSC) were both
found to be higher in the Sal-dominated forest (88.22 ± 11.5 ton ha−1 and 17.64 ± 2.3
ton ha−1, respectively) compared to the Pine-dominated forest (28.98 ± 3.29 ton ha−1
716 S. Ayer et al.
Fig. 34.2 Carbon stock distribution of different carbon pools in studied forest types (AGTC,
AGSC, BGC, DWC, LC, TC means aboveground tree carbon, aboveground sapling carbon, below-
ground carbon, deadwood carbon, leaf litter carbon and total carbon, respectively)
and 0.33 ± 0.03 ton ha−1, respectively) (Fig. 34.2). While the difference in AGTC
was statistically significant (p < 0.05), the AGSC did not show a significant differ-
ence between the two forest types. The mean belowground carbon (BGC) was sig-
nificantly (p < 0.05) higher in Pine-dominated forest (5.8 ± 0.66 ton ha−1) than
Sal-dominated forest (0.31 ± 0.08 ton ha−1). Similarly, the mean deadwood carbon
(DWC) was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in the Sal-dominated forest (11.68 ± 1.52
ton ha−1) than in the Pine-dominated forest (3.82 ± 0.43 ton ha−1). Likewise, the
mean leaf litter carbon (LC) was higher in the Sal-dominated forest (40.71 ± 1.72
ton ha−1) than in the Pine-dominated forest (38.46 ± 3.39 ton ha−1). However, it is
statistically insignificant (p > 0.05). Overall, the total carbon stock (TC) was signifi-
cantly (p < 0.05) higher in the Sal-dominated forest (158.56 ± 15.23 ton ha−1) than
in the Pine-dominated forest (77.38 ± 6.44 ton ha−1) (Fig. 34.2).
34.3.2 Carbon Across Slope Category
34.3.2.1 Sal-Dominated Forest
The AGTC in the moderate slope level exhibited a mean value of 118.67 ± 90.91 ton
ha−1, surpassing the mean value of 75.4 ± 8.46 ton ha−1 observed in the gentle slope
level (Fig. 34.3). In contrast, AGSC showed similar mean values in both slope lev-
els, with no significant distinction. Specifically, AGSC in the moderate slope level
Fig. 34.3 Carbon stock of different carbon pools along slope different levels in Sal-dominated
forest (AGTC, AGSC, BGC, DWC, LC, TC means aboveground tree carbon, aboveground sapling
carbon, belowground carbon, deadwood carbon, leaf litter carbon, and total carbon respectively)
was 0.31 ± 0.39 ton ha−1, while 0.31 ± 0.09 ton ha−1 in the gentle slope level. For
BGC, the moderate slope level displayed a notably higher mean value, measuring
23.73 ± 18.18, compared to the mean value of 15.08 ± 1.69 ton ha−1 in the gentle
slope level. For DWC, the moderate slope area showed a higher mean value of
15.7 ± 12.03 ton ha−1, in contrast to the gentle slope level (9.99 ± 1.11 ton ha−1). On
the other hand, LC demonstrated a slightly elevated mean value in the gentle slope
level of 41.51 ± 2.32 ton ha−1, compared to the moderate slope level, having a mean
value of 38.8 ± 5.39 ton ha−1. Lastly, TC displayed a higher mean value in the mod-
erate slope level (197.21 ± 120.83 ton ha−1) in comparison to the gentle slope level
(142.28 ± 11.31 ton ha−1) (Fig. 34.3). However, differences in carbon pools in the
Sal forest between these slope levels were not statistically significant (p > 0.05)
(Fig. 34.3).
34.3.2.2 Pine-Dominated Forest
In Pine-dominated forest, the mean AGTC values for gentle, moderate, and steep
slopes were 29.02 ± 6.57 ton ha−1, 26.7 ± 5.23 ton ha−1, and 31.39 ± 5.52 ton ha−1,
respectively (Fig. 34.4). Similarly, the mean AGSC values for gentle, moderate, and
steep slopes were 0.4 ± 0.07 ton ha−1, 0.24 ± 0.04 ton ha−1, and 0.39 ± 0.05 ton ha-1,
respectively. The mean BGC values for gentle, moderate, and steep slopes were
5.8 ± 1.31, 5.34 ± 1.05, and 6.28 ± 1.1 ton ha−1, respectively. The mean DWC values
718 S. Ayer et al.
Fig. 34.4 Carbon stock of different carbon pools along slope different levels in Pine-dominated
forest (AGTC, AGSC, BGC, DWC, LC, TC means aboveground tree carbon, aboveground sapling
carbon, belowground carbon, deadwood carbon, leaf litter carbon, and total carbon respectively)
for gentle, moderate, and steep slopes were 3.83 ± 0.87 ton ha−1, 3.52 ± 0.69 ton
ha−1, and 4.14 ± 0.73 ton ha−1, respectively. The mean LC values for gentle, moder-
ate, and steep slopes were 46.43 ± 7.4 ton ha−1, 32 ± 4.23 ton ha−1, and 42.15 ± 6.23
ton ha−1, respectively. Lastly, mean TC values for gentle, moderate, and steep slopes
were 85.48 ± 15.19 ton ha−1, 55.04 ± 9.2 ton ha−1, and 84.35 ± 12.14 ton ha−1,
respectively (Fig. 34.4). ANOVA showed a statistically significant effect of slope
level on AGSC (p < 0.05). However, the effect of slope levels on AGTC, BGC,
DWC, LC and TC were insignificant (p > 0.05). Post-hoc analysis revealed that the
pair moderate-steep were significantly different. However, pair gentle-moderate and
gentle-steep were not significantly different (Fig. 34.4).
34.3.3 Carbon Across Aspect Category
34.3.3.1 Sal-Dominated Forest
In Sal forest, it was observed that AGTC was significantly higher in the South aspect
(116.48 ± 19.11 ton ha−1) compared to the North aspect (76.32 ± 13.61 ton ha−1)
(Fig. 34.5). Similarly, BGC was higher in the South aspect (23.3 ± 3.82 ton ha−1)
than in the North aspect (15.26 ± 2.72 ton ha−1). DWC was also higher in the South
aspect (15.39 ± 2.53 ton ha−1) than the North aspect (10.11 ± 1.8 ton ha−1). However,
Fig. 34.5 Carbon stock of different carbon pools along aspect levels in Sal-dominated forest
(AGTC, AGSC, BGC, DWC, LC, TC means aboveground tree carbon, aboveground sapling car-
bon, belowground carbon, deadwood carbon, leaf litter carbon, and total carbon, respectively)
AGSC was slightly higher in the North aspect (0.37 ± 0.1 ton ha−1) than the South
aspect (0.17 ± 0.09 ton ha−1). Also, LC was found to be slightly higher in the North
aspect (41.22 ± 1.8 ton ha−1) than the South aspect (39.49 ± 4.12 ton ha−1). Lastly,
TC was found to be higher in the South aspect (194.83 ± 26.28 ton ha−1) compared
to the North aspect (143.28 ± 17.88 ton ha−1) (Fig. 34.5). However, no significant
differences (p > 0.05) were found between the AGSC, DWC and LC carbon pools
for the North and South aspects (Fig. 34.5).
34.3.3.2 Pine-Dominated Forest
AGTC was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the North aspect (40.11 ± 5.38 ton
ha−1) compared to the South aspect (19.51 ± 2.64 ton ha−1) (Fig. 34.6). Similarly,
BGC displayed a significantly higher mean value for the North aspect (8.02 ± 1.08
ton ha-1) than the South aspect (3.9 ± 0.53 ton ha−1). In contrast, AGSC showed no
statistically significant differences (p > 0.05), with both the North (0.36 ± 0.05 ton
ha−1) and South (0.3 ± 0.04 ton ha−1) aspects. DWC was significantly (p < 0.05)
higher in the North aspect (5.29 ± 0.71 ton ha−1) compared to the South (2.58 ± 0.35
ton ha−1) aspect. Similarly, LC exhibited a higher mean value in the North aspect
(43.77 ± 4.79 ton ha−1) compared to the South aspect (33.94 ± 4.65 ton ha−1).
However, it is statistically insignificant (p > 0.05). Furthermore, TC values also
showed a significant (p < 0.05) contrast, with a higher mean value in the North
720 S. Ayer et al.
Fig. 34.6 Carbon stock of different carbon pools along aspect levels in Pine-dominated forest
(AGTC, AGSC, BGC, DWC, LC, TC means aboveground tree carbon, aboveground sapling car-
bon, belowground carbon, deadwood carbon, leaf litter carbon, and total carbon, respectively)
aspect (97.55 ± 9.51 ton ha−1) compared to the South aspect (60.23 ± 6.86 ton ha−1)
(Fig. 34.6).
34.4 Discussion
34.4.1 Carbon Stock in Forest Types
Vegetation types play a crucial role in influencing variations in carbon stock (Nath
et al. 2018; Piao et al. 2019; Sheikh et al. 2020). Several pieces of research have
reported variations in carbon stock across different forest types in Nepal (Tripathi
et al. 2017; DFRS 2015; Ghale et al. 2020; Gurung et al. 2022; Sharma et al. 2020).
Similarly, we also observed significant variations in carbon stock across the two
studied forest types i.e., Sal-dominated and Pine-dominated. Higher AGTC was
found in Sal-dominated forests than in Pine-dominated forests (Fig. 34.2 and
Table 34.1), which aligns with previous studies (Baral et al. 2009; Pandey et al.
2014). Baral et al. (2009) reported higher AGTC in the Hill Sal forest (97.86 ton
ha−1) than in the Pine forest (38.70 ton ha−1) of Central Nepal. Similarly, in Central
Nepal, Pandey et al. (2014) also found higher carbon stock in Sal vegetation (133.60
ton ha−1) than in Pine vegetation (100.75 ton ha−1). The higher AGTC observed in
Sal-dominated forests can be ascribed to the conservation-oriented forest
Table 34.1 Formulas used during biomass and carbon estimation

No Equation References
1 AGTB = 0.0509 × D2 × p × H where, D, p, H are tree DBH (cm), wood Chave et al.
density (g cm−3) and tree height (m) respectively (2005)
2 Log (AGSB) = a + b log (D) where DFRS (2015),
Tamrakar et al.
(2000)
3 BGB = AGTB×0.20 MacDicken
(1997)
4 LHG = [TFW−{TFW× (SFW − SODW)}]/SFW Lasco et al.
(2005).
5 DWB = (AGTB+ AGSB+BGB) × 0.11 Joshi et al.
(2020)
6 TC = C(AGTB) + C(AGSB) + C(BGB) + C(LHG) + C(DWB) Subedi et al.
(2010)
management strategies that emphasize conservation and reduce human-induced

pressures on Sal forests (Joshi et al. 2021a, b). These conservation-oriented prac-
tices aim to protect and sustainably utilize Sal trees and their associated ecosystems,
acknowledging their ecological and economic importance (Gautam and Devoe
2005). Also, it is widely recognized that anthropogenic disturbances such as fuel-
wood collection, application of silvicultural treatments, timber harvesting, debris
removal etc., exert a notable influence on the biomass and carbon storage within
specific forest ecosystems (Yohannes et al. 2015; Mir et al. 2021). Conversely, Pine-
dominated forests exhibit lower AGTC, partially attributed to the higher anthropo-
genic disturbances and slope levels in Pine-dominated forests than in Sal-dominated
forests in our study. Studies have also highlighted that increasing slopes are associ-
ated with reduced biomass due to factors such as limited resource access, physical
stress, soil erosion, reduced sunlight, windthrow risk, and competitive disadvan-
tages for some tree species (Maggi et al. 2005; Yohannes et al. 2015; Bohara et al.
2021). Like AGTC, BGC was higher in Sal-dominated forests than Pine-dominated
forests (Fig. 34.2). Belowground biomass production follows a similar pattern to
aboveground biomass (Gupta et al. 2017; Chisanga et al. 2018; Kumar et al. 2020a,
b). This relationship explains the higher belowground biomass and carbon content
in Sal-dominated forests. Similarly, higher DWC in Sal-dominated forests than in
Pine-dominated forests might be due to differences in management practices
(Tavankar et al. 2021). Due to the protection of Sal forests, they experience less
disturbance or selective logging, which may retain more deadwood in the forest.
Other factors affecting DWC might be age, type of forest, and the density and vol-
ume of live trees (Castagneri et al. 2010; Lo Monaco et al. 2020; Tavankar et al.
2021). Lastly, a higher mean total carbon in sal-dominated forests than pine-domi-
nated forests might be due to higher AGTC, BGC, LC, and DWC. Although LC
across forest type was insignificant, the mean value was higher in Sal-dominated
forests than Pine-dominated (Fig. 34.2 and Table 34.1).
722 S. Ayer et al.
34.4.2 Carbon Across Slope Category
Several studies have revealed the carbon dynamics along slope gradient in tropical
and temperate forests (Yohannes et al. 2015; Mensah et al. 2016; Pandey et al. 2020;
Karchegani et al. 2012; Maggi et al. 2005; Shiferaw 2012; Wang et al. 2022; Saimun
et al. 2021). The current body of literature offers varying conclusions regarding the
correlation between slope and carbon stock. Some studies, such as Pragasan (2022)
and Pandey et al. (2020), indicate a positive correlation, while others, like Mensah
et al. (2016) and Yohannes et al. (2015), suggest a negative association. Some stud-
ies (Sharma and Kakchapati 2018; Dar and Parthasarathy 2022) found no discern-
ible relationship. These discrepancies are due to the spatial and temporal variability
inherent in ecosystems, species-specific responses to topography, and the influence
of management practices and disturbances (Zhu et al. 2019; Lamsal et al. 2023;
Paudel et al. 2023). Our study found higher AGTC, BGC, and DWC with increasing
slope levels in both forest types (Figs. 34.3 and 34.4). This finding aligns with
Shiferaw (2012) and Pandey et al. (2020), which might be due to the heightened
challenges in accessing such areas, leading to reduced disturbances such as illegal
felling of trees and other biomass extraction activities (Shiferaw 2012; Pandey et al.
2020; Nirmal and Singh 2021).
Additionally, slope can have a noticeable effect on biomass due to the distribu-
tion of resources such as sunlight, water, and nutrients, which can influence the
distribution pattern of tree species (Sarker et al. 2015; Singh et al. 2017, 2018,
2020a, b). Since different tree species have varying capacities to sequester carbon,
their distribution on slopes can influence the overall carbon sequestration potential
of the ecosystem (Singh 2021; Raturi et al. 2022; Jin et al. 2023). Similarly, lower
LC in steep slopes in both forest types (Figs. 34.3 and 34.4) might be related to less
accumulation of litterfall in steep slope due to canopy cover and slope character
(Yohannes et al. 2015). Conversely, higher LC in gentle slope might be because
intense rain during the monsoon season carries away the litter and twigs from higher
slope positions to lower ones (Pandey et al. 2020; Yohannes et al. 2015). However,
AGSC showed no smooth pattern in both forest types, higher in the gentle slope and
lower in the moderate slope (Figs. 34.3 and 34.4). The observed pattern of increased
aboveground sapling carbon stock in gentle slopes may be a direct outcome of the
more accessible and frequently harvested nature of these areas. In gentle slopes,
more frequent harvesting of tree species occurs due to the ease of harvesting opera-
tions in these areas, which creates openings in the forest canopy, enabling more
sunlight to penetrate the forest floor (Gupta et al. 2018; Kumar et al. 2018, 2021a,
b, c; Singh and Kumar 2022).
Similarly, Liang et al. (2023) and Liu et al. (2020) found substantially greater
soil nutrients in lower slopes than in middle and upper slope positions. Increased
light availability stimulates photosynthesis and carbon capture, and improved soil
nutrient availability can provide a favorable environment for sapling growth, estab-
lishment, and biomass accumulation (Elbasiouny et al. 2022). While we did not find
direct studies addressing sapling biomass and slopes in particular forest types, our
results underscore the importance of considering slope-level variations in carbon

dynamics within forest ecosystems (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, 2021a, b, c; Manoj et al.
2021). We found significant differences in sapling biomass across gentle, moderate,
and steep slopes, highlighting the influence of slope gradient on carbon storage and
distribution within forests. The higher sapling biomass in gentle slopes highlights
the importance of these areas for carbon sequestration by saplings (Figs. 34.3 and
34.4). It underscores the need to consider tree canopy and understory vegetation,
such as saplings, in assessing carbon dynamics.
34.4.3 Carbon Across Aspect Category
One topographic feature that causes microclimatic fluctuations is the aspect, which
may result in considerable variability in biomass production and carbon stock
dynamics (Yohannes et al. 2015). The orientation of the slope can influence the
amount of sunlight, temperature, and moisture that a particular area receives, which
in turn affects the growth and productivity of vegetation, including trees (Zhang
et al. 2022). In the Sal-dominated forest, AGTC, BGC, DWC and TC were higher in
the South than in the North (Fig. 34.5). This aligns with earlier studies that indicate
forest ecosystems facing the south aspect typically have more ideal growing cir-
cumstances, which results in higher biomass (Banik et al. 2018; Gautam and Devoe
2005). South-facing slopes typically receive more direct sunlight and are warmer
than north-facing slopes due to their orientation to the sun (Auslander et al. 2003).
This increased solar exposure can create a warmer and drier microclimate on south-
facing slopes, which can be more favorable for growth and biomass accumulation
for light-demanding tree species like Sal (Shorea robusta) that thrive in such
conditions.
In contrast, LC carbon was higher in the North than the South, possibly due to a
slower leaf litter decomposition rate, leading to its accumulation on the forest floor
(Sun and Liu 2020; Asrat et al. 2022). In Pine-dominated forests, carbon stock in all
pools was higher in the North aspect than in the South aspect (Fig. 34.6), which
aligns with previous studies (Pariyar et al. 2019; Yohannes et al. 2015; Måren et al.
2015; Gubena and Sormessa 2017; Aryal et al. 2018). This might be due to increased
moisture levels and greater tree vegetation growth and cover, resulting in more
organic matter in North aspect (Yohannes et al. 2015; Pariyar et al. 2019). Our study
found contrasting results on the aspect impact on carbon stock between two forest
types, which could be due to differences in sunshine exposure, species composition
and growth characteristics, soil characteristics, moisture content, and other possible
environmental factors between the North and South sides of the forest (Chang et al.
2023). Although solar radiation plays a pivotal role in influencing forest biomass
and carbon storage (Cao 2018; Fang et al. 2018), it’s crucial to recognize that bio-
mass and carbon stock are influenced by a combination of factors, including tem-
perature, precipitation, soil type, and species composition (Sun and Liu 2020). For
example, particular tree species may be more efficient at photosynthesis, potentially
724 S. Ayer et al.
producing more biomass even under similar solar radiation conditions (Sun and Liu
2020). This study underscores the complexity of the role of aspects influencing
biomass and carbon dynamics in forested landscapes.
34.5 Conclusion
We conducted this study to quantify carbon variations across slope and aspect cat-
egories in Sal-dominated and Pine-dominated forests. Notably, the Sal-dominated
forest exhibited higher carbon stocks across all studied pools than the Pine-
dominated forest. Surprisingly, we did not find a significant impact of slope on
carbon stocks in Sal-dominated forests, challenging conventional expectations.
Conversely, higher AGSC in gentle slopes in Pine-dominated forests suggests a
potential influence of slope gradient on sapling carbon distribution. Aspect-wise,
higher carbon stocks in the South aspect of Sal-dominated forests and the North
aspect of Pine-dominated forests indicate the importance of considering species
composition and growth characteristics. Potential contradictions in the role of
aspect in influencing biomass and carbon with other studies, we highlight the need
for continued research to refine our understanding of these intricate relationships.
This study robustly supports the assertion that carbon stock exhibits considerable
variation based on different forest types. Variation in carbon dynamics across differ-
ent slope and aspect gradients in these forest types highlights the need for site-
specific conservation strategies. Furthermore, this study highlights need to
investigate the influence of environmental factors on sapling biomass and carbon to
understand carbon dynamics better.
References
Aryal S, Shrestha S, Maraseni T, Wagle PC, Gaire NP (2018) Carbon stock and its relationships
with tree diversity and density in community forests in Nepal. Int For Rev 20(3):263–273.
https://doi.org/10.1505/146554818824063069
Asrat F, Soromessa T, Bekele T, Kurakalva RM, Guddeti SS, Smart DR, Steger K (2022) (2022)
Effects of environmental factors on carbon stocks of dry evergreen afromontane forests of the
Choke Mountain ecosystem, northwestern Ethiopia. Int J Forestry Res 4:1–31
Auslander M, Nevo E, Inbar M (2003) The effects of slope orientation on plant growth, develop-
mental instability and susceptibility to herbivores. J Arid Environ 55(3):405–416
Awasthi P, Bargali K, Bargali SS, Khatri K, Jhariya MK (2022) Nutrient partitioning and dynam-
ics in Coriaria nepalensis wall dominated shrublands of degraded hills of Kumaun Himalaya.
Front Forests Global Change 5:913127
Ayer S, Timilsina S, Aryal A, Acharya AK, Neupane A, Bhatta KP (2023a) Bamboo forests in
Nepal: status, distribution, research trends and contribution to local livelihoods. Adv Bamboo
Sci 4:100027
Ayer S, Bhandari Y, Gautam A, Gautam J (2023b) Determining the causal factors affecting the
survival of young plantations in Udayapur, Nepal. Asian J Forestry 7(2)
Banik B, Deb D, Deb S, Datta BK (2018) Assessment of biomass and carbon stock in Sal (Shorea
robusta Gaertn.) forests under two management regimes in Tripura, Northeast India. J Forest
Environ Sci 34(3):209–223
Baral SK, Malla R, Ranabhat S (2009) Above-ground carbon stock assessment in different forest
types of Nepal. Banko Janakari 19(2):10–14
Bargali SS, Shahi C, Bargali K, Negi B, Khatri K (2022) Energy and monetary efficiencies at the
different altitudinal agroecosystems in central Himalaya, India. Heliyon 8(11):e11500
Bisht S, Rawat GS, Bargali SS, Rawat YS, Mehta A (2023) Forest vegetation response to anthro-
pogenic pressures: a case study from Askot wildlife sanctuary, Western Himalaya. Environ
Develop Sustain 26:1–25
Bocock KL (1964) Changes in the amounts of dry matter, nitrogen, carbon and energy in decom-
posing woodland leaf litter in relation to the activities of the soil fauna. J Ecol 52:273–284
Bohara B, Miya MS, Timilsina S, Gautam D, Regmi S (2021) Biomass and carbon stock variation
along slopes in tropical forest of Nepal: a case of depard community forest, Makwanpur, Nepal.
J Multidiscipl Appl Nat Sci 1(2):89–99
Bruun HH, Moen J, Virtanen R, Grytnes JA, Oksanen L, Angerbjörn A (2006) Effects of altitude
and topography on species richness of vascular plants, bryophytes and lichens in alpine com-
munities. J Veg Sci 17(1):37–46
Cao L (2018) The effects of solar radiation management on the carbon cycle. Curr Clim Chang
Rep 4:41–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40641-018-0088-z
Castagneri D, Garbarino M, Berretti R, Motta R (2010) Site and stand effects on coarse woody
debris in montane mixed forests of eastern Italian Alps. For Ecol Manag 260(9):1592–1598
Chang TW, Chen GF, Chang KH (2023) Modeling of the spatial distribution of forest carbon stor-
age in a tropical/subtropical Island with multiple ecozones. Plants (Basel). 12(15):2777
improved estimation of carbon stocks and balance in tropical forests. Oecologia 145:87–99.
Chisanga K, Bhardwaj DR, Pala NA, Thakur CL (2018) Biomass production and carbon stock
inventory of high-altitude dry temperate land use systems in North Western Himalaya. Ecol
Process 7(1):1–13
Dar AA, Parthasarathy N (2022) Patterns and drivers of tree carbon stocks in Kashmir Himalayan
forests: implications for climate change mitigation. Ecol Process 11(1):1–13
DFRS (2015) State of Nepal’s forests. Kathmandu: for-Est resource assessment (FRA) Nepal,
Department of Forest Research and Survey (DFRS)
DoHM. (2017) Observed climate trend analysis of Nepal (1971–2014). Department of Hydrology
and Meteorology, Nepal
Elbasiouny H, El-Ramady H, Elbehiry F, Rajput VD, Minkina T, Mandzhieva S (2022) Plant nutri-
tion under climate change and soil carbon sequestration. Sustain For 14(2):914
Fang H, Ji B, Deng X et al (2018) Effects of topographic factors and aboveground vegetation car-
bon stocks on soil organic carbon in Moso bamboo forests. Plant Soil 433:363–376. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11104-018-3847-7
Fartyal A, Khatri K, Bargali K, Bargali SS (2022) Altitudinal variation in plant community, popu-
lation structure and carbon stock of Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. forest in Kumaun Himalaya.
J Environ Biol 43(1):133–146
Gautam KH, Devoe NN (2005) Ecological and anthropogenic niches of Sal (Shorea robusta
Gaertn. F.) forest and prospects for multiple-product forest management—a review. Forestry
79(1):81–101. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpi063
Ghale K, Yadav SK, Thapa N, Sah JN (2020) Potentiality of bamboos to combat climate change
impacts and biodiversity conservation in the Annapurna conservation area, Nepal. J Forest Nat
Resource Manag 2(1):79–91
Ghimire P, Bhatta B, Pokhrel B, Kafle G, Paudel P (2018) Soil organic carbon stocks under dif-
ferent land uses in Chure region of Makawanpur district, Nepal. SAARC J Agric 16(2):13–23
726 S. Ayer et al.
Gubena AF, Sormessa T (2017) Variation in forest carbon stocks along environmental gradients in
Egdu Forest of Oromiya region, Ethiopia, implications for sustainable Forest management. Am
J Environ Protect 1(6):1–8
Gupta B, Sarvade S, Singh M (2017) Species composition, biomass production and carbon stor-
age potential of agroforestry systems in Himachal Pradesh. Agroforestry for increased produc-
tion and livelihood security. In: Gupta SK, Panwar P, Kaushal R (eds) New India Publishing
Agency, New Delhi, pp 245–269
Gurung MB, Bigsby H, Cullen R, Manandhar U (2015) Estimation of carbon stock under different
management regimes of tropical forest in the Terai Arc Landscape, Nepal. Forest Ecol Manag
356:144–152
Gurung R, Adhikari HS, Dani RS, Baniya CB (2022) Tree carbon stock in middle mountain forest
types: a case study from Chandragiri hills, Kathmandu, Nepal. Banko Janakari 32(2):63–76
Hinge G, Surampalli RY, Goyal MK (2018) Prediction of soil organic carbon stock using dig-
ital mapping approach in humid India. Environ Earth Sci 77:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s12665-018-7374-x
Holland PG, Steyn DG (1975) Vegetational responses to latitudinal variations in slope angle and
aspect. J Biogeogr 2:179–183
Houghton RA (2007) Balancing the global carbon budget. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 35:313–347
IPCC (2006) IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories. In: Buendia L, Miwa
K, Nagara T, Tabnabe K (eds) Eggless tons, Agriculture, forestry and other land use, vol 4.
Institute of for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Hayanma, Japan
Isbell F, Cowles J, Dee LE, Loreau M, Reich PB, Gonzalez A et al (2018) Quantifying effects of
biodiversity on ecosystem functioning across times and places. Ecol Lett 21(6):763–778
Jin S, Zhang E, Guo H, Hu C, Zhang Y, Yan D (2023) Comprehensive evaluation of carbon seques-
tration potential of landscape tree species and its influencing factors analysis: implications for
urban green space management. Carbon Balance Manag 18(1):17
degraded and non-degraded community forests in Terai Region of Nepal. J Forest Environ Sci
36(2):113–121
Joshi R, Singh H, Chhetri R, Poudel SR, Rijal S (2021a) Carbon sequestration potential of commu-
Joshi VC, Negi VS, Bisht D, Sundriyal RC, Arya D (2021b) Tree biomass and carbon stock assess-
ment of subtropical and temperate forests in the central Himalaya, India. Trees Forests People
6:100147
Karchegani PM, Ayoubi S, Mosaddeghi MR, Honarjoo N (2012) Soil organic carbon pools in
particle-size fractions as affected by slope gradient and land use change in hilly regions, west-
ern Iran. J Mt Sci 9:87–95
Plant Develop Sci 10(3):157–162
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
49(1):38–44
Lamichhane D, Karna NK (2009) Harvesting methods of Cinnamomum tamala leaves in private
land: a case study from Udayapur district, Nepal. Banko Janakari 19(2):20–24
Lamsal P, Aryal KR, Adhikari H, Paudel G, Maharjan SK, Khatri DJ, Sharma RP (2023) Effects
of Forest management approach on carbon stock and plant diversity: a case study from Karnali
Province, Nepal. Land 12(6):1233
Lasco RD, Pulhin FB, Cruz RVO, Pulhin JM, Roy SSN (2005) Carbon budgets of terrestrial eco-
systems in the Pantabangan-Carranglan watershed. Assessments of Impacts and Adaptations to
Climate Change (AIACC) Working Paper. www.aiaccproject.org
Liang W, Feng Y, Li F, Zhao Y, Zhu J, Yao J, Chang C, Wei X (2023) Drivers of vegetation and
soil determine natural regeneration of a single plantation at different slope positions. Front For
Glob Change 6:1167284. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2023.1167284
Liu JF, Su SJ, He ZS, Jiang L, Gu XG, Xu DW et al (2020) Relationship between Pinus taiwan-
ensis seedling regeneration and the spatial heterogeneity of soil nitrogen in Daiyun Mountain,
Southeast China. Ecol Indic 115:106398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106398
Lo Monaco A, Luziatelli G, Latterini F, Tavankar F, Picchio R (2020) Structure and dynamics
of deadwood in pine and oak stands and their role in CO2 sequestration in lowland forests of
Central Italy. Forests 11(3):253
MacDicken KG (1997) A guide to monitoring carbon storage in forestry and agroforestry projects
Maggi O, Persiani AM, Casado MA, Pineda FD (2005) Effects of elevation, slope position and
livestock exclusion on microfungi isolated from soils of Mediterranean grasslands. Mycologia
97(5):984–995
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
Manral V, Bargali K, Bargali SS, Karki H, Chaturvedi RK (2023) Seasonal dynamics of soil micro-
bial biomass C, N and P along an altitudinal gradient in central Himalaya, India. Sustainability
15(2):1651
Måren IE, Karki S, Prajapati C, Yadav RK, Shrestha BB (2015) Facing north or south: does slope
aspect impact forest stand characteristics and soil properties in a semiarid trans-Himalayan
valley? J Arid Environ 121:112–123
McEwan RW, Lin YC, Sun IF, Hsieh CF, Su SH, Chang LW et al (2011) Topographic and biotic
regulation of aboveground carbon storage in subtropical broad-leaved forests of Taiwan. For
Ecol Manag 262(9):1817–1825
Mensah S, Veldtman R, Assogbadjo AE, Glèlè Kakaï R, Seifert T (2016) Tree species diversity
promotes aboveground carbon storage through functional diversity and functional dominance.
Ecol Evol 6(20):7546–7557
Mir AH, Chaudhury G, Barbhuyan HSA, Sarma K, Upadhaya K (2021) Impact of disturbance on
community structure, biomass and carbon stock in montane evergreen forests of Meghalaya,
Northeast India. Carbon Manag 12(2):215–233
Moeslund JE, Arge L, Bøcher PK, Dalgaard T, Svenning JC (2013) Topography as a driver of local
terrestrial vascular plant diversity patterns. Nord J Bot 31(2):129–144
728 S. Ayer et al.
Nath AJ, Sileshi GW, Das AK (2018) Bamboo based family forests offer opportunities for biomass
production and carbon farming in north East India. Land Use Policy 75:191–200. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.03.041
Pandey SS, Maraseni TN, Cockfield G (2014) Carbon stock dynamics in different vegetation
dominated community forests under REDD+: a case from Nepal. For Ecol Manag 327:40–47
Pandey HP, Maaren IE, Shah KK, Maraseni TN (2020) Response of topographic and biodiversity
variables on biomass and carbon density in community forests of himalayan foot-hills. J Forest
Livelihood 19(1):51–65
Pandey R, Bargali SS, Bargali K, Karki H, Kumar M, Sahoo UK (2023) Fine root dynamics and
associated nutrient flux in Sal-dominated forest ecosystems of central Himalaya, India. Front
Forests Global Change 5:1064502
Pariyar S, Volkova L, Sharma RP, Sunam R, Weston CJ (2019) Aboveground carbon of community-
managed Chirpine (Pinus roxburghii Sarg.) forests of Nepal based on stand types and geo-
graphic aspects. PeerJ 7:e6494
Paudel D, Tiwari KR, Raut N, Bajracharya RM, Bhattarai S, Wagle BH et al (2023) Species com-
position and carbon stock in different agroforestry practices in the mid-hills of Nepal. J Sustain
For 42(7):695–711
Paudyal K, Baral H, Bhandari SP, Bhandari A, Keenan RJ (2019) Spatial assessment of the impact
of land use and land cover change on supply of ecosystem services in Phewa watershed, Nepal.
Ecosyst Serv 36:100895
Piao S, Zhang X, Chen A, Liu Q, Lian X, Wang X et al (2019) The impacts of climate extremes
on the terrestrial carbon cycle: a review. Sci China Earth Sci 62:1551–1563. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11430-018-9363-5
Poudel A, Shrestha HL, Bajracharya RM, Sitaula BK (2014) Quantification of carbon stocks under
different landuse system of Chitwan district, Nepal. In: Proceedings of the international con-
ference on forests, soil and rural livelihoods in a changing climate, Kathmandu, Nepal, 27-30
September 2014. Kathmandu University, pp 194–207
Pragasan LA (2022) Tree carbon stock and its relationship to key factors from a tropical hill forest
of Tamil Nadu, India. Geol Ecol Landsc 6(1):32–39
Saimun MSR, Karim MR, Sultana F, Arfin-Khan MA (2021) Multiple drivers of tree and soil
carbon stock in the tropical forest ecosystems of Bangladesh. Trees Forests People 5:100108
Sarker SK, Nur-Un-Nabi M, Mohasinul Haque M, Sharmin M, Sonet SS, Das S, Das N (2015) Tree
assemblages and diversity patterns in tropical Juri Forest, Bangladesh. J For Res 26:159–169
Sharma I, Kakchapati S (2018) Linear regression model to identify the factors associated with
carbon stock in Chure forest of Nepal. Scientifica 2018:8
Sharma ER, Pukkala J (1990) Volume tables for forest trees of Nepal. Ministry of Forest and Soil
Conservation, Forest Survey and Statistic Division, Kathmandu, Nepal, p 84. https://frtc.gov.
np/uploads/files/Sharma%20and%20Pukala_1.pdf
Sharma CM, Gairola S, Baduni NP, Ghildiyal SK, Suyal S (2011) Variation in carbon stocks on
different slope aspects in seven major forest types of temperate region of Garhwal Himalaya,
India. J Biosci 36:701–708
Sharma KP, Bhatta SP, Khatri GB, Pajiyar A, Joshi DK (2020) Estimation of carbon stock in
the chir pine (Pinus roxburghii Sarg.) plantation forest of Kathmandu valley, Central Nepal. J
Forest Environ Sci 36(1):37–46
Sheikh MA, Kumar M, Todaria NP, Pandey R (2020) Biomass and soil carbon along altitudinal
gradients in temperate Cedrus deodara forests in central Himalaya, India: implications for cli-
mate change mitigation. Ecol Indic 111:106025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.106025
Shiferaw G (2012) Carbon stocks in different pools in natural and plantation forests of Chilimo,
central highland of Ethiopia. Unpublished M. Sc thesis, Addis Ababa University. Addis Ababa
Simegn TY, Soromessa T (2015) Carbon stock variations along altitudinal and slope gradient in the
forest belt of Simen Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. Am J Environ Protect 4(4):199–201
lution. Trees 37:69–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-021-02179-8
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
org/10.1007/s13205-017-0690-0
crm.2020.100241
Stephenson NL, Das AJ, Condit R, Russo SE, Baker PJ, Beckman NG et al (2014) Rate of tree
carbon accumulation increases continuously with tree size. Nature 507(7490):90–93
Subedi BP, Pandey SS, Pandey A, Rana EB, Bhattarai S, Banskota TR et al (2010) Guidelines for
measuring carbon stocks in community-managed forests. Norwegian Agency for Development
Cooperation, Oslo
Subedi B, Lamichhane P, Magar LK, Subedi T (2022) Aboveground carbon stocks and sequestra-
tion rates of forests under different management regimes in Churia region of Nepal. Banko
Janakari 32(1):15–24
Sun W, Liu X (2020) Review on carbon storage estimation of forest ecosystem and applications in
China. For Ecosyst 7:4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40663-019-0210-2
Tamrakar PR; Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation; Natural Resource Management Sector
Assistance Programme (Nepal); Natural Resource Management Sector Assistance Programme
(Nepal) (2000) Tree Improvement and Silviculture Component. Biomass and volume tables
with species description for community forest management. TISC technical paper series
no.101. Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal, p 90
Tavankar F, Latterini F, Nikooy M, Venanzi R, Naghdi R, Picchio R (2021) Influence of forest
management and sylvicultural treatments on abundance of snags and tree cavities in mountain
mixed beech forests. Environments 8(6):55
Titshall LW, O'Connor TG, Morris CD (2000) Effect of long-term exclusion of fire and herbivory
on the soils and vegetation of sour grassland. Afr J Range Forage Sci 17(1–3):70–80
Tripathi S, Thapa CB, Sharma A, Paudel G (2017) Biomass carbon content in Schima-Castanopsis
Forest of Midhills of Nepal: a case study from Jaisikuna community Forest, Kaski. Int J
Environ 6(4):72–83
730 S. Ayer et al.
Valencia R, Condit R, Muller-Landau HC, Hernandez C, Navarrete H (2009) Dissecting biomass

dynamics in a large Amazonian forest plot. J Trop Ecol 25(5):473–482
doi.org/10.1007/s40502-020-00550-4
Wang Y, Wang S, Jiang B, Zhu Y, Niu X, Li C et al (2022) Regulation of abiotic factors on aboveg-
round biomass and biodiversity of ditch slope in coastal farmland. Water 14(21):3547
Yang Y, Mohammat A, Feng J, Zhou R, Fang J (2007) Storage, patterns and environmental con-
trols of soil organic carbon in China. Biogeochemistry 84:131–141. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10533-007-9109-z
Yohannes H, Soromessa T, Argaw M (2015) Carbon stock analysis along slope and slope aspect
gradient in Gedo Forest: implications for climate change mitigation. J Earth Sci Clim Change
6(09):6–11
Zhang QP, Fang RY, Deng CY, Zhao HJ, Shen MH, Wang Q (2022) Slope aspect effects on plant
community characteristics and soil properties of alpine meadows on eastern Qinghai-Tibetan
plateau. Ecol Indic 143:109400
Zhu M, Feng Q, Qin Y, Cao J, Zhang M, Liu W, Li B (2019) The role of topography in shaping the
spatial patterns of soil organic carbon. Catena 176:296–305
Chapter 35
Assessing Carbon Sequestration Potential
and Socio-economic Benefits of Ficus
thonningii in the Tigray Region, Northern
Ethiopia
Negasi Solomon, Kidus Nirea, Fisseha Ghebretinsae,

and Abraham Gebrehiwot Yihdego
Abstract This research investigates the ecological and economic importance of

Ficus thonningii (F. thonningii), a key factor within agroforestry systems in the
Tigray region of Northern Ethiopia. Despite its widespread cultivation, there is little
understanding of the species’ carbon sequestration potential and its economic ben-
efit to local communities. The research was conducted at two locations in the
Ahferom district, Mesheg, and Sefo, to quantify the carbon stock and soil organic
content of F. thonningii across different age categories and evaluate its economic
value to local households. The tree was categorized into three different age catego-
ries for the analysis: old (>30 years), medium-aged (5–30 years), and young
(<5 years). Soil samples were collected from varying radial distances and depths,
and 185 households of F. thonningii growers were interviewed to assess the tree’s
economic importance. An analysis of biomass carbon across various age groups was
conducted using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), while the soil organic
carbon was examined using a two-way ANOVA. The estimated biomass carbon
stock for young, medium-aged, and old trees was 41.6 kg tree−1, 183.7 kg tree−1 and
501.2 kg tree−1, respectively. The findings revealed a significant difference (p < 0.05)
in biomass carbon storage among the different age groups of the species, with the
N. Solomon (*)
Tigray Institute of Policy Studies, Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia
Department of Land Resources Management and Environmental Protection, Mekelle
University, Mekele, Tigray, Ethiopia
K. Nirea
Department of Land Resources Management and Environmental Protection, Mekelle
University, Mekele, Tigray, Ethiopia
F. Ghebretinsae
Tigray Statistics and Vital Event Registration Agency, Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia
A. G. Yihdego
Department of Economics, Aksum University, Axum, Tigray, Ethiopia
Ltd. 2024
732 N. Solomon et al.
old category recording the uppermost carbon stock. The estimated soil organic car-
bon stock for young, medium and old-aged trees was 57.65 Mg ha−1, 68.38 Mg ha−1
and 71.40 Mg ha−1, respectively. The socioeconomic data shows that households
generate an annual income of 2034 ETB from the F. thonningii plantation. The
research concludes that F. thonningii has significant carbon sequestration potential,
particularly at older ages, and offers substantial economic advantages to local
households. It is recommended that this multipurpose tree species be incorporated
into restoration programs within the region and other areas with similar agro-
climatic conditions in Ethiopia.
Keywords Biomass carbon stock · Soil organic carbon · F. thonningii ·

Household income
35.1 Introduction
Agroforestry systems, which incorporate the integration of trees or shrubs with

crops or livestock, have attracted global interest due to their potential to improve
livelihoods and provide various ecosystem services (Pandey 2007; Kumar and
Singh 2020). These systems are known for diversifying agricultural production,
enhancing food security, and mitigating climate change by sequestering carbon in
their biomass (De Beenhouwer et al. 2016; Verchot et al. 2007). In agroforestry
systems, trees play a crucial role in the natural carbon cycle of the planet by effec-
tively capturing and retaining more carbon than any other land-based ecosystem,
i.e., they store more than 80% of all terrestrial aboveground carbon and more than
70% of all soil organic carbon (Nair et al. 2010; Zomer et al. 2016). Agroforestry
practices encompass a range of systems, including windbreaks, alley cropping, sil-
vopasture, forest farming, and riparian forest buffers, each serving different pur-
poses and providing multiple benefits (Nair 1991; Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c). These
systems are designed to optimize production, minimize adverse effects, and enhance
ecological goods and services, making them advantageous over conventional agri-
cultural and forest production methods (De Beenhouwer et al. 2016).
In Ethiopia, traditional agroforestry practices such as scattered trees on farm-
land, home gardens, woodlots, and farm boundary practices have been integral to
the farming system, particularly in drylands, involving mixed cereal-livestock,
agrosilvopastoral, and silvopastoral systems (Abebe 2005; Singh et al. 2010). Ficus
thonningii (hereafter F. thonningii), an indigenous tree species in Ethiopia, plays a
crucial role in agroforestry, offering various benefits such as climate regulation,
water and Soil preservation, enhancement of soil fertility, and the provision of mul-
tiple products and services across different agro-ecological zones (Balehegn et al.
2015; Balehegn and Eniang 2009).
The species F. thonningii, belonging to the family of Moraceae, is a crucial agro-
forestry tree commonly found in farmlands, backyards, wastelands,s and exclosures
in dry and moist Kolla agroclimatic zones of Ethiopia (Balehegn et al. 2015;
35 Assessing Carbon Sequestration Potential and Socio-economic Benefits… 733
Balehegn and Eniang 2009). It is an evergreen, drought-resistant, indigenous tree

(Balehegn et al. 2015; Balehegn and Eniang 2009). The leaves are alternate or
whorled, mid-dark green and sub-glossy above while paler below (Coates Palgrave
1977). The species has positive attributes, including ease of propagation, high palat-
ability for animals, little or no adverse effects for other species, adaptability to the
local environment, resistance to lopping and cutting, shallow roots that do not
deplete groundwater, higher nutritive value of foliage, a fast growth rate, and a pos-
sibly significant contribution to carbon sequestration (Mekoya 2008; Kumar et al.
2018). In addition, the tree provides multiple uses and services, including water and
soil protection, soil fertility enhancement, wasteland reclamation, enhancement and
maintenance of biodiversity, firewood, and charcoal, building materials, timber and
furniture, fiber, fruits, medicine, and fencing across all agro-ecological zones
(Balehegn and Eniang 2009; Singh 2024).
F. thonningii is widely grown in the Ahferom district, Tigray Regional State, and
is used as fodder in times of feed shortage in the district. F. thonningii helps farmers
adapt to the existing agro-climatic changes in their localities. The tree is a critical
potential browse species with huge leafy biomass (Balehegn et al. 2012). Despite its
potential, F. thonningii remains underutilized in agroforestry development practices
in many parts of the country (Balehegn et al. 2012).
Studying F. thonningii’s biomass carbon and soil carbon stocks and its contribu-
tion to household income and consumption is crucial to fully comprehend its sig-
nificance and promote its sustainable integration into agroforestry systems (Singh
and Kumar 2022). Although certain analyses have delved into the effect of
F. thonningii on soil physicochemical properties (Berhe et al. 2013) and its brows-
able biomass (Balehegn et al. 2012), systematic data on the capacity of agroforestry
to sequester carbon in the Tigray region and other parts of the country is notably
lacking (Yadav et al. 2019; Verma et al. 2020). Therefore, this study aims to evaluate
the biomass carbon and soil carbon stocks of different ages of F. thonningii at vary-
ing distances from the canopy and assess its contribution to household income and
consumption in the study area.
35.2.1 Study Area
The study took place in two kebeles i.e., Mesheg and Sefo, in the Ahferom district,
which is situated within the central zone of Tigray regional state in northern
Ethiopia. Ahferom district is approximately 972 km away from Addis Ababa, the
capital city of Ethiopia, and 185 km away from Mekelle, the capital city of Tigray
Regional State. Geographically, the district is situated between latitude 14°08′43″ to
14°11′47″ and longitude 38°53′55″ to 38°57′30″. It has an altitude ranging from
1400 to 3200 m above sea level. Ahferom district shares borders with Eritrea in the
north, Adwa in the west, Ganta-Afeshum and Gulo-Mekeda in the east, and Worei-
Leke in the south.
According to the World Reference Base (WRB) classification system, the study
area displays a varied topography with distinct geographic features, including tall
and rugged mountains, plateaus with flat surfaces, deep gorges, valleys with incised
rivers, and gently rolling plains (Baxter 2007). The predominant soil types in the
Ahferom highlands are mainly Humic Cambisols, Oxisols, and Ultisols in the wet
and humid midland (Baxter 2007). The Ahferom district covers a total area of
133,979 ha, with approximately 23,434 ha of cultivated land, 21,458 ha of forest,
18,823 ha of bare land, 17,389 ha of grassland, 1374 ha of unused land, and
51,501 ha of miscellaneous land (BOARD 2019). From the overall cultivated land,
8000 ha are deemed appropriate for irrigation (BOARD 2019).
The area naturally has trees such as Ficus thonningii, Croton macrostachyus,
Cordia africana, Olea africana, Juniperus procera, Dodonaea angustifolia, Euclea
schmprie, and various aloe species. Additionally, there are introduced plant species
in the area for different purposes, including Eucalyptus camaldulensis (timber and
construction), Grevillea robusta (habitat modification, fuel wood, and conserva-
tion), Leucaena leucocephala (fodder and fuel wood), Susbania sesban (fodder),
and Acacia Senegal (fuel wood and soil and water conservation) (BOARD 2019)
(Fig. 35.1).
Ahferom district is one of Tigray’s largest and most agroecologically diverse
districts, with three traditional agroecological categories: high land, midland, and
Fig. 35.1 Map indicating the geographical location of the study area
low land. The study area primarily experiences rainfall from June to September,
with high temporal and spatial variability. The yearly rainfall varies between 550
and 650 mm, and hailstorms are common. The average annual temperature in the
area ranges from 10 to 30 °C.
The total human population of the Ahferom district is 206,993, with 46,395
households (BOARD 2019). Of the total population, 48% are males and 52% are
females. The rural areas of the district are home to 36,524 households (23,923 male
households and 12,601 female households). The population’s livelihoods directly or
indirectly depend on agricultural activities (BOARD 2019). The main economic
activity in the study areas is mixed crop-livestock farming, which smallholder farm-
ers practice. The dominant crops cultivated in the region are cereals (teff, wheat,
barley-wheat mixture, finger millet, sorghum, and maize), vegetables (onion,
tomato, pepper, garlic, cabbage, carrot, and lettuce), and oil crops (linseed) and nug
(Niger seed) (BOARD 2019).
35.2.2 Site Selection
To assess the distribution of F. thonningii, the Ahferom district was selected purpo-
sively as they have a better distribution of F. thonningii. A reconnaissance survey
was conducted before the data collection with the help of experts and developmental
agents to select the study kebeles. Accordingly, two sub-districts, namely Mesheg
and Sefo, were selected.
35.2.3 Sampling Design
Firstly, the trees were grouped into three age groups, namely young-aged (<5 years,
G0), medium-aged (5–30 years, G1) and old-aged (>30 years, G2). Data were col-
lected from 47, 101 and 35 young-aged, medium-aged and old-aged F. thonningii
trees, respectively. The trees’ age was determined by the owners who had planted
them in their homesteads.
35.2.4 Vegetation Inventory
Dendrometric parameters like diameter at breast height (DBH) and the total height
of all the sampled trees were measured using diameter tapes and clinometers,
respectively. Crown diameter (CD) was taken using measuring tape, measuring two
perpendicular diameters of the canopy, and an average value was recorded.
35.2.5 Soil Sampling
Soil samples were taken from F. thonningii at three different radial distances and
two soil depths. The three different radial distances were: (1) half of the canopy
(inner), (2) the canopy edge, and (3) outside the canopy. Four transects extending
from the bottom of the tree trunk were laid out in the east, west, north and south
directions. Soil samples were collected by opening soil pits to 0–30 cm, 30–60 cm
soil depths. Samples from different directions within the same radial distances and
depth were pooled or bulked to achieve a composite sample (Fig. 35.2).
35.2.6 Household Survey
The data used to study the effect of F. thonningii on household income originated
from household surveys. To reveal information on the local use of F. thonningii, and
local people’s perceptions about the use of the tree, a semi-structured questionnaire
was administered to 185 households (Table 35.1). A purposive random sampling
procedure was used to select farming households based on the availability of
F. thonningii. First, farmers who have F. thonningii in their homesteads were listed.
Fig. 35.2 Soil sampling under three different radial distances: A = half of the canopy radius under
the tree (inner); B = canopy edge; and C = outer radius (outside the canopy)
Table 35.1 Targeted sub-districts, their total population size and the sample size taken
No Name of sub-district Total households who have F. thonningii (N) Sample size (n)
1 Mesheg 943 97
2 Sefo 861 88
Total 1804 185
Next, systematic random sampling was implemented to select sample households.

To determine sample size, the formula used by Yamane (1973) was followed
as below:
N
n= (35.1)
1 + N (e)
2
Where
n = the sample size
N = designates total number of households in two sub-districts
e = designates maximum variability or margin of error 5% (0.05).
35.2.7 Biomass Carbon Stock Estimation
The equation proposed by Kuyah et al. (2012) was utilized to estimate aboveground
biomass (AGB), as presented in the following equation.
AGB = 0.091x dbh 2.472 (35.2)
Where dbh is the diameter at breast height. This equation was developed to estimate
the biomass above ground in agricultural landscapes.
The belowground biomass (BGB) was estimated from the root-shoot ratios (R/S)
and applied a proportion of 20% of the aboveground biomass, as suggested by
MacDicken (1997).
BGB = AGB x 0.2 (35.3)
Similarly, Pearson et al. (2013) described this method as more efficient and effective
than applying a regression model to determine belowground biomass from the
knowledge of aboveground biomass.
According to the equation proposed by Pearson et al. (2013), biomass conversion
to carbon stocks was carried out by considering that 50% of the measured biomass
comprises carbon.
Carbon ( kg ) = 0.5 x biomass (35.4)

35.2.7.1 Analysis of Soil Organic Carbon Stock
Before analysis, the collected samples were air-dried, ground, and sieved using a
2 mm sieve at Shire Soil Laboratory. The soil organic carbon content was deter-
mined using the wet oxidation method, as Walkley and Black (1934) outlined.
Soil organic carbon (SOC) was computed using the subsequent formula:
SOC = bulk density x depth x %carbon (35.5)
Determining bulk density was done by dividing the mass of the sample after
oven-drying it at 105 °C by the core volume, as described by Grossman and
Reinsch (2002).
oven - dry mass ( g )

Bulk density ( g cm -3 ) = (35.6)
volume ( cm3 )
35.2.7.2 Household Survey and Focus Group Discussion
The ranking index method was used to rank the multiple uses of F. thonningii. The
index was computed as:
Rn * C1 + Rn - 1 * C2 ⋯+ R1 * Cn
Index = (35.7)
ΣRn * C1 + Rn - 1 * C2 +⋯ R1 * Cn
Where, Rn = value given for the least ranked level (for example, if the least rank is
ninth, then Rn = 9, Rn − 1 = 8, R1 = 1; Cn = counts of the least ranked level (in the
above example, the count of the ninth rank = Cn, and the count of the first rank = C1.
The variation in biomass carbon stock among different age classes was analyzed
using the Univariate General Linear Model in SPSS 20 software. The soil organic
carbon difference across radial distances and age categories was performed using
two-way ANOVA at a significance level of P < 0.05. At the same time, the socio-
economic data were analyzed descriptively.
35.3 Results
35.3.1 Dendrometric Characteristics of F. thonningii
The average stem diameter and height differed across age categories, with the high-
est recorded in the old-aged F. thonningii and the lowest recorded in the young-aged
F. thonningii (Table 35.2). The average stem diameter in the old-aged F. thonningii
was three times higher than that recorded in the young-aged class.
35.3.2 Aboveground and Belowground Carbon Stock
Significantly, the highest aboveground biomass and belowground biomass carbon

stock were attained at the age of >30 years, while the lowest was recorded at the age
of <5 years (Table 35.3). Twelve times higher biomass carbon was recorded in the
old-aged F. thonningii than in the young-aged F. thonningii.
35.3.3 Soil Organic Carbon Stock
Bulk density significantly (p < 0.05) varied across the radial distance in the young-
aged tree (Table 35.4). A substantially higher bulk density was observed in areas
located outside the canopy than those underneath and at the edge of the canopy. The
soil organic carbon concentration varied considerably depending on the age of
F. thonningii. The old-aged trees had significantly higher organic carbon concentra-
tions than the young and medium-aged trees, as indicated in Table 35.4. Additionally,
the old-aged tree had the highest recorded soil organic carbon stock, significantly
different from the young-aged F. thonningii (p < 0.05).
Table 35.2 Average (± Age class DBH (cm) H (m)

standard error) woody plant G0 11.19 ± 0.90 5.47 ± 0.42
dendrometric variables under
different age classes G1 22.94 ± 0.86 8.17 ± 0.31
G2 34.40 ± 1.94 11.86 ± 0.57
G0 young-aged; G1 medium-aged; G2
old-aged; DBH diameter at breast height;
H height
Table 35.3 Average (± standard error) aboveground and belowground biomass carbon stock
Age class AGC (kg tree−1) BGC (kg tree−1) TC (kg tree−1)
G0 34.7c (±7.42) 6.94c (±1.48) 41.6c (±8.91)
G1 153.0b (±14.18) 30.61b (±2.83) 183.7b (±17.02)
G2 417.6a (±54.79) 83.53a (±10.96) 501.2a (±65.76)
p-value 0.000 0.000 0.000
AGC aboveground biomass carbon; BGC belowground biomass carbon; TC total carbon. Values
that share the same letters within a column are not considered statistically different (p > 0.05)
according to Tukey’s HSD test
35.3.4 Characteristics Relating to the Socioeconomic Status

of the Respondents
Table 35.5 presents the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents for

F. thonningii growers. The mean age of the respondents was 57. Furthermore, the
mean household size of the respondents was 5. The average farm size for the respon-
dents was 0.37 ha per household.
35.3.5 Multiuse of F. thonningii
The individuals surveyed in the study area recognized eight primary purposes for
utilizing F. thonningii. Animal fodder emerged as the most prevalent use, with
20.2% of respondents selecting it. Fuel wood followed closely, with 15.1% of
respondents indicating its use (Table 35.6). Other reported uses of F. thonningii
included providing shade (13.9%), contributing to soil and water conservation
efforts (13.1%), functioning as a live fence (10.5%), serving as farm tools (9.4%),
improving soil fertility (9.3%), and enabling timber production (8.1%). Notably,
80% of the households growing F. thonningii primarily employed it as animal feed.
This finding highlights the considerable economic importance of the tree, particu-
larly in light of the increasing demand for forage within the study area.
35.3.6 Income from F. thonningii Products
F. thonningii provides fuel, fodder, and timber (Table 35.7). The tree provides dif-
ferent products that are consumed in the household and sold to the market. The
overall average income of users of the F. thonningii was 2034 ETB Ethiopian Birr
(ETB) (Table 35.7). The highest income was generated from animal feed, followed
by fuelwood, compared to earnings from other products.
Table 35.4 The effect of F. thonningii trees on selected soil properties as affected by radial distance from the canopy and age of the tree
Age
Soil parameters Radial distance (cm) G0 G1 G2 Mean
BD UC 1.30 ± 0.04b 1.28 ± 0.08b 1.28 ± 0.03a 1.28 ± 0.03b
EC 1.35 ± 0.04ab 1.32 ± 0.07a 1.27 ± 0.04a 1.31 ± 0.03ab
OC 1.45 ± 0.07a 1.38 ± 0.07a 1.33 ± 0.06a 1.38 ± 0.04a
Mean 1.37 ± 0.04A 1.33 ± 0.04A 1.29 ± 0.03A
OC UC 1.55 ± 0.19a 1.91 ± 0.17a 2.23 ± 0.166a 1.89 ± 0.11a
EC 1.37 ± 0.18b 1.72 ± 0.19a 1.80 ± 0.12b 1.63 ± 0.10b
OC 1.27 ± 0.11c 1.57 ± 0.25b 1.63 ± 0.10c 1.49 ± 0.09c
Mean 1.37 ± 0.09C 1.70 ± 0.11B 1.87 ± 0.08A
SOC UC 60.45 ± 7.60a 73.34 ± 5.66a 85.63 ± 9.10a 73.14 ± 4.60a
EC 55.48 ± 6.18a 68.11 ± 6.90a 68.58 ± 7.79a 64.05 ± 4.31ab
OC 55.24 ± 6.92a 64.99 ± 9.01a 65.03 ± 6.95a 61.75 ± 4.22b
Mean 57.05 ± 3.93B 68.81 ± 3.98AB 73.08 ± 4.70A
Notes: Means with the same letters between rows (age of the species) and column (radial distance) are not significantly different at p ≤ 0.05. Values are
Mean ± SEM (standard errors of the mean)
Abbreviations: BD bulk density; OC organic carbon (%); SOC soil organic carbon stock (Mg ha−1); UC under canopy; EC edge of canopy; OC out of canopy
35 Assessing Carbon Sequestration Potential and Socio-economic Benefits…
741
Table 35.5 Descriptive Value

statistics of respondents Variables (185)
Average age of household head (years) 57
Gender (male, %) 78.3
Mean education level of head of 5
household (schooling years)
Average family size of household 5
(number)
Average land holding size (ha) 0.37
Average household income (Birra/year) 31,816.1
Ethiopian currency: at the time of the study, 1
a
USD = 55.8 Birr
Table 35.6 Household ranking of multipurpose importance of F. thonningii

Frequency of participants in each rank
Benefits of F. thonningii 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Weight % Rank
Animal fodder 148 20 9 2 2 1 1 0 0 1590 20.2 1
Fuelwood 7 48 67 26 13 9 3 4 0 1190 15.1 2
Shade 7 33 40 49 16 15 14 3 0 1089 13.9 3
SWC 7 29 26 31 44 25 15 3 1 1035 13.1 4
Live fence 1 12 44 26 26 10 19 12 8 828 10.5 5
Soil fertility improvement 2 9 12 27 29 43 19 16 1 743 9.3 7
Timber 1 0 5 15 39 28 49 26 2 642 8.1 8
Farm tools 0 0 6 14 29 32 49 60 78 744 9.4 6
Table 35.7 Income from F. thonningii products

F. thonningii products Average income (Birr) Percentage
Animal fodder 1019.0 50.1
Fuel wood and farm implements 709.8 34.9
Timber and construction 305.1 15.0
Total 2034 100
Ethiopian currency at the time of the research, 1 USD = 55.8 Birr
35.4 Discussions
35.4.1 Biomass Carbon Stock Potential of F. thonningii
The results demonstrate that aboveground biomass carbon stock increases with age,
reaching a peak at over 30 years. This suggests that mature F. thonningii trees are
better at capturing and storing carbon, which is critical for combating climate
change and supporting the sustainable management of forests. In addition, the
research found that the amount of carbon stored in the biomass of mature F. thonnin-
gii trees was 12 times greater than that found in young trees. This suggests that the
capability of F. thonningii trees to capture and store carbon is not fully realized dur-
ing their early growth stages, and older trees contribute disproportionately more to
carbon sequestration. These results support the findings of Chen (2006), who
observed that tree species with longer lifespans typically exhibit greater carbon stor-
age than species with shorter lifespans. As trees mature, they tend to accumulate
more biomass through the growth of their trunk, branches, and roots, leading to
higher carbon storage (Hoover and Smith 2023; Sewagegn et al. 2022). This is sup-
ported by the findings of the study on church forests in Ethiopia, which found that
as the age of the church forest increased, the mean carbon stock in biomass also
increased (Sewagegn et al. 2022). Similarly, a study on carbon stocks and the accu-
mulation potential of mature forests and larger trees in U.S. federal lands highlights
the importance of considering tree age in forest management strategies, mainly
when targeting carbon sequestration (Nautiyal et al. 2022; Birdsey et al. 2023).
The capacity of tree species to absorb and store carbon, including F. thonningii,
can vary based on factors such as age, environmental conditions, and management
practices (Ajayi 2021; Asmare and Mekuriaw 2019; Muthuri et al. 2023). Studies
on other tree species, such as Ficus albida, have reported varying levels of carbon
sequestration (Muthuri et al. 2023). These results highlight the significance of con-
sidering different elements that impact the potential of carbon sequestration when
choosing tree species for afforestation and reforestation initiatives.
The mean biomass carbon stocks reported for mature F. thonningii were similar
to the results reported by Chen (2006) for the P. davidiana species present in the
natural forests located in Northeast China, which were 433 kg/tree. However, the
mean biomass carbon stocks reported for old-aged F. thonningii were higher com-
pared to the biomass carbon stocks reported from Ajasin University Campus, Ondo
State, Nigeria (Ajayi 2021), which reported a maximum carbon stored/tree of
174.6 kg, the tropical tree carbon storage at Drago Dos Forest in Boca Del Drago,
Panama (Dwyer 2023) and the drylands of Northern Ethiopia (Gebremeskel et al.
2021), which found an aboveground biomass carbon of per tree stems of
8.34 ± 6.35 kg in sparsely planted Rhamnus prinoides.
The biomass carbon stocks found in this study were lower when compared to the
biomass carbon stocks documented for nine various species found in the natural
forests of Northeast China (Chen 2006; Sharma et al. 2018; Bisht et al. 2021).
However, the biomass carbon stock in F. thonningii is comparable to the estimated
total potentials reported by various authors for different agroforestry trees in the
drylands. This suggests that incorporating F. thonningii in homesteads could be
valuable for climate change mitigation.
35.4.2 Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) of F. thonningii
The proximity to the tree trunk had a significant impact (P < 0.05) on the concentra-
tion of soil organic carbon (SOC). Within the shade of mature F. thonningii trees,
the content of SOC was considerably more significant than in areas beyond the
shade (Joshi et al. 2021). This discovery aligns with previous research conducted in
different regions across Ethiopia. For instance, the findings of Birhane et al. (2019)
were similar when studying Acacia polyacantha. Likewise, Gebrewahid et al.
(2019)observed comparable outcomes with Oxytenanthera abyssinica (A. Rich.)
and Dalbergia melanoxylon, while Gebremeskel et al. (2018) reported similar
results for Rhamnus prinoides.In these studies, it was also observed that tree cano-
pies exhibited higher concentrations of soil organic carbon (SOC) compared to sur-
rounding areas without tree cover. This supports the observation made by Nair et al.
(2010) and Kell (2012) that agroforestry systems store more carbon near trees. On
the contrary, the results of the current study contrast with the research conducted by
Gindaba et al. (2005), as they did not observe any significant increase in soil organic
carbon (SOC) beneath the canopies of Cordia africana and Croton macrostachyus
species compared to adjacent areas without canopy cover. The increased presence
of soil organic carbon (SOC) beneath the tree canopy in our study is likely due to
inputs of organic matter from fine roots and the deposition of fallen leaves, as high-
lighted by previous research conducted by Berhe et al. (2013).
The tree’s age also significantly impacted the concentration of SOC (P < 0.05).
Significantly higher concentrations of organic carbon were observed in older
F. thonningii trees than in younger and intermediate-aged trees. This phenomenon
can be attributed to the accumulation of litter and contributions from the roots over
an extended period, the tree’s impact on soil fertility improvement, age-related soil
changes, and the increased turnover and stabilization of roots as the trees age (Berhe
et al. 2013; Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c). According to a study conducted by Balehegn
(2011)that focused on the forage and multipurpose uses of F. thonningii in Northern
Ethiopia, the age of the trees significantly impacts the soil’s organic matter status.
Older trees have a longer history of litter and root inputs to the soil, leading to the
gradual accumulation of organic carbon over time. This coincides with understand-
ing tree roots’ long-term contribution to soil organic carbon.
Moreover, there was a notable increase in the stock of soil organic carbon (SOC)
beneath the F. thonningii canopy compared to areas outside the canopy (Kumar
et al. 2021a, b). This result aligns with a study conducted by Gebremeskel et al.
(2018), which similarly found a significant boost in SOC stock on farms that prac-
ticed intercropping with Rhamnus prinoides compared to farms without intercrop-
ping. The average SOC stock in our study area is higher than the SOC reported by
Rajput et al. (2017) for silvopasture in India and Lemenih and Itanna (2004) for
semiarid open Acacia woodlands in Ethiopia. However, it is lower than the SOC
reported by Gebremeskel et al. (2021)for Rhamnus prinoides. The estimates
obtained in this study are similar to those documented for tropical soils by Brown
and Lugo (1982), which were recorded as 86 Mg C ha−1.
The study revealed a noteworthy increase in soil organic carbon (SOC) stock in
older F. thonningii trees compared to medium and young-aged trees. This can be
attributed to the higher capability of mature trees to sequester and retain carbon in
the soil. Scientific investigations have indicated a positive correlation between tree
age and soil carbon accumulation, whereby older trees exhibit higher carbon stock
levels (Ma et al. 2019; Sewagegn et al. 2022). A study on tropical tree species in
Suriname found that older trees accumulated larger carbon stocks, with some trees
even accumulating relatively large carbon stocks at younger ages (Köhl et al. 2017;
Kumar et al. 2018).
As trees age, they tend to sequester more carbon through photosynthesis and
deposit a portion of it into the soil through root turnover and decomposition of
organic matter, thereby increasing the SOC stock (Ma et al. 2019). Hence, the
observed higher SOC stock in older F. thonningii trees aligns with the general
understanding of the connection between tree age and soil carbon accumulation.
This finding emphasizes the significance of accounting for tree age when managing
forest carbon dynamics and implementing strategies to enhance carbon sequestration.
In general, the proximity to the tree trunk and the age of F. thonningii trees sig-
nificantly impacted the levels and quantities of soil organic carbon. Higher SOC
content and stock were found under the canopy of old-aged trees compared to areas
outside the canopy. These results are consistent with previous studies conducted in
Ethiopia and corroborate the notion that agroforestry systems benefit carbon seques-
tration. The increased presence of soil organic carbon in older trees can be attributed
to the accumulation of organic matter through fine roots, litterfall, and age-related
soil transformations (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c). These findings underscore the sig-
nificance of implementing agroforestry practices and considering tree age when
developing sustainable soil and land management strategies.
35.4.3 Economic Importance of F. thonningii
The importance of F. thonningii, as reported by respondents, encompasses various

aspects. However, its feed value was ranked as the most significant, followed by fuel
wood, shade, fencing, soil and water conservation, soil fertility improvement, and
timber. F. thonningii’s feed value is highly regarded due to its qualities such as
higher water content, evergreen nature, high biomass productivity, high palatability,
minimal adverse side effects, adaptability to local environments, resistance to lop-
ping and cutting, ease of propagation, and no allelopathic effects on understory
herbaceous plants (Berhe and Tanga 2013). According to Speedy and Pugliese
(1992), multipurpose fodder trees and shrubs, like F. thonningii, provide various
products such as food, fiber, timber, wood, medicine, as well as services like fenc-
ing, shading, windbreaks, and soil and water conservation.
In the Lay Armacheho district of the Amhara region of Ethiopia, F. thonningii
was ranked first by farmers in terms of biomass production, adaptability, ease of
propagation, and growth potential, as reported by Mekoya et al. (2008). However, it
was ranked third in feed value compared to other multipurpose indigenous fodder
trees and shrubs.
Growing F. thonningii positively contributes to household income, as farmers
generate additional income by collecting tree products. The present study showed
that F. thonningii can contribute up to 6.3% of the total annual household income.
This highlights the role of F. thonningii in increasing household income in the study
area. Involvement in agroforestry, as Thorlakson and Neufeldt (2012) found in

western Kenya, improves the general standard of living for households through
improvements in farm productivity, off-farm incomes, wealth, and environmental
conditions. Furthermore, the introduction of multipurpose trees to farmland in
Nepal, as emphasized by Neupane and Thapa (2001), has the potential to enhance
food production and improve farmers’ economic conditions sustainably by contrib-
uting to soil fertility and household income.
Intensive use of F. thonningii has been observed since the early 1990s. Local
people consider F. thonningii as a “holy” plant, as it has no adverse effects on the
animals that consume it. Unlike many other fodder trees with high concentrations of
anti-nutritional factors, F. thonningii has deficient tannin levels and has been
observed to improve animal productivity without notable adverse effects (Balehegn
et al. 2014).
F. thonningii is highly valued for its feed value and various other uses such as
fuel wood, shade, fencing, soil and water conservation, and soil fertility improve-
ment. It contributes to household income and positively affects farm productivity,
off-farm incomes, and environmental conditions. The use of F. thonningii as animal
feed has gained significance in response to feed shortages, and its low tannin levels
make it favorable compared to other fodder trees.
35.5 Conclusions
The potential biomass carbon stock of F. thonningii varied significantly depending

on the tree’s age. Old-aged trees displayed the highest biomass carbon stock,
whereas young-aged trees exhibited the lowest carbon stock. The soil organic car-
bon content and stock were influenced by the tree’s age, with the highest levels
observed within the tree canopy compared to areas outside the canopy. Old-aged
F. thonningii trees exhibited the highest soil organic carbon content and stock levels.
In addition to its ecological benefits, F. thonningii has multiple uses within the
community. It is utilized as a construction material, farm tool, fuel wood, shade
provider, and animal fodder. These various uses contribute to the total annual house-
hold income, with F. thonningii accounting for up to 6.3%. The versatility of
F. thonningii as a source of income makes it a valuable multipurpose tree within the
community.
Considering carbon sequestration and storage capacity, integrating an appropri-
ate quantity of F. thonningii trees into homesteads and pasturelands could be a fea-
sible strategy. This strategy holds promise for enhancing carbon levels in
pasturelands, particularly in developing nations such as Ethiopia that heavily depend
on agriculture and natural resources. Given its adaptability as a multifunctional tree
and its potential for carbon sequestration and storage, it represents a valuable
resource for communities and a potential approach for addressing the impacts of
climate change.
References
Abebe T (2005) Diversity in homegarden agroforestry systems of southern. Wageningen University

and Research, Ethiopia
Ajayi E (2021) Assessment of carbon sequestration potential of some selected urban tree species.
https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.08.19.457022
Asmare B, Mekuriaw Y (2019) Assessment of Ficus thonningii tree production and utilization
for livestock feed by smallholder farmers in northwestern Ethiopia. Agric Food Secur 8(1):9.
Balehegn M (2011) Forage and multipurpose uses of Ficus thonningii in. LAP Lambert Academic
Publishing, Northern Ethiopia
Balehegn M, Eniang EA (2009) Assessing indigenous knowledge for evaluation, propagation
and conservation of indigenous multipurpose fodder trees towards enhancing climate change:
adaptation in northern Ethiopia. In: Traditional forest-related knowledge and sustainable forest
management in Africa, vol 23. International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO),
pp 39–46
Balehegn M, Eniang EA, Hassen A (2012) Estimation of browse biomass of Ficus thonningii, an
indigenous multipurpose fodder tree in northern Ethiopia. Afr J Range Forage Sci 29(1):25–30.
Balehegn M, Eik LO, Tesfay Y (2014) Replacing commercial concentrate by Ficus thonningii
improved productivity of goats in Ethiopia. Trop Anim Health Prod 46(5):889–894. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11250-014-0582-9
Balehegn M, Eik LO, Tesfay Y (2015) Silvopastoral system based on Ficus thonningii: an adapta-
tion to climate change in northern Ethiopia. Afr J Range Forage Sci 32(3):183–191. https://doi.
org/10.2989/10220119.2014.942368
Baxter S (2007) World reference base for soil resources. World soil resources report 103. Rome: Food
And Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2006), pp. 132, US$22.00 (paperback).
ISBN 92-5-10511-4. Exp Agric 43(2):264–264. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0014479706394902
Berhe D, Tanga A (2013) Nutritional evaluation of Ficus thonningii Blume leaves as ruminant
livestock feed in the Ahferom district of Tigray, Ethiopia. Afr J Range Forage Sci 30:149–154.
Berhe DH, Anjulo A, Abdelkadir A, Edwards S (2013) Evaluation of the effect of Ficus thonningii
(blume) on soil physicochemical properties in Ahferom district of Tigray, Ethiopia. J Soil Sci
Environ Manag 4(2):35–45
Birdsey RA, DellaSala DA, Walker WS, Gorelik SR, Rose G, Ramírez CE (2023) Assessing car-
bon stocks and accumulation potential of mature forests and larger trees in U.S. federal lands.
Front Forests Global Change 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2022.1074508
Birhane E, Teklay R, Gebrehiwet K, Solomon N, Tadesse T (2019) Maintaining Acacia poly-
acantha trees in farmlands enhances soil fertility and income of farmers in North Western
Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. Agroforest Syst 93(6):2135–2149. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10457-018-0328-1
ogy: principles and practices. CRC Press Taylor and Francis, Pp, pp 85–103
BOARD (2019) Ahferom wereda office of agricultural & rural development report
Brown S, Lugo AE (1982) The storage and production of organic matter in tropical forests and their
role in the global carbon cycle. Biotropica 14(3):161–187. https://doi.org/10.2307/2388024
Chen X (2006) Carbon storage traits of main tree species in natural forests in Northeast China. J
Sustain For 23(1):67–84. https://doi.org/10.1300/J091v23n01_04
Coates Palgrave K (1977) Trees of southern Africa. Veld Flora 63(4):8
De Beenhouwer M, Geeraert L, Mertens J, Van Geel M, Aerts R, Vanderhaegen K, Honnay O
(2016) Biodiversity and carbon storage co-benefits of coffee agroforestry across a gradient
of increasing management intensity in the SW Ethiopian highlands. Agric Ecosyst Environ

222:193–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2016.02.017
Dwyer B (2023) Tropical tree carbon storage at Drago dos Forest in Boca Del Drago, Panama.
(Undergraduate), University of Richmond, Panama
Gebremeskel D, Abebe B, Gidey K, Berihu T (2018) Effect of Rhamnus prinoide (Gesho) inter-
cropping in wheat field on soil nutrient and moisture in the drylands of North Ethiopia. Momona
Ethiopian J Sci 10(1):126–139. https://doi.org/10.4314/mejs.v10i1.9
Gebremeskel D, Birhane E, Rannestad MM, Gebre S, Tesfay G (2021) Biomass and soil car-
bon stocks of Rhamnus prinoides based agroforestry practice with varied density in the
drylands of northern Ethiopia. Agrofor Syst 95(7):1275–1293. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10457-021-00608-8
Gebrewahid Y, Teka K, Gebre-Egziabhier T-B, Tewolde-Berhan S, Birhane E, Eyasu G, Meresa E
(2019) Dispersed trees on smallholder farms enhance soil fertility in semi-arid Ethiopia. Ecol
Process 8(1):38. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13717-019-0190-8
Gindaba J, Rozanov A, Negash L (2005) Trees on farms and their contribution to soil fertility
parameters in Badessa, eastern Ethiopia. Biol Fertil Soils 42(1):66–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00374-005-0859-2
Grossman RB, Reinsch TG (2002) 2.1 Bulk density and linear extensibility. In: Methods of soil
analysis, pp 201–228
Hoover CM, Smith JE (2023) Aboveground live tree carbon stock and change in forests of con-
terminous United States: influence of stand age. Carbon Balance Manag 18(1):7. https://doi.
org/10.1186/s13021-023-00227-z
Kell DB (2012) Large-scale sequestration of atmospheric carbon via plant roots in natural and
agricultural ecosystems: why and how. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 367(1595):1589–1597.
https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0244
Köhl M, Neupane PR, Lotfiomran N (2017) The impact of tree age on biomass growth and carbon
accumulation capacity: a retrospective analysis using tree ring data of three tropical tree spe-
cies grown in natural forests of Suriname. PLoS One 12(8):e0181187. https://doi.org/10.1371/
journal.pone.0181187
Kumar N, Kumar A, Jeena N, Singh R, Singh H (2020c) Factors influencing soil ecosystem and
hills, India. Current Science 120(6):1083–1188. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v120/i6/1083-1088
Kuyah S, Dietz J, Muthuri C, Jamnadass R, Mwangi P, Coe R, Neufeldt H (2012) Allometric
equations for estimating biomass in agricultural landscapes: II. Belowground biomass. Agric
Ecosyst Environ 158:225–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2012.05.010
Lemenih M, Itanna F (2004) Soil carbon stocks and turnovers in various vegetation types and ara-
ble lands along an elevation gradient in Southern Ethiopia. Geoderma 123(1):177–188. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2004.02.004
Ma S, Eziz A, Tian D, Yan Z, Cai Q, Jiang M, Fang J (2019) Tree size and age induced stem carbon
content variations cause an uncertainty in forest carbon stock estimation. Biogeosci Discuss
2019:1–18. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-2019-87
MacDicken KG (1997) A guide to monitoring carbon storage in forestry and agroforestry projects
Mekoya A (2008) Multipurpose fodder trees in Ethiopia: farmers'perception, constraints to adop-
tion and effect of long-term supplementation on sheep performance. [S.l.]. https://edepot.wur.
nl/121948
Mekoya A, Oosting SJ, Fernandez-Rivera S, Van der Zijpp AJ (2008) Farmers’ perceptions about
exotic multipurpose fodder trees and constraints to their adoption. Agrofor Syst 73(2):141–153.
Muthuri CW, Kuyah S, Njenga M, Kuria A, Öborn I, van Noordwijk M (2023) Agroforestry's
contribution to livelihoods and carbon sequestration in East Africa: a systematic review. Trees
Forests People 14:100432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tfp.2023.100432
Nair PKR (1991) State-of-the-art of agroforestry systems. For Ecol Manag 45(1):5–29. https://doi.
org/10.1016/0378-1127(91)90203-8
Nair PK, Nair VD, Mohan Kumar B, Showalter JM (2010) Chapter 5—Carbon sequestration
in agroforestry systems. In: Sparks DL (ed) Advances in agronomy, vol 108. Academic,
pp 237–307
Neupane RP, Thapa GB (2001) Impact of agroforestry intervention on soil fertility and farm
income under the subsistence farming system of the middle hills, Nepal. Agric Ecosyst Environ
Pandey DN (2007) Multifunctional agroforestry systems in India. Curr Sci 92(4):455–463
Pearson T, Walker S, Brown S (2013) Sourcebook for land use, land-use change and forestry
projects
Rajput BS, Bhardwaj DR, Pala NA (2017) Factors influencing biomass and carbon storage poten-
tial of different land use systems along an elevational gradient in temperate northwestern
Himalaya. Agrofor Syst 91(3):479–486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-016-9948-5
Sewagegn GB, Abate DF, Yohannis Gebremariam G (2022) Woody species diversity and carbon
stock of church forests along age gradient in Dangila district, Awi-zone, Ethiopia. Heliyon
8(9):e10491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10491
productivity of Acacia auriculiformis under CO2-enriched environment. Indust Crops Prod
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11

Speedy A, Pugliese P (1992) Legume trees and other fodder trees as protein sources for live-
stock. FAO
Thorlakson T, Neufeldt H (2012) Reducing subsistence farmers’ vulnerability to climate change:
evaluating the potential contributions of agroforestry in western Kenya. Agric Food Secur
1(1):15. https://doi.org/10.1186/2048-7010-1-15
Verchot LV, Van Noordwijk M, Kandji S, Tomich T, Ong C, Albrecht A et al (2007) Climate
change: linking adaptation and mitigation through agroforestry. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob
Chang 12(5):901–918. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-007-9105-6
doi.org/10.1007/s40502-020-00550-4
Walkley A, Black IA (1934) An examination of the degtjareff method for determining soil organic
matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci 37(1):29–38
Yamane T (1973) Statistics: an introductory analysis
Zomer RJ, Neufeldt H, Xu J, Ahrends A, Bossio D, Trabucco A, Wang M (2016) Global tree cover
and biomass carbon on agricultural land: the contribution of agroforestry to global and national
carbon budgets. Sci Rep 6(1):29987. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep29987
Chapter 36
Climate Change Vulnerability and Its
Impacts on Livelihoods of Indigenous
Communities in Tanahun, Gandaki
Province, Nepal
Prabesh Adhikari, Rajeev Joshi, and Santosh Ghimire
Abstract The detrimental effects of climate change disproportionately impact

indigenous communities that rely heavily on the natural resource base for their live-
lihoods. In response to the climate change impacts, these communities have utilized
their indigenous knowledge and practices to cope with this challenge. The present
study focused on identifying and examining major climate-related hazards impact-
ing livelihoods and prioritizing the most vulnerable livelihood components within
the highly marginalised Bote, Darai and Kumal communities in the Tanahun district
of Western Nepal. Along with household surveys in 56 households (HHs), participa-
tory tools such as focus group discussion, key informant interviews, stakeholder
consultation, and direct observation were employed during the study period. Primary
and secondary data were analyzed to determine the Livelihood Vulnerability Index
(LVI). Climate change has been observed and perceived in the study sites through
increased temperature and changes in rainfall patterns. The result revealed that 21
HHs (37.5%) reported drought as the most common climatic hazard followed by
Hailstorms and the occurrence of invasive species. Agriculture was mentioned as
the most impacted resource by 67.85% of respondents. Social networks with LVI
value (0.45) and livelihood strategies (0.44) have been the most vulnerable and
health (0.19) and water (0.18) are the least vulnerable components in the study area.
The Bote was found the most vulnerable with the LVI (0.36). Adaption measures
like rainwater harvesting techniques, drip irrigation, bamboo, and broom grass plan-
tation practices were found to be practised to cope with climate-related hazards.
This study recommended income and livelihood diversification options to reduce
the vulnerability of the communities under climate change scenarios.
P. Adhikari · S. Ghimire
R. Joshi (*)
Faculty of Forestry, College of Natural Resource Management, Agriculture and Forestry
University, Katari, Udayapur, Nepal
Ltd. 2024
752 P. Adhikari et al.
Keywords Climatic hazards · Livelihood · Vulnerability index · Indigenous

community
36.1 Introduction
In recent decades, changes in climatic conditions have caused significant impacts on

natural and human systems on all continents and across the globe (Change 2014).
From 1901 to 2014, annual mean surface air temperature significantly increased in
the Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH), at a rate of about 0.10 °C per decade—while the
warming rate over the last 50 years has been 0.2 °C per decade (Wester and Mishra
2019). Climate change is a major concern for the entire Himalayan region because
the rate of increase in temperature is significantly higher than the global average
(Parry 2007; Verma et al. 2021) and the presence of sensitive sectors (water, biodi-
versity, agriculture) and potential impacts on ecology, economy and society (Panthi
et al. 2016). The IPCC’s sixth assessment report (2021) labelled the climate crisis as
a “Code Red”, suggesting climate change is causing substantial physical, environ-
mental, social, and economic stresses in the world, especially in developing coun-
tries including Nepal (Arias et al. 2021). According to Nepal’s Third National
Communication report submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), Nepal contributed to around 0.027% of the global
annual greenhouse gas emissions in 2014 (Joshi et al. 2020; MoFE 2021a). This is
a slightly higher estimate compared to the sixth assessment report by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which states Nepal contrib-
uted to less than 0.01% of the global annual greenhouse gas emissions between
2010 and 2019 (Kumar et al. 2021a, b; Portner et al. 2022). It’s important to note
that Nepal’s greenhouse gas emissions are still relatively low compared to many
other countries. Nepal is one of the countries experiencing highly adverse impacts
of climate change and is ranked fourth in the climate change vulnerability index
(Eckstein et al. 2018). Climate-induced disasters (mainly hailstorms, avalanches,
wind storms, cold waves, floods, landslides and erratic rainfall events) have been
frequently witnessed in Nepal in recent years (MoHA 2019). The average annual
maximum temperature has been increasing by 0.056 °C/year from 1971 to 2014,
while the mean rainfall has been decreasing by 3.7 mm/month per decade in Nepal.
According to the German watch Global Climate Risk Index 2021, Nepal is ranked
tenth most vulnerable country based on analysis of weather-related loss events from
2000 to 2019 (Eckstein et al. 2021), which was ranked Nepal in 17th position in
2016 (Kreft et al. 2016) indicating a significant level of exposure and vulnerability
to extreme events.
The World Risk Report 2014 identifies Nepal as highly susceptible with low
adaptive capacities and lack of coping capacities, and even if exposure risk is low
(9.97%), vulnerability is high (61.69%)—resulting in a high overall World Risk
Index (Kreft et al. 2016). The National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) of
Nepal identifies glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) drought, flood, and landslide as
36 Climate Change Vulnerability and Its Impacts on Livelihoods of Indigenous… 753
major climatic hazards causing vulnerability (MoE 2011). Most of Nepal’s indige-
nous communities still rely on forests for their livelihoods and have a symbiotic
relationship with the forest and natural resources (Singh et al. 2020; Sahoo et al.
2022). Sustainable forest and biodiversity management is critical for preserving
their distinct identity and customary practices and their ability to pass them down to
future generations. Poor subsistence farming households are highly vulnerable to
various stressors and shocks, including climate change, political instability, and
economic volatility (Barrett and Constas 2014; Kumar et al. 2021a, b). Due to their
reliance on agriculture as the primary source of livelihood, adverse shocks are fre-
quently associated with environmental and ecological changes (Blackmore et al.
2023). Indigenous communities are among the first to experience the direct impacts
of climate change, even though they contribute little to greenhouse gas emissions
(Manga 2022). Indigenous peoples are among the poorest of the poor, they live in
geographical regions and ecosystems that are most exposed to the impacts of cli-
mate change, and they have high levels of exposure and vulnerability (Samuels et al.
2022). The components affecting the livelihood of people like food, health and
social networks were reported as major contributing components to high vulnerabil-
ity in the Gandaki River Basin (Panthi et al. 2016). Darai and Kumal have been
classified as marginalized as well and Bote has been classified as highly marginal-
ized indigenous nationalities by NFDIN Act 2059. Furthermore, they had not been
included in studies conducted in the past. The primary aim of this research is to
evaluate the susceptibility of indigenous households to climate change’s effects on
their livelihoods, with detailed goals including identifying key climate-related
threats that affect three distinct indigenous groups in the studied region, ranking the
most at-risk elements within these communities, and contrasting the vulnerability
levels of the most and least endangered communities in the designated area (Verma
et al. 2020; Singh and Kumar 2022).
This paper aims to enhance the understanding of the vulnerability of individual
households by combining the livelihood vulnerability Index developed by Hahn
et al. (2009). The study calculates the LVI of different components, namely liveli-
hood strategies, social networks, socio-demographic profile, health, food, water,
natural disasters and climate variability to assess the climate vulnerability of indig-
enous communities (Darai, Kumal and Bote) of Vyas-5, Tanahun of western Nepal.
36.2.1 Study Area
Vyas Municipality, which is the Tapobhumi (Karmakshetra) of Maharishi Ved Vyas

and Parashar, is situated at the banks of the holy confluence of Seti and Madi Rivers
(Fig. 36.1). This municipality is also the district headquarters (Damauli) of Tanhun
District under Gandaki Province of Nepal. Damauli is located 150 km west of
Fig. 36.1 Map of the study area
Kathmandu and 50 km east of Pokhara. Situated on the Prithvi Highway, this

municipality is surrounded by Bhanu municipality and Bandipur village in the east,
Myagde village and Shuklagandaki municipality in the west, Lamjung and Kaski
districts and Rishing and Devghat villages in the north. This municipality’s 248 km2.
area is divided into 14 wards, whereas ward No. 5 is semi-urban. This municipality
lies at an altitudinal range between 280 to 1245 m above sea level. In contrast, its
temperature has been recorded as an average of 8.4 °C minimum to a maximum of
37 °C, and the average annual rainfall is 257.59 mm (https://vyasmun.gov.np/).
According to the 2078 national census, the total population was 78,939 with males
36,137 and females 42,782, with a sex ratio of 84.51. The number of households is
22,585. The population density of this municipality is 318 per km2 and 85.3% of the
population of this municipality is literate. Sanghe Pateni is just 2 km away from
Damauli. Pateni lies in Vyas municipality of Gandaki Province, Nepal. Two rivers
pass through this region (Madi River and Sanghe River), which are major water
sources for irrigation purposes and significantly impact the livelihood of the people
of this region. It is the hometown of different castes like Magar, Darai, Brahmin,
Chhetris, Dura, and Gurung, where three communities, Darai, Kumal, and Bote,
were selected for the research since they are the indigenous people of this area and
have been categorized as marginalized indigenous nationalities. This site selection
is because, within a small geographical region, i.e., one square km, all three com-
munities (highly marginalized and marginalized) reside. So, comparing vulnerabil-
ity between these communities will provide the best result as all other factors are
common, and the area offers accessible data collection.
36.2.2 Data Collection and Sampling
A stratified random sampling technique was employed to collect primary data. This
involved the division of the entire ward into three distinct and homogeneous strata,
representing the Darai, Kumal, and Bote indigenous communities. Within each of
these strata, a random selection of 25% was conducted to gather relevant informa-
tion. Further details regarding the various data collection methods and the corre-
sponding number of participants can be found in Table 36.1.
Out of 8083 populations (3736 male and 4347 female) of 1796 total HHs, 56
HHs were selected randomly from 219 households from the three indigenous com-
munities for the household survey. Though the selection was random, the focus was
given equally to young and old, men and women, and people of different economic
statuses. The total number of HHs surveyed in each community is mentioned in the
below Table 36.2.
The Key Information Interview (KII) included eight key informants who were
the chairperson of the indigenous community, the chairperson and member of dif-
ferent community forest user groups (CFUGs), ward members and social workers.
The KII focused on the change in climatic patterns, hazards caused by climate
change, their impacts, and the response measures they adopted. The focus group
discussion and workshop were carried out with three focus groups to get informa-
tion about the past and present condition of hazards, changes in natural and social
resources, their condition etc. The checklist was prepared to include impacts, trends,
and response measures of hazards. The focus group discussion includes “Hariyali
tarkari samuha” of Pateni Tar, Darai Group and Kumal Group. There were eight to
ten members in each focus group discussion. Similarly, field observations were
based on climatic hazards and vulnerability issues.
The climatic data of the Damauli meteorological station were collected to ana-
lyze the trends of climatic changes. The monthly station data for 1981 to 2022 were
collected, including maximum and minimum temperature and precipitation, which
gave the instrumental measurement of the climate change of this area.
Table 36.1 Types and Types of data collection Number of informants/site

number of informants/sites Household (HH) survey 56
Key informant interview 8
Focus group discussion 3 (8–10 in each group)
Table 36.2 Number of Indigenous community Total HHs HHs surveyed (25%)
households surveyed in each Darai 93 24
community
Kumal 86 22
Bote 40 10
Total 219 56
CLIMATE
VULNERABILITY
ADAPTIVE
CAPACITY
EXPOSURE
Sociodemographic
Natural Disaster
SENSITIVITY profile
and Climate
Livelihood
Variability Health Strategies
Food
Social Network
Water
Fig. 36.2 Grouping of the seven major components according to IPCC’s definition
36.2.3 Data Analysis
The IPCC’s third assessment report (2007) mentions that climate change vulnerabil-
ity is a function of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity (Paavola 2008; Singh
2024). Figure 36.2 mentions grouping the seven major components according to
IPCC’s definition.
The mathematical approach to determining LVI value was drawn from (Hahn
et al. 2009). The LVI includes seven major components, categorized into three con-
tributing factors to vulnerability, according to the working definition of
IPCC. Financial assets were analyzed as the first component as they play a crucial
role in determining livelihood options and strategies available to the people
(Hammill et al. 2008). Households’ annual expenditure, annual savings, and owner-
ship of livestock (cow, goat, poultry, etc.) and cash crops growing by households are
taken as indicators of financial assets (Singh et al. 2010). The assumption is that
households with less financial assets are more vulnerable to climate change (Singh
et al. 2017). The above seven major components include several indicators or sub-
components. These were determined based on literature review, availability of sec-
ondary information, and field visits. As adopted by Hahn et al. (2009), the calculation
of the average LVI value includes the following steps:
1. Standardization of each sub-component
The subcomponents or indicators for each major component are measured on
a different scale, so they were first standardized as an index.
The equation for standardizing sub-components includes as:
Sg − Smin
Index sg =
Smax − Smin
Where,
Sg = The original sub-component for a given studied group g.
Smin = Minimum Value reflecting low vulnerability for each sub-component

determined using data from all surveyed questionnaires.
Smax = Maximum Value reflecting high vulnerability for each sub-component
determined using data from all surveyed questionnaires.
These minimum and maximum values were used to transform this indicator
into a standardized index. For variables that measure in frequencies, such as the
“percent of households reporting conflicts over water resources in their social
group,” the minimum value was set at 0 and the maximum at 100. After standard-
izing each element, the sub-components were averaged using the following
equation to calculate the value of each major component.
2. Calculation of LVI value for each major component of vulnerability by
averaging the standardized sub-components most related to it
∑
n
index Sgi
Mg = i =1
n
Where,
Mg = One of the seven major components of the studied group g.
index Sgi = the sub-components, indexed by i, that make up the major compo-
nent, and
n = the number of sub-components in each major component.
3. Calculation of LVI values from values for each of the seven major vulnera-
bility components
∑ W M
7
= i =1 mi gi
LVIg
∑ W
7
i =1 mi
Where,
LVIg = The Livelihood Vulnerability Index for the studied group equals the
weighted average of the seven major components.
Mgi = the major components for the studied group indexed by i.
Wmi = The weights of each major component are determined by the number
of sub-components that make up each major component.
This study’s LVI is scaled from 0 (least vulnerable) to 0.5 (most vulnerable).
36.3 Results
36.3.1 Social Characteristics of the Respondent
Table 36.3 shows the different social characteristics of the respondents. Regarding
gender, 33 (59%) of the total respondents were male and 23 (42%) were female. The
higher number of female respondents might be due to the unavailability of male
Table 36.3 Social Characteristics of the Respondents

Ethnic group
Social characteristics Darai Kumal Bote Number Percentage
Gender Female 8 13 2 23 41%
Male 16 9 8 33 59%
Education Illiterate 4 3 6 13 24%
0–5 class 6 8 3 17 30%
5–10 class 8 8 1 17 30%
Intermediate 4 2 0 6 11%
Bachelor 2 1 0 3 5%
Age group <15 0 0 0 0 0%
15–60 24 19 8 51 91%
>60 0 3 2 5 9%
respondents during the households (HHs) survey. In this study, about 24 respon-
dents were Darai, 22 were Kumal, and ten respondents were Bote, respectively. The
educational level varied from Illiterate to Bachelor’s degree. It was found that 5%
have bachelor’s degrees, 11% have intermediate degrees, 30% have education in
between (5–10) class, 30% had attended school up to class 5 and 24% were illiterate
respectively. Similarly, 91% of respondents were from the age group 15–60 and 9%
were from the age group greater than 60. Most of the respondents were from the
middle age group.
36.3.2 Major Climate Hazards Experienced by HHs
In the study area, 21 (37.5%) HHs reported drought as the most common hazard due
to water sources drying up. Similarly, 11 (19.64%) HHs reported Hailstorms as
major hazards followed by invasive species i.e., 16.07% experiencing these hazards.
10.71% reported the problem of insects/pests and disease (i.e., the number of mos-
quitoes had increased considerably along with other vegetable pests), the difficulties
of thunderstorms and wind storm were experienced by 8.92% and 7.14% had expe-
rienced floods. Figure 36.3 shows the major hazards encountered by the households
in the last 5 years.
36.3.3 Most Impacted Livelihood Resources
Agriculture was mentioned as the most impacted resource by 67.85% (38) respon-
dents as there was a reduction in agricultural productivity, farmers forced to leave
the land fallow due to drought and invasive species, damage and loss of agricultural
land due to landslide and flood and damage of crops mainly seasonal and off
Fig. 36.3 Percentage of households experiencing hazards in the last 5 years
seasonal vegetable farming like cumber, tomato, etc. due to hailstone and insect
pests. 17.85% reported impacts on water sources due to drought and flood. 8.92%
of respondents reported damage to various infrastructures as the third most impacted
resource, as floods, hailstone, and thunderstorms have affected their houses, cause-
ways, roads, water pipelines, water tanks, and irrigation canals. Similarly, 5.35% of
households reported impacts on forests due to drought, invasive species, and wind-
storms (Fig. 36.4). Regarding death and injury in households, they have suffered
from injury due to landslides and thunderstorms in the study area. However, the
impacts of hazards reported by different households varied according to the gender
and occupation of the households.
Out of 56 affected HHs by climate hazards, 85.71% managed independently,
5.35% took loans and 8.92% received support from the Government, Non-
government Organizations (NGOs) and CBOS.
36.3.4 The Vulnerable Components Within

the Indigenous Community
Table 36.4 shows the LVI value of major components in different Indigenous com-
munities and the average LVI value of all communities. It ranges from 0.07–0.49 in
different Indigenous communities. The average LVI value of seven major compo-
nents shows that communities are most vulnerable in terms of social network (0.45),
livelihood strategies (0.44) and natural disaster and climate variability (0.42).
Climate Related Most Impacted

Hazards Resources
Impact
Drought (37.5%)
Infrastructure (8.9%)
Hailstorm (19.6%)
Insect/pest diseases Agriculture (67.8%)

(10.7%)
Flood (7.1%)
Forest (5.3%)
Invasive species (16%)
Thunderstorm and Water Sources

windstorm (8.9%) (17.8%)
Fig. 36.4 Major hazards and most impacted livelihood resources
Table 36.4 Average and Indigenous community-wise LVI value of major components
LVI value for different community Average LVI of three
Major component Darai Kumal Bote communities
Livelihood strategies 0.44 0.38 0.49 0.44
Social network 0.44 0.46 0.46 0.45
Food 0.19 0.18 0.34 0.23
Socio-demographic profile 0.37 0.36 0.45 0.39
Water 0.19 0.30 0.07 0.18
Natural disaster and climate 0.45 0.41 0.42 0.42
variability
Health 0.13 0.23 0.22 0.19
Overall LVI 0.29 0.32 0.36
Fig. 36.5 Vulnerability spider diagram for the LVI of major components in different communities
Similarly, the area is vulnerable regarding socio-demographic profile (0.39) and

food (0.23). Health and water are less vulnerable with the LVI values (0.19) and
(0.18) respectively.
The LVI value of different components in three different communities is pre-
sented in the spider diagram.
Figure 36.5 shows that Bote is vulnerable in most components except in water,
whereas Darai is least vulnerable except in the component natural disaster and cli-
mate variability.
36.3.5 Comparison of the Vulnerability of Most and Least

Vulnerable Indigenous Communities
Among the three indigenous communities, the overall LVI score presented in
Fig. 36.6 suggests that Bote (0.36) and Kumal (0.32) are more vulnerable to climate
change than Darai (0.29). The study compared the vulnerability of the most vulner-
able (Bote) and least vulnerable (Darai) Indigenous communities.
The Bote community encounters increased vulnerability, scoring 0.49 in liveli-
hood strategies, 0.46 in social network, and 0.42 in climate variability. This height-
ened susceptibility stems from factors such as a high dependency ratio, widespread
illiteracy, lack of stable employment or advanced skills, and dependence on low-
productivity activities such as agricultural practices on forest slopes. Many indi-
viduals in the community rely on labor-intensive work or seasonal tasks like driving
tractors to gather sand and gravel from the nearby Madi River, adding to their over-
all vulnerability. Conversely, the Darai community demonstrates elevated vulnera-
bility in natural disasters and climate variability (0.45) and similarly high
vulnerability values (0.44) in livelihood strategies and social networks. Both com-
munities were found to be least vulnerable to water and health, with LVI values
Fig. 36.6 Comparison of

overall LVI of different
indigenous community
Table 36.5 LVI value of different major components in two indigenous community
LVI for most and least vulnerable community
Major component Darai Bote
Livelihood strategies 0.44 0.49
Social network 0.44 0.46
Food 0.19 0.34
Socio-demographic profile 0.37 0.45
Water 0.19 0.07
Natural disaster and climate variability 0.45 0.42
Health 0.13 0.22
Overall LVI 0.29 0.36
(0.19) and (0.07) for water and (0.22) and (0.13) for health to Bote and Darai,
respectively. The LVI value of the seven major components shows that they differ
highly in water resources, of which the Bote community are less vulnerable than the
Darai community. Besides that, Darai is less vulnerable to all the components than
Bote. Table 36.5 clearly shows the corresponding LVI values to the different com-
ponents in a comparable way.
36.4 Discussion
36.4.1 Social Representation of the Respondents
The idea behind vulnerability is to comprehend the impact of climate change on

communities, institutions, and social dynamics like gender (Ahmed 2006). The
research indicated that diverse groups were included based on gender, education,
and age. Vulnerability isn’t a standalone issue; social and political contexts signifi-
cantly influence it (Savita et al. 2017). Factors like poverty, caste, and gender
amplify vulnerability. The study effectively gathered information on climate impacts
and vulnerability across various societal groups.
36.4.2 Major Hazards in the Area
Adger (2006) defines vulnerability as an individual’s susceptibility to stress caused

by the impact of extreme climate occurrences. The research pinpointed major haz-
ards from various climate events, including drought, hailstones, pests, floods, inva-
sive species, thunderstorms, and windstorms, with drought emerging as the
predominant hazard. Additionally, an analysis of rainfall and temperature data from
the nearby Damauli Climatology station spanning 1991–2021 reveals a decreasing
trend in mean annual rainfall, accompanied by an increase in both mean maximum
and mean minimum temperatures. Specifically, the mean annual rainfall has
decreased to 2.9 mm/year. The mean maximum and minimum temperatures also
increased at 0.04 °C and 0.03 °C/year. Using 53 studies of 39 countries, Simpson
et al. (2023) found notable climate hazards that compound drought, including
extreme heat across the USA, Philippines, Nepal, Zimbabwe, and South Africa.
Early flowering and fruiting, as well as introducing and expanding alien invasive
plant species, are some of the observed biophysical impacts of climate change
(Panta and Mandal 2019).
Certain severe occurrences like droughts and floods have lasting effects on com-
munity members’ food and nutritional stability. Wester and Mishra (2019) illustrate
that drought, directly and indirectly, influences mountain inhabitants’ livelihoods,
heightening food insecurity by limiting water resources for both agricultural and
rangeland activities in the hilly and mountainous regions of Gandaki Province. The
mountain districts of Gandaki Province and almost all eastern districts of Koshi
Province are likely to experience more extreme events than the baseline. Likewise,
the hilly districts of Gandaki Province, such as Kaski, Syangja, Tahanu, and
Lamjung, have had higher compositive extreme climate events in the past (MoFE
2021b), and additionally, the likelihood of an increase in extreme events under the
RCP 4.5 (2050) scenario compared to the baseline. Extreme climate events refer to
the combined effects of changes in precipitation, extreme wet days, cold spell dura-
tion, consecutive wet days, and consecutive dry and warm days (Wang et al. 2023).
Focus group discussion (FGD) and Key informant interview (KII) have added
the change in rainfall pattern as an important natural hazard to the above list.
Similarly, heavy unseasonal, post-monsoon rainfall in Nepal that started on 17
October 2021 was unknown in the past and beyond the experience-based knowledge
of farmers and science. This caused irreparable losses (including human casualties),
property damage (inclusive of roads, bridges, hydropower stations and other physi-
cal infrastructure) and substantial impacts on agriculture (damage to land and crop
yields) across the country (Pandey and Dahal 2022). Such disasters cannot simply
be attributed to a single factor but have resulted from multiple anthropogenic and
climatic factors and processes (Maharjan et al. 2021).
36.4.3 Risk of Climate Change Impact
The risk is the function of exposure, vulnerability, and hazards. According to the
analysis, under the baseline scenarios, districts impacted by floods, landslides, fires,
windstorms, and hailstorms, among other hazards, have experienced a very high
impact from climate-induced disasters (Prakash et al. 2022; Phukon et al. 2022)
According to the results of the municipal level assessment, the risk level for Bhanu
and Byas in Gandaki Province and Sitganga in Lumbini Province increased from
high to very high-risk under RCP (4.5, 8.5) in 2030 as compared to Baseline risk
(MoFE 2021c). Realizing this risk, Nepal has committed to reducing its greenhouse
gas emissions through its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) under the
Paris Agreement, which includes reducing emissions by 33% by 2030 compared to
business-as-usual scenarios.
36.4.4 Most Impacted Livelihood Resources
A single household’s source of livelihood can face the influence of various hazards.
Likewise, the research highlighted agriculture as susceptible to multiple hazards,
including drought, landslides, floods, insect/pest diseases, hailstones, and invasive
species (Kumar et al. 2020). The presence of irrigation facilities emerged as a criti-
cal factor in mitigating the decline in agricultural crop yields during droughts.
Survey findings indicated that 54% of the households surveyed, reliant on agricul-
ture, practiced rain-fed cultivation. Climate change mainly affects rural communi-
ties with subsistence-level farming where households have small land holdings and
rely on weather-dependent rain-fed agriculture (Suresh et al. 2021). Increased tem-
perature and erratic rainfall patterns have changed farming schedules, reduced water
supply and availability, increased irrigation costs, increased the spread of alien and
invasive weeds, and increased the prevalence of pests and diseases—all of which
have produced a decline in agricultural production and productivity (Arunrat et al.
2017). Weather or meteorological events increase temperatures, and hazards such as
erratic rainfall, drought, and floods account for approximately 90% of crop loss in
Nepal (Kashem and Hossain 2023). Climate change policy (2019) and other major
policy documents recognize that agriculture is most vulnerable to climate change
and requires urgent and immediate investments. Similarly, infrastructure, water, and
forest were other major resources impacted by various hazards in the area. Extreme
climate events’ high and uncertain impacts are a global phenomenon and can only
be ameliorated to a limited extent by technological advances and enhanced resources
and income (Aryal et al. 2014).
36.4.5 Coping Strategies
Coping strategies are short-term responses to different hazards. In this study, vari-
ous coping strategies have been grouped into three major categories: self, loan and
support from Government organizations (GOs), International/ Non-governmental
organizations (I/NGOs), and Community based organizations (CBOs). Under the
self-coping strategies, the HHs have moved to other water sources, planted bamboo
and broom grass, adopted drip irrigation, reduced consumption, did extra labour,
and sold farm crops. Similarly, some HHs have also taken loans from their relatives
and friends to cope with different hazards. Receiving remittance through overseas
labour migration is an important source of income for the Nepalese economy. Still,
indigent households who cannot invest in the minimal overseas travel costs do not
stand to benefit from this option and, therefore, have to rely on local money lenders
for emergency loans. Taking loans from money lenders at high-interest rates pushes
them towards indebtedness, thereby limiting their livelihood options and drawing
them into a vicious circle of poverty (Rijal et al. 2022). Under support from GOs, I/
NGOs and CBOs, the HHs have got support from CFUGs, the Hariyo Ban Program,
the Agriculture Office, and the Ward Office.
36.4.6 Most Vulnerable Components
On average, social networks seem to be the most vulnerable of HHs. The associa-
tion of people with different CBOs, like cooperative and community forest user
groups, was good, but in the case of the average money borrow: lend ratio was high,
it might be due to the establishment of different cooperatives at the local level.
Similarly, the linkage and visit of local people to different government offices for
various services were also less, and they neither have higher links with political
bodies nor internet facilities to be updated with current affairs. In research con-
ducted within Nepal’s central and western mountains, barriers such as caste hierar-
chy and patriarchal gender limitations have been identified. These barriers hinder
socially marginalized groups within a community from accessing specific institu-
tions and adopting readily available adaptation strategies that are more easily acces-
sible to higher caste groups (Onta and Resurreccion 2011). This social context poses
a multifaceted challenge for policymakers in Nepal. Some districts in Gandaki
Province, Koshi Province, and Lumbini Province are highly exposed to climatic
stressors. The sensitivity is highest in the mid-hills of Bagmati Province and
Gandaki Province (Wester and Mishra 2019). Livelihood strategies are seen as the
second most vulnerable component for all, but for the most vulnerable indigenous
groups (Bote), this component comes first with an LVI value of 0.49. Since Bote
depends on agriculture and forestry for livelihood, most (>80%) of the agricultural
land is unregistered and falls under the rain-fed classification (i.e., they occupy
slopes of forest that have been converted to agricultural land). Bote don’t have other
options, so most rely on driving tractors to collect sand and stones for a contractor.
The extraction of river material is one of the main reasons for the loss of agricultural
land in the Darai community through river bank cutting. Adaptive capacity to
respond effectively to climate change impacts; a high adaptive capacity with higher
HDI, GDP, and literacy rates; and better access to infrastructure, health, and other
services (MoFE 2021c). Natural disaster and climate variability is the third most
vulnerable component, and it is supported by analysis of rainfall and temperature
data of the nearby station, Damauli, which shows a decreasing trend of mean annual
rainfall and an increasing mean maximum temperature and mean minimum tem-
perature (Singh and Verma 2013; Joshi et al. 2020). The field survey revealed that
the area is more exposed to extreme climate patterns, such as consecutive wet and
dry days, resulting in natural disasters like droughts, landslides, and floods.
Similarly, the area is vulnerable regarding Socio-demographic profile depending on
rain-fed irrigation, and only 38% of respondent HHs had food sufficiency up to
12 months. The LVI of water focuses both on agricultural and drinking water, and
drinking water sources are available in the study area and must be conserved and
managed. Hence, they are less vulnerable, though agriculture was the most impacted
livelihood resource. All the conflicts for water were due to the scarcity of water for
irrigation, and drought resulted in a decrease in river volume. It comes in line with
the finding of (Pandey et al. 2015) that the water vulnerability of rural HHs is caused
particularly when there is a high dependency on agriculture on water and the exist-
ing infrastructure is poor. There are no HHs reporting conflict related to water in the
area, but 58% of respondent households claimed there is a water shortage through-
out the year. In the case of health, 8% of respondent HHs only have family members
chronically ill, and only 2 HH members have missed school due to illness in the last
2 weeks.
36.5 Conclusion and Recommendation
The investigation has successfully identified a range of significant hazards contrib-

uting to vulnerability in the study area, including drought, landslides, hailstones,
invasive species, insects/pests, floods, thunderstorms, and windstorms. Agriculture
emerged as the most severely impacted among the resources assessed, followed by
infrastructure, water, and forests. Notably, the vulnerability of social networks and
livelihood strategies stood out as a critical component, primarily due to the heavy
dependence of 60% of respondent households on agriculture as their primary occu-
pation, which has been significantly affected by diverse hazards. Conversely, the
study revealed that health demonstrated the lowest vulnerability in the area.
Households in the study area employed various coping mechanisms to manage the
effects of different hazards. These strategies included relocating to alternative water
sources, cultivating bamboo and broom grass, adopting drip irrigation, reducing
consumption, undertaking additional labour, and directly selling farm produce. The
research extensively examined factors impacting household-level livelihood
vulnerability, encompassing access to information, services, and resources, control

over natural resources like land and water, and the affordability of essential services
such as water, health care, and credit.
The calculated index values for each major component and its corresponding
subcomponents/indicators displayed variation across the study area. This variance
offers valuable insights for tailoring specific coping strategies at the household
level. Ultimately, the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) serves as a valuable tool
for development organizations and practitioners to comprehend the multifaceted
factors, including demographic, social, and health-related elements, contributing to
climate vulnerability at the household level. Alongside the comprehensive LVI,
sector-specific vulnerability scores can be extracted to pinpoint potential areas war-
ranting climate change interventions. This study not only underscores the height-
ened vulnerability of communities about their social networks and livelihood
strategies but also stresses the need for concentrated research on highly marginal-
ized and endangered ethnic groups. Expanding the scope of inquiry beyond indi-
vidual communities to encompass other vulnerable groups can yield insights into
their livelihood practices, susceptibility to climate change, reliance on natural
resources, and more. Targeted policies can be formulated to directly assist marginal-
ized populations during the implementation phase by amassing vulnerability data
across diverse communities.
References
Adger WN (2006) Vulnerability. Glob Environ Chang 16(3):268–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

gloenvcha.2006.02.006
Ahmed S (2006) Gender, vulnerability and disasters: key concerns for policy and practice. Disaster
Dev 1(1):165–177
Arias P, Bellouin N, Coppola E, Jones R, Krinner G, Marotzke J, Zickfeld K (2021) Climate
change 2021: the physical science basis. In: Contribution of working group i to the sixth assess-
ment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change; technical summary. https://
www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/
Arunrat N, Wang C, Pumijumnong N, Sereenonchai S, Cai W (2017) Farmers’ intention and deci-
sion to adapt to climate change: a case study in the Yom and Nan basins, Phichit province of
Thailand. J Clean Prod 143:672–685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.058
Aryal S, Cockfield G, Maraseni TN (2014) Vulnerability of Himalayan transhumant communities
to climate change. Clim Chang 125(2):193–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-014-1157-5
Barrett C, Constas MA (2014) Toward a theory of resilience for international development appli-
cations. Proc Natl Acad Sci 111(40):14625–14630. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1320880111
Blackmore I, Iannotti L, Rivera C, Waters WF, Lesorogol C (2023) A formative assessment of vul-
nerability and implications for enhancing livelihood sustainability in indigenous communities in
the Andes of Ecuador. J Rural Stud 97:416–427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.12.033
Change IC (2014) Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Part A: global and sectoral aspects. In:
Contribution of working group II to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel
on climate change, p 1132
Eckstein D, Hutfils ML, Winges M (2018) Global climate risk index 2019. Who suffers most from
extreme weather events, p 36. http://www.germanwatch.org/en/cri
Eckstein D, Kunzel V, Schafer L (2021) Global climate risk index 2021. Who suffers most from
extreme weather events? Weather-related loss events in 2019 and 2000–2019. Germanwatch
eV. https://bvearmb.do/handle/123456789/1306
Hahn MB, Riederer AM, Foster SO (2009) The livelihood vulnerability index: a pragmatic
approach to assessing risks from climate variability and change—a case study in Mozambique.
Glob Environ Chang 19(1):74–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.11.002
Hammill A, Matthew R, Mccarter E (2008) Microfinance and climate change adaptation. IDS Bull
39(4):113–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2008.tb00484.x
Kashem MA, Hossain MZ (2023) Climate-induced droughts and its implications for legume crops.
In: Climate change and legumes: stress mitigation for sustainability and food security. CRC
Press, p 12. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003214885-12
Kreft S, Eckstein D, Melchior I (2016) Global climate risk index 2017. Who suffers most from
extreme weather events? Weather-related loss events in 2015 and 1996 to 2015
Kumar M, Padalia H, Singh H (2020) Remote sensing for mapping invasive alien plants: oppor-
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
Maharjan SB, Steiner JF, Shrestha AB, Maharjan A, Nepal S, Shrestha MS, Gupta N (2021) The
Melamchi flood disaster: cascading hazard and the need for multihazard risk management.
ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal. https://doi.org/10.53055/icimod.981
Manga SJT (2022) When digital technology innovation enhances Indigenous Peoples’
e-participation in climate change resilience-building: perspectives under the “e-GIS Smart,
Inclusive, and, Climate-resilient Indigenous Peoples Landscape and Community Clearing-
House Mechanism Solution”. J Environ Plan Manag 66(12):2467–2486. https://doi.org/10.108
0/09640568.2022.2078690
MoE (2011) Climate Change policy, 2011. Ministry of Environment, Government of Nepal,
Kathmandu
MoFE (2021a) Nepal’s third National Communication to the UNFCCC. Ministry of Forests and
Environment, Kathmandu
MoFE (2021b) Vulnerability and risk assessment and identifying adaptation options in tourism,
natural and cultural heritage. Ministry of Forests and Environment, Government of Nepal,
Kathmandu, Nepal
MoFE (2021c) Vulnerability and risk assessment and identifying adaptation options: summary for
policy makers. Kathmandu, Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Government of Nepal
MoHA (2019) Nepal disaster report. Ministry of Home Affaris, Government of Nepal (GoN)
Onta N, Resurreccion BP (2011) The role of gender and caste in climate adaptation strategies in
Nepal. Mt Res Dev 31(4):351–356. https://doi.org/10.1659/mrd-journal-d-10-00085.1
Paavola J (2008) Livelihoods, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in Morogoro.
Tanzania Environ Sci Policy 11(7):642–654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2008.06.002
Pandey CL, Dahal N (2022) Rethinking climate diplomacy gains: strategic benefits to Nepal. J
Foreign Affairs 2(01):69–87. https://doi.org/10.3126/jofa.v2i01.44005
Pandey R, Kala S, Pandey VP (2015) Assessing climate change vulnerability of water at
household level. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Chang 20:1471–1485. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11027-014-9556-5
Panta M, Mandal RA (2019) Impact of climate change on phenology of Rhododendron arboreum

Sm., Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don AND alnus nepalensis D. Don. Siberian. J Forest
Sci 4(1):68–79. https://doi.org/10.15372/sjfs20190407
Panthi J, Aryal S, Dahal P, Bhandari P, Krakauer NY, Pandey VP (2016) Livelihood vulnerability
approach to assessing climate change impacts on mixed agro-livestock smallholders around
the Gandaki River basin in Nepal. Reg Environ Chang 16:1121–1132. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10113-015-0833-y
Parry ML (ed) (2007) Climate change 2007-impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: working group
II contribution to the fourth assessment report of the IPCC, vol 4. Cambridge University Press
Phukon SN, Kumar M, Singh H, Nandy S (2022) Climate Change and plant phenological variabil-
Portner HO, Roberts DC, Adams H, Adler C, Aldunce P, Ali E, Ibrahim ZZ (2022) Climate change
2022: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. IPCC
Rijal S, Gentle P, Khanal U, Wilson C, Rimal B (2022) A systematic review of Nepalese farm-
ers’ climate change adaptation strategies. Clim Pol 22(1):132–146. https://doi.org/10.108
0/14693062.2021.1977600
Sahoo KP, Roy A, Mandal MH, Yasmin B, Bhattacharjee S, Siddique G (2022) Appraisal of
coexistence and interdependence of forest and tribes in Jhargram District of West Bengal,
India using SWOT–AHP analysis. GeoJournal 88(2):1493–1513. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10708-022-10696-3
Samuels MI, Masubelele ML, Cupido CF, Swarts MBV, Foster J, Dewet G, Lynes LS (2022)
Climate vulnerability and risks to an indigenous community in the arid zone of South Africa. J
Arid Environ 199:104718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2022.104718
Simpson NP, Williams PA, Mach KJ, Berrang-Ford L, Biesbroek R, Haasnoot M, Trisos CH (2023)
Adaptation to compound climate risks: a systematic global stocktake. Iscience 26(2):105926.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.105926
productivity of Acacia auriculiformis under CO2-enriched environment. Indust Crops Prod
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
org/10.1007/s13205-017-0690-0
Singh H, Kumar N, Kumar M, Singh R (2020) Modelling habitat suitability of western tragopan
crm.2020.100241
Suresh K, Khanal U, Wilson C, Managi S, Quayle A, Santhirakumar S (2021) An economic

analysis of agricultural adaptation to climate change impacts in Sri Lanka: an endogenous
switching regression analysis. Land Use Policy 109:105601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
landusepol.2021.105601
doi.org/10.1007/s40502-020-00550-4
Wang C, Raza SA, Adebayo TS, Yi S, Shah MI (2023) The roles of hydro, nuclear and biomass
energy towards carbon neutrality target in China: a policy-based analysis. Energy 262:125303.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.125303
Wester P, Mishra A, Mukherji A, Shrestha AB (eds) (2019) The Hindu Kush Himalaya assess-
ment: mountains, climate change, sustainability and people. Springer Nature, p 627. https://
doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1
Chapter 37
Computing Aboveground Carbon Stocks
Using Ground-Based and Sentinel Imagery
Approach
Payal Thakur, Rajeev Joshi, Sewak Bhatta, Santosh Ghimire,

and Ramesh Silwal
Abstract Trees serve as natural carbon sinks and are crucial in sequestering carbon
in biomass and soil. This study aimed to compute aboveground carbon stocks and
species diversity and established correlations between the Normalized Difference
Vegetation Index (NDVI) and carbon content for trees, poles, and regeneration spe-
cies. Additionally, it sought to identify correlations between NDVI and biodiversity
indices. Three community forests (CFs) located in the Mahottari district of Nepal,
namely Bahunijhora, Kalikhola, and Markaurra, were selected to conduct this
research. Systematic random sampling was adopted, resulting in 90 plots distributed
across the three community forests, with 30 plots allocated to each. Rectangular
plots of 20 × 25 m2 were set up for measuring tree dimensions. In contrast, 10 × 10 m2
plots were assigned for poles, and 5 × 5 m2 plots were utilized for assessing other
regeneration species. The results indicated that the highest species diversity was
observed in the Markaurra community forest, with a value of 0.5. At the same time,
the lowest was recorded in the Bahunijhora forest, with a value of 0.14. Similarly,
carbon stock was highest in Markaurra Community Forest, totaling 137.83 tha−1,
and lowest in Bahunijhora Community Forest, with a measurement of 96.21 tha−1.
Moreover, evenness and species richness were highest in Markaurra, with values of
0.71 and 10.19, respectively, and lowest in Bahunijhora Community Forest, with
values of 0.57 and 7.06, respectively. Furthermore, NDVI values were calculated for
each plot, revealing a linear pattern where increasing carbon stock corresponded to
higher NDVI values and vice versa. This model can simplify aboveground biomass
(AGB) calculations and carbon stock estimations.
P. Thakur · S. Bhatta
Faculty of Science and Technology, School of Environmental Science and Management
(SchEMS), Pokhara University, Pokhara, Nepal
R. Joshi (*)
College of Natural Resource Management, Agriculture and Forestry University,
Katari, Udayapur, Nepal
S. Ghimire · R. Silwal
Ltd. 2024
772 P. Thakur et al.
Keywords Species diversity · Biomass · Carbon stock · NDVI
37.1 Introduction
Forest carbon stock refers to the quantity of carbon taken from the air and currently
held within a forest (Devi et al. 2023). This carbon is primarily stored in living trees
and soil, with smaller amounts found in dead wood and litter (Gupta et al. 2019;
Yadav et al. 2019). Carbon (C) is stored in five different pools: (1) aboveground
biomass, (2) below-ground biomass, (3) litter, (4) deadwood/woody debris, and (5)
soil (Joshi et al. 2020). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
reported that the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is increasing by 1.4 parts per
million (ppm) per year (Solomon et al. 2007; Verma et al. 2021). Most often, anthro-
pogenic activities are the main source of carbon emissions. According to (Hunt
2009), 1 ton of carbon stored in trees is the result of removing 3.67 tons of carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere. In general, forests store more carbon than is present
in the atmosphere. Carbon capture and storage is an effective climate change miti-
gation technology to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and thus decrease the level of
GHGs in the atmosphere (Kumar et al. 2020a, b; Singh et al. 2021). Carbon moni-
toring is critical for ensuring that any CO2 leakage and its effect on predominantly
vegetation biota is detectable (Kumar et al. 2021a, b). It also plays a vital role in
creating a social license to operate and assuring the general public that leak detec-
tion and remediation mechanisms are in place (Singh et al. 2017, 2020). This chap-
ter overviews current remote sensing technologies for vegetation monitoring of
carbon capture and storage (CCS) sites/regions (with a focus on rangelands and
pastures), including medium-to-high resolution satellite, aerial (both manned and
unmanned aircraft) and in situ sensors and methods. Chen et al. (2019) also showed
that remote sensing, particularly hyperspectral sensors, can accurately detect CO2
leakage-derived effects on vegetation (Kumar et al. 2020a, b). Mainly two draw-
backs are seen over a large area. The first is the area affected, which is tentatively
tiny (1–15 m), and the next is vegetation tissue symptoms that seem similar to other
stresses, such as nutrient or water deficiencies.
Global warming is primarily a result of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere.
CO2 is predicted to increase substantially over the twenty-first century (Kabir et al.
2023). Thus, decreasing the total CO2 output may significantly mitigate the effects
and severity of future climate change (Singh and Verma 2013; Tashi et al. 2017).
This places a premium on developing technological solutions to minimize rises in
atmospheric CO2 levels (Rodrigues et al. 2018). Deforestation and forest degrada-
tion continue to pose significant challenges to all living species due to the rising
production of greenhouse gases (GHGs), especially CO2. Massive deforestation
increases Carbon emissions (Baul et al. 2021; Raturi et al. 2022). Carbon Capture
and Storage (CCS) has been endorsed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) as part of a portfolio of measures to mitigate climate change.
Madhesh province has an area of 9661 km2 (smallest province), which covers 6.5%
37 Computing Aboveground Carbon Stocks Using Ground-Based and Sentinel… 773
of the country’s total area. The province is located on the flat plains of Terai, and
Chure (Churiya) or the Shiwalik hills are the natural border of the province, which
falls on the northern side. Madhesh province is where the least research work has
been carried out, so many more fields exist to explore.
Community forestry is a progressing system of forestry managed by the partici-
patory approach and is also a part of the carbon trade. It comprises fulfilling the
basic needs of user groups, environmental sustainability, income generation and
employment (Rawat et al. 2020; Joshi et al. 2021). Therefore, it directly and indi-
rectly benefits the people, supporting sustainable livelihood and development
(Sharma et al. 2018). The World Bank agreed to support the government of Nepal in
the carbon trade. Nepal will benefit from selling the forest carbon credit. The local
people may benefit a lot from this project. In addition, forest management will be
base for determining the carbon credit. In this context, assessing the forest’s carbon
stock and establishing a better monitoring system is essential. The resultant effect
will support the carbon trade in Nepal. In the context of Nepal, the Constitution is
the executing guide of the CFUG, and the OP directs its activities. But they some-
times act according to the common decision that may or may not be included in
those documents’ overall development (Uprety et al. 2012). Plant diversity is vital
in community stability, ecosystem productivity, and ecological services, each highly
beneficial to human beings and economic development (Keith 2017; Singh 2021).
Forestry is the best way to stabilize the atmosphere’s carbon. Compared to other
sources, forestry has a large biodiversity and biomass (Gupta et al. 2018; Singh
et al. 2022). There are very few studies regarding the intangible benefits of forests
compared to agriculture (Gautam et al. 2008). Trees remove a certain amount of
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it as biomass or sequester it (Singh
et al. 2023). In our context, carbon mapping is done in minimal areas and uses
physical ways by measuring biomass manually (Singh et al. 2018). This study is
aimed to provide the baseline for carbon stock calculation or changes in its amount.
It will help to detect and monitor CO2 leakage (Kumar et al. 2021a, b). Species rich-
ness is one of the most studied measures of plant species diversity (Joshi et al.
2020). In the context of Nepal, species richness along elevation gradient has been
studied in different parts of the country. Only some empirical studies have been
done with species richness along forest types. The distribution and diversity of plant
species in forests depend on the size of the forest or habitat area, along with differ-
ent factors. It is generally assumed that the larger the size of the forest, the higher
the species richness (Rosenzweig 1995). Forests are critical renewable resources
that provide services and products to people and the environment (Bisht et al. 2021).
It meets people’s basic needs and is a significant source of world livelihood and cash
income. Still, there are considerable areas in Nepal that have yet to be explored by
scientists. The primary aim of this study is to gauge the carbon content in aboveg-
round vegetation and ascertain the diversity of tree species within the specified area.
This overarching goal is supported by specific objectives, including evaluating the
current carbon stock status, determining the tree species diversity, and illustrating
the correlation between carbon stock and the Normalized Difference Vegetation
Index (NDVI).
37.2.1 Study Area
The study site is situated in the Chure foothills of Mahottari district, located in the
central region of Nepal and belonging to the Janakpur zone (Fig. 37.1). Mahottari
district is positioned at 26°52′22.08″ North latitude and 85°49′42.96″ East longi-
tude, covering an area of 1002 km2. The 2001 census had a population of 553,481,
which increased to 627,580 in 2011 and 705,838 in the 2021 census. The region is
characterized by the dominance of Shorearobustaalong with other species like
Adina cordifolia, Aeglemarmelos, Albizia spp., Anthocephaluschinensis,
Fig. 37.1 Map of the Study area

Anogeissuslatifolia, Buteafrondosa, Dilleniapentagyna, and Dilleniaindica.

Mahottari, situated in the outer Terai region, shares its borders with Dhanusha to the
east, Sarlahi and India to the west, Sindhuli to the north, and India to the south. The
district’s population is predominantly Hindu and Muslim, representing over 92 dif-
ferent castes, with Maithali being the primary language. Agriculture serves as the
primary livelihood in the region. Notably, a significant portion of the study site falls
within the ecologically sensitive Chure region, accounting for 12.78% (1,896,255 ha),
with forests covering 72.37% (1,373,743 ha) of the land. This area boasts abundant
biodiversity, supporting a diverse array of plant and animal species, while the for-
ests play a crucial role in watershed conservation, benefiting nearby villages.
Mahottari district encompasses the Terai plains in the south and the Chure region in
the north. The fieldwork for this study was conducted in three community forest
areas: MarkaurraCommunity Forest, Kalikhola Community Forest, and Bahunijhora
Community Forest.
37.2.2 Satellite Image Interpretation
Sentinel-2A was used to show the changes in forest area cover. Satellite images
were downloaded from the European Space Agency (https://earthexplorer.usgs.
gov/). The spatial resolution of the image bands used is 10 m for B4 and B8. The
imagery was atmospherically corrected using the plug-in sensor in SNAP (Sentinel
Application Platform) software (version 4.0), developed by ESA for processing
Sentinel imagery. The pre-processing included spatial resampling of all bands to a
common resolution (highest) of 10 m. The images extracted from the European
Space Agency were used to calculate the normalized difference vegetation index
(NDVI). This NDVI assists in presenting and analyzing the healthy forest and its
land coverage. It is a dimensionless index that describes the difference between vis-
ible and near-infrared reflectance of vegetation cover and can be used to estimate
the density of green on an area of land (Ekundayo et al. 2021). NDVI = (NIR-Red)/
(NIR + Red), where NIR is near-infrared and Red is visible red. A sentinel image of
the year 2022 was used for each community forest.
The classification of the range of NDVI value was accomplished and calculated
from field data, and a relevant map with different biodiversity categories was cre-
ated. Spectral bands 4 and 8 (spatial resolution 10 m) were considered for this seg-
mentation, with equal weights from the European Space Agency. The Sentinel 2
image was modeled in QGIS to ensure that the segmentation at this level was inde-
pendent of spectral features and forest composition. Various parameters were used
to get effectual forest patches (map units) to estimate biodiversity.
37.2.3 Field Survey and Study
This study employed a combination of survey and factual research methods, focus-
ing on descriptive research techniques. A structured approach was followed to
gather primary data. Within this framework, stratified random sampling was adopted
to collect field measurements related to tree species, aligning with the guidelines
outlined by the Forest Survey of India for the Timber Operations and Forest
Inventory (Pandey et al. 2011). The selection of stratified random sampling was
favoured because it allowed for the representation of every individual species. Field
plots were established with an area of 500 m2 for trees, while 10 m × 10 m and
5 m × 5 m plots were designated for poles and saplings, respectively. A smaller
1 m × 1 m plot was selected for seedlings. Data collection was conducted in three
community forests situated on the border of the Mahottari and Dhausha districts.
The collected information encompassed species enumeration, measurement of
height, diameter at breast height (DBH), and crown diameter for trees, poles, and
saplings. In the case of seedlings, measurements included the diameter at 15 cm
(collar), height, crown diameter, and species identification.
37.2.3.1 GPS Coordinates
A total of 90 GPS coordinates using a spatial reference system of WGS 84/UTM

Zone 44 were collected in the field. Some of the collected GPS coordinates were
also used for the ground trothing for the Kappa coefficient and accuracy assessment.
37.2.3.2 Digital Datasets
Besides the sources mentioned above, digital datasets were also used. They were
used to delineate the study area and subset (clip) Sentinel 2 images, SNAP tool and
Google Earth images. All these data were based on World Geodetic System 1984
(WGS 84) with Universal Transverse Mercator projection (UTM) Zone 44.
37.2.4 Secondary Data Collection
Secondary data were collected from published and unpublished documents, office
records and materials, the internet, the library and other essential materials.
Additional information was also gathered from the Forest Carbon Estimation
Guideline, Websites and other essential materials. Sentinel Image acquisition and
analysis was done from the official website of the United States Geological Survey
(USGS) (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/). Next, the Normalized differences vegeta-
tion index (NDVI) was assessed. The CF-wise NDVI was recorded. NDVI=
(NIR-red)/(NIR+red) where NIR is near-infrared and Red is visible red. For

Sentinel-2, the index will be as follows; NDVI = (Band 8 − Band 4)/(Band 8 + Band
4) where Band 8 is NIR and Band 4 is Red band (Tashi et al. 2017).
Various statistical tools were employed to analyse the data about carbon. Firstly,
descriptive analysis was conducted, which involved calculating key statistics such
as the mean (representing central tendency), standard error, standard deviation, and
the minimum and maximum values for carbon. This analysis was also extended to
encompass the biodiversity of tree, pole, and regeneration species. Secondly, regres-
sion analysis was employed to establish relationships between carbon and NDVI
(Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) and between biodiversity indices
and NDVI.
37.2.6 Species Diversity Index
37.2.6.1 Shannon Wiener Index
Shannon and Wiener independently derived the function known as the Shannon
index of diversity. This assumes that individuals are randomly sampled from an
independently large population and that all the species are represented in the sam-
ple. The Shannon index is calculated from the equation: H′ = −∑pi ln pi, where pi
is the proportion of each species in the sample (Joshi et al. 2019).
37.2.6.2 Biodiversity Index Calculation
1. Evenness index: Evenness index will be calculated as (e) = H′/log S

Where H′ = Shannon Wiener Diversity index and S = number of species.
2. Species richness = S/√N,
Where S = Number of species in a community and
N = Number of individuals of all species in a community.
37.2.7 Biomass Estimation
The total stem volume of each tree was calculated using a relationship developed by
Chave et al. (2005) (cited by Joshi et al. 2020). AGTB = 0.0509 × § × D2 × H,
Where, AGTB = aboveground tree biomass 0.0509 is the constant for the moist area
(as Mahottari district is in the moist area), § = Dry wood Density (g/cc), H = Total
tree height (m), D = Over bark diameter at breast height (measured at 1.3 m above
ground in cm).
37.2.8 Estimation of Carbon Content
The aboveground tree carbon (stem, branch, and leaf carbon) was calculated using
the stock method. Total carbon was considered 47% of biomass (IPCC 2006).
Carbon % = 47% of total tree biomass. The annual rate of change of land-use land
cover will be calculated using the following formula (Van Wees et al. 2021). Where
r is the annual rate of change in each class, A2 and A1 are the areas of each class at
the end and the beginning, respectively, for the period being evaluated, and t is the
number of years between two time periods. The coordinates of present land use and
land cover were noted during the field data collection, which was used to assess the
accuracy of the map for 2022. Overall accuracy = Total number corrected classified
pixel ×100/Total number of pixels.
37.3.1 Carbon Stock in Community Forests
Table 37.1 provides an overview of the carbon levels in different community forests.
The highest total carbon content was observed in Markaurra Community Forest,
measuring 137.84 tha−1, followed by Kalikhola CF with a value of 125.82 t ha−1. In
contrast, Bahunijhora CF exhibited the lowest total carbon content, with only
96.22 tha−1. Markaurra Community Forest featured 87.11 tha−1 of tree carbon,
48.15 tha−1 of pole carbon, and 2.57 tha−1 of regeneration carbon. Similarly,
Kalikhola Community Forest had 76.02 tha−1 of tree carbon, 47.08 tha−1 of pole
carbon, and 2.70 tha−1 of regeneration carbon. Meanwhile, BahunijhoraCommunity
Forest recorded 73.45 tha−1 of tree carbon, 21.52 tha−1 of pole carbon, and 1.24 tha−1
of regeneration carbon (Fig. 37.2).
37.4 Descriptive Statistics of Carbon Stock

in Community Forests
In Markaurra Community Forest, the statistical measures for carbon content were as
follows: The mean for the tree was 113.91 ± 16.45, with a standard deviation of
87.08. For pole carbon, the mean was 76.50 ± 20.17, with a standard deviation of
Table 37.1 Descriptive statics of Carbon stock in CF

Stat Markaurra Kalikhola Bahunijhora
Tree Mean ± SE 113.917 ± 16.45 100.23 ± 15.54 81.88 ± 10.57
Min. 13.4 6.48 11.5
Max. 391.5 284.5 209.9
SD 87.08 82.24 54.96
Pole Mean ± SE 76.50 ± 20.17 57.092 ± 7.53 31.44 ± 4.29
Min. 7.32 7.32 8.96
Max. 520 520 73.1
SD 73.1 101 19.7
Regeneration Mean ± SE 5.14 ± 1.19 6.73 ± 1.16 3.17 ± 0.79
Min, 0.18 1.64 0.49
Max. 15.3 14.1 9.03
SD 4.7 4 2.9
Tree Carbon (t ha-1) Pole Carbon (t ha-1)

90 87.11 60
48.15 47.09
85 50
40
80
76.02 30
73.45 21.52
75
20
70 10
65 0
Marka urra Kalikhola Bahunijhora Marka urra Kalikhola Bahunijhora
Community Forest Community forest
Regeneration Carbon (t ha-1) Total Carbon (t ha-1)

3 2.7 160.00
2.57 137.83
2.5 140.00 125.81
120.00
2 96.21
100.00
1.5 1.24 80.00
1 60.00
40.00
0.5
20.00
0 0.00
Marka urra Kalikhola Bahunijhora Marka urra Kalikhola Bahunijhora
Community Forest Community Forest
Fig. 37.2 Carbon stock in community forests
101; for regeneration, it was 5.14 ± 1.19, with a standard deviation of 4.7. Similarly,
in Kalikhola Community Forest, the data showed the following results: The mean
for the tree was 100.23 ± 15.54, with a standard deviation of 82.24. For pole carbon,
the mean was 57.09 ± 7.53, with a standard deviation of 101, and for regeneration,
it was 6.73 ± 1.16, with a standard deviation of 4. In BahuniJhora Community
Forest, the statistics indicated that the mean for trees was 81.88 ± 10.57, with a
standard deviation of 54.96. For pole carbon, the mean was 31.44 ± 4.29, with a
standard deviation of 19.7, and for regeneration, it was 3.17 ± 0.79, with a standard
deviation of 2.9 (Table 37.1).
37.5 Descriptive analysis of Shannon Weiner’s Analysis
37.5.1 Biodiversity in Community Forest According

to the Stage of Plants
The assessment of the biodiversity index for tree, pole, sapling, and seedling catego-
ries in Community Forests (CF) unveiled noteworthy findings. Regarding the
Shannon-Wiener index (H′) for trees, the highest value was recorded in Markaurra
CF, standing at 0.5, followed by Kalikhola CF, with a value of 0.22. Bahunijhora CF
had the lowest value at 0.14. As for evenness, Kalikhola CF demonstrated the high-
est value for trees, registering 0.1, followed by Bahunijhora with 0.08 and Markaurra
with 0.06. Conversely, Richness was most pronounced in Markaurra and Bahunijhora
CF, recording a value of 0.46, while Kalikhola CF exhibited the highest richness
with a value of 0.7 (Fig. 37.3).
For the poles, the value of the Shannon-Wiener index was highest in the case of
Kalikhola CF with a value of 0.32 followed by Markaurra CF with a value of 0.27
and lowest value of 0.21 for Bahunijhora CF. In the case of evenness, the value was
similar for Markaurra and Kalikhola CF, with a value of 0.11, and the lowest was for
Bahunijhora CF, with a value of 0.08. The richness value was highest in the case of
5
4.5
4
3.5
Indices Value
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Shanon Species Species
Weiner Eveness Richness
Index
Marka urra CF Kalikhola CF Bahunijhora CF
Fig. 37.3 Vegetation indices (Shannon Weiner Index, Species evenness, Species richness) of trees
in three CFs
Kalikhola CF with a value of 1 followed by Markaurra CF with a value of 0.96 and

least in the case of Bahunijhora CF with a value of 0.86 (Fig. 37.4).
In the case of a sapling, the value of the Shannon-Wiener index was highest for
Markaurra CF with a value of 1.07 followed by Bahunijhora CF with a value of 1.05
and the lowest value of 1.01 for Kalikhola CF. The value of the evenness index was
found to be highest in the case of Markaurra CF with the value of 0.31 followed by
Kalikhola with the value of 0.24 and the lowest for Bahunijhora CF with the value
of 0.22. In terms of richness, the value was highest for Markaurra CF with a value
of 4.17 followed by Bahunijhora CF with a value of 4.16 and lowest for Kalikhola
CF with a value of 1.33 (Fig. 37.5).
In the case of seedlings, the Shannon-Wiener index displayed its highest value in
Markaurra CF, with a score of 0.96, followed closely by Kalikhola CF, registering a
value of 0.93, and Bahunijhora CF with the lowest value of 0.9. The evenness value
was also at its peak in Markaurra CF, reaching 0.23, followed by Kalikhola CF,
where it stood at 0.21, and Bahunijhora CF had the least evenness with a value of
0.19. Moreover, the richness value was notably higher in Markaurra CF, recording
a score of 4.6, surpassing the other two community forests, with Bahunijhora at 4.46
and Kalikhola at 4.03 (Fig. 37.6).
37.5.2 Relationship Between Carbon Stocks and NDVI
In the NDVI maps of the three distinct community forests, the correlation between
NDVI values and the carbon stock of tree stages exhibited variability depending on
the specific forest environment (Fig. 37.7). Notably, in Kalikhola Community
Forest, the r-squared (r2) value was 0.8519, and the corresponding equation was
represented as y = 0.0017× + 0.1264. Similarly, Bahunijhora Community Forest
displayed an r2 value of 0.8936, accompanied by the equation y = 0.0015× + 0.1492.
Pole
5
4
Indices Value
0
Index
Fig. 37.4 Vegetation indices (Shannon Weiner Index, Species evenness, Species richness) of the
pole in three CFs
Sapling
5
4
Indices Value
3
2
1
0
Index
Fig. 37.5 Vegetation indices (Shannon Weiner Index, Species evenness, Species richness) of sap-
ling in three CFs
Seedling
5
4
Indices Value
3
2
1
0
Index
Fig. 37.6 Vegetation indices (Shannon Weiner Index, Species evenness, Species richness) of seed-
lings in three CFs
Conversely, Markaurra Community Forest showed an r2 value of 0.6076, with its

equation denoted as y = 0.0013× + 0.1505 (Fig. 37.8).
The results reveal variations in total carbon among the three community forests,
with Markaurra, Kalikhola, and Bahunijhora CFs having carbon levels of 137.84
tha−1, 125.82 tha−1, and 96.22 tha−1, respectively. Furthermore, the biodiversity
index exhibited differences, with the highest value (0.5) observed for tree species in
Markaurra Community Forest, followed by Kalikhola Community Forest (0.22),
and the lowest in Bahunijhora Community Forest (0.14). A similar study was con-
ducted in the Collaborative Forest in Mahottari district, in which Mandal et al.
(2013) reported Shannon-Weiner Biodiversity Index values ranging from 2.21 to
2.23. Notably, that study found no significant relationship between carbon stock and
biodiversity, which employed larger sample plots than the community forests. The
estimated carbon stocks in this context were 197.10, 222.58, and 274.66 tha−1. In
summary, the Shannon-Wiener index (H′) for tree species was higher in Markaurra
Fig. 37.7 NDVI map of CFs (a) Kalikhola CF (b) Markaurra CF (c) Bahunijhora CF
CF (0.22) compared to the other two CFs. In terms of pole species, Kalikhola CF
exhibited the highest index (0.27), followed by Markaurra CF (0.21) and Bahunijhora
CF (0.21). Species richness was similar in Bahunijhora and Markaurra CFs and was
highest in Kalikhola CF (0.7). Additionally, the Shannon-Wiener index for seedling-
stage plants surpassed other plant stages. Moreover, a positive relationship was
noted between the Shannon-Wiener index, stem density, and species richness, sup-
ported by research conducted by Silva et al. (2018), which concluded that species
richness and diversity were significantly positively correlated.
a) Tree Carbon vs NDVI b) Tree Carbon Vs NDVI

250.00 200
200.00 y = 519.38x - 52.688 150

Tree carbon (t ha-1)
R² = 0.8524
Tree Carbon (t ha-1)

y = 599.23x - 80.444
150.00 R² = 0.8936
100
100.00
50
50.00
0.00 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
-50.00 -50
NDVI NDVI
c) Tree Carbon Vs NDVI

250
y = 453.5x - 35.162
200
Tree Carbon (t ha-1)
R² = 0.6076
150
100
50
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
NDVI
Fig. 37.8 A graph that depicts the relationship between NDVI and tree carbon content within CFs
(a) Kalikhola CF (b) Bahunijhora CF (c) Markaurra CF
37.6 Conclusion
The present study concludes that the diameter at breast height (DBH) and tree
height can vary within the same species across different sites, and this variability
extends to the volume, which serves as a dependent variable. There was a noticeable
similarity in species distribution among the three community forests. The
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) value positively correlated with
the carbon content of the species and vice versa. With only a few outlier plots attrib-
utable to errors, the NDVI values displayed a gradual linear increase across the
sampled plots. Forest degradation in all three community forests was primarily
attributed to fires, floods, landslides, road construction, the collection of firewood
and poles, diseases, weed infestations, and encroachments.
References
Baul TK, Chakraborty A, Nandi R, Mohiuddin M, Kilpelainen A, Sultana T (2021) Effects of tree
species diversity and stand structure on carbon stocks of homestead forests in Maheshkhali
Island, Southern Bangladesh. Carbon Bal Manage 16(1):1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/
s13021-021-00175-6
Bisht S, Kumar A, Kumar N, Singh H, Kumar P. (2021). Biofuel production by using biomass and
their application. In: Kumar N, Singh H, Kumar A. Renewable energy and green technology:
principles and practices. CRC Press, pp. 85–103
improved estimation of carbon stocks and balance in tropical forests. Oecologia 145:87–99.
Chen Y, Guerschman JP, Cheng Z, Guo L (2019) Remote sensing for vegetation monitoring in
carbon capture storage regions: a review. Appl Energy 240:312–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2019.02.027
29(2):451–457
Ekundayo OY, Okogbue EC, Akinluyi FO, Kalumba AM, Orimoloye IR (2021) Geoinformatics
approach to desertification evaluation nursing vegetation cover changes in the sudano-sahelian
region of Nigeria from 2000 to 2010. In: Re-envisioning remote sensing applications. CRC
Press, pp 261–270. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003049210-18
Gautam AP, Karmacharya MB, Karna BK (2008) Community forestry, equity and sustainable
livelihoods in Nepal. In: Proceedings of the 12th biennial conference of the international
association for the study of the commons (IASC) held during, pp 14–18. https://hdl.handle.
net/10535/1309
145(6):509–515
Hunt CA (2009) Carbon sinks and climate change: forests in the fight against global warming.
Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781849802109
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2006) Forest lands. In: Intergovernmental
panel on climate change guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories; Institute for
Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Hayama, Japan, p 83. https://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.
or.jp/public/2006gl/. Accessed 3 Aug 2023
Joshi R, Chhetri R, YadavK (2019). Vegetation analysis in community forests of Terai Region,
Nepal, Int J Environ, 8(3), 68–82. https://doi.org/10.3126/ije.v8i3.26667
Kabir M, Habiba UE, Khan W, Shah A, Rahim S, Farooqi ZUR, Shafiq M (2023) Climate
change due to increasing concentration of carbon dioxide and its impacts on the environment
in 21st century; a mini-review. J King Saud Univ Sci 35:102693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jksus.2023.102693
Keith DA (ed) (2017) Australian vegetation. Cambridge University Press
Mandal RA, Dutta IC, Jha PK, Karmacharya S (2013) Relationship between carbon stock and
plant biodiversity in collaborative forests in Terai, Nepal. Int Sch Res Notices. https://doi.
org/10.1155/2013/625767
Pandey R, Rawat GS, Kishwan J (2011) Changes in the distribution of carbon in various forest
types of India from 1995–2005. Silva Lusitana 19(1):41–54
org/10.36808/if/2020/v146i2/151208
Rodrigues PMS, Schaefer CEGR, de Oliveira SJ, Ferreira Junior WG, dos Santos RM, Neri AV
(2018) The influence of soil on vegetation structure and plant diversity in different tropical
savanna and forest habitats. J Plant Ecol 11(2):226–236. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpe/rtw135
Rosenzweig ML (1995) Species diversity in space and time. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511623387
Silva CA, Klauberg C, Hudak AT, Vierling LA, Liesenberg V, Bernett LG et al (2018) Estimating
stand height and tree density in Pinus taeda plantations using in-situ data, airborne LiDAR and
k-nearest neighbor imputation. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciencias 90:295–309. https://
doi.org/10.1590/0001-3765201820160071
org/10.1007/s13205-017-0690-0

uclim.2022.101183
Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt KB et al (2007) Summary for policy-
makers. Climate Change:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511546013.003
Tashi S, Keitel C, Singh B, Adams M (2017) Allometric equations for biomass and carbon stocks
of forests along an altitudinal gradient in the eastern Himalayas. Forest Int J Forest Res
90(3):445–454. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpx003
Uprety DR, Gurung A, Bista R, Karki R, Bhandari K (2012) Community forestry in Nepal: a
scenario of exclusiveness and its implications. Front Sci 2(3):41–46. https://doi.org/10.5923/j.
fs.20120203.05
Van Wees D, Van Der Werf GR, RandersonJT AN, Chen Y, Morton DC (2021) The role of fire
in global forest loss dynamics. Glob Chang Biol 27(11):2377–2391. https://doi.org/10.1111/
gcb.15591
Chapter 38
Dendro-Paleoclimatology: An Optimal
Climate Change Detection Technique
to Strengthen Forest Ecosystem
Divya Arora, Keshav Upadhyay, and R. K. Verma
Abstract The anthropogenic manipulation of forest ecosystems is an emerging

concern and has created a multifaceted burden on the blue planet. Forests are vul-
nerable to climate change. However, quantifying the long-term effects of climate
change on forests is formidable and needs comprehensive chronological data.
Dendro-paleoclimatology is an emerging interdisciplinary field of forest science. It
underlines the urgency of acquiring an adequate acquaintance of dendro-
climatological and palaeo-climatological techniques to figure out the indecisiveness
of forests by the pace of climate change. The current review has considered all of
the above aspects of dendro-paleoclimatology. In addition, future strategies to
address the challenges of managing forest uncertainties and a forest management
approach to the climate crisis have also been considered. In addition, the following
questions are discussed comprehensively in the current study: First, what methods
have been used in the literature to detect climate change? Secondly, the main uncer-
tainties and limitations of tree-ring studies were identified, highlighting gaps and
requirements for future research. The study shows a need for further research in the
Indian Himalayan region.
Keywords Climate change · Forest · Palaeoclimatology · Dendrochronology ·

Extreme events
D. Arora (*) · R. K. Verma

Forest Ecology and Climate Change Division, ICFRE-Himalayan Forest Research Institute,
K. Upadhyay
Department of Forestry, Mizoram University, Aizwal, Mizoram, India
Ltd. 2024
790 D. Arora et al.
38.1 Introduction
Climate change has gained a lot of attention in the last few decades due to its delete-
rious impact on a wide range of sectors, which is a result of increased greenhouse
gas emissions and altered land use, according to the fifth assessment report (AR5)
produced by Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC Climate Change 2014; Joshi et al. 2020). Climate is one of the most critical
determinants of vegetation patterns of forests all around the world (Joshi et al.
2021). Also, it plays a significant role in the forests’ distribution, ecology, and struc-
ture. Similarly, forests influence climate through physical, chemical, and biological
processes that affect planetary energetics, the hydrologic cycle, and atmospheric
composition. These complex and nonlinear forest-atmosphere interactions can
dampen or amplify anthropogenic climate change (Gopalakrishnan et al. 2011;
Kumar et al. 2020). Many methods are used to detect climate change, dendrochro-
nology being one of the methods used to detect climatic changes in forest ecosys-
tems (Kumar et al. 2020). It is one of the most crucial methods for documenting
environmental changes for a range of naturally occurring processes and a watchdog
over ecological changes brought about by humans, such as pollution and
contamination.
It encompasses the two main facets of dendrochronology: reconstructing histori-
cal environmental conditions and dating past events. Although there are many proxy
records (different sources of information derived from natural phenomena) of cli-
mate and environment, including coral layers, ice cores, pollen, lake varves (annu-
ally layered sediment), speleothems (calcium carbonate dripstone from caves), and
lake varves, dendrochronology offers the most accurate and precise dating of all of
these paleo records (Bradley 1999). Climate change detection is a critical aspect of
climate science, helping us comprehend the alterations in the Earth’s climate system
over time. The approaches utilized in this domain are crucial in evaluating climate
change’s extent, patterns, and consequences (Kumar et al. 2021). Comprehending
these detection techniques is vital to appreciating the difficulties presented by cli-
mate change and developing practical mitigation and adaptation plans.
Analyzing long-term climatic data sets is an essential method for detecting cli-
mate change. Over several decades, scientists have collected data from various
sources, including satellite observations, weather stations, and ocean buoys (Kumar
et al. 2021). By analyzing this large dataset, researchers can find patterns, anoma-
lies, and trends suggestive of climate change (Sharma et al. 2018; Singh 2021).
Statistical approaches are frequently employed to identify significant changes in
climatic variables (Singh and Verma 2013a, b). For example, time series analysis
looks at data across successive time intervals to help find trends. Researchers can
use spatial analysis for regional differences in climatic trends, offering a more com-
plex picture of the changes occurring in various locations.
Assigning particular causes, such as natural processes or human activity, to
observable changes is critical in detecting climate change. Climate models, which
simulate Earth’s climate under various conditions, including those with and without
38 Dendro-Paleoclimatology: An Optimal Climate Change Detection Technique… 791
human effects, are essential to this process (Singh et al. 2022). Scientists can link
observable changes to human-induced causes, including greenhouse gas emissions,
by comparing model findings with observed data.
Proxy data from natural records like tree rings, ice cores, and sediment layers
give further insights into previous climatic fluctuations. These proxies let scientists
recreate past climatic conditions and contrast them with data from the present. This
interdisciplinary approach improves the resilience of methods for detecting climate
change. Remote sensing technology, including sophisticated sensors and satellite
photos, facilitates real-time monitoring of many climatic indicators. Using these
technologies, scientists can monitor changes in temperature, sea level, ice cover,
and other vital indicators worldwide.
A wide range of methods, such as data analysis, statistical approaches, climate
modeling, proxy data analysis, and remote sensing technologies, are included in
climate change detection procedures. By integrating these techniques, scientists can
create a thorough knowledge of the Earth’s climate system, which will help them
make wise decisions about how to deal with the problems that climate change has
brought about. The accuracy and dependability of efforts to detect climate change
are continually improved by constant methodology improvement as knowledge and
technology grow.
38.2 Concepts and Principles
A few fundamental ideas and principles underpin the science of dendrochronology,

which have been empirically validated by dendrochronological research and consis-
tently backed by scientific data from several disciplines. The secondary growth lay-
ers in trees that encase their trunk beneath the bark can be seen in its cross-section
as a series of concentric rings surrounding the central pith. Each ring comprises an
inner band (light-colored), like earlywood, followed by an outer band (darker)
called latewood. Moreover, the latewood’s distinct termination marks the ring’s
outer boundary.
The latewood bands sometimes form “false” or “double” rings within the early-
wood, which can be differentiated from true ones through their undefined outer
boundaries. In dendrochronology, the arrangement of rings from the pith to circum-
ference forms a rigid chronological sequence, as the production of a single ring
each year ensures the consistent regularity needed to establish a fixed time scale.
Growth rings are formed when seasonal differences in climate govern plants’
growth conditions, resulting in areas with contrasting tissues. Growth rings are
described as changes in the structure of the secondary xylem of perennial plants
(Schweingruber 1996).
Tree-ring science’s one unchangeable concept is cross-dating or matching ring
variation patterns among trees. A.E. Douglass developed the practice of cross-dating
in the early 1900s. A dendrochronological analysis uses rigorous, repeatable cross-
dating; ring counting alone cannot provide the comparison validation required to
792 D. Arora et al.
give precisely dated ring sequences. Cross-dating refers to the “existence of charac-
teristics in tree-ring structure that permit the identification in many different trees of
rings formed contemporaneously with one another”. Rather than in broader rings,
which are more influenced by local causes or the physiological capacity of indi-
vidual trees, ring-width cross-dating is represented predominantly in the narrow
rings, which reflect external circumstances that restrict tree development over
extensive regions. Large-scale climate patterns influence the climatic factors that
regulate radial growth in different ways (Fritts 1974).
In arid locations, precipitation is the primary limiting factor; in cold habitats,
temperature is the dominant limiting factor; in intermediate climatic regimes,
growth is controlled by a mix of these and other elements. Consequently, compared
to situations where a single dominant factor prevents radial growth, the climatic
signal in tree rings is weaker, and cross-dating is more challenging. Even when ring
widths are pointlessly complacent, ring density displays climatically regulated fluc-
tuation independent of ring-width variability and may be utilized for cross-dating.
Cross Dating should be strictly implemented for the following three reasons:
1. When just one ring’s date is known, it sequentially gives accurate calendar dates
to each ring.
2. By locating the distinct location where a sequence of known dates crosses over
with an unknown-age ring series, the age of the series may be determined. Each
ring in the previously undated sample is given its growing year when a match of
this kind is made.
3. Finding “false” rings, which cause ring counts to be too high or low, respectively,
or the absence of rings from a sequence can only be done with certainty via
cross-dating.
When external stressors restrict development to a portion of the tree so tiny that it is
improbable that any sample taken from the tree would include that ring, ring absence
develops (Glock 1937). When latewood cells start to form, but the tree doesn’t cease
growing for the year, some circumstances encourage the formation of one or more
extra bands of earlywood cells, which results in false rings (Glock and Agerter 1966).
When a sample is cross-dated carefully against a dated sequence, it might reveal
locations on the representative where excess or false rings emerge or predicted
small rings do not exist. Therefore, cross-dating determines the precise calendar
date of each genuine ring in a sample and the actual number of rings in the sample.
The concept of replication, which asserts that trustworthy dates need to be backed
by sufficient samples to ensure that the likelihood of inaccuracy is negligibly small,
strengthens this premise.
Chronology construction, the second fundamental principle of dendrochronol-
ogy, involves creating lengthy, precisely dated ring sequences from several cross-
dated ring series. Composite ring sequences created by chronology building are
longer than any of their constituent parts. Combining ring records also decreases
variability from local environmental conditions or individual trees while increasing
variability common to many trees. Composite tree-ring chronologies are used as a
foundation for recreating historical environmental variability and as standards for
dating material of undetermined antiquity. Tree-ring chronologies are based on

samples taken from live trees, with the most recent ring in the sequence being dated
according to the year of sampling. Cross-dating in-ring series using increasingly
older deadwood, archeological, or geologic materials allows chronologies to be
extended beyond the range of live trees. Long chronologies are built-in segments
most of the time, with the dated, living-tree segments or “floating” segments—ring
sequences that do not overlap with one another—being connected.
Similar environmental constraints that restrict tree development also affect tree-
ring width. This is known as the concept of limiting factors (Singh et al. 2023).
Finding the specific locations and trees that supply the required information is the
first step for the dendrochronologist, as ring width is affected by anything that
restricts tree development. This process is one of the most crucial concepts. When
ring-width patterns significantly differ from year to year, dendrochronologists des-
ignate tree-ring chronologies as sensitive; conversely, complacent series refer to
chronologies with consistent annual growth rates. Sensitive trees are chosen for
climate research because, more likely than complacent ones, their ring fluctuation
will reflect the climate. The primary constraint that imparts the year-to-year vari-
ability necessary for cross-dating is, in essence, the climate.
38.3 Subfields of Dendrochronology
Many natural events may be recorded annually since tree-ring width can fluctuate
with everything that influences tree development. Dendrochronology is the science
of dating annual growth rings in woody plants (Fritts 1976). Tree ring widths in
woody plants can serve as natural climate records when they vary as a function of
some limiting climatic factors. A few uses for dendrochronology include providing
long-term records of historical temperature, precipitation, fire, insect outbreaks,
landslides, hurricanes, and ice storms on ancient trees. The chronology of tree rings
can also be extended back in time by using wood from deceased trees (Singh et al.
2014). The growth rings vary in size depending on the region in which they are
found. For example, in arid and semiarid parts, ring width depends directly on the
duration and intensity of drought; similarly, in cold regions, the ring width narrows
when the temperature in the growing season is low. Apart from that, features other
than the ring widths may indicate certain environmental events. Numerous subfields
within the dendrochronology study have been established and given names by
retaining the root of the term “dendro” and appending a secondary prefix that
describes the particular topic under investigation (Table 38.1).
794 D. Arora et al.
Table 38.1 Subfields of dendrochronology

Subfield Outline
Dendroarchaeology Construction dates for ancient houses are determined by dating
tree-ring samples taken from beams and posts. The placement of these
beams within the home may be utilized to investigate the chronology of
the building and enlargement of dwellings, as well as to comprehend
people’s behavior in these civilizations. Dendro-provenance
archeological and historical wood objects may also be determined by
correlation with local master chronologies
Dendroclimatology Tree samples can yield short- or long-term records of historical climate
variations throughout the trees’ lives. Although everything that
influences the processes of tree development, including the quantity of
overcast days, relative humidity, or wind strength, may also be restored
if they have restricted growth, temperature, precipitation, and drought
indices are most frequently rebuilt. Dendroclimatology has yielded
significant insights into historical climate change and has helped us
predict future climate trends. The reconstruction of water level,
streamflow, or dendrohydrology, is another area included. However, it
is sometimes separated into its own subdiscipline
Dendroecology Many ecosystems’ natural records of ecological processes can be found
in trees. These processes include tree-line movement, successional
processes through tree establishment and death, fire occurrences
(Dendropyrochronology), insect outbreaks (Dendroentomology),
synchronous fruiting (masting) in trees (Dendromastecology), and the
movement of invasive tree species
Dendrogeomorphology In order to rebuild land movement by tilting a tree and the resulting
response wood (thicker growth rings created to straighten a tree’s
stem), trees can absorb the most light while standing upright due to
their vertical structure. In addition, geologic processes, including
mudflows, landslides, seismic activity along faults
(Dendroseismology), volcanic eruptions (Dendrovolcanology), and
glacial activity (Dendroglaciology) may all be dated using tree death or
establishment
Dendrochemistry In addition to absorbing water from the soil and gasses from the
environment, trees also take in compounds. These substances can be
utilized as a record of contamination, nutrient availability, and pollution
since they are deposited in the wood through the trees’ stems, roots,
and branches. Measurements of stable isotopes in wood structures can
also be used to recreate historical humidity, temperature, and water
supply or tree-growing circumstances
38.4 Field Methods
This chapter covers two crucial aspects of fieldwork, including creating a sample
plan that will allow you to characterize the patterns you see in the environment pre-
cisely and fundamental field techniques for sampling dendrochronological projects.
38.4.1 Equipment’s
To conduct dendrochronological fieldwork, one must have a minimum of two incre-

ment borers, straws for storing cores, a map tube to hold straws and cores, diameter
tape, permanent markers (such as Sharpie pens), chopsticks or golf tees to remove
wood that becomes lodged in a borer, a field notebook, rope, a compact drill kit and
rifle cleaning kit, digital camera, GPS, and a hand saw. Taking adequate field notes
to offer a thorough account of the place is always necessary. Not only should the
canopy vegetation be observed, but also the shrub and herb layer, since this under-
story flora frequently provides additional information regarding the site’s long-term
moisture conditions. Other significant details that should be noted include the trees’
slope, aspect, and placement concerning one another and notable landmarks. Close
the hole after extracting the core sample with beeswax to protect the tree from insect
or pathogen attacks.
38.4.2 Site Selection
Sites have to be chosen in areas where the variable that the researcher wants to rec-
reate is most likely to stress the trees (Principle of site selection). The study area is
frequently determined by the objectives of the research or by local land manage-
ment. Upon establishing the research area, particular locations that appropriately
reflect the region and subject under investigation must be selected. One can utilize
targeted sampling to investigate specific signals or a random selection strategy to
choose individual locations that reflect the larger landscape.
The majority of science is the observation of patterns and the derivation of the
mechanism behind those patterns. As a result, it is critical to pay attention to land-
scape patterns and record them in your field sample. Researchers should be clear
about their sampling strategy since it may affect what may be observed on the ter-
rain. Random sampling is frequently employed to extrapolate findings to a larger
context more easily. Plots that are square or circular are positioned randomly to
sample a typical portion of the forest type.
Using targeted sampling rather than random sampling in many dendrochronology
applications is vital. If you want to rebuild the climate, you should focus on the old-
est trees in the places that experience the most extreme weather. This is because not
every tree in the landscape records the same climatic signal from every point. The
trees we choose must record a cohesive stand-level signal, and their longest record
must be preserved.
796 D. Arora et al.
38.4.3 Plots, Transects, or Targeted Sampling
The choice changes according to the purpose of the study. Plots that are square or
circular help sample a specific region for stand-alone structures. With a predeter-
mined center point and radius, circular plots are simple to construct and don’t neces-
sitate as many choices on whether to include a tree in the plot or not. Although
square plots need more effort to set up using a compass and tape measure, they
provide plots with well-defined sampling areas. Transects enable you to sample
across gradients (such as an elevation, aspect, or moisture gradient) by transforming
them into extended, rectangular graphs. Sampling stand-age structure may be
accomplished with a nested band transect.
38.4.4 Coring a Tree
The height at which the tree needs to be cored depends on the question we are asking.
–– To examine successional processes in a stand-age structure and determine the
actual age of the trees, core the trees at the base to get a sample as near to the
moment of germination as feasible.
–– We typically harvest cores at breast height (1.4 m) unless tree establishment
dates are required, even though this means that the first few years of the tree’s
development would not be recorded because the tree would not have grown to
breast level in its first year.
–– To prevent reaction wood in the tree, the cores should be parallel to the contour
if grown on a slope. Conifer trees will create more giant rings (compression
wood) on their downward-facing side to maintain their upright growth.
Hardwood trees have bigger rings (tension wood) on their upward-facing sides.
Consequently, a core sectioned parallel to the contour line avoids the larger response.
38.5 Laboratory Methods
This consists of preparing the core samples by drying, mounting, and sanding.
Later, cores are analyzed through methods such as skeleton plotting and measuring.
38.5.1 Preparing Core Samples
The cores can be oven-dried for 24 h at 60 °C, for a week in a fume hood with con-
tinuous air flow, or 20–25 s on high in a microwave oven. The cores can also be
air-dried if present in a dry climate. Once dried, they are mounted on wooden core
Fig. 38.1 Prepared core samples of Cedrus deodara
mounts. The cores can be mounted with the help of water-soluble white glue so that
they can be easily removed and remounted. All the details on the straw should be
copied on the core mount, such as sample ID, tree species, date the sample was
taken, and the initials of the person taking the core. Once the glue dries, the cores
need to be sanded with progressively finer sandpaper from ANSI 80 grit, 120 grit,
220 grit, 320 grit, and 400 grit. The final polish is most important for the proper
identification of ring boundaries (Fig. 38.1).
38.5.2 Analysis of Cores
The core samples are now prepared for visual analysis and cross-dating, a process
that assigns calendar dates to each annual ring. The inspection begins with the out-
ermost rings, if the tree’s date of death or cutting is known; otherwise, it starts from
the innermost rings (pith). Cores are labeled from the center outward, with a pencil
dot marking every tenth ring to indicate each decade. Two dots are used for every 50
rings, three dots for every 100 rings, and four dots for every 1,000 rings. This label-
ing system allows for a quick count of the total rings, aiding dendrochronologists in
verifying the core’s chronology. Actual calendar years are recorded only after these
markings are confirmed. Alternatively, analysis can proceed backward from the
tree’s bark, using the outermost ring as a reference point to establish the coring date.
Calendar years are then sequentially assigned as you move inward. Though the core
principles of dendrochronology remain the same, significant advancements have
been made in examining rings, recording cross-dating, creating chronologies, and
798 D. Arora et al.
Fig. 38.2 The growth ring features of Pinus kesiya from Champhai, Mizoram, denoted by abbre-
viations: RW ring width; EW earlywood width; LW latewood width; and FR false ring. (Source:
Upadhyay et al. 2019)
Dating
Sample
Collection Dating Measuring Check with
Preparation
COFECHA
Fig. 38.3 Methodology of dendrochronology
collecting environmental data. Technical developments now focus on five key areas:
data capture (measurement), data comparison (cross-dating), data equalization
(standardization), data consolidation (chronology building), and environmental
reconstruction. These improvements enable more accurate and comprehensive anal-
ysis of ring width, ring density, fire scars, and frost rings (Fig. 38.2).
38.5.3 Skeleton Plotting
Many dendrochronologists worldwide utilize the fundamental method known as

“skeleton plotting,” developed by A.E. Douglass and initially published in the early
1900s to date samples for the first time (Stokes and Smiley 1968). Douglass initially
used a plotting paper with five squares to the centimeter; this is still the method most
dendrochronologists use today. If two wood samples are examined, their growth
rates may differ, making it impossible to compare these two cores effectively. By
utilizing graph paper, time may be represented on a consistent scale. The cores can
be compared to one another, with each vertical line representing a calendar year.
This may also be seen as a two-dimensional figure, where the y-axis represents the
inverse scale of the ring’s narrowness, ranging from 0 (average) to 10 (missing
ring). The x-axis represents time, from ancient times on the left to the present on
the right.
Additionally, the large sample is reduced to a concise record of the narrow
marker rings, which may be saved for later use, compared amongst samples, and
assembled into a master chronology. A marker ring is consistently thin or possesses
distinguishable features that don’t change between trees. Graph paper is the conven-
tional scale when comparing trees, with each line denoting a year (Fig. 38.3).
38.5.4 Data Categories
The attribute of ring morphology first used for the tree ring analysis was the ring
width. However, later on, a researcher in France turned to ring density as a potential
source of cross-datable variability. The discovery that density variations could be
matched between trees and that these differences occurred in trees with uniform
ring widths opened up a new field of dendrochronological research that is now
widely employed worldwide. Similarly, other aspects, such as fire, frost, flood, and
insect damage, have been recognized. These features validate the crossing in addi-
tion to ring width and density correspondences (Fig. 38.4).
38.5.5 Data Capture
The methods opted to record the ring width variation and cross-date ring series can
be qualitative and quantitative. Evaluation and statistical manipulation are possible
with measurements, which capture the entire range of variance. Several devices can
be used to measure tree ring widths and ring density, some of which have been listed
below. MtreeRing, and measuRing (An R package that measures the ring widths
from scanned images) (Lara et al. 2015). X-ray-based method—SilviScan (CSIRO,
Melbourne, Australia), Itrax (Cox Analytical Systems, Gothenburg, Sweden) Cox
Analytical Systems, 2016. Scanner for Wood Density and Multi-Element Analysis
and QTRS (QMC, Knoxville, USA). Beta rays (Cameron et al. 1959; Phillips 1960),
Gamma rays (Woods and Lawhon 1974), High-frequency densitometry (Schinker
et al. 2003; Boden et al. 2012), neutron imaging (Lehmann et al. 2001; Mannes
et al. 2007) and mechanical drilling (Rinn 2012).
Fig. 38.4 Growth ring feature of (a) Tectona grandis (b) Pinus kesiya and (c) Quercus serrata The
abbreviations are: RW ring width; EW earlywood; LW latewood; FR false ring or false band.
(Source: Upadhyay et al. 2019)
800 D. Arora et al.
38.5.6 Crossdating
Visual-graphical and statistical cross-dating are the two main methods. In the first,
visual comparisons of wood samples or graphical depictions of ring variations are
made. In the second, quantitative ring series data often described in probability
distributions are cross-dated mathematically. Visual-graphical approaches are popu-
lar in places where ring series are width-sensitive. They may be used to create cross-
dating, which can then be quantified by measurement and statistical comparison.
Cross-dating is established by statistical approaches in locations where tree growth
is more complacent.
38.5.7 Standardization
Reconstructing the environment and dating with accuracy depends on reducing as

much noncommon variability (noise) as feasible while optimizing the variability
shared by the trees in a region. There are two approaches to achieving this goal.
First, within- and between-tree variability at a growth site is reduced by averaging
data from at least two cores from each of at least ten trees. Secondly, a range of
standardization (normalization) techniques are employed to eliminate idiosyncratic
variability from each ring series and minimize variances between samples.
38.5.8 Chronology Building
Mathematically or subjectively, composite tree-ring chronologies are built. The

visual averaging of skeleton plots is sufficient when creating chronologies intended
for dating materials with uncertain ages. Quantitative chronologies, on the other
hand, are necessary for statistical studies. These are made by averaging ring widths,
indices, or density values for every year across several samples to generate sequences
of mean values. The technique was relatively straightforward, but great care was
taken to ensure that significant statistical features and climate information were
preserved in the final chronology (Cook et al. 1995; Cook and Holmes 1986;
Sheppard 1993) (Fig. 38.5).
38.5.9 Response Function Analysis
The initial step in climate reconstruction and many dendrochronological studies is

to analyze the climate response of the chronology, which can be achieved using a
simple correlation matrix or a response function analysis. Response function analy-
sis is a sophisticated statistical method that elucidates the relationship between tree
growth and environmental variables like climate factors. By examining annual ring
width variations, researchers can determine how trees have historically responded to
changes in temperature, precipitation, and other climatic conditions. This approach
involves constructing regression models that link tree ring data with climatic param-
eters, isolating and quantifying each variable’s impact on tree growth. Through this
analysis, past climate conditions can be reconstructed, and predictions about how
trees might respond to future climate changes can be made, providing valuable
insights into ecological dynamics and climate change impacts.
38.5.10 Environmental Reconstruction
Since 1963, a significant advancement has been the exploration of climate variabil-
ity metrics beyond ring width. Numerous climate factors have been reconstructed
using density characteristics (Briffa et al. 1990; Cleaveland 1986). Density is more
Fig. 38.5 Standard tree ring chronologies of (a) Tectona grandis (b) Pinus kesiya and (c) Quercus
serrata developed from Mizoram, Northeast India
802 D. Arora et al.
sensitive to rainfall and temperature during the growing season (Cleaveland 1986;
Singh et al. 2010), while widths typically reflect precipitation over 12 months lead-
ing up to and including the current growing season (Fritts 1974). Together, these
two phenomena can be used to understand a wider range of climatic variability.
Historical climatic changes have been reconstructed using between-ring variability
in isotopic composition. Tree-ring data has been utilized for qualitative and quanti-
tative reconstructions and for identifying and dating certain severe or episodic
occurrences that may have affected human communities. These events include fatal
frosts, hurricanes, floods, and droughts.
38.6 Dendroclimatology
Most tree-ring development appears to be primarily influenced by climate on all

geographical and temporal dimensions. Due to their natural ability to adapt, trees
are vulnerable to various environmental stressors, including changes in tempera-
ture, precipitation, soil moisture, cloudiness days (the number of days when there
are clouds, which lowers photosynthesis), and wind stress. To contextualize the
variance and trend of the current climate, dendroclimatologists are interested in
historical climate. Tree rings can be used to reconstruct the natural range of fluctua-
tion of the climate system through historical analysis (Morgan et al. 1994). Mann
et al. (1998) recreated historical climate variance over the previous six centuries
using a variety of proxies, including tree rings. They found a sudden spike in tem-
perature linked to the Industrial Revolution.
Due to the unique signal found in ring width and isotopic chemistry of the rings,
climate events like hurricanes may be reconstructed from tree rings. As a result,
climatic reconstruction may be used to investigate the factors closest to ring width,
such as variations in rainfall or temperature, or it can be used to investigate larger-
scale patterns and phenomena seen in conjunction with these factors. The changes
in wood chemistry over time can be used to identify an isotopic signature in the case
of storms (Mora et al. 2006). Utilizing tree-ring networks to investigate climatic
variability across a wide geographic range and derive conclusions regarding long-
term shifts in synoptic climatology—the flow of the climate system that includes
pressure differences—is another effective technique (Hirschboeck et al. 1996; Singh
et al. 2017).
One kind of proxy or natural phenomenon that subtly captures an event of inter-
est, such as a hurricane or flood, is the development of trees. Additional proxy
records that reflect climate include the formation of coral reefs, ice accumulation,
silt deposition, and cave dripstone. We may better understand how vegetation
responds to climatic changes by examining the dynamics of an area or watershed
using a variety of proxies. To understand how biological systems react to and inter-
act with climate change, pollen reconstructions of vegetation change and tree-ring
climate reconstructions can be compared (Friedrich et al. 2001).
38.7 Methods of Dendroclimatology
Tree rings offer two significant benefits over other natural archives of palaeocli-
matic data, which are found in numerous places such as ice cores, peat bogs, and
sediments from lakes and the ocean. First, each ring’s precise dating offers flawless
annual resolve. Second, since several overlapping trees reflect each section of the
chronology, it can specify both the average value and the variability of a measure-
ment, which makes it possible to compute confidence bounds. Because trees are so
common, it is also possible to look at historical regional variations in climate, which
may be more helpful in forecasting the effects of future climate change than esti-
mates of global or hemispherical conditions. Reconstructing natural and human-
induced processes over the past few 100 or even 1000 years has been made possible
by using tree rings, which are temporally resolved environmental records (Helama
et al. 2019). The choice of location is an essential initial step in dendroclimatology
(Schweingruber et al. 1990). Tree rings can be used to reconstruct precipitation
where tree growth is limited by moisture availability and temperature in areas where
tree growth is limited by growing season temperature (Fritts 1974; Singh et al.
2020). The primary criteria for choosing trees for sampling at a dendroclimatic site
are their apparent age and the lack of signs of disturbance by non-climatic phenom-
ena such as fire (Swetnam 1993), wind (Sheppard et al. 2005), animals (Neal and
Borrecco 1981), earthquakes (Jacoby Jr et al. 1988), volcanic eruptions (Yamaguchi
and Lawrence 1993), or human activity (Savage 1991). Ensuring each tree ring is
dated to its year of formation is the second and most crucial stage in dendrochronol-
ogy. A dating technique known as cross-dating is carried out by matching patterns
of comparatively wide and narrow rings across trees (Douglass 1941). Tree rings are
quantified.
38.7.1 Tree-Ring Width (Early, Late and Total Ring Width)

as Proxy to Climate
In tree-ring research, total ring width is the primary variable (Robinson and Evans
1980), and earlywood and latewood widths are frequently assessed independently
(Meko and Baisan 2001). When suitable, the wood density of rings may be mea-
sured (Parker and Jozsa 1973), with particular attention to the maximum density of
latewood (Polge 1977; Singh et al. 2021), which mainly represents temperature
(Schweingruber and Briffa 1995) and sometimes precipitation (Cleaveland 1986).
Reconstructing the climate also involves measuring stable carbon and oxygen iso-
topes in tree rings (McCarroll and Loader 2004; Singh and Verma 2013a, b). Frost
damage is another noteworthy climatic characteristic in tree rings; it signifies freez-
ing temperatures throughout the growth season (LaMarche Jr and Hirschboeck
1984; Singh and Kumar 2022).
804 D. Arora et al.
The next step involves verifying the measured values along with cross-dating; it
is done by pre-whitening measurement series, and the residual series that results is
cross-correlated to find outlier or misfitting data (Holmes 1983; Grissino-Mayer
2001). A collection’s cross-dating and signal strength may be quantitatively diag-
nosed by comparing the average correlation of individual trees to a master series
consisting of all the trees at a place (Verma et al. 2021).
The detrending tree-ring series will come once the dating and measurement are
confirmed. This geometric limitation on tree growth—that is, plants add roughly the
same amount of biomass each year to their increasingly larger selves—is specifi-
cally responsible for the characteristic negative exponential fall in ring-width series
from pith to bark (Fritts et al. 1969). A dendroclimatological investigation should be
conducted before this trend is eliminated since it does not represent environmen-
tal force.
The chronology, an essential byproduct of dendrochronology, is created by com-
bining the resulting standardized series after detrending into a single time series.
Replicated site chronologies often include more than 20 trees. For site chronologies
to exhibit variability, most of the trees within them must have been impacted by the
same environmental component, often climate (Cook et al. 1990).
Once the data is reduced, tree-ring chronologies have a quantifiable relationship
with the climate. Individual weather stations or averaging many stations over cli-
matically homogenous areas can provide climate data for this phase (Blasing et al.
1981). Hourly, daily, weekly, and monthly time steps are available for meteorologi-
cal data, but in the end, tree rings often correlate with climate on a seasonal or
annual time step.
Various statistical methodologies quantify the relationship between tree ring
widths and climate (Fritts 1982). Correlation (Blasing et al. 1984) and response-
function analysis (Fritts and Wu 1986) are two fundamental dendroclimatology
techniques with confidence intervals for determining significance (Biondi and
Waikul 2004). Multiple sites can be included in regional dendroclimate models for
quantification (Fritts 1991). After being calibrated, the relationship between climate
and tree rings is confirmed using independent data that was not used during calibra-
tion, such as split-period testing (Gordon 1982), prediction sum of squares
(Michaelsen 1987), and/or comparison with a reconstructed climate using indica-
tors of climate from other natural archives or qualitative climate indicators found in
historical documents (Bradley 1985; Mann et al. 1998).
After validation, dendroclimatic models are assessed across the duration of their
corresponding dendrochronology to recreate the historical climate. This stage
makes the uniformitarianism assumption, which forms the basis of most natural-
geological research, i.e., that the link between tree growth and climate is constant
between the present and the past (Plummer and McGeary 1985). Although this
assumption is sometimes questioned (Szeicz and MacDonald 1994), dendroclima-
tology generally finds it accurate enough to give confidence to climate reconstruc-
tions. This is thus because the biological underpinnings of tree development are
almost unchangeable.
38.7.2 Latewood Density and Blue Intensity as Tools

for Temperature and Rainfall
Maximum Latewood Density (MXD) and Blue Intensity (BI) measurements have
frequently been used to reconstruct summer temperature variability over the last
centuries to millennia. MXD is widely used for tree ring studies and several recon-
structions of millennial climate variability (Zhang et al. 2015). Several techniques
of measuring wood density exist, including the use of different kinds of rays (beta
rays, X-rays, and gamma rays), electric properties of the wood (high-frequency den-
sitometry), optical features of the wood surface (reflectance of the different spec-
trum of visible light, mechanical resistance against probing drill, and neutron
imaging (Sheppard et al. 1996; Rinn et al. 1996; Lehmann et al. 2001). While the
latest methods offer 3D and intra-annual analyses, measuring annual MXD remains
the most common application. Currently, various X-ray techniques are the main tool
employed to measure wood density (Jacquin et al. 2017) probably most common
are the Walesch system from Walesch electronics GmbH (Eschbach et al. 1995)
using analogue film material and the ITRAX Multiscanner from Cox Analytics,
Sweden, producing digital images.
Digital technology has created a new way to measure wood density: Blue
Intensity (BI). It’s much easier and cheaper than the traditional MXD method
(Björklund et al. 2015). BI simply measures the amount of blue light reflected from
the wood’s surface. This reflects the wood’s lignin content, which is linked to its
density (McCarroll et al. 2002; Campbell et al. 2007). Studies have shown a strong
link between BI and MXD. Therefore, the blue intensity from the beginning is
known as a so-called “surrogate” for X-ray densitometry (Björklund et al. 2015).
Using blue light from the RGB spectrum in digital images, BI has become a stan-
dard method in dendrochronology (Campbell et al. 2011; Rydval et al. 2014). It has
been used to extract climate signals from tree rings and build multi-century tem-
perature reconstructions (Fuentes et al. 2018). The method has continuously
improved, with early “reflected light” measurements (McCarroll et al. 2002) being
replaced by “absorbed light intensity” for better comparison with MXD (Rydval
et al. 2014). Additionally, using “delta BI” (difference between earlywood and late-
wood blue intensity) allows analysis of historical and dead wood (Wilson et al.
2017), and different techniques for wood preparation and image acquisition have
been explored (Rydval et al. 2014; Osterreicher et al. 2015). Today, both MXD and
BI measurements are used in dendroclimatology and dendroecology to develop
robust chronologies and reconstruct climate and environmental signals across vari-
ous scales.
806 D. Arora et al.
38.7.3 Isotope Analysis
With the potential to use this biological signal as a widely accessible, high-resolution
environmental record, researchers have been interested in the chemical study of tree
rings for the past 50 years. An understanding of the surrounding environment can be
gained by using proxies, such as paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental reconstruc-
tions, or through direct measurement of environmental factors, such as the avail-
ability of nutrients and the presence of contaminants. Reconstructing palaeoclimates
with precise annual resolution and statistically specified confidence bounds may be
possible with stable isotopes in tree rings.
Predicting how forests will react to environmental change and analyzing histori-
cal environmental changes have been made possible by the tree-ring stable C, O,
and H isotope compositions.
Stable carbon isotopes record the balance between photosynthetic rate and sto-
matal conductance; in dry sites, this balance is driven by soil water status and rela-
tive humidity, whereas at moist sites, it is dominated by summer temperature and
irradiance. Stable isotope ratios of oxygen and hydrogen record the temperature
signal in source water and the vapor pressure deficit that primarily controls leaf
transpiration. Leaf enrichment and source water signals have different strengths
depending on how they interchange with xylem (source) water during wood synthe-
sis (McCarroll and Loader 2004).
Pandey et al. 2023 used the stable isotopes (δ18O and δ2H) to reconstruct the past
rainfall in Kashmir Himalayas. They used the core samples of Himalayan fir (Abies
pindrow) to reconstruct a 368-year-long chronology of the South Eastern Kashmir
Himalayas.
Similarly, Shah et al. 2023 conducted a study in the Kumaun-Gharwal Himalaya
region using the Tree-ring stable oxygen isotope record to establish a 508-year-long
regional chronology; which indicated that the previous droughts in the last few
decades have been as severe as the previous drought in the early period of the record.
Many studies have been carried out in this area, but there is still a lot left to be
explored, use of isotopes for the reconstruction of past climatic conditions is a great
advancement, but understanding its potential to its full extent is yet to be discovered.
38.7.4 Carbon Dating
Radiocarbon (14C) a powerful dating method in prehistory and geosciences.

Radiocarbon can be applied globally (due to the fast mixing of CO2 in the atmo-
sphere), but requires calibration by an independent dating tool because the 14C
production and the distribution among carbon reservoirs varied in the past, leading
to fluctuations in the atmospheric 14C level. Treerings are the preferred source for
radiocarbon calibration because tree-ring cellulose is a direct sample of the atmo-
spheric 14C level in the year of growth, preserving the information reliably over
millennia-long intervals of deposition, e.g. in high-altitude stands, alluvial sedi-
ments, or peat bogs. Their value extends beyond calibration, as the 14C variations
serve as a unique proxy for solar activity fluctuations potentially linked to natural
climate variability. This link bridges dendro-climatology, solar physics, and paleo-
climate studies, revealing valuable insights at the intersection of these fields
(Kromer 2009).
38.8 R Tools for Dendroclimatology
The study of dendrochronology is a very quantitative field. Researchers in the disci-

pline have been releasing software to the dendrochronology community since the
1960s. The three cornerstones of dendrochronology—COFECHA, ARSTAN, and
the Dendrochronology Program Library (DPL)—are particularly noteworthy
(Holmes 1983; Cook and Holmes 1986). With these apps, users can read text files
with tree-ring measurements and perform various operations or statistical analyses
(Bunn 2008).
R language is one of the most powerful platforms for analyzing tree-ring data.
Recently, many R-packages have been freely available to the tree-ring community
(R Core Team 2017). The dendroTools is the most commonly used R package for
studying the statistical relationships between tree-ring parameters and daily envi-
ronmental data. The main function of the package is daily_response(), which
employs a moving window to identify optimal environmental sequences influencing
one or more tree-ring proxies. dendroTools provides the opportunity to use daily
climate data and robust nonlinear functions to analyze climate-growth relationships.
The R dendrochronology program library (dplR) reads tree-ring data in the standard
decadal format and generates standard charts and analysis (Bunn 2008). Files for
chronology (crn) and ring-width list (rwl) can be quickly loaded. The raw series can
be detrended, transformed into ring-width indices (RWIs), and shown in various
ways. Standard or residual chronologies can be constructed.
Models should thus be better adapted to trees’ real (continuous) growth and
should gain in predictive capabilities. This package is freely available through
CRAN, showcasing its functionality with two examples: one utilizing a mean vessel
area (MVA) chronology and the other a traditional tree-ring width (TRW). The most
standard tool for modeling tree-ring width (TRW) is R-package BIOdry, which is
used to study climate or dendroclimatic fluctuations. This package eases multivari-
ate comparison and multilevel modeling in dendroclimatic analysis using the nlme
808 D. Arora et al.
and ecodist packages (Lara et al. 2018). Some other applicable R packages devel-
oped for tree-ring analysis are CAVIAR (Rathgeber et al. 2011), TRADER (Altman
et al. 2014), measuRing (Lara et al. 2015), pointRes (Theunissen et al. 2015), tra-
cheideR (Campelo et al. 2016) and dendrometeR (van der Maaten et al. 2016).
38.9 Uncertainty in Dendroclimatology
In dendroclimatology, errors in models are unavoidable. Quantitative climate and

tree ring models can never be perfect since they are statistical. The typical signal
held by several meteorological stations in a given region serves as the basis for sta-
tistical models of climate and tree rings for that area (Sheppard and Wiedenhoeft 2007).
The divergence problem, which occurs when ring growth and climate do not
statistically correlate with one another as they once did, particularly at the decadal
scale, is another source of uncertainty (D'Arrigo et al. 2008; Briffa et al. 1998). The
link between tree growth and climate appears to be shifting throughout time, which,
at the very least, calls into question the validity of uniformitarianism (Wilson et al.
2007; Verma et al. 2020). Research is still being done to understand better and man-
age divergence (Jacoby et al. 2000; Melvin and Briffa 2008) (Table 38.2).
38.10 Conclusion
Dendrochronological studies have yielded important insights into how wooded eco-
systems may adapt to the many challenges brought about by climate change world-
wide. The effects of invasive species, biodiversity loss, shifting disturbance regimes,
and their numerous possible interconnections are among the dangers beyond shift-
ing climatic circumstances. As a crucial historical framework for modifying current
forest management practices to minimize and adapt to present and future global
environmental change, dendroecology is an essential part of applied ecological
study. Dendroecologists can significantly contribute to debates on scaling laws that
may help manage a changing environment since trees may offer long-term records
on a wide range of phenomena at various geographical scales.
Table 38.2 History of dendrochronological research in India
38
SI Tree ring
No. Authors Tree species chronology Study area Application area Variables
1 Yadav and Singh Taxus baccta L. 1656–2000 (345) Western Himalayas Dendroclimatology TRW
(2002) (temperature)
2 Upadhyay et al. Tectona grandis Pinus kesiya 1987–2017 (31) Mizoram, Northeast Dendroclimatology (drought TRW
(2019) and Quercus serrata 1978–2017 (40) India records)
1971–2017 (47)
3 Borgaonkar et al. Tectona grandis 1481–2003 (523) Kerala, Southern Dendroclimatology TRW
(2010) India Indian summer monsoon
rainfall (ISMR) and related
global parameters like the
southern oscillation index
(SOI)
4 Yadav (2009) Juniperus polycarpos, 420–2003 (1584) Lahaul-Spiti, Dendroclimatology TRW, wood
Cedrus deodara and Pinus 805–2002 (1198) Bhaironghati, density and stable
gerardiana 919–2005 Uttarkashi, Kinnaur isotope
composition
5 Pandey et al. Abies pindrow, Cedrus 1612–1982 (371) Kashmir Valley Dendroclimatology TRW, stable
(2016) deodara, Piceasmithiana, 1469–1983 (515) (temperature, precipitation isotopes
Pinus wallichiana, and Pinus 1775–1982 (208) and drought)
gerardiana 1767–1983 (217)
1583–1983 (401)
6 Singh et al. (2006) Cedrus deodara 1560–1997 Western Himalayas Dendroclimatology (moisture TRW
stressed)
7 Deepak et al. Tectona grandis L.f. 1941–2007 Western Ghats of Dendroclimatology (drought TRW
(2010) India years)
Dendro-Paleoclimatology: An Optimal Climate Change Detection Technique…
(continued)
809
810
SI Tree ring
No. Authors Tree species chronology Study area Application area Variables
8 Thomte et al. Pinus kesiya 1868–2018 (151) Assam, Northeast Dendroclimatology (climatic TRW
(2022) India variables, soil moisture and
NDVI)
9 Shah et al. (2007) Tectona grandis L. 1835–1997 Hoshangabad, Dendroclimatology (climate TRW
Madhya Pradesh reconstruction)
10 Shah and Toona cilataRoem 1824–2003 (180) Kalimpong, Eastern Dendroclimatic and TRW
Mehrotra (2017) Himalayas dendroecological analysis
11 Ram et al. (2011) Tectona grandis L. 1866–1997 Allapalli, Maharashtra Dendroclimatology TRW
12 Ram et al. (2010) Tectona grandis 1901–2000 Central India Dendroclimatology (moisture TRW
index)
13 Ramesh et al. Abies pindrow 1903–1932 Kashmir Dendroclimatology Stable isotope
(1986) records
14 Singh et al. (2019) Abies pindrow, 1743–2015 (273) Dingad Valley, Dendroclimatology (ISMR) δ18O tree-ring
Piceasmithiana and Aesculus 1830–2015 Uttarakhand isotope
indica 1820–2015
15 Managave et al. Juniperus polycarposC. Koch 1646–1700 Lahaul-Spiti Dendroclimatology Stable oxygen
(2020) isotope
D. Arora et al.
References
Altman J, Fibich P, Dolezal J (2014) TRADER: a package for tree ring analysis of disturbance
events in R. Dendrochronologia 32:107–112
Biondi F, Waikul K (2004) DENDROCLIM2002: a C++ program for statistical calibration of
climate signals in tree-ring chronologies. Comput Geosci 30(3):303–311
Björklund J, Gunnarson BE, Seftigen K et al (2015) Using adjusted blue intensity data to attain
high-quality summer temperature information: a case study from Central Scandinavia. The
Holocene 25(3):547–556
Blasing TJ, Duvick DN, West DC (1981) Dendroclimatic calibration and verification using region-
ally averaged and single station precipitation data. Tree Ring Bulletin (USA) 1981 41:37–43
Blasing TJ, Solomon AM, Duvick DN (1984) Response functions revisited. Tree Ring Bull 44:1–15
Boden S, Schinker MG, Duncker P et al (2012) Resolution abilities and measuring depth of high-
frequency densitometry on wood samples. Measurement 45(7):1913–1921
Borgaonkar HP, Sikder AB, Ram S et al (2010) El Niño and related monsoon drought signals
in 523-year-long ring width records of teak (Tectona grandis L. F.) trees from South India.
Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 285:74–84
Bradley RS (1985) Quaternary palaeoclimatology. Methods of palaeoclimatic reconstruction.
Allen & Unwin, London, p 472
Bradley RS (1999) Paleoclimatology: reconstructing climates of the quaternary. Elsevier
Briffa KR, Schweingruber FH, Jones PD et al (1998) Reduced sensitivity of recent tree-growth to
temperature at high northern latitudes. Nature 391:678–682
Briffa, K. R., Bartholin, T. S., Eckstein, D., Jones, P. D., Karlén, W., Schweingruber, F. H., &
Zetterberg, P. (1990). A 1,400-year tree-ring record of summer temperatures in Fennoscandia.
Nature, 346(6283), 434-439.
Bunn AG (2008) A dendrochronology program library in R (dplR). Dendrochronologia
26(2):115–124
Cameron J, Berry P, Phillips E (1959) The determination of wood density using beta rays.
Holzforschung Int J Biol Chem Phys Technol Wood 13(3):78–84
Campbell R, McCarroll D, Loader NJ et al (2007) Blue intensity in Pinus sylvestris tree-rings:
developing a new palaeoclimate proxy. The Holocene 17:821–828
Campbell R, McCarroll D, Robertson I et al (2011) Blue intensity in Pinus sylvestris tree rings: a
manual for a new palaeoclimate proxy. Tree-Ring Res 67(2):127–134
Campelo F, Nabais C, Carvalho A (2016) tracheideR—an R package to standardize tracheido-
grams. Dendrochronologia 37:64–68
Cleaveland MK (1986) Climatic response of densitometric properties in semiarid site tree rings.
Tree-Ring Bull 46:13–29
Cook E, Holmes RL (1986) User’s manual for program ARSTAN. In: Holmes RL, Adams RK,
Fritts HC (eds) Tree-ring chronologies of western North America: California, eastern Oregon
and northern Great Basin with procedures used in the chronology development work includ-
ing user’s manuals for computer programs COFECHA and ARSTAN. Chronology Series
VI. Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, pp 50–65
Cook ER, Shiyatov S, Mazepa V (1990) Estimation of the mean chronology. In: Cook ER,
Kairiukstis LA (eds) Methods of dendrochronology: applications in the environmental sci-
ences. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Boston, pp 123–132
Cook E, Briffa KR, Meko DM et al (1995) The 'segment length curse' in long tree-ring chronology
development for paleoclimatic studies. The Holocene 5:229–237
D'Arrigo R, Wilson R, Liepert B (2008) On the ‘divergence problem’in northern forests: a review
of the tree-ring evidence and possible causes. Glob Planet Chang 60(4):289–305
Deepak MS, Sinha SK, Rao RV (2010) Tree-ring analysis of teak (Tectona grandis L. f.) from
Western Ghats of India as a tool to determine drought years. Emir J Food Agric 22(5):388–397
Douglass AE (1941) Crossdating in dendrochronology. J For 39(10):825–831
812 D. Arora et al.
Eschbach W, Nogler P, Schär E et al (1995) Technical advances in the radiodensitometrical deter-

mination of wood density. Dendrochronologia 13:155–168
Friedrich M, Kromer B, Kaiser KF et al (2001) High-resolution climate signals in the Bølling–
Allerød Interstadial (Greenland Interstadial 1) as reflected in European tree-ring chronologies
compared to marine varves and ice-core records. Quat Sci Rev 20:1223–1232
Fritts HC (1974) Relationships of ring widths in arid-site conifers to variations in monthly tem-
perature and precipitation. Ecol Monogr 44(4):411–440
Fritts HC (1982) An overview of dendroclimatic techniques, procedures, and prospects. In:
Hughes MK, Kelly PM, Pilcher JR, LaMarche VC Jr (eds) Climate from tree rings. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp 191–197
Fritts HC (1991) Reconstructing large-scale climatic patterns from tree-ring data. University of
Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona, p 286
Fritts HC, Wu X (1986) A comparison between response-function analysis and other regression
techniques. Tree-Ring Bull 46:31–46
Fritts HC, Mosimann JE, Bottorff CP (1969) A revised computer program for standardizing tree-
ring series. Tree-Ring Bull 29(2):15–20
Fritts HC (1976) Tree Rings and Climate. Academic Press, New York
Fuentes M, Salo R, Björklund J et al (2018) A 970-year-long summer temperature reconstruc-
tion from Rogen, west-central Sweden, based on blue intensity from tree rings. The Holocene
28(2):254–266
Glock WS (1937) Principles and methods of tree-ring analysis
Glock WS, Agerter SR (1966) Tree growth as a meteorological indicator. Int J Biometeorol
10(1):47–62
Gopalakrishnan R, Jayaraman M, Bala G et al (2011) Climate change and Indian forests. Curr
Sci:348–355
Gordon GA (1982) Verification of dendroclimatic reconstructions. In: Hughes MK, Kelly PM,
Pilcher JR, LaMarche VC Jr (eds) Climate from tree rings. Cambridge University Press, Cam-
bridge, pp 58–61
Grissino-Mayer HD (2001) Evaluating crossdating accuracy: a manual and tutorial for the com-
puter program COFECHA. Tree-Ring Res 57(2):205–221
Helama S, Saranpää P, Charlotte L et al (2019) Frost rings in 1627 BC and AD 536 in subfos-
sil pinewood from Finnish Lapland. Quat Sci Rev 204:208–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
quascirev.2018.11.031
Hirschboeck KK, Ni F, Wood ML (1996) Synoptic dendroclimatology: overview and outlook. Tree
rings, environment, and humanity, pp 205–223
Holmes RL (1983) Computer-assisted quality control in tree-ring dating and measurement
IPCC Climate Change (2014) Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part A: Global and sectoral
aspects. In: Contribution of working group II to the fifth assessment report of the intergovern-
mental panel on climate change (IPCC, 2014). https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar4/wg2/
Jacoby GC Jr, Sheppard PR, Sieh KE (1988) Irregular recurrence of large earthquakes along the
San Andreas fault: evidence from trees. Science 241(4862):196–199
Jacoby GC, Lovelius NV, Shumilov OI et al (2000) Long-term temperature trends and tree growth
in the Taymir region of northern Siberia. Quat Res 53(3):312–318
Jacquin P, Longuetaud F, Leban JM et al (2017) X-ray microdensitometry of wood: a review of
existing principles and devices. Dendrochronologia 42:42–50
Joshi, M. K., Rai, A., Kulkarni, A., & Kucharski, F. (2020). Assessing changes in characteristics
of hot extremes over India in a warming environment and their driving mechanisms. Scientific
Reports, 10(1), 2631.
Joshi, V. C., Negi, V. S., Bisht, D., Sundriyal, R. C., & Arya, D. (2021). Tree biomass and carbon
stock assessment of subtropical and temperate forests in the Central Himalaya, India. Trees,
Forests and People, 6, 100147.
Kromer B (2009) Radiocarbon and dendrochronology. Dendrochronologia 27:15–19
Kumar, N., Poonia, V., Gupta, B. B., & Goyal, M. K. (2021). A novel framework for risk assess-
ment and resilience of critical infrastructure towards climate change. Technological Forecasting
and Social Change, Forecasting and Social Change, 165, 120532.
Kumar A, Yau YY, Ogita S, Scheibe R (2020) Climate change, photosynthesis and advanced bio-
fuels, vol 490. Springer, Singapore
LaMarche VC Jr, Hirschboeck KK (1984) Frost rings in trees as records of major volcanic erup-
tions. Nature 307(5947):121–126
Lara W, Bravo F, Sierra CA (2015) measuRing: an R package to measure tree-ring widths from
scanned images. Dendrochronologia 34:43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dendro.2015.04.002
Lara W, Bogino SO, Bravo F (2018) Multilevel analysis of dendroclimatic series with the
R-package BIOdry. PLoS One 13(5):e0196923. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196923/
Lehmann E, Vontobel P, Scherrer P et al (2001) Anwendung der methode der neutronenradiogra-
phiezuranalyse von holzeigenschaften. Eur J Wood Wood Prod 59(6):463–471
Maaten E, Maaten-Theunissen M, Smiljanic M (2016) DendrometeR: analyzing the pulse of trees
in R. Dendrochronologia 40:12–16
Managave S, Shimla P, Yadav RR et al (2020) Contrasting centennial-scale climate variability in
High Mountain Asia revealed by a tree-ring oxygen isotope record from Lahaul-Spiti. Geophys
Res Lett 47(4):e2019GL086170
Mann ME, Bradley RS, Hughes MK et al (1998) Global temperature patterns. Science
280(5372):2027–2027
Mannes D, Lehmann E, Cherubini P et al (2007) Neutron imaging versus standard X-ray densi-
tometry as method to measure tree-ring wood density. Trees 21(6):605–612
McCarroll D, Loader NJ (2004) Stable isotopes in tree rings. Quat Sci Rev 23:771–801. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2003.06.017
McCarroll D, Pettigrew E, Luckman A et al (2002) Blue reflectance provides a surrogate for late-
wood density of high-latitude pine tree rings. Arct Antarct Alpine Res 34:450–453
Meko DM, Baisan CH (2001) Pilot study of latewood-width of conifers as an indicator of vari-
ability of summer rainfall in the north American monsoon region. Int J Climatol 21(6):697–708
Melvin TM, Briffa KR (2008) A “signal-free” approach to dendroclimatic standardisation.
Dendrochronologia 26(2):71–86
Michaelsen J (1987) Cross-validation in statistical climate forecast models. J Appl Meteorol
Climatol 26(11):1589–1600
Mora CI, Miller DL, Grissino-Mayer HD (2006) Tempest in a tree ring: paleotempestology and the
record of past hurricanes. Sediment Rec 4(3):4–8
Morgan P, Aplet GH, Haufler JB et al (1994) Historical range of variability: a useful tool for evalu-
ating ecosystem change. J Sustain For 2(2):87–111
Neal FD, Borrecco JE (1981) Distribution and relationship of mountain beaver to openings in
sapling stands. Northwest Sci 55(2):79–86
Osterreicher A, Weber G, Leuenberger M et al (2015) Exploring blue intensity—comparison of
blue intensity and MXD data from alpine spruce trees
Pandey U, Shah SK, Mehrotra N (2016) Tree-ring studies from Kashmir Valley: present status and
future perspectives. Geophytology 46(2):207–220
Pandey U, Nakatsuka T, Mehrotra N (2023) Tree-rings stable isotope (δ18O and δ2H) based 368
years long term precipitation reconstruction of south eastern Kashmir Himalaya. Sci Total
Environ 892:164640
Parker ML, Jozsa LA (1973) X-ray scanning machine for tree-ring width and density analyses.
Wood Fiber Sci:192–197
Phillips E (1960) The beta ray method of determining the density of wood and the proportion of
summer wood. J Inst Wood Sci 5:16–28
Plummer CC, McGeary D (1985) Physical geology, 3rd edn. Wm. C. Brown, Dubuque, Iowa, p 513
Polge H (1977) Utilisation de la densité du boisendendrochronologie et dendroclimatologie.
Avantages et inconvénients. Rev for fr 29(6):421–433
814 D. Arora et al.
R Core Team (2017) A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for
Statistical Computing http://www.R-project.org/
Ram S, Borgaonkar HP, Sikder AB (2010) Varying strength of the relationship between tree-rings
and summer month moisture index (April–September) over Central India: a case study. Quat
Int 212:70–75
Ram S, Borgaonkar HP, Munot AA et al (2011) Tree-ring variation in teak (Tectona grandis L.)
from Allapalli, Maharashtra in relation to moisture and palmer drought severity index, India. J
Earth Syst Sci 120:713–721
Ramesh R, Bhattacharya SK, Gopalan K (1986) Climatic correlations in the stable isotope records
of silver fir (Abies pindrow) trees from Kashmir, India. Earth Planet Sci Lett 79(2):66–74
Rathgeber CBK, Longuetaud F, Mothe F (2011) Phenology of wood formation: data processing,
analysis and visualisation using R (package CAVIAR). Dendrochronologia 29:139–149
Rinn F (2012) Basics of micro-resistance drilling for timber inspection. Holztechnologie 53:24–29
Rinn F, Schweingruber FH, Schär E (1996) RESISTOGRAPH and X-ray density charts of wood.
Comparative evaluation of drill resistance profiles and X-ray density charts of different wood
species. Holzforschung 50:303–311
Robinson WJ, Evans R (1980) A microcomputer-based tree-ring measuring system. Tree-Ring
Bull 40:59–64
Rydval M, Larsson LÅ, McGlynn L (2014) Blue intensity for dendroclimatology: should we have
the blues? Experiments from Scotland. Dendrochronologia 32(3):191–204
Savage M (1991) Structural dynamics of a southwestern pine forest under chronic human influ-
ence. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 81(2):271–289
Schinker MG, Hansen N, Spiecker H (2003) High-frequency densitometry—a new method for the
rapid evaluation of wood density variations. IAWA J 24(3):231–239
Schweingruber FH (1996) Tree rings and environment dendroecology. Birmensdorf, Swiss Federal
Institute for Forest, snow and landscape research. Haupt, Berne, Stuttgart, Vienna, p 609
Schweingruber FH, Briffa KR (1995) X-ray densitometry tool for reconstructing northern hemi-
spheric summer temperatures. In: Ohta S, Fujii T, Okada N, Hughes MK, Eckstein D (eds)
Tree rings: from the past to the future. Proceedings of the international workshop on asian and
pacific dendrochronology, vol 1. Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute. Scientific
Meeting Report, Tsukuba, Japan, pp 267–272
Schweingruber FH, Kairiukstis LA, Shiyatov S (1990) Sample selection. In: Cook ER, Kairiukstis
LA (eds) Methods of dendrochronology: applications in the environmental sciences.
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston,
pp 23–35
Shah SK, Mehrotra N (2017) Tree–ring studies of Toona ciliata from subtropical wet hill forests of
Kalimpong, eastern Himalaya. Dendrochronologia 46:46–55
Shah SK, Bhattacharyya A, Chaudhary V (2007) Reconstruction of June–September precipitation
based on tree-ring data of teak (Tectona grandis L.) from Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh,
India. Dendrochronologia 25:57–64
Shah SK, Berkelhammer M, Li Q et al (2023) Regional tree-ring oxygen isotope deduced summer
monsoon drought variability for Kumaun-Gharwal Himalaya. Quat Sci Rev 301:107927
Sheppard PR (1993) Identifying low-frequency tree-ring variation. Tree Ring Bull 51:29–38
Sheppard PR, Wiedenhoeft A (2007) An advancement in removing extraneous color from wood
for low-magnification reflected-light image analysis of conifer tree rings. Wood Fiber Sci
39:173–183
Sheppard PR, Graumlich LJ, Conkey L (1996) Reflected-light image analysis of conifer tree rings
for reconstructing climate. The Holocene 6(1):62–68
Sheppard PR, May EM, Ort MH et al (2005) Dendrochronological responses to the 24 October
1992 tornado at sunset crater, northern Arizona. Can J For Res 35(12):2911–2919

pp 336–361
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
Singh J, Park W, Yadav RR (2006) Tree-ring-based hydrological records for western Himalaya,
India, since a.D. 1560. Clim Dyn 26:295–303
Stress Manage 1:189–193
Singh J, Singh N, Chauhan P et al (2019) Tree-ring δ18O records of abating June–July monsoon
rainfall over the Himalayan region in the last 273 years. Quat Int 532:48–56
uclim.2022.101183
Stokes MA, Smiley TL (1968) An Introduction to Tree-ring Dating. University of Arizona
Press, Tuscon
Source Paper
Swetnam TW (1993) Fire history and climate change in giant sequoia groves. Science 262:885–889
Szeicz JM, MacDonald GM (1994) Age-dependent tree-ring growth responses of subarctic white
spruce to climate. Can J For Res 24(1):120–132
Theunissen M, Maaten E, Bouriaud O (2015) PointRes: an R package to analyze pointer years and
components of resilience. Dendrochronologia 35:34–38
816 D. Arora et al.
Thomte L, Bhagabati AK, Shah SK (2022) Soil moisture-based winter–spring drought variability
over West Karbi Anglong region, Assam, Northeast India using tree-rings of Pinus kesiya.
Environ Challenges 7:100512
Upadhyay KK, Shah SK, Roy A et al (2019) Dendrochronological potential of Tectona grandis,
Pinus kesiya and Quercus serrata from Mizoram, Northeast India. Indian J Ecol 46(4):722–728
doi.org/10.1007/s40502-020-00550-4
Wilson R, D’Arrigo R, Buckley B et al (2007) A matter of divergence: tracking recent warm-
ing at hemispheric scales using tree ring data. J Geophys Res 112(D17):D17103. https://doi.
org/10.1029/2006JD008318
Wilson R, Wilson D, Rydval M et al (2017) Facilitating tree-ring dating of historic conifer timbers
using blue intensity. J Archaeol Sci 78:99–111
Woods FW, Lawhon WT (1974) Notes: gamma densitometry of increment cores. For Sci
20(3):269–271
Yadav RR (2009) Tree ring imprints of long-term changes in climate in western Himalaya, India.
J Biosci 34:699–707
Yadav RR, Singh J (2002) Tree-ring analysis of Taxus baccata from the western Himalaya, India,
and its dendroclimatic potential. Tree-Ring Res 58(2):23–29
Yamaguchi DK, Lawrence DB (1993) Tree-ring evidence for 1842–1843 eruptive activity at the
goat rocks dome, Mount St. Helens, Washington. Bull Volcanol 55:264–272
Zhang P, Linderholm HW, Gunnarson BE (2015) 1200 years of warm-season temperature variabil-
ity in central Fennoscandia inferred from tree ring density. Clim Past Discuss 11(1):489–519
Chapter 39
Long-Term Physiological Monitoring
for Detecting Climate Change Impacts
on Forest Ecosystems
Tannu Ruhil, Hukum Singh, and Santan Barthwal
Abstract The climate changes and their associated variability have revealed many
uncertainties about their significant influence on the structure and function of forest
ecosystems. Forests are invaluable for their carbon sequestration capabilities and
contribution to biodiversity conservation, making them a linchpin of ecological sta-
bility. This chapter stressed the requirement and importance of long-term physio-
logical monitoring as a practical approach in advancing scientific understanding of
detecting climate change impacts on forest ecosystems. Limited knowledge of the
long-term physiological responses makes many basic questions unanswerable.
Various physiological processes, including tree growth patterns, phenological
changes, gas exchange, sap flow patterns, resource use efficiency, and carbon
dynamics, serve as essential indicators of forest health and ecosystem responses to
changing climatic variability. The long-term monitoring and analysis of the physi-
ological processes are emphasized as indispensable tools for discerning climate
change’s nuanced and often subtle effects on forest ecosystems. The recent trend of
increased emphasis on the use of meta-analysis, modeling, and data mining, which
are relatively fast and economical in generating trends besides publications, makes
it hard to maintain traditional field-based long-term physiological studies.
Implementing systematic and long-term studies is complex because periods and
funding have restricted the long-term forest monitoring database. In situ experi-
ments are rare, giving rise to many untested vague hypotheses. Long-term experi-
ments are urgently needed to gain better insights into tree physiological responses.
Despite several benefits of long-term physiological studies, they still need to be
generally adopted by the research community in India or elsewhere. There is also
social and political fascination with novel and innovative projects, leading to the
negligence of traditional long-term studies. Hence, systemic and long-term physi-
ological monitoring should be promoted in forestry research with better funding
availability and mechanisms to trace climate change impacts on forest ecosystem
functioning. The insights gained from this chapter contribute to scientific under-
T. Ruhil (*) · H. Singh · S. Barthwal

Plant Physiology Discipline, Genetics and Tree Improvement Division, Forest Research
Institute, Dehradun, India
Ltd. 2024
818 T. Ruhil et al.
standing and provide essential information for policymakers, forest managers, and
conservationists, ultimately guiding strategies to safeguard these irreplaceable eco-
systems in an era of global climate change and changing environmental conditions.
Keywords Long-term physiological monitoring · Climate change detection ·

Forest ecosystem · Growth dynamics · Patterns
39.1 Introduction
Since the onset of the previous century, there has been a rise in global temperature
and CO2 levels (Joshi and Singh 2020). The climate is predicted to change continu-
ously, with weather patterns being more extreme and erratic (Gupta and Singh 2017;
Joshi et al. 2020; Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c; Nautiyal et al. 2022). Changing climate
affects forest ecosystems via mean temperature rise, alterations in precipitation
regimes, and the increment in extreme event frequencies like forest fires (Bussotti
and Pollastrini 2017). Climate can significantly change forest ecosystems as the
distribution of forests on Earth is controlled by precipitation, temperature, and radi-
ation (Hartmann et al. 2022; Singh et al. 2023). Increased tree mortality has been
noted across all forest types due to climate extremes (Hartmann et al. 2018). Forests
might not recuperate from such occurrences, or there may have been significant
changes in tree species composition (Esquivel-Muelbert et al. 2019). These obser-
vations indicate that global forests will change continuously with changing climate.
Since the onset of the industrial era, there has been a notable rise in the average
land surface air temperature (IPCC 2019). Also, around 23% of combined green-
house gases (GHG) emissions occurred due to forestry, agriculture, and other land
uses, affecting more than 70% of the land surface and 22% of plantation and man-
aged forests from 2007 to 2016 (Tognetti et al. 2022). Forest ecosystems are sensi-
tive to changing climate (Zhang et al. 2013). Several studies have reported the rising
threats to forest carbon sinks resulting due to tree mortality, occurring because of
increasing temperatures and drought worldwide (Wang and Dickinson 2012).
Climate change leads to several changes in the forest ecosystem and has caused
warming-species distribution shifts (Boisvert-Marsh et al. 2014) and tree mortality
due to drought. Climate change impacts magnify local disturbances like nitrogen
deposition, forest fire, environmental pollution, altering forest development trajec-
tories, pest outbreaks, alien species, and decreasing resistance capacity (Johnstone
et al. 2016).
Forests are a source of ecosystem services along with wood and biomass. Thus,
climate change results in modifying or reducing the quality and quantity of ecosys-
tem services, thereby affecting local communities’ cultural identities and econo-
mies (Bussotti and Pollastrini 2017). Hence, predicting the changes in forest
ecosystems’ functionalities becomes important. However, such literature is lacking,
especially on long-term monitoring. The International Co-operative Program on
Assessment and Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Forests (ICP Forests 2017) is
39 Long-Term Physiological Monitoring for Detecting Climate Change Impacts… 819
the European program for the extensive-scale assessment of forest ecosystem health.
Even within this framework, the physiological (stress) conditions of trees are pri-
marily assessed visually, utilizing indicators such as ‘crown defoliation,’ in addition
to evaluating attributes such as crown dieback and the presence of symptoms on
branches and leaves (Eichhorn et al. 2016). This chapter underscores the importance
of conducting systematic, long-term physiological studies and forest assessments to
effectively detect and understand the impacts of climate change on forest ecosystem
functioning and productivity.
39.2 Forest Physiology
Observations of changes in forest composition due to global warming have already

been documented in certain regions, with the likelihood of such impacts increasing.
These impacts concern ecosystems as well as ecological services (Kumar et al.
2020a, b, c, 2021a, b, c, d, e; Manoj et al. 2021). The pace of these impacts will
depend on several factors linked to the changing climate. Disturbance regimes are
among the significant factors that direct tree species distribution (Joshi et al. 2021).
Climate change impacts trees directly through their effect on physiological pro-
cesses like water transport or photosynthesis or by promoting indirect drivers of
mortality, like insect biotic attacks (Hartmann et al. 2022).
Forests hold a crucial significance in the processes of water and carbon cycles
(Keenan et al. 2013). They contribute to around 50% of terrestrial net productivity,
covering just one-third of the Earth’s land surface and storing about 45% of total
terrestrial carbon, accounting for around 80–90% of all plant carbon (Bonan 2008).
As forests play a critical role in stabilizing the atmosphere (Le Quéré et al. 2018), it
becomes crucial to understand how long-term tree physiology and growth will
respond to global changes (Charney et al. 2016). Climate change affects forest eco-
systems, influencing growth, productivity, and tree physiology (Fig. 39.1). The
major hurdle in studying the effects of global change on forests is understanding the
impact of these changing drivers (Kumar et al. 2017, 2020a, b, c; Joshi et al. 2021;
Nirmal et al. 2021).
Trees effectively respond to water deficit by closing stomata or reducing trans-
piring surfaces, e.g., by leaf shedding, to tackle drought, but this also leads to less
carbon uptake (Hartmann et al. 2022). Excessive transpiration during drought can
still lead to a significant rise in the tension of the water column in the conducting
tissue and, finally, to embolism formation (Savita et al. 2017; Kumar et al. 2018,
2019a, b, 2022; Sharma et al. 2018; Gupta et al. 2019a, b). Carbon balances and a
tree’s water function are strongly intertwined as hydraulic function maintenance is
partly dependent on carbohydrate utilization for the growth of conducting tissues,
defence compounds production against biotic attack, and cellular osmoregulation
(McDowell 2011). These balances directly affect tree’s susceptibility to heat waves,
rising CO2, elevated atmospheric water vapor pressure deficit (VPD), and changing
droughts (Williams et al. 2012). The trends of VPD increase exponentially with
820 T. Ruhil et al.
Fig. 39.1 Changing climate negatively affects tree growth, physiological processes, and phenology
temperature, which makes scorching even more alarming, as water demand in the
atmosphere rises while there is a decrease in soil moisture. Hydraulic failure, or a
plant’s inability to transport adequate water to its distal organs, leads to dehydration
and death, especially under warmer droughts (Gupta et al. 2018; Kumar et al. 2018,
2021a, b, c, d, e; Singh and Kumar 2022).
The continuous rise in surface temperatures amplifies drought impacts on trees
via increasing VPD and raised evaporative water demand from plants and soils. The
increasing CO2 may allow plants to decrease stomatal conductance without nega-
tively impacting photosynthetic rates. It can even increase photosynthesis during
non-drought periods, though less evaporative cooling during heat may lead to early
leaf senescence (Warren et al. 2011). The increased carbon from raised CO2 levels
may eventually be assigned towards more root production during drought or to
regrow injured conducting tissue after drought (Ruehr et al. 2019). The possible
effects of elevated CO2 on carbon availability and tree photosynthesis can vary
across environmental conditions and warming. Several studies have reported that
long-term productivity and tree growth are reduced due to warming-induced or
regional drought (Giguère-Croteau et al. 2019). No growth enhancements were
found in boreal and montane forests in response to elevated CO2 (Klein et al. 2016),
whereas, in high-elevation forests, tree growth has accelerated due to a rise in tem-
perature and atmospheric [CO2] (Huang et al. 2017).
There are many vital unknowns concerning the physiological mechanisms of tree
mortality and their probable responses toward the differing drivers of increasing
CO2 and VPD. However, the rising mortality rate combined with model forecasts,
observations, and theory indicates a considerable risk of more physiological vulner-
ability in response to hotter droughts and more excellent tree mortality rates in the
future (Hartmann et al. 2022). There is still a significant lack of knowledge
regarding the biological or physiological ecological processes that will limit future
tree distribution. Enhanced comprehension of tree species’ historical physiological
and growth reactions to environmental shifts offers valuable insights into their sus-
ceptibility to forthcoming environmental changes. Water and temperature are the
critical determinants of plant species distribution, establishment, and survival
worldwide (Trueba et al. 2017). The evidence from the literature links the rising
forest species deaths with heat and water stresses.
39.3 Factors Influencing Tree Physiology
The physiological functions of tree species rely on numerous factors that directly or
indirectly influence their presence within a forest ecosystem. The studies have pre-
dicted the alterations in annual and seasonal water supply to forests due to anthro-
pogenic climate change (Apurva et al. 2017; Joshi et al. 2020; Kumar et al. 2021a,
b, c, d, e; Bisht et al. 2021).
39.3.1 Flood
The decline in oxygen during flooding can trigger a range of physiological imbal-
ances, which strongly influence important aspects of flooded species’ development,
survival, and growth (Li et al. 2015). The extent of damage, life span, and suscepti-
bility of flooded plants differ amongst species and depend on their ability to start
adjustments related to morpho-anatomical (production of adventitious roots, aeren-
chyma, and lenticels), physiological (increased ethylene production) and biochemi-
cal (increased fermentative metabolism) (Voesenek and Bailey-Serres 2015). Plants
respond to flooding stress by inhibiting shoot and root growth, bark damage, leaf
necrosis, ROS production, and many other metabolic disorders. Carbon balance
disruption, especially alterations in respiratory and photosynthetic processes, is the
primary cause of death in flooded plants (Li et al. 2015). Literature has widely docu-
mented a reduction in photosynthetic rates in flooded plants, which appears to be
primarily associated with stomatal and nonstomatal limitations (Kreuzwieser and
Rennenberg 2014). The nonstomatal limitations comprise lesser photosynthetic pig-
ment concentration, reduced Rubisco content and activity, and soluble sugar accu-
mulation in leaves, which may negatively impact photosynthesis. The stomatal
limitations are due to lesser hydraulic conductivity in roots, which further depends
on growth rates, suberization of the root system, damage, and lower presence and
expression of aquaporins (Li et al. 2015). This leads to lesser nutrient and water
absorption and subsequently induces shoot desiccation, reducing leaf water poten-
tial and stomatal conductance (gs) (Kreuzwieser and Rennenberg 2014). Changes in
the pH of phloem sap and the transport of signaling molecules like abscisic acid
from roots to leaves are linked with reductions in gs in flooded plants (Li et al.
822 T. Ruhil et al.
2015). There are changes in respiratory metabolism under flooding conditions

mainly due to the shift from aerobic to fermentative metabolism induced by low
oxygen concentration in flooded soils. An energy deficit is expected under flooding,
as fermentation generates 16 times less energy than oxidative phosphorylation,
especially if photosynthesis is also less.
39.3.2 Drought
Carbon starvation (CS) occurs during drought conditions due to consumption of

nonstructural carbohydrates (NSCs) as a consequence of negative carbon balance,
leading to forest dieback (Weber et al. 2018). This imbalance involves the reduction
in carbon assimilation through photosynthesis rates impairment, both due to bio-
chemical (certain metabolic processes inhibition) and diffusive (reduced mesophyll
and stomatal conductance) and the rise in metabolic costs for repairing disrupted
structures (like proteins, nucleic acids, and membranes), and defense molecules
production along with probable rise in photorespiration and respiration rates (Dias
and Brüggemann 2010). It downregulates photosynthesis by improving diffusive
resistances to CO2 entry in the chloroplast, leading to less internal CO2 concentra-
tion and changed ratio dynamics between O2 and CO2 available for Rubisco, favor-
ing oxygenation. Prolonged or rapid drought declines Rubisco activity and reduces
Rubisco protein, impairs ATP synthesis and photophosphorylation, and induces
inorganic phosphate limitations as the sucrose phosphate synthase activity decreases.
Respiration is insensitive to fast-developing water stress and simultaneous stomatal
closure.
39.3.3 Heat
The average earth temperature has increased by 0.4–0.6 °C during the twenty-first
century. Plants made physiological adjustments in transpiration rates and stomatal
conductance in response to heat stress (Kumari and Singh 2018). High temperatures
and drought aremainly responsible for forest dieback events (Allen et al. 2015).
Photosynthesis and respiration act differently and primarily in contrasting ways to
increasing temperature. High temperature and flooding affect photosynthesis (A),
root respiration, and synthesis of structural components (like cell walls). Rising
temperature increases A rates till an optimal point, after which it starts inhibiting
and may even reach zero (Slot and Winter 2017). The reduced photosynthetic pro-
cess occurs due to disruption of the photosynthetic electron transport chain along
with raised fluidity of thylakoid membranes and photosystem II damage. High tem-
perature also leads to Rubisco activase inactivation, reducing CO2-fixation capacity.
A temperature rise also increases R rates to an optimum level, after which cell dam-
age hampers respiration (Griffin and Prager 2017). The rising temperature and other
stresses will have a disastrous effect on the productivity and composition of several
plant communities, resulting in profound changes in the global carbon cycle. The
increase of vapor pressure deficit (VPD) between the atmosphere and the leaf, partly
due to global warming, also impacts the survival and performance of tree species
(Slot and Winter 2017). The high VPD induces increased evapotranspiration
demand, further impacting plant physiological processes. High VPD may enhance
water loss and raise cavitation vulnerability for a few species. Still, for others, this
triggers gs reductions, which limits CO2 diffusion for photosynthesis and leaf cooling via tran-
spiration, which impacts carbon balance (resulting from cell damage and raised R
and PR rates) (Teskey et al. 2015). High temperature-induced higher VPD has been
the main driver of tree mortality in several regions worldwide (Will et al. 2013).
Several uncertainties concern changes in plants’ water-saving strategies under high
temperatures. The gmin rate dynamics under high temperatures also indicate a critical
gap in our knowledge. For most species, especially the non-desert ones, gmin rates
show minor variations at temperatures from 15 to 35 °C. For above 35° temperature,
a drastic rise occurs in cuticle permeability and, subsequently, water loss (Schuster
et al. 2017).
39.3.4 CO2
Increased CO2 levels in the atmosphere ameliorate high-temperature stress on plants

and increase water use efficiency. The link between increasing CO2 and water use
efficiency positively impacts tree growth rates and, therefore, the evolution of forest
ecosystem processes. Increasing CO2has a smaller but positive effect on photosyn-
thesis. Plants need to acclimatize to the changing environment for their growth and
survival (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, 2021a, b, c, d, e; Manoj et al. 2021). High light
intensity and high-temperature lead to oxidative stress and photoinhibition in pho-
tosynthetically active tissues due to an imbalance between light utilization and light
capture for assimilation. Temperature stress is usually accompanied by less water
supply. Water deficit leads to closure in stomata and limits CO2 fixation rates. A
plant’s water potential needs to decrease to maintain water uptake, which can be
done via osmolyte production. Therefore, heat and drought stress requires down-
regulation of electron flux, osmotic adjustment, and toxic byproducts scavenging
uncontrolled electron transfer reactions.
Air pollutants negatively affect forest health, which is intensified by climate
change. Plants limit gaseous pollutants intake by reducing their needle or leaf sto-
matal apertures in response to increasing CO2. CO2 enrichment also ameliorates
chloroplastic oxidative stress. Many studies have reported a reduction in the adverse
effects of ozone on CO2increase. Studies have also shown that enhanced CO2 allevi-
ates the adverse effects of sulfur dioxide (SO2) on trees. The carbon sequestration in
forests is also influenced by atmospheric nitrogen deposition, as shown in a study
by Janssens et al. (2010), where organic matter deposition was hindered by nitrogen
deposition in forest soil. Dietze and Moorcroft (2011) showed a reduction in tree
824 T. Ruhil et al.
mortality due to nitrogen deposition. However, the potential effects of nitrogen

deposition on soil acidification in the long term are still unclear.
39.4 Physiological Processes
The scientific community has predicted the decline in forest growth and productiv-
ity and even local extinctions in response to CO2-induced warming as trees cannot
shift fast enough to keep pace with the poleward-shifting thermal environments they
are accustomed to (Joyce et al. 2014). Trees thriving in hotter climates have high-
temperature optima values (Topt) and higher net CO2 assimilation rates. The rising
CO2 aids in the plant’s adaptive response towards higher temperatures (Gupta et al.
2019a, b; Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e; Singh 2021a, b; Devi et al. 2023). The opti-
mum temperature for plant growth also rises along with atmospheric CO2 enrich-
ment. Many studies indicate increasing plant growth and greater heat tolerance as
CO2 rises. A drought-susceptible species, Fagus sylvatica L., responds to drought
stress via decreasing photosynthesis, leaf conductance, and development, reducing
pre-dawn leaf water potentials. Chlorophyll concentration and relative leaf water
content decreased simultaneously after water conditions. Proline also accumulates
during stress conditions. There is also an increase of non-protein soluble nitrogen in
leaves and roots owing to protein degradation, which aids as osmoprotectants in
stress conditions. This leads to a rise in osmotic pressure, stabilizing proteins and
maintaining membrane integrity. The increase in free amino acids and carbohy-
drates in trees under drought stress aids in rising osmotic pressure for maintaining
turgor and water uptake. The antioxidant system protects photosynthetic apparatus
from photooxidative damage. Plants avoid excess light via down-regulating PSII
activity in the presence of closed stomata. This leads to a decrease in the apparent
quantum yield of photochemistry. Superoxide dismutase detoxifies superoxide radi-
cals, causing H2O2 formation, further removed by ascorbate peroxidases. Rubisco is
deactivated under moderate heat stress.
The main target of heat is the thylakoid membrane. The photochemical stress
from heat limits chloroplast capacity for carrying electron transport and down-
regulating ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) content, leading to Rubisco deactiva-
tion. Photosystem II is heat-sensitive and acclimatizes via isoprene production or
xanthophyll cycle. Forest species generally follow the C3 cycle and subsequently
experience competition between substrates at the Rubisco level due to temperature,
which increases the ratio of oxygenation and carboxylation velocities with rising
temperature. Temperature affects photosynthesis via modulating photosynthetic
enzyme rates, especially ribulose-1,5-carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) and elec-
tron transport chain. Respiration increases exponentially with temperatures upto
35–40 °C in forests. There is low respiration in the presence of light as respiratory
CO2 is recycled into the mesophyll until a strong photosynthetic sink is present, or
it is inhibited due to supplementary stress components. Respiration in the light may
reduce the net CO2 uptake by illuminated leaves, but only at higher temperatures
and when photosynthesis is restricted.
39.5 Role of Ecophysiology in Forest Management
The primary objective of forest monitoring is to promptly detect early signs of

change, enabling policymakers and managers to implement proactive responses for
adapting forests to evolving climates (Singh 2021a, b; Prakash et al. 2022). This
may involve implementing new bioeconomic strategies and employing silvicultural
measures to ensure the resilience and sustainability of forest ecosystems. This
requires a comprehensive monitoring system (Bussotti and Pollastrini 2017). Those
studies with systematic and regular data collection for ten more than 10 years from
the field at a specific site or set of sites are long-term ecological studies (Lindenmayer
et al. 2012). These studies enhance knowledge of complex ecological systems. The
long-term ecological data sets act as a resource for land managers, ecologists, and
policymakers and are vital for quantifying ecological responses toward environ-
mental change.
39.5.1 Needs and Benefits of Long-Term Assessments
The enduring reactions of ecosystems to global change result from the dynamic
interplay of three elements: (1) fluctuations in climate, (2) disruptive events, and (3)
intrinsic long-term processes within the system (Luo et al. 2011). At the time of
radical transformations of forest structure and biodiversity makeup instigated by
climate fluctuations and chaotic events, considerably longer studies are required to
examine these transformations and their repercussions on ecological dynamics. For
long-term speculation of upcoming ecosystem functions, it is vital to know plant
performance with their susceptibility, establishment, and perseverance (Clark et al.
2010). Long-term studies indicate specific species’ vulnerability to environmental
changes and detect surprise events. They allow quantification, identification, and
in-depth understanding of critical phenomena that a cross-sectional approach can-
not detect (Lindenmayer and Cunningham 2011). The important ecological pro-
cesses that underlie ecological patterns and their relationships and the association
between sets of interrelated ecological processes and long-term trends are not
reflected by short-term patterns or trends. Long-term studies became very important
during prolonged lag periods, as in marine ecosystems where oceanographic cycles
depend on deep-sea currents that occur over decades and even centuries. These stud-
ies are also crucial in unpredictable systems like arid in Australia, where these stud-
ies are needed for documentation of population irruptions of small mammals after
sudden flooding (Dickman et al. 2010). These studies predict the accuracy of con-
servation management activities like reconstruction and restoration, where more
826 T. Ruhil et al.
extended periods are needed for systems to recuperate after major human distur-
bances. Empirical field data is essential to test ecological data. Long-term studies
are extremely important for model parameterization of species with slow population
turnover or when infrequent events direct turnover. The combined results from sur-
veys and models in the study by Regan et al. (2011) gathered evidence of a fall in
the population, alerting managers to take further necessary actions for species con-
servation. Long-term studies also inform ecological genetic models whose goal is to
understand the ability of species to evolve and adapt to environmental changes
(Hoffmann and Sgrò 2011).
39.5.2 Feasible Approaches
It is necessary to tackle inquiries regarding the ongoing assessment and monitoring

of disturbance impacts on forests. This can be done using recent tree-based tools,
proximal sensing techniques, and field surveys. The new generation of sensing
devices, aided by recent developments in sensor designs, wireless communications,
and flexible electronics, is expected to reduce further the cost and power of monitor-
ing microclimate and ecophysiological changes (Zhao et al. 2019). The high-
frequency real-time sensor-based measurements of ecophysiological parameters,
along with long-term silvicultural and ecological field-scale studies, would aid in
the identification of early warning signs in trees and thereby monitor forest dieback
in those sites across biogeographic regions that are disturbed (Tognetti et al. 2022).
Microclimatic sensors can be used in remote places where they can receive continu-
ous electricity from trees for long-term monitoring and sampling (Allan et al. 2018).
Remote sensing has been used to assess defoliation, whereas airborne laser-scanned
data at the tree level has been used (Bussotti and Pollastrini 2017). Though the
results were promising, these methods are still not broadly used in the current sur-
veys. Analysis of passive chlorophyll fluorescence is the main parameter used by
advanced studies to detect stress conditions in forests. A European-wide program
was launched by the European Space Agency (ESA), which is based on the
Fluorescence Explorer (FLEX) mission to assess the physiological conditions of
vegetation. Remote sensing can predict various functional traits of canopies and
leaves, like water content and photosynthetic pigment, leaf area index, and nitrogen
concentration via analysis of their optical properties (Parazoo et al. 2014).
In order to understand future tree and forest growth patterns, historical climate
data must be combined with future climate predictions, presented in particular tem-
poral and spatial resolutions, and fed into growth models and simulators (Singh
et al. 2022). The spatially interpolated databases at varying resolutions have been
developed to get past climate data (Cornes et al. 2018). Climate models can be
called the numerical representations of Earth’s climate system based on global pat-
terns of physical processes, encompassing biological and chemical components of
the climate system, which simulate energy and material transfer via this system.
Simple models simulate only a specific process in the atmosphere, whereas complex
ones simulate several climate system processes. Global climate models, such as
general circulation models, were developed based on thermodynamics and fluid
dynamics principles. They are limited due to coarse spatial resolution, leading to the
development of regional climate models. They aid in characterizing past and future
climates at several spatial scales (Bosela et al. 2022). Different models like biocli-
matic and climatic envelope models and process-based dynamic vegetation models
are being used to predict the future large-scale distribution of tree trees in Europe
(Bussotti and Pollastrini 2017). The analysis of worldwide meteorological datasets
and other ecological factors aids in identifying the most vulnerable forest sites. The
airborne observations (like in FLEX-based programs) need to be validated by
assessments of ground-level impacts. Field-portable instruments for analyzing sta-
ble isotope compositions may be preferred at heavily instrumented sites for deter-
mining spatial patterns of root water extraction at differing soil depths accompanying
plant transpiration measurements (Liu et al. 2019). Water-use efficiency may be
combined with Canopy transpiration flux to deduce forest canopies’ gross primary
productivity (Vernay et al. 2020). Hyperspectral and multispectral imaging systems
automatically detect live root dynamics (Bodner et al. 2018).
39.6 Limitations and Challenges
Long-term physiological monitoring studies have several limitations and challenges

(Fig. 39.2). There is still a lack of comprehensive assessment of the impact of natu-
ral disturbances on the decline and death of individual forest trees. Presently, there
exists insufficient understanding regarding the extent to which plants adapt to ele-
vated temperatures, potentially modifying the physicochemical characteristics of
Fig. 39.2 Long-term assessments are the essential requirement in the present scenario
828 T. Ruhil et al.
their cuticle to increase the transition temperature. This information is critical to

refine the prediction regarding the effect of rising temperatures, especially drought,
on forest ecosystem composition worldwide (Cochard 2019). There is a need to
validate remote sensing with field-collected data; further, it’s a challenging task to
establish connections between aerial and terrestrial surveys (Pause et al. 2016). The
main challenge for raising large-scale survey effectiveness depends on the possibil-
ity of connecting phenotypic and ecological data with molecular-level studies.
Continuous spatially distributed data is needed to predict the impact and mortality
risk on forests. This requires the establishment of early warning tools/ platforms for
mortality risks over remote sensitive areas. Though remote sensing is excellent in
detecting change once it has occurred, these early warning tools need ecophysiolog-
ical information, which can be collected easily from single trees on the ground.
Long-term monitoring of research plots will aid in better knowledge of disturbance
and its underlying conditions (Tognetti et al. 2022). Remote sensing techniques are
low in temporal or spatial resolutions and do not provide timely responses to events
that influence plant physiology. Eventually, sensors constantly monitor environ-
mental and physiological parameters that are fixed on plant organs with fixtures or
kept in their vicinity, allowing communication with trees. The close association
between the physical properties of forest canopy, like chlorophyll fluorescence
emission, leaf surface temperature, and latent heat flux with that of plant function-
ing, opens a broad range of applications and methods for monitoring forest health
remotely. However, remote sensing methods lack appropriate resolution at the range
edge of species distribution. The Eddy covariance method also computes the net
impact of the forest upwind of the sensor, neglecting single trees or species in the
stand. As a result, these approaches are inadequate for identifying early signs of
ecophysiological stress, especially when the functional responses of trees vary
among different ages or species, leading to a compensatory effect at the stand level.
39.7 Future Research Goals and Strategies
Utilizing discrete sampling strategies remains challenging in addressing long-term

responses to various stress conditions, early detection of plant stress, and the rela-
tionship between tree growth and stress response. Continuous quantitative monitor-
ing of environmental conditions and plant physiology is necessary to comprehend
rapid changes in functional signals (Tognetti et al. 2022). The current trend of
research with more emphasis on methods using data mining, modeling, and meta-
analysis makes maintaining and publishing long-term studies extremely difficult.
The former is cheaper and quicker in generating publications than the conventional
field-oriented, empirical ecology. Funding is generally based on publication met-
rics, making it hard for ecologists doing long-term studies to face data summarizers
and modelers (Lindenmayer and Likens 2011). Empirical examples of adaptive
management are challenging to publish in peer-reviewed international literature and
are notably less cited than non-empirical essays or opinion pieces on the same topic.
Still, empirical data is the raw material for smart parameterization of models and
meta-analysis. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses will have fewer cases for
reviewing and analyses, evidence-based management and policy may become chal-
lenging, and many critical ecological discoveries may be left unnoticed without
supporting long-term ecological studies (Lindenmayer and Likens 2011). Long-
term studies are also essential for handling important issues like ecosystem manage-
ment for their key services and quantifying and mitigating environmental change
effects on ecosystems, biodiversity, and climate change. Continuous monitoring of
tree physiological functions incurs increased costs associated with multi-sensor
devices, which demand labor and energy, constituting a significant drawback.
Utilizing a standardized cybernetic network comprising uniquely designed, cost-
effective sensors enables real-time access to environmental data from designated
research sites within forests. This network assists in detecting nonlinear responses
beyond the safe operating mode. It’s vital to acknowledge work done by empirical
ecologists to maintain separate publishing outlets for empirical field-based ecology,
and proper funding can be ensured by multidisciplinary research (Reichman
et al. 2011).
39.8 Conclusion
It is inferred that the understanding of how forests respond to the dynamics of cli-
mate change remains limited, emphasizing the importance of conducting thorough,
long-term assessments to enhance forest management practices. Future experiments
should aim to uncover these responses over an extended time scale to gain a com-
prehensive understanding. Collaborative efforts are crucial, integrating process
studies, long-term field experiments, and modeling, as each contributes unique and
complementary insights into how forest ecosystems react to a changing climate.
Effectively addressing the complexities involved is essential for optimal results, and
the involvement of government and other funding agencies is imperative due to the
prolonged duration of these studies. Despite their inherent challenges, long-term
physiological studies are essential given the current context of unpredictable cli-
mate change influencing forest ecosystem structure and functions.
References
Allan BM, Nimmo DG, Ierodiaconou D, VanDerWal J, Koh LP, Ritchie EG (2018) Future casting
ecological research: the rise of technoecology. Ecosphere 9(5):e02163
Allen CD, Breshears DD, McDowell NG (2015) On underestimation of global vulnerability to
tree mortality and forest die-off from hotter drought in the Anthropocene. Ecosphere 6(8):1–55
Apurva K, Singh H, Kumar H (2017) Elucidating morphological and growth changes in Arjun
tree (Terminalia arjuna) grown under elevated temperature condition. Trends in Biosci
10(1):332–336
830 T. Ruhil et al.
Bodner G, Nakhforoosh A, Arnold T, Leitner D (2018) Hyperspectral imaging: a novel approach
for plant root phenotyping. Plant Methods 14(1):1–17
Boisvert-Marsh L, Périé C, de Blois S (2014) Shifting with climate? Evidence for recent changes
in tree species distribution at high latitudes. Ecosphere 5(7):1–33
forests. Science 320(5882):1444–1449
Bosela M, Merganičová K, Torresan C, Cherubini P, Fabrika M, Heinze B, Höhn M, Kašanin-
Grubin M, Klopčič M, Mészáros I, Pach M (2022) Modelling future growth of mountain for-
ests under changing environments. In: Climate-smart forestry in mountain regions, p 223
Bussotti F, Pollastrini M (2017) Traditional and novel indicators of climate change impacts on
European forest trees. Forests 8(4):137
Charney ND, Babst F, Poulter B, Record S, Trouet VM, Frank D, Enquist BJ, Evans ME (2016)
Observed forest sensitivity to climate implies large changes in 21st century north American
forest growth. Ecol Lett 19(9):1119–1128
Clark JS, Bell D, Chu C, Courbaud B, Dietze M, Hersh M, Hille RisLambers J, Ibášez I, LaDeau
S, McMahon S, Metcalf J (2010) High-dimensional coexistence based on individual variation:
a synthesis of evidence. Ecol Monogr 80(4):569–608
Cochard H (2019) A new mechanism for tree mortality due to drought and heatwaves. bioRxiv.
https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2019/02/03/531632.full.pdf
Cornes RC, van der Schrier G, van den Besselaar EJ, Jones PD (2018) An ensemble version of
the E-OBS temperature and precipitation data sets. J Geophys Res Atmos 123(17):9391–9409
29(2):451–457
Dias MC, Brüggemann W (2010) Limitations of photosynthesis in Phaseolus vulgaris
under drought stress: gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence and Calvin cycle enzymes.
Photosynthetica 48:96–102
Dickman CR, Greenville AC, Beh CL, Tamayo B, Wardle GM (2010) Social organization and
movements of desert rodents during population “booms” and “busts” in Central Australia. J
Mammal 91(4):798–810
Dietze MC, Moorcroft PR (2011) Tree mortality in the eastern and Central United States: patterns
and drivers. Glob Change Biol 17:3312–3326
Eichhorn J, Roskams P, Potocic N, Timermann V, Ferretti M, Mues V, Szepesi A, Durrant D,
Seletkovic I, Schröck H, Nevalainen S (2016) Visual assessment of crown condition and dam-
aging agents
Esquivel-Muelbert A, Baker TR, Dexter KG, Lewis SL, Brienen RJ, Feldpausch TR, Lloyd J,
Monteagudo-Mendoza A, Arroyo L, Álvarez-Dávila E, Higuchi N (2019) Compositional
response of Amazon forests to climate change. Glob Chang Biol 25(1):39–56
Forests ICP (2017) Years of monitoring the effects of long range transboudary air pollution on
forests in europe and beyond
Giguère-Croteau C, Boucher É, Bergeron Y, Girardin MP, Drobyshev I, Silva LC, Hélie JF,
Garneau M (2019) North America’s oldest boreal trees are more efficient water users due to
increased [CO2], but do not grow faster. Proc Natl Acad Sci 116(7):2749–2754
Griffin KL, Prager CM (2017) Where does the carbon go? Thermal acclimation of respiration and
increased photosynthesis in trees at the temperate-boreal ecotone. Tree Physiol 37:281–284
145(6):509–515
Hartmann H, Moura CF, Anderegg WR, Ruehr NK, Salmon Y, Allen CD, Arndt SK, Breshears DD,
Davi H, Galbraith D, Ruthrof KX (2018) Research frontiers for improving our understanding
of drought-induced tree and forest mortality. New Phytol 218(1):15–28
Hartmann H, Bastos A, Das AJ, Esquivel-Muelbert A, Hammond WM, Martínez-Vilalta J,
McDowell NG, Powers JS, Pugh TA, Ruthrof KX, Allen CD (2022) Climate change risks to
global forest health: emergence of unexpected events of elevated tree mortality worldwide.
Annu Rev Plant Biol 73:673–702
Hoffmann AA, Sgrò CM (2011) Climate change and evolutionary adaptation. Nature
470(7335):479–485
Huang R, Zhu H, Liu X, Liang E, Grießinger J, Wu G, Li X, Bräuning A (2017) Does increasing
intrinsic water use efficiency (iWUE) stimulate tree growth at natural alpine timberline on the
southeastern Tibetan plateau? Glob Planet Chang 148:217–226
IPCC (2019) Climate change and land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification,
land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in
terrestrial ecosystems, Geneva
Janssens IA, Dieleman W, Luyssaert S, Subke JA, Reichstein M, Ceulemans R, Ciais P, Dolman
AJ, Grace J, Matteucci G, Papale D (2010) Reduction of forest soil respiration in response to
nitrogen deposition. Nat Geosci 3(5):315–322
Johnstone JF, Allen CD, Franklin JF, Frelich LE, Harvey BJ, Higuera PE, Mack MC, Meentemeyer
RK, Metz MR, Perry GL, Schoennagel T (2016) Changing disturbance regimes, ecological
memory, and forest resilience. Front Ecol Environ 14(7):369–378
Joyce LA, Running SW, Breshears DD, Dale VH, Malmsheimer RW, Sampson RN, Sohngen B,
Woodall CW (2014) Forests. In: Melillo JM, Richmond TC, Yohe GW (eds) Climate change
impacts in the United States: the third national climate assessment. US Global Change Research
Program, pp 175–194
Keenan TF, Hollinger DY, Bohrer G, Dragoni D, Munger JW, Schmid HP, Richardson AD (2013)
Increase in forest water-use efficiency as atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations rise.
Nature 499(7458):324–327
Klein T, Bader MKF, Leuzinger S, Mildner M, Schleppi P, Siegwolf RT, Körner C (2016) Growth
and carbon relations of mature Picea abies trees under 5 years of free-air CO2 enrichment. J
Ecol 104(6):1720–1733
Kreuzwieser J, Rennenberg H (2014) Molecular and physiological responses of trees to waterlog-
ging stress. Plant Cell Environ 37:2245–2259
832 T. Ruhil et al.
Kumar N, Jeena N, Kumar N, Gangola S, Singh H (2019a) Phytoremediation facilitating enzymes:

Kumar N, Jeena N, Singh H (2019b) Elevated temperature modulates rice pollen structure: a study
org/10.1007/s13205-019-1700-1
Kumar A, Dwivedi GK, Tewari S, Jaipaul, Sah VK, Singh H, Kumar P, Kumar N, Kausal R
(2020a) Soil organic carbon pools under Terminalia chebula Retz. based agroforestry system
in Himalayan foothills, India. Curr Sci 118:1098–1103. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v118/
i7/1098-1103
Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N (2021b) Adaptation and mitigation potential of roadside
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
49(1):38–44
(2021e) Biomass accumulation and carbon stocks in different agro forestry system prevalent
i6/1083-1088
org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120191
Le Quéré C, Andrew RM, Friedlingstein P, Sitch S, Hauck J, Pongratz J, Pickers P, Korsbakken JI,
Peters GP, Canadell JG, Arneth A (2018) Global carbon budget 2018. In: Earth system science
data discussions, pp 1–3
Li M, López R, Venturas M, Pita P, Gordaliza GG, Gil L, Rodríguez-Calcerrada J (2015) Greater
resistance to flooding of seedlings of Ulmuslaevis than Ulmus minor is related to the mainte-
nance of a more positive carbon balance. Trees 29:835–848
Lindenmayer DB, Cunningham RB (2011) Longitudinal patterns in bird reporting rates in a threat-
ened ecosystem: is change regionally consistent? Biol Conserv 144(1):430–440
Lindenmayer DB, Likens GE (2011) Losing the culture of ecology. Bull Ecol Soc Am
92(3):245–246
Lindenmayer DB, Likens GE, Andersen A, Bowman D, Bull CM, Burns E, Dickman CR,
Hoffmann AA, Keith DA, Liddell MJ, Lowe AJ (2012) Value of long-term ecological studies.
Austral Ecol 37(7):745–757
Liu Y, Zhang X, Zhao S, Ma H, Qi G, Guo S (2019) The depth of water taken up by walnut trees
during different phenological stages in an irrigated arid hilly area in the Taihang Mountains.
Forests 10(2):121
Luo Y, Melillo J, Niu S, Beier C, Clark JS, Classen AT, Davidson E, Dukes JS, Evans RD, Field
CB, Czimczik CI (2011) Coordinated approaches to quantify long-term ecosystem dynamics
in response to global change. Glob Chang Biol 17(2):843–854
agement. In: Forest resources resilience and conflicts. Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/
B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
McDowell NG (2011) Mechanisms linking drought, hydraulics, carbon metabolism, and vegeta-
tion mortality. Plant Physiol 155(3):1051–1059
of a 30-year-old reclaimed limestone mine area in foothills of Himalaya. Indian Forest
Indian J Hill Farm 34:272–276
Parazoo NC, Bowman K, Fisher JB, Frankenberg C, Jones DB, Cescatti A, Pérez-Priego Ó,
Wohlfahrt G, Montagnani L (2014) Terrestrial gross primary production inferred from satellite
fluorescence and vegetation models. Glob Chang Biol 20(10):3103–3121
Pause M, Schweitzer C, Rosenthal M, Keuck V, Bumberger J, Dietrich P, Heurich M, Jung A,
Lausch A (2016) In situ/remote sensing integration to assess forest health—a review. Remote
Sens 8(6):471
Regan HM, Keith DA, Regan TJ, Tozer MG, Tootell N (2011) Fire management to combat disease:
turning interactions between threats into conservation management. Oecologia 167:873–882
Reichman OJ, Jones MB, Schildhauer MP (2011) Challenges and opportunities of open data in
ecology. Science 331(6018):703–705
Ruehr NK, Grote R, Mayr S, Arneth A (2019) Beyond the extreme: recovery of carbon and water
relations in woody plants following heat and drought stress. Tree Physiol 39(8):1285–1299
Schuster AC, Burghardt M, Riederer M (2017) The ecophysiology of leaf cuticular transpiration:
are cuticular water permeabilities adapted to ecological conditions? J Exp Bot 68:5271–5279
Singh H (2021a) An integrated approach considering physiological and biophysical based indica-
lution. Trees 37:69–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-021-02179-8
Singh H (2021b) Process-based carbon sequestration study in relation to the energy-water-carbon
pp 336–361
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
834 T. Ruhil et al.

uclim.2022.101183
Slot M, Winter K (2017) In situ temperature response of photosynthesis of 42 tree and liana species
in the canopy of two Panamanian lowland tropical forests with contrasting rainfall regimes.
New Phytol 214:1103–1117
Teskey R, Wertin T, Bauweraerts I, Ameye M, McGuire MA, Steppe K (2015) Responses of tree
species to heat waves and extreme heat events. Plant Cell Environ 38:1699–1712
Tognetti R, Valentini R, Marchesini LB, Gianelle D, Panzacchi P, Marshall JD (2022) Continuous
monitoring of tree responses to climate change for smart forestry: a cybernetic web of trees. In:
Climate-smart forestry in mountain regions, pp 361–398
Trueba S, Pouteau R, Lens F, Feild TS, Isnard S, Olson ME, Delzon S (2017) Vulnerability to
xylem embolism as a major correlate of the environmental distribution of rain forest species on
a tropical Island. Plant Cell Environ 40(2):277–289
Vernay A, Tian X, Chi J, Linder S, Mäkelä A, Oren R, Peichl M, Stangl ZR, Tor-Ngern P, Marshall
JD (2020) Estimating canopy gross primary production by combining phloem stable isotopes
with canopy and mesophyll conductances. Plant Cell Environ 43(9):2124–2142
Voesenek LACJ, Bailey-Serres J (2015) Flood adaptive traits and processes: an overview. New
Phytol 206:57–73
Wang K, Dickinson RE (2012) A review of global terrestrial evapotranspiration: observation, mod-
eling, climatology, and climatic variability. Rev Geophys 50(2)
Warren JM, Norby RJ, Wullschleger SD (2011) Elevated CO2 enhances leaf senescence during
extreme drought in a temperate forest. Tree Physiol 31(2):117–130
Weber R, Schwendener A, Schmid S, Lambert S, Wiley E, Landhäusser SM, Hoch G (2018)
Living on next to nothing: tree seedlings can survive weeks with very low carbohydrate con-
centrations. New Phytol 218:107–118
Will RE, Wilson SM, Zou CB, Hennessey TC (2013) Increased vapor pressure deficit due to higher
temperature leads to greater transpiration and faster mortality during drought for tree seedlings
common to the forest-grassland ecotone. New Phytol 200:366–374
Williams AP, Allen CD, Macalady AK, Griffin D, Woodhouse C, Meko DM, Swetnam TW,
Rauscher SA, Seager R, Grissino-Mayer HD, Dean JS (2012) Temperature as a potent driver of
regional forest drought stress and tree mortality. Nat Clim Change 3:292–297
Zhang Y, Peng C, Li W, Fang X, Zhang T, Zhu Q, Chen H, Zhao P (2013) Monitoring and esti-
mating drought-induced impacts on forest structure, growth, function, and ecosystem services
using remote-sensing data: recent progress and future challenges. Environ Rev 21(2):103–115
Zhao Y, Gao S, Zhu J, Li J, Xu H, Xu K, Cheng H, Huang X (2019) Multifunctional stretchable
sensors for continuous monitoring of long-term leaf physiology and microclimate. ACS omega
4(5):9522–9530
Chapter 40
Sap Flow Dynamics in Tree Species
Kriti Bohra, Priyanka Lohani, Sandipan Mukherjee, and Hukum Singh
Abstract The present study highlighted the multiple approaches applied for quan-
tifying sap flow over the past year and their evolution, limitations, and contribu-
tions. Here, we represent the studies conducted on various tree species globally. The
main focus is on tree species from the Agri-Horti and Forestry backgrounds. We
discussed the response of sap flow to varying environmental changes. Besides this,
we analyzed the effects of different morpho-physio factors on sap flow rate, diur-
nally and seasonally, to understand the plant-water relations. This chapter would be
beneficial for studying the behavior of different trees under particular climatic con-
ditions, and such studies will help assess their better adaptability in available water,
framing plantation strategies, and irrigation scheduling.
Keywords Climate change · Sap flow · Tree · Transpiration · Sap flow sensors
K. Bohra (*)
G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment, Kosi-Katarmal,
Almora, Uttarakhand, India
P. Lohani
G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment, Kosi-Katarmal,
Almora, Uttarakhand, India
S. Mukherjee
Ladakh Regional Centre, G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment, Leh,
Ladakh, India
H. Singh
Ltd. 2024
836 K. Bohra et al.
40.1 Introduction
Like people and other living things, plants require water to perform essential func-
tions and maintain their health. Over the past years, several studies have been con-
ducted to understand the dynamics of plant-water relations (Kumar et al. 2020).
Plants have different water requirements in various growth stages (Singh et al. 2020;
Kumar et al. 2021a, b). Overwatering can decay plants through root rot and increase
the chances of pest infestation, whereas water shortage can induce water stress con-
ditions such as wilting. This reflects the need for more precise techniques to deter-
mine the proper water requirements of plants (Singh 2021). Sap flow is a process
wherein fluid (sap) moves through the xylem to the leaves of a plant and occurs in
the roots, stems, and branches. The earliest experiment by Hales (1727) mentioned
that the sap passes through the woody section of the stem, known as sapwood. The
flow technique is a direct way of assessing plant water consumption that has been
used a lot in recent years to determine the amount of water consumed by plants
(Kumagai et al. 2005). It is popular due to its easy installation and data accuracy at
a cheaper price than other methods. The data obtained from sap flow sensors offers
valuable insights into water movement within trees, enabling estimation of transpi-
ration rates. Furthermore, this data can facilitate calculations of evapotranspiration.
Consequently, the sap flow technique finds extensive application in orchards, nurs-
eries, forestry, and agriculture, particularly for efficient irrigation scheduling.
We evaluated how water uptake at night affects the sap flow profile, which was
earlier neglected by assuming the insignificant night-time transpiration due to sto-
matal closure at night in the absence of PAR (photosynthetically active radiations)
(Daley and Phillips 2006). Without a proper water supply, plants cannot perform
their vital functions for survival. Therefore, monitoring sap flow measurements in
plants and response to changes in climate and environmental factors such as air
temperature, solar radiations, rainfall, humidity, available soil moisture, etc. would
enhance our understanding of plant water relations. In the present study, we high-
lighted the importance of the water uptake patterns in different trees with variations
in climate-driven factors (Singh and Kumar 2022). Using various techniques, we
discussed the variations in sap flow rate from species to species, diurnally and sea-
sonally. A particular objective of this study is to provide a narrative review of the
evolution of various sap flow techniques used in tree species over the past years
worldwide and to present the impacts of different ecophysiological and environ-
mental factors on the sap flow profile.
40.2 Sap Flow Methods: Development and Limitations
The first experiment for measuring sap flow was conducted by Marshall (1958) in
Pinus radiata using—a thermistor probe and heater, which were put into parallel
holes and drilled. The experimental results suggested that the heat transfer
40 Sap Flow Dynamics in Tree Species 837
technique of sap flow measurement may be inaccurate due to inconsistent sap speed,
although it was suggested that the sap flux density could be a good estimator for
measuring sap speed and sap flow. However, Granier (1985) proposed an empirical
approach to measure plant sap flow. A thermal dissipation probe or the heat balance
measurement method was used to calculate the temperature difference between the
heated probe and a reference probe. During the last few decades, heat dissipation
sensors or thermal dissipation probes, as developed by Granier (1985) have been
widely used for sap flow measurement in different vegetation types. However, vari-
ous approaches have been applied to multiple plant species, development phases,
environmental circumstances, and research goals.
40.3 The Widely Used Sap Flow Methods Based

on the Thermodynamic Approach
Typically, three distinct thermal concepts are used to estimate sap flow density: heat
pulse velocity (HPV) (Huber 1932, cited by Čermák et al. (2004)), heat balance
(HB) (Čermák et al. 1973) and heat dissipation (HD) (Granier 1985). Along with
thermal concepts, the gravimetric method provides an alternative opportunity for
sap flow measurement where the change in plant weight is measured over time to
estimate water loss through transpiration (Smith and Allen 1996). However, thermal
concepts for sap flux measurements are superior to the gravimetric method for easy
implementation. For all three approaches to calculate the sap flow density (i.e.,
HPV, HB, and HD), sensors are implanted in the xylem’s outer half, assuming simi-
lar sap flow density over the sapwood. Thermodynamics-based sap flow methods
HPV, HB and HD are briefly elaborated below:
(a) The heat pulse velocity (HPV) method: A linear heater in the sapwood deliv-
ers a heat pulse in the HPV technique, where sap velocity can be calculated by
monitoring the temperature change for one or more probes situated above and/
or below the heater probe. HPV method works on heat transfer principles and
utilizes two temperature sensors, one that is actively heated and another that
remains unheated or at ambient temperature with the principle of the tempera-
ture difference between the heated, and unheated sensors which is directly pro-
portional to the sap flow rate (Looker et al. 2016).
(b) Heat Balance (HB) Method: The HB method estimates heat transport through
xylem flow when artificial heating is carried out at a certain location and heat
dissipation is measured at a different plant location. This technique is com-
monly implemented in two ways: trunk segment heat balance and stem heat
balance approaches (STB), detailed in the review by Čermák et al. (1973).
However, the HB method requires regular calibration of the sensors for specific
plant species.
(c) Heat Dissipation (HD) Method: The HD method uses the thermal dissipation
concept and measures sap flow density by calculating the difference in tempera-
838 K. Bohra et al.
ture between a heated sensor and the surrounding plant tissue. We can evaluate
the sap flow density by monitoring the temperature change in the sensors after
inserting the sap flow sensors into tree’s sapwood. The thermal dissipation
probe (TDP) is the most extensively use and popular among tree physiologists
due to its simple application and more accurate results for measuring sap flow
density. However, the HB method requires regular calibration of the sensors for
specific plant species (Smith and Allen 1996).
Amongst the techniques mentioned above for sap flow measurement, the HD
method through thermal dissipation probe and HPV methods are commonly used.
Although sap flow measurements provide valuable insights into plant water use, due
to the disparity between plants’ day and night sap flow properties, proper data pro-
cessing and regular calibration of sensors are needed. Moreover, it is suggested by
Kumagai et al. (2005), that sap flow variation within a tree, i.e., changes in the sap
flow from the center to the outer layers of the tree trunk, is lower than the observed
sap flow of another tree having different age and structure indicating more signifi-
cant variation in sap flux density between individual trees compared to the variation
within a single tree.
40.4 Sap Flux Measurements and Calculations
The empirical calibration equation given by Granier (1985) can be used to evaluate
the sap flux
u = 1.19 × 10 ( k )
−6 1.23
(40.1)
where u is sap flux (m3 m–2 s−1) and k represents the difference in temperature
between the two probes.
( ∆Tm − ∆T )
k= (40.2)
∆T
where, ΔT is the measured temperature difference between the two probes and
ΔTm represents the lowest or no sap flow value in a day.
Sap flow rate can be calculated by converting the sap flow velocity (mL s−1)
F = u × SA (40.3)
where, F is the sap flow and SA is the cross-sectional area of sapwood (cm2), u is
the sap flux
40.5 Importance of Sap Flow and Physiological Implications
To manage the demands of the increasing population by developing improved irri-

gation systems under sustainable agricultural and forestry practices, sap flow tech-
niques have been extensively used in forestry and agriculture fields for irrigation.
Sap flow measurements help us to study tree water relations and quantify whole-
plant water use (Singh et al. 2020). As described above, total plant volumetric sap
flow is the movement of fluid within the xylem, and this sap flow volume has direct
implications for transpiration, stem refilling, and transport of solutes. Therefore, the
water use efficiency of an ecosystem/forest could be linked to the evaporative loss
of water through two processes: the first one is the stand-level / plant transpiration,
and the second one is the direct evaporation loss of water from the soil surface.
Moreover, one of the important purposes of estimating sap flow rate is to quantify
transpiration. As indicated above, tree transpiration is the key through which water
from the earth’s surface re-enters the hydrologic cycle (Poyatos et al. 2016).
Transpiration is a physiological process that significantly modulates the water
cycle of a region from micro to catchment scale. Water loss through transpiration
affects the watershed’s yearly water budget, lowering the quantity of water available
as streamflow (Daley et al. 2007; Nirmal et al. 2021). However, a substantial quan-
tity of water is maintained in the plant body to maintain stiffness and organ expan-
sion. Transpiration can be considered a soil-plant-atmosphere interaction process
where soil water absorption from the root reflects the amount of water transpired by
the plant. Transpiration is also the main contributor to forest water loss, representing
the fundamental ecological processes occurring in plants and significantly affecting
the hydrological balance (Prakash et al. 2022).
Plant transpiration measurements across different vegetation types through sap
flow methods are well established, and it is now known that plant transpiration esti-
mation could be applied to targeted plantation policies (Ghimire et al. 2014; Sharma
and Singh 2021). However, we must remember, especially for woody plants, that
the whole plant water use measurement is more difficult due to their huge canopy
and complex environmental responses (Singh 2021). Moreover, it is also known that
the quantum of water loss in a tree depends on canopy size, physiological condition,
soil, and atmospheric factors. An earlier example of such complex interactions
between transpiration and environmental factors was the observation of Hales
(1727), who reported that an ascending transpiration stream passes through the
woody section of the stem.
Plant transpiration, when combined with the water loss from the forest surface
through evaporation, is termed evapotranspiration (ET), which is an integral part of
the water cycle (Eq. 40.1) and can be described as (Campbell and Diaz 1988):
P + RO + Dr + ∆θ + ET = θ (40.4)
where, P = precipitation, RO = runoff, Dr = drainage out of the root zone, Δθ = the

change in soil moisture content in the crop root zone (the soil water-holding capac-
ity of the root zone is θS [max] − θS [min].
840 K. Bohra et al.
Evapo-transpiration is an integral part of the water cycle as around 15% of the

atmosphere’s water vapor comes from it (Verma et al. 2020; Singh et al. 2022).
Evapotranspiration is the sum of all processes by which water moves from the land
surface to the atmosphere, either in evaporation or transpiration. Generally, energy
consumed during the process of evapotranspiration is referred to as latent heat flux
(Bisht et al. 2021). However, latent heat flux is broad and includes condensation
(e.g., fog, dew), and snow and ice conversion. The evaporation in evapotranspiration
refers to water evaporated from overland (Devi et al. 2023). Evapotranspiration is
also called consumptive use or total evaporation from land areas. Since evapotrans-
piration depends on solar energy, soil moisture availability, and plant maturity, the
seasonal maximum evapotranspiration may precede or follow the maximum solar
radiation and air temperature by several weeks (Apurva et al. 2017; Gupta et al.
2018). In the agriculture sector, ET plays very crucial role in water management
in local, regional, and global water balance, that’s why ET needs to be calculated.
40.6 Methods for Calculating Evapotranspiration
The most commonly used methods for determining evapotranspiration and stand-
level transpiration include the Bowen ratio method, porometry, and sap flow mea-
surements, and an excellent example of usage of these techniques could be found in
Dawson (1996) for open-grown Acer saccharum Marsh (Sugar maple tree).
Deuterium tracing is another way to quantify entire plant transpiration. However,
results suggested that this technique is often complex to interpret and only provides
mean values over several days (Calder et al. 1986). Like deuterium tracing, Kline
et al. (1970) used the tritium technique to measure tropical rainforest transpiration,
in which titrated water was injected into the base of a tree to quantify real transpira-
tion. Since the Bowen ratio and isotope methods are extensively used for measuring
evapotranspiration and stand-level transpiration, these two techniques are
explained below.
40.7 Evapotranspiration
The Bowen ratio method is commonly used to estimate forest evapotranspiration

rates by measuring the energy balance between sensible and latent heat fluxes at the
surface (Hatton and Vertessy 1990). The Bowen ratio method is derived from the
energy balance of the underlying surface, which can be rewritten in the form below:
Rη − G
λE =
1+ β
where β is the Bowen ratio, Rn is net radiation, G is the ground heat flux and λE
is the latent heat flux. According to Bowen (1926), simultaneous measurements of
vertical air temperature and humidity gradients are required to partition the energy
balance. Under moist conditions, this method for determining λE from plant com-
munities is expected to provide good results. However, this technique may be inac-
curate for atmospheric conditions with high advection (Stull 1988). The most widely
used approach to estimate evapotranspiration is the Penman-Monteith equation:
SA + C P ρa Dga
Et =
λ  s + γ (1 + ga  gC ) 
where s is the rate of change of saturated vapor pressure concerning air tempera-
ture, Cp is the specific heat of dry air of density ρa, D is the vapor pressure deficit
(VPD) of the air, ga is boundary layer conductance for water vapor, λ is the latent
heat flux of water, γ is the psychrometric constant, and gc is canopy conductance.
In the case of forest canopies,
1. The small leaf size and large boundary layer conductance may result in strong
coupling between leaf and air temperatures, while stomata are important in con-
trolling the transpiration rate.
2. In comparison to coniferous, transpiration in broadleaf canopies largely depends
on the net solar radiation and is less dependent on canopy conductance. However,
no difference was found between ET’s daily or hourly maximum rates in differ-
ent canopies such as coniferous, deciduous, or mixed species.
40.8 Transpiration Measurement from Isotope Methods
A. Deuterium Tracing Method:

The known mass of deuterium oxide is injected into the stem (Calder et al.
1986) and was first developed on Eucalyptus spp. The plastic bags joined with
the leaves are evenly distributed at the different canopy levels to collect the con-
densed water and prevent water loss from them as they are tied carefully (Marc
and Robinson 2004). The total mass of the tracer injected, M (g), is related to the
sap flow by the mass conservation principle:
t1
M = F∫Cdt
to
where F is the sap flow (l/d), C is the deuterium concentration of the transpired
water (g/l), and t0 and t1 are the first and the last time increments, respectively,
in which tracer is present (days). The results of the tracing approach and the
other techniques range from 23 to 38%, and, these variations are primarily
explained by the uncertainty related to each technique or the preliminary esti-
mates/assumptions. The deuterium value for transpiration may be higher than
the other three techniques because of the likely loss of the tracer or delay of the
tracer transport into the sap stream. The fundamental benefit of the tracer
842 K. Bohra et al.
approach is its ability to estimate transpiration using basic technological equip-

ment without data recorders or a power supply, unlike HD, HB, and HPV. During
tower installation, the deuterium tracing method might be expensive to attach
sampling bags over the leaves for tall canopies (Marc and Robinson 2004).
B. Tritiated water (HTO)
The tritiated water (HTO) methodology was tested to measure transpiration
in young loblolly pine trees (Luvall and Murphy Jr 1982). In holes bored at the
base of the trees, millicuries of tritium in water were injected using the pipette,
and holes were immediately sealed to prevent titrated water loss. After that, leaf
samples were collected at different time intervals, then quickly covered with
polythene and frozen to avoid tritium loss. A vacuum freeze-dry apparatus was
used to extract the tissue water from the leaf samples (Kline et al. 1970). Water
collection via condensation in clear plastic bags sealed around branch tips
proved to be a straightforward solution. When compared to evaporation calcu-
lated by a soil water balance, the activity measured from the water collected
closest to the injection point provided a fair estimate of transpiration (Luvall and
Murphy Jr 1982).
40.9 Factors Affecting Sap Flow and Contribution

to Progress in Understanding Tree
and Ecosystem Physiology
Various species are reported for sap flow measurements using different techniques
(Table 40.1). This section consists of the global status of tree species reported using
various sap flow methods from the past years, how sap flow rates vary temporally,
diurnally- and seasonally worldwide, and what factors affect the sap flow data.
Kozlowski (1982) indicates that due to physiological limitations such as night-
time stomatal conductance and severe water shortage, trees may be killed or cause
leaf burning and abscission, including twig and branch dieback. The major objec-
tive of planting any tree is to boost the streamflow volume of a catchment through
increased infiltration. Large-scale reforestation projects in different parts of the
world have indicated a significant detrimental impact on local and regional stream-
flow production due to increased evapotranspiration (ET). Moreover, the study con-
ducted by Ghimire et al. (2014) explained that from 1980 to 2000, 23,000 acres of
Central Nepal’s Middle Mountain Zone were planted with fast-growing coniferous
tree species (mostly Pinus roxburghii and P. patula), which resulted in enhanced
evapotranspiration (ET) that has adversely affected local and regional streamflow.
Different studies on transpiration and sap flow have suggested that varying environ-
mental conditions can be responsible for modulating the plant’s water uptake, which
further impacts the region’s water cycle.
Leaf stomatal conductance (gc) directly affects the transpiration rate as the tran-
spiration potential increases with an increase in leaf area (González-Rodríguez et al.
2008; Singh et al. 2018). A plant may more easily release water by transpiration
Table 40.1 Global status of sap flow measurement in trees

S. No. References Problem addressed Technology used Species
1. Čermák et al. Sap flow rate quantification Heat pulse Prunus avium L.
(1973) in Prunus avium method (wild cherry)
2. Hatton and Transpiration in Pinus Heat pulse Pinus radiata
Vertessy (1990) radiata through sap flow method (radiata pine)
3. Lu and Chacko Accuracy and sensitivity of Granier’s sap flow
Mangifera indica
(1996) Granier’s sap flow sensors sensors L.
in young mango (mango)
4. Martin (1999) Winter season sap flow and Heat balance Pinus taeda
transpiration in Pinus taeda method (loblolly pine)
and Pinus elliottii Engelm Pinus elliottii
Engelm.
(slash pine)
5. Marc and Using the deuterium tracing Constant heat sap Fagus sylvatica
Robinson (2004) method for sap flow and flow Granier (European beech)
stand-level transpiration of sensors
Fagus sylvatica
6. Kumagai et al. Radial variations in the sap Granier sap flow Cryptomeria
(2005) flow of Cryptomeria sensors japonica
japonica (Japanese cedar)
7. Nicolas et al. Water consumption in Compensation Prunus
(2005) Prunus armeniaca L. heat-pulse (CHP) armeniaca L.
(apricot)
8. Burgess (2006) Species response to summer Heat ratio method Eucalyptus
rainfall events (HRM) salmonophloia
(white-leaved
mallee)
Eucalyptus
salmonophloia
(Salmon gum),
Eucalyptus
wandoo (white
gum/wandoo)
9. Daley and Phillips Night time sap flow in acer Constant heat sap Acer rubrum L.
(2006) spp., and Betula spp. flow Granier (maple)
sensors Betula papyrifera
(paper birch)
Quercus rubra L.
(northern red oak
10. Daley et al. (2007) Seasonal changes in water Constant heat sap Betula lenta
use by Betula lenta flow Granier (black birch)
andTsuga spp. sensors Tsuga canadensis
Influence of eastern (eastern
hemlock loss and hemlock-spruce)
replacement on significant
components of ecosystem
water usage
(continued)
844 K. Bohra et al.

11. Fernández et al. The potential of sap flow Heat pulse probe Malus domestica
(2008) measurements for (apple)
scheduling irrigation fruit Olea europaea
tree orchards (olive)
12. González- Sap flow assessment in Heat ratio method Ficus carica
Rodríguez et al. different cultivars of Ficus (HRM) (fig)
(2008)
13. Schmidt et al. Water consumption in Thermal Quercus suber
(2008) Quercus suber under dissipation probes (Cork oak)
different soil quality and (TDP)
stand structure
14. Bequet et al. Tree water dynamics in Heat balance Pseudotsuga
(2010) Pseudotsuga menziesii, method menziesii
Pinus sylvestris and (Douglas fir)
Quercus petraea under the Pinus sylvestris
critical soil water conditions (scots pine)
Quercus petraea
(sessile oak)
15. Annamalainathan Water flux in a mature Thermal Hevea
et al. (2013) rubber plantation dissipation probes brasiliensis
(TDP) (rubber)
16. Ghimire et al. Transpiration and canopy Thermal heat Castanopsis
(2014) conductance based on sap dissipation and tribuloides
flow for Pinus roxburghii heat ratio method (chinquapin/
and Castanopsis tribuloides (HRM) chinkapin)
Pinus roxburghii
(Chir pine
17. Watham et al. Temporal variation in sap Heat ratio method Mallotus
(2017) flow rate of M. Philippensis (HRM) philippensis
and its climatic control (monkey face
tree)
18. Wu et al. (2018) Sap flow response to Thermal Hippophae
summer rainfall for dissipation probes rhamnoides
Hippophae rhamnoides and (TDP) (Seabuck thorn)
Pinus tabulaeformis Pinus
tabulaeformis
(Chinese pine)
19. Chen et al. (2020) Growing season sap flow of Thermal Acer truncatum
Pinus tabuliformis and Acer dissipation probes (Purpleblow
truncatum (TDP) maple)
Pinus
tabuliformis
(Chinese pine)
20. Bárek et al. (2021) Effect of weather changes Heat balance Juglans regia L.
on the water demands of method (walnut)
Juglans regia L.
(continued)

21. Mishra et al. Sap flux measurements in Thermal Citrus spp.
(2021) orange trees dissipation probe (Orange)
(TDP)
22. Kumar et al. 1. Variation in sap flow Thermal Castanopsis
(2023) pattern between pioneer dissipation probes hystrix
(Eurya spp. and (TDP) Eurya acuminate
Symplocos spp.) and (tapering Eurya)
late-successional species Symplocos
(Castanopsis spp.). racemosa
2. Impact of (Lodh tree)
environmental and
ecophysiological drivers
on the sap flow.(i)
through the stomata on its exterior surfaces when the air is dry (Singh et al. 2014;
Watham et al. 2017). Initially, (Rao et al. 1990; Singh and Verma 2013) identified
the factors influencing soil-plant-atmosphere interaction in rubber plants based on
the clone method, where the role of irradiance, air temperature, and VPD were
investigated. The results suggested that all three parameters play a pivotal role in
maintaining plant water status through their effects on stomatal resistance and
transpiration.
Similarly, Hanping et al. (2017) have determined the water consumption of
tomato plants and showed a seasonal relationship with three major environmental
parameters i.e., light intensity (LI), VPD, and air temperature (Ta). During the win-
ter season, the factors affecting the plants were in order of VPD > LI > Ta. In con-
trast, in the spring season, the order was changed to LI > VPD > Ta, which indicated
that irrespective of the seasons, LI and VPD are the major controls impacting sap
flow in tomato plantations. Watham et al. (2017) have quantified the sap flow
dynamics of Mallotus philippensis in the foothills of the Himalayas and found vary-
ing effects of sap flow at daily to seasonal scale and found air temperature and rela-
tive humidity as the primary controls affecting transpiration of M. philippensis.
Moreover, studies on seasonal patterns of transpiration have quantified precipita-
tion as one of the most important factors that modulate the stand-level transpiration
rate ((Burgess 2006). Some plants have evolved mechanisms to manage the water
scare conditions, such as developing deeper root systems, closing stomata to reduce
water loss, or undergoing dormancy until they receive more favorable conditions.
Daily sapflow density and sap flow in outer sapwood were higher in spring in cork
oak (Schmidt et al. 2008). Furthermore, Wu et al. (2018) have categorized the trees
based on stomata regulation of water use as isohydric and anisohydic. Isohydric
species reduce stomata conductance as the available soil water decreases, maintain-
ing relatively constant leaf water potential. However, anisohydric species allow
large fluctuations in leaf water use, sustaining higher stomata conductance than iso-
hydric species. It is assumed that anisohydric species can survive in drought-prone
habitats. Even the species nature, has significance effects on sap flow. The results
846 K. Bohra et al.
demonstrated by Zhao et al. (2023) revealed that both sap flux density and the sap
flow rates were higher in the pioneer species than the late successional species, sug-
gesting pioneer species have higher water movement potential.
Initially, Zhao et al. (2023) found an increasing trend of tree-to-tree sap flow in
Populus tomentosa and suggested a larger variation of sap flow in older trees.
Similarly, Mishra et al. (2021), have quantified the water requirement of orange
trees of age 5–15 years is around 49 L to 254 L and suggested a need for revised
guidelines to propose adequate water irrigation for the study area. It’s essential to
note the allometric relationship between sap flux and diameter can vary among spe-
cies, as different tree species have distinct hydraulic properties and growth patterns
for stand-level transpiration (Berry et al. 2018). To reduce the inaccuracy in sap flow
calculations, the sapwood area of the targeted tree must be calculated (Lu and
Chacko 1996). At the same time, the experiment by Kumagai et al. (2005) indicated
the stability in the radial sap flux densities for even-aged coniferous trees.
Rain events have their significance. Studies reveal that a deep root system and
available soil water can refill a tree’s bole water, as observed in Paper Birch by
Daley et al. (2007). The water distribution in tree trunks can be affected by pruning
and training operations, which are quite common in fruit orchards such as mango
and may affect the accuracy of sap flow measurements. Therefore, circumferential
and radial sap flow study is suggested (Lu and Chacko 1996). The irrigated walnut
species reported a higher sap flow rate of 150 g h−1 (35.62%) than non-irrigated
ones during the flowering stage (Bárek et al. 2021). This reflects the importance of
available water at different plant growth stages. In contrast, deficit irrigation is por-
trayed as a beneficial strategy, particularly for crops like olives and grapes, where it
can enhance fruit quality by avoiding excessive soil moisture (Fernández et al.
2008). This approach aligns with the broader concept of sustainable and efficient
water use in agriculture. However, Wu et al. (2018), found that the sap flux density
in the Pinus tabulaeformis was normal irrespective of the rainfall. It reduces its
stomatal conductance when the water available in soil decreases with the constant
leaf water potential, referring it as an isohydric species, but the Hippophae rham-
noidesshowed variations with the rainfall both in terms of sap flux density and leaf
water potential, for maintaining the stomatal conductivity just like an anisohydric
plant. An experiment conducted by Bequet et al. (2010) revealed that no significant
decrease was observed in sap flow by the Oak tree due to its deep root system and
positive responses to available soil moisture, while the Douglas-fir reported the
exact opposite result. Whereas, Daley et al. (2007) in his studies suggested the
important role of physiological properties played by Black Birch in transpiration
rates, such as the diffuse-porous xylem in the Black Birch having 110-fold greater
hydraulic conductivity than Eastern Hemlock with tracheid anatomy. Therefore,
more focus must be given to the management plans during recreational activities to
sustain the annual water balance and the continuous stream flows, mainly during the
peak growing season of Black Birch due to its excessive water demands. Hence,
there is an urgent need to monitor more aspects of sap flow measurements and to
conserve forests by prioritizing better management strategies for proper ecological
functioning and regular ecosystem services.
40.10 Conclusion
This chapter described the importance of sap flow and sap flow dynamics for vari-
ous tree species, their water regime, and multiple methods applied for sap flow
measurements. We found the variations in water demands of individual trees due to
numerous environmental conditions—VPD, solar radiations, air temperature,
available soil moisture and rainfall, etc., and morpho-physiological characteris-
tics—root system, canopy cover, D.B.H., stomatal conductance and leaf area, etc.
Moreover, the long-term assessment of plant water relation is essential to compre-
hend plants’ water uptake and sustainable reliance on available water. Species plan-
tation based on the water availability should be encouraged through the acquired
sap flow data. Changes in rainfall patterns over the past years have caused droughts
and exposed plants to water stress conditions. The continued examination of such
types of research and analysis of the reported data will allow us to assess the long-
term impact of the environment on plant-water relations and ultimately lead to the
frame of effective plant-based irrigation schemes.
References
Annamalainathan K, Joseph J, Alam B, Satheesh P, Jacob J (2013) Seasonal changes in xylem sap
flow rate in mature rubber plants. J Plant Crop 41(3):343–349
Bárek V, Kováčová M, Kišš V, Paulen O (2021) Water regime monitoring of the royal walnut
(Juglans regia L.) using sap flow and dendrometric measurements. Plan Theory 10(11):2354
Bequet R, Čermák J, Nadezhdina N, De Cannière C, Ceulemans R (2010) Tree water dynamics
non-destructively assessed through sap flow measurements and potential evapotranspiration.
Biol Plant 54:366–368
Berry ZC, Looker N, Holwerda F, Gómez Aguilar LR, Ortiz Colin P, González Martínez T,
Asbjornsen H (2018) Why size matters: the interactive influences of tree diameter distribution
and sap flow parameters on upscaled transpiration. Tree Physiol 38(2):263–275
their application. In: Kumar N, Singh H, Kumar A (eds) Renewable energy and Green technol-
Bowen IS (1926) The ratio of heat losses by conduction and by evaporation from any water sur-
face. Phys Rev 27(6):779–787
Burgess SSO (2006) Measuring transpiration responses to summer precipitation in a Mediterranean
climate: a simple screening tool for identifying plant water-use strategies. Physiol Plant
127(3):404–412
Calder I, Narayanswamy M, Srinivasalu N, Darling W, Lardner A (1986) Investigation into the use
of deuterium as a tracer for measuring transpiration from eucalypts. J Hydrol 84(3–4):345–351
Campbell G, Diaz R (1988) Simplified soil-water balance models to predict crop transpiration. In:
Drought research priorities for the dryland tropics. ICRISAT, pp 15–26
Čermák J, Deml M, Penka M (1973) A new method of sap flow rate determination in trees. Biol
Plant 15(3):171–178
848 K. Bohra et al.
Čermák J, Kučera J, Nadezhdina N (2004) Sap flow measurements with some thermodynamic
methods, flow integration within trees and scaling up from sample trees to entire forest stands.
Trees 18(5):529–546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-004-0339-6
Chen Z, Zhang Z, Sun G, Chen L, Xu H, Chen S (2020) Biophysical controls on nocturnal sap flow
in plantation forests in a semi-arid region of northern China. Agric For Meteorol 284:107904
Daley MJ, Phillips NG (2006) Interspecific variation in nighttime transpiration and stomatal con-
ductance in a mixed New England deciduous forest. Tree Physiol 26(4):411–419
Daley MJ, Phillips NG, Pettijohn C, Hadley JL (2007) Water use by eastern hemlock (Tsuga
canadensis) and black birch (Betula lenta): implications of effects of the hemlock woolly adel-
gid. Can J For Res 37(10):2031–2040
Dawson TE (1996) Determining water use by trees and forests from isotopic, energy balance and
transpiration analyses: the roles of tree size and hydraulic lift. Tree Physiol 16(1–2):263–272
29(2):451–457
Fernández J, Green S, Caspari H, Diaz-Espejo A, Cuevas M (2008) The use of sap flow measure-
ments for scheduling irrigation in olive, apple and Asian pear trees and in grapevines. Plant
Soil 305:91–104
Ghimire CP, Lubczynski MW, Bruijnzeel LA, Chavarro-Rincón D (2014) Transpiration and can-
opy conductance of two contrasting forest types in the lesser Himalaya of Central Nepal. Agric
For Meteorol 197:76–90
González-Rodríguez A, Oncins J, Peters J, Bocero J, Poyatos R (2008) Sap flow measurements in
different young fig trees cultivars in Tenerife Island. pp 375–380
Granier A (1985) A new method of sap flow measurement in tree stems. Ann For Sci 42:193–200
Hales S (1727) Statical essays: vegetable Staticks: or, an account of some statical experiments on
the SAP in vegetables: being an ESSAY towards a natural history of vegetation. Also, a speci-
men of an attempt to analyse the air, by a great variety of Chymio-Statical experiments; which
were read at several meetings before the royal society, vol 1, W. and J. Innys; T. Woodward
Hanping M, Ullah I, Jiheng N, Javed Q, Azeem A (2017) Estimating tomato water consumption by
sap flow measurement in response to water stress under greenhouse conditions. J Plant Interact
12(1):402–413
Hatton TJ, Vertessy RA (1990) Transpiration of plantation Pinus radiata estimated by the heat
pulse method and the Bowen ratio. Hydrol Process 4(3):289–298
Huber B (1932) Beobachtung und Messung pflanzlicher Saftströme. Ber Dt Bot Ges 50:89–109
Kline JR, Martin JR, Jordan CF, Koranda JJ (1970) Measurement of transpiration in tropical trees
with Tritiated water. Ecology 51(6):1068–1073. https://doi.org/10.2307/1933635
Kozlowski TT (1982) Water supply and tree growth. Part I. Water deficits. For Abstr.;(United
Kingdom) 43(2)
Kumagai T, Aoki S, Nagasawa H, Mabuchi T, Kubota K, Inoue S, Utsumi Y, Otsuki K (2005)
Effects of tree-to-tree and radial variations on sap flow estimates of transpiration in Japanese
cedar. Agric For Meteorol 135(1–4):110–116
49(1):38–44
Kumar M, Joseph G, Bhutia Y, Krishnaswamy J (2023) Sap flow responses in pioneer and late-
successional tree species in secondary tropical montane forests of Eastern Himalaya, India. J
Exp Bot erad207
Looker N, Martin J, Jencso K, Hu J (2016) Contribution of sapwood traits to uncertainty in conifer
sap flow as estimated with the heat-ratio method. Agric For Meteorol 223:60–71
Lu, P., & Chacko, E. K. (1996). Xylem sap flow measurements in mango trees. 339–350
Luvall JC, Murphy CE Jr (1982) Evaluation of the tritiated water method for measurement of
transpiration in young Pinus taeda L. For Sci 28(1):5–16
Marc V, Robinson M (2004) Application of the deuterium tracing method for the estimation of
tree sap flow and stand transpiration of a beech forest (Fagus silvatica L.) in a mountainous
Mediterranean region. J Hydrol 285(1–4):248–259
Marshall D (1958) Measurement of sap flow in conifers by heat transport. Plant Physiol
33(6):385–396
Martin TA (1999) Winter season tree sap flow and stand transpiration in an intensively-managed
loblolly and slash pine plantation. J Sustain For 10(1–2):155–163
Mishra AK, Pujari PR, Dhyani S, Verma P, Janipella R, Balwant P, Purkayastha SD, Quamar R,
Veligeti J (2021) Assessing water requirement of orange trees using sap flow measurements
in Narkhed-Pandhurna critical zone observatory (CZO) in Central India. J Agrometeorol
23(1):14–20
Nicolas E, Torrecillas A, Ortuno M, Domingo R, Alarcón J (2005) Evaluation of transpiration in
adult apricot trees from sap flow measurements. Agric Water Manag 72(2):131–145
Indian J Hill Farm 34:272–276
Poyatos R, Granda V, Molowny-Horas R, Mencuccini M, Steppe K, Martínez-Vilalta J (2016)
SAPFLUXNET: towards a global database of sap flow measurements. Tree Physiol
36(12):1449–1455
Rao GG, Rao PS, Rajagopal R, Devakumar A, Vijayakumar K, Sethuraj M (1990) Influence of
soil, plant and meteorological factors on water relations and yield in Hevea brasiliensis. Int J
Biometeorol 34:175–180
Schmidt M, Schreiber D, Correia A, Ribeiro N, Surový P, Otieno D, Tenhunen J, Pereira J (2008)
Sap flow in cork oak trees at two contrasting sites in Portugal, pp 345–352
Singh H (2021) Process‐based carbon sequestration study with reference to the energy‐water‐car-
bon flux in a forest ecosystem. Climate impacts on sustainable natural resource management,
pp 336–351
850 K. Bohra et al.
Singh H, Kumar M (2022) Climate change and its impact on Indian Himalayan Forests: cur-
rent status and research needs. In: Rani S, Kumar R (eds) Climate change. Springer Climate.
Smith D, Allen S (1996) Measurement of sap flow in plant stems. J Exp Bot 47(12):1833–1844
Stull RB (1988) An introduction to boundary layer meteorology, vol 13. Springer
Watham T, Patel N, Kushwaha S, Dadhwal V (2017) A study on sap flow rate of Mallotusphilippensis
and its relationship with environmental factors. J Agrometeorol 19(2):104–109
Wu X, Tang Y, Chen Y, Wen J, Xie Y, Lu S (2018) Sap flow characteristics and responses to sum-
mer rainfall for Pinus tabulaeformis and Hippophae rhamnoides in the loess hilly region of
China. Ecol Evol 8(1):617–630
Zhao X, Li X, Hu W, Liu J, Di N, Duan J, Li D, Liu Y, Guo Y, Wang A (2023) Long-term varia-
tion of the sap flow to tree diameter relation in a temperate poplar forest. J Hydrol 618:129189
Chapter 41
Identifying Future Research
and Directions to Address Forest
and Climate Change Challenges
Ajay Sojitra, Divya Arora, Kareena Singh, Apurva Malik,

and Aman Mahajan
Abstract Climate change poses an alarming and far-reaching challenge that pro-
foundly affects forests globally. These ecosystems are increasingly vulnerable to
shifts in climatic variables, notably temperature fluctuations, changes in precipita-
tion patterns, and the escalation of severe weather events. This chapter delves into
the critical research gaps and emerging directions necessary to advance scientific
understanding of climate change’s impacts on forests, their functioning, and strate-
gies to combat these effects. Forests play a pivotal role in climate adaptation and
mitigation by serving as carbon sinks, regulating temperatures, preserving biodiver-
sity, and providing many ecosystem goods and services. However, they confront
unprecedented challenges due to climate change. Therefore, bridging existing
knowledge gaps and addressing emerging research needs is imperative to tackle
climate change issues effectively. This chapter addresses various aspects of forest
and climate dynamics, including assessing vulnerability and enhanced adaptation
processes. It underscores the significance of quantifying carbon dynamics in forest
ecosystems, focusing on how climate change affects carbon sequestration, storage,
and emissions, influencing forests’ adaptation and mitigation to climate change.
Furthermore, it emphasizes the necessity for improved methodologies and data to
inform policymakers in formulating effective climate change mitigation strategies.
It also examines forest ecosystem resilience to climate change, highlighting genetic
A. Sojitra · A. Mahajan
Genetics and Tree Improvement Division, ICFRE-Forest Research Institute, Dehradun,
Uttarakhand, India
D. Arora (*)
Division of Forest Ecology and Climate Change, ICFRE-Himalayan Forest Research
Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India
K. Singh
Forest Botany Division, ICFRE-Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
A. Malik
Forest Ecology and Climate Change Division, ICFRE-Forest Research Institute, Dehradun,
Uttarakhand, India
Ltd. 2024
852 A. Sojitra et al.
diversity, adaptive management practices, and disturbance regimes. Additionally, it

explores climate-induced shifts in tree ranges and the ecological ramifications of
extreme weather events. Moreover, the chapter underscores the invaluable contribu-
tion of indigenous and local communities to forest conservation and management,
emphasizing the importance of collaborative efforts. It also discusses the role of
policy governance and economic valuation in addressing climate change impacts on
forests, advocating for accurate valuation methods for ecosystem services. In addi-
tion, it explores the application and potential of remote sensing and sensor-based
technology in assessing real-time forest health and monitoring climate impacts.
This comprehensive study aims to provide valuable insights for policymakers, sci-
entists, academicians, conservationists, climatologists, and other stakeholders,
helping them understand future research needs in forest and climate change.
Keywords Forest and climate change · Future research needs · Adaptive resilience
· Advanced technology · Forest ecosystem monitoring
41.1 Introduction
The global climate is undergoing unprecedented changes, and one of the most vul-
nerable ecosystems is the world’s forests. Forests are crucial in regulating the
Earth’s climate, providing habitat for countless species, and sustaining human live-
lihoods. However, they are against threats due to climate change and anthropogenic
activities (Gupta et al. 2018a, b; Kumar et al. 2018, 2021a, b, c; Singh and Kumar
2022a, b). This scientific introduction aims to explore the current challenges facing
forests in the context of climate change and outline potential future research direc-
tions to address these challenges. Understanding the intricate relationship between
forests and climate change helps develop effective conservation and sustainable
management strategies.
Within the serene depths of the forest, climate change unfolds a compelling
story. The intricate ecosystem, once a sanctuary of balance, now becomes a narrator,
revealing profound shifts in nature’s rhythm. Wetlands, such as marshes, rivers,
mangroves, coral reefs, and other coastal and inland habitats, play a key role in
buffering the effects of climate change and supporting climate adaptation and miti-
gation (Singh et al. 2023). They regulate droughts and floods, provide clean water,
store carbon, and reduce disaster risk by acting as natural buffers. Forests and wet-
land ecosystems also have a crucial function in carbon storage, contributing to cli-
mate mitigation at the global level. It signifies a significant transformation, where
the forest becomes a subtle yet powerful storyteller of Earth’s evolving journey.
However, in recent decades (Potapov et al. 2008), infrastructure developments,
deforestation, the expansion of irrigated agriculture, and increasing urbanization
have led to a dramatic decline in wetlands. This, in turn, has resulted in the depletion
of fish spawning and feeding grounds and reduced water quality. Farmers and
41 Identifying Future Research and Directions to Address Forest and Climate Change… 853
wetlands communities in many areas are also further intensified by climate change
(Nautiyal et al. 2022).
For instance, the Amazon rainforest, sometimes called the “lungs of the Earth,”
is a massive and vital ecosystem spread over many South American nations. It
serves as a focus for study on climate change due to its biodiversity, ability to
sequester carbon, and impact on both regional and global temperatures (Dhyani
et al. 2021). Concerns are raised about the Amazon becoming entangled in a series
of “feedback loops” that might drastically accelerate the forest loss and degradation
rate and wipe out the Amazon Biome due to the interaction between habitat destruc-
tion trends and climate change trends (Sonter et al. 2017). This threshold, often
known as a “tipping point,” may be reached when regional rainfall is reduced or
when Amazon trees gradually disappear and are replaced by brush and savanna
prone to wildfires (an ecological tipping point). (Climatic tipping point). Nepstad
(2008) estimated that by 2030, current trends in livestock, agriculture, logging
expansion, fire, and drought could destroy or severely damage 55% of the Amazon
rainforest due to the synergistic effects of deforestation and regional climate change.
This is a dire scenario. According to the simulations, the Amazon’s temperatures
would rise by 2–3 °C by 2050. Simultaneously, significant drying will result from
less rainfall during dry moths. The grave repercussions of these modifications
(Nirmal and Singh 2021). In addition to substantial changes in seasonality, the pro-
jected temperature rises and precipitation decreases during already dry moths,
which might lead to prolonged and perhaps more severe droughts. There are worries
that the Amazon region may start producing more carbon dioxide (CO2) than it is
now. Carbon dioxide is a gas that is mainly released when fossil fuels like coal, oil,
and natural gas are burned. It is the primary cause of global climate change. Even
though deforestation accounts for 20% of worldwide CO2 emissions, the Amazon
rainforest absorbs CO2. However, it is predicted that rising temperatures will lead to
less precipitation and that the Amazon will “savannize,” turning the area into a
source of CO2 rather than a sink (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, d, 2021a, b, c; Manoj
et al. 2021; Sharma and Singh 2021).
Identifying and promoting climate-resilient to lessen the effects of climate
change on forests and tree species are essential (Kumar et al. 2021a, b, c). Recent
advances in remote sensing and genomic technologies offer a way to assess the
adaptive capacity of certain tree species to changing climate conditions (Kumar
et al. 2020a, b, c, d). Integrating this knowledge into afforestation and reforestation
programs can enhance the resilience of forest ecosystems. Current research, such as
studies on the genomics of stress tolerance in trees (Smith et al. 2022), prepares the
ground for the subsequent research into selecting and breeding climate-resilient tree
species. Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) involves using biodiversity and eco-
system services to help communities adapt to the unfavorable consequences of cli-
mate change. This approach recognizes the interconnectedness of nature and human
well-being. Recent studies, such as the work by Chanza et al. (2021) on the role of
forests in climate adaptation, highlight the potential of EbA in fostering climate-
resilient landscapes. Future studies should focus more intently on the design and
implementation of EbA strategies, considering different regions’ socio-economic

and cultural contexts.
Advancements in remote sensing technologies and big data analysis offer unprec-
edented opportunities for monitoring and assessing forest dynamics at various
scales. Integrating satellite imagery, LiDAR data, and algorithms for machine learn-
ing enables real-time monitoring of forest health, identifying disturbances, and
assessing carbon stocks. Ongoing research, such as applying deep learning forest
monitoring (Li et al. 2023), underscores the potential for further innovation in
remote sensing techniques. Future research should focus on refining and standard-
izing these tools for widespread forest management and conservation use.
Incorporating local communities and indigenous knowledge into forest manage-
ment is essential for achieving sustainable and resilient outcomes. Recent research
by Berkes (2021) emphasizes the importance of traditional ecological knowledge in
adapting to changing environmental conditions. Future research should explore
effective mechanisms for integrating indigenous perspectives into decision-making
processes, ensuring that conservation and management strategies are culturally sen-
sitive and locally relevant.
Effective policies and structures of governance are necessary for promoting
climate-resilient forests. Future studies ought to fill in the gaps in policy implemen-
tation, evaluate the performance of the current frameworks, and propose innovative
governance structures that consider the dynamic nature of climate change and its
impacts on forests. The challenges posed by climate change to global forests neces-
sitate a multidisciplinary and collaborative research approach. This scientific intro-
duction has outlined vital research areas, incorporating the latest findings and
references to guide future investigations. Prioritizing climate-resilient tree species
selection, embracing ecosystem-based adaptation strategies, leveraging remote
sensing technologies, integrating indigenous knowledge, and enhancing forest gov-
ernance may help researchers create practical plans to lessen the effects of climate
change on forests. Through these efforts, the scientific community can play a crucial
part in influencing practices and policies that ensure the sustainable and resilient
future of our planet’s invaluable forest ecosystems.
41.2 Definition and Concept of Vulnerability
Vulnerability is defined as (Zhou et al. 2022) the degree to which something (a spe-
cies, an ecosystem or habit, a group of people, etc.,.) is vulnerable to the negative
consequences of climate change, such as its extremes and unpredictability, or inca-
pable of handling them. Further explanations of vulnerability include the kind,
amount, and pace of climatic fluctuation to which a system or species is exposed,
the sensitivity of the system or species, and the adaptability of the system or species.
However, exposure is the degree to which a group, resource, or region is subject to
climatic changes (it is characterized by the magnitude, frequency, duration, and/or
spatial extent of a weather event or pattern, some regions, sectors, group of people
or species are more exposed to extreme climate hazards than others because of their
location) (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, d). The sensitivity is the extent to which a system
responds to or is impacted by climate change. The sensitivity of ecological systems
to climate change is usually described in conditions (i.e., temperature, pH, etc.), and
the sensitivity of social systems depends on a range of economic, political, cultural,
technological, and institutional factors. Exposure and sensitivity describe the pos-
sible impact of a climate event or change upon an object (Kumar and Singh 2020).
However, to understand vulnerability, this interaction of exposure and sensitivity on
the ground is moderated by adaptive capacity. Adaptive capacity testifies to the abil-
ity of the system to change in a way that makes it better equipped to manage its
exposure and or sensitivity to a threat. Adaptive capacity refers to the natural ability
of the system to adapt to evolving circumstances (e.g., for an ecosystem to retreat
inland over time in response to rising sea levels) or to human resource availability
and capacity to manage the system to adjust to change (e.g., human, technological
and financial capital) as well as the capacity and political will of governance struc-
tures to deploy those resources.
41.3 Analytical Framework to Vulnerability Assess (V.A.)

of Ecological Systems
While the above understanding of vulnerability appears attractive, it is not necessar-

ily straightforward to apply it to complex ecological or social systems, as is found
in the wetland and forest context, even when considering either of these in isolation.
In the real world, we are dealing with combined ecological solutions that are even
more complicated. Peng et al. (2023) provided steps to carry out the vulnerability
assessment, including adaptation planning of the forest ecosystem.
Step 1: Baseline Research
Baseline research is needed to gather information on the selected forests and com-
prehensively understand the site. This includes information on essential ecosystems
and species within the forest, socio-economic data, and information on significant
resources to the ecosystem. In addition, gathering information on existing climate
projections for the research area will help plan for future impacts.
Economic data can be collected from secondary and focus group discussions or
key informant interviews. In addition to the primary socio-economic data such as
population, poverty rate, ethnicity, and major livelihoods, among others, researchers
should collect data on the following four areas:
• Resource use by communities: a resource mapping exercise is included through-
out assessing vulnerabilities. In addition, a GIS expert should conduct forest
mapping.
• Land tenure and land use rights (formal and informal/customary)
• Governance (institutions, management bodies)
• Stakeholder analysis, particularly of the power, influence, and interest of differ-

ent forest stakeholders.
Step 2: Form a V.A. Team
Target communities for a climate change vulnerability assessment team may
include:
• Engaging with residents, community leaders, and local organizations to under-
stand the specific vulnerabilities and concerns of the community.
• Working with environmental and community-focused NGOs to leverage exper-
tise, resources, and community connections.
• Collaborating with businesses and industries to assess the potential impact of
climate change on their operations and supply chains.
• Partnering with academic and research institutions to access scientific expertise,
data and modeling capabilities.
• Collaborating with international groups that might offer assistance, guidance or
funding for climate change vulnerability assessments.
Step 3: Train the V.A. Team Members
The team leader should lead training for team members on using the VA Tool and
Adaptation Planning process. The training should be conducted using the local lan-
guage, with adequate time for questions and for team members to become familiar
with the VA Tool to make them comfortable using it during the field study. During
the training, team members should be encouraged to ask questions about the pro-
cesses specific to the forests being studied.
Step 4 Define the Scope of the V.A. and Target Communities
The scope of the V.A. need must be restricted to adjacent forests that rely on its
resources for their livelihoods. In addition, the V.A.s will generally be limited to
livelihoods directly related to environmental resources and affected by climate
threats. However, other factors outside this scope, such as other livelihoods and
socio-economic factors, non-climate threats, and threats from outside the wetland
boundary, will need to be considered while assessing vulnerability. In particular, the
connection of the wetland with the broader landscape and the linkages between the
site and provincial, national, and global policies need to be considered.
For each site, the V.A. teams will have to decide on the area to be incorporated
into the evaluation. The selection should include:
• Forests that are representative of different habitat types within the area.
• Forests in the core, buffer, and transition zones (if relevant) are of different clus-
ters with different ecological characteristics.
A climate change V.A. team is typically tasked with evaluating the probable effects
of climate change on a particular system, community, or organization. The scope of
such a team’s responsibilities can vary based on the context and objectives of the
assessment. The essential elements that might be included in the scope of a climate
change vulnerability assessment team.
• Defining the specific geographic area or ecosystem under consideration. This

could include a city, region, coastal zone, forest, or other relevant environment.
• Assessing the vulnerability of critical physical infrastructure to climate-related
impacts. This may include buildings, transportation systems, water supply, and
energy infrastructure.
• Evaluating the vulnerability of natural resources such as water resources, biodi-
versity, ecosystems, and agricultural lands to climate change.
• Analyzing the potential impacts on human systems, including health, liveli-
hoods, and well-being. This could involve considering the vulnerability of com-
munities, particularly those in low-income or marginalized areas.
• Evaluating how susceptible social and economic structures are to climate change,
including employment, income, and community resilience.
• Evaluating the vulnerability of cultural heritage sites and practice to climate-
related impacts.
• Examining the adequacy of existing governance structures and policies in
addressing climate change vulnerabilities and implementing adaptive measures.
• Engaging with local communities, stakeholders, and experts to gather diverse
perspectives and insights into the vulnerabilities and potential adaptation
strategies.
• Recommending adaptation and mitigation strategies to enhance resilience and
reduce vulnerability to climate change impacts.
• Establishing mechanisms for ongoing monitoring and evaluation to track changes
in invulnerability over time and assess the effectiveness of implemented
strategies.
Step 5: Introduction of the V.A. Project to the Communities
Introducing a vulnerability assessment project to communities requires effective
communication, transparency, and engagement.
• Clearly articulate the purpose of the vulnerability assessment project. Explain
why it’s important, what the goals are, and how it will benefit the community
regarding resilience, sustainability, and well-being.
• Organize community engagement meetings to introduce the project. Ensure
these meetings are accessible and consider using various communication chan-
nels to reach a diverse audience. Create informative materials such as brochures
and pamphlets explaining the project in simple and accessible language. Include
visuals to help convey information effectively.
• Conduct presentations and demonstrations to explain the vulnerability assess-
ment process, methodologies, and expected outcomes. Use real-life examples
and case studies to make the information relatable.
• Communicate the benefits of the vulnerability assessment for the community.
Emphasize how the project can help identify and address vulnerabilities, enhance
community resilience, and contribute to sustainable development.
• Be prepared to address concerns and questions from community members.
Establish an open dialogue to ensure community members feel heard and their
input is valued.
• Identify and involve local leaders, influencers, and respected figures. Their sup-
port can help build trust and credibility for the project.
• Clearly outline how community members can participate in the project, includ-
ing providing feedback, sharing local knowledge, or actively participating in vul-
nerability assessment activities.
• Establish online platforms, such as a project website or social media accounts, to
share information, updates, and relevant resources. This can enhance communi-
cation and engagement, especially with a broader audience.
• Consider the unique characteristics of the community and tailor your communi-
cation strategies accordingly. This may involve using the local languages, con-
sidering cultural norms, and adapting the messaging to resonate with the
community’s values.
• Communicate the project’s intentions and seek permission from the community
leaders or relevant authorities. Emphasize collaboration and the participatory
nature of the vulnerability assessment,
• Establish a feedback mechanism where community members can provide input
throughout the project. This helps build a sense of ownership and ensures com-
munity perspectives are considered.
Step 6: To Create a Choice for Adapting to Climate Change
It involves a systematic process that considers the specific vulnerabilities of a sys-
tem, community, or ecosystem and identifies strategies to enhance resilience.
• Conduct a comprehensive assessment of climate risks and vulnerabilities in the
target area. Consider factors such as temperature changes, precipitation patterns,
extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and other relevant climate change impacts.
• Ascertain is the industry’s most susceptible to climate change in the region. This
could include agriculture, water resources, infrastructure, health, biodiver-
sity, etc.
• Define clear adaptation objectives based on the identified vulnerabilities.
Prioritize actions based on the severity of risks and potential for positive impact.
• Evaluate the existing adaptive capacity of the community or system. Consider
social, economic, and institutional elements that might help or impede attempts
at adaption.
• Consider nature-based solutions that leverage natural processes to enhance resil-
ience. This may include reforestation, wetland reforestation, sustainable land
management, and green infrastructure.
• Explore and create technical remedies that can mitigate climate risks. This could
involve the use of climate risks. This could affect climate-resilient crops,
improved water management technologies, renewable energy sources, and
climate-smart infrastructure.
• Identify and implement measures to enhance the resilience of critical infrastruc-
ture, such as roads, bridges, buildings, and utilities, to withstand the impacts of
climate change.
• Establish a monitoring and evaluation framework to track the effectiveness of

adaptation options over time. Regularly assess and adjust strategies based on
new information and changing climate conditions.
41.4 Rapid Vulnerability Assessment Tools
The Rapid Vulnerability Assessment is a complex process that involves evaluating a

system or community’s exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity to climate
change impacts. Various tools and techniques are employed to carry out such assess-
ments. Here’s a list of tools commonly used in climate change vulnerability
assessments.
1. GIS (Geographic Information System) Tools: ArcGIS: A widely used GIS
software for mapping and spatial analysis.
2. QGIS: An open-source GIS software for creating, editing, visualizing, and ana-
lyzing spatial data.
3. IPCC Data Distribution Centre: Provides access to a wide range of climate-
related datasets.
4. Climate Data Tools (CDAT): A collection of tools for analyzing and visualiza-
tion of Climate data.
5. Climate Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP): Provides output from
global climate models for climate change research.
6. Remote Sensing Google Earth Engine: A cloud-based planetary-scale envi-
ronmental data analysis platform.
7. MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer): Provides sat-
ellite data for monitoring changes in land surface conditions.
8. Social Vulnerability Index (SoVI): Measures the social vulnerability of com-
munities to environmental hazards.
9. Hazus: FEMA’s tool for estimating potential losses from earthquakes, floods,
and hurricanes.
10. Adaptation Support Tool(AST): Helps develop climate change adaptation
strategies.
11. CommunityViz: A scenario planning and visualization tool for assessing the
impact of land-use decisions.
12. OpenQuake: A platform for seismic risk assessment.
13. HEAT (Health Economic Assessment Tool): Assesses health risks and bene-
fits of climate change mitigation strategies.
14. NatureServe Climate Change Vulnerability Index: Assesses the vulnerabil-
ity of plant and animal species to climate change.
15. Vulnerability and Resilience Indicators for the Adaptation of Urban
Ecosystems (VERNA): Focuses on urban ecosystems.
16. Aqueduct Water Risk Atlas: Assesses water-related risks, including scarcity,
drought, and flood risks.
17. SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tools): Models the impacts of land man-
agement practices on water, sediment, and agriculture chemical yields.
When conducting a climate change V.A., it’s essential to use an amalgam of these
tools and approaches to evaluate the diverse aspects of vulnerability in each context
comprehensively. Additionally, staying updated with the latest scientific advance-
ments and tools in the field is crucial for practical assessment.
41.5 Narrative Report Structure and Content

on Vulnerability Assessment
After completing the baseline and V.A., the assessment team will write a narrative
report. A narrative report on a climate change vulnerability assessment should pro-
vide a comprehensive and cohesive overview of the assessment process, findings,
and recommendations. The structure and content of the report can be organized as
follows.
(Title of Report)
Title for example ‘Vulnerability Assessment on Climate Change.’
Executive Summary:
• Introduction: Briefly introduce the purpose and objective of the vulnera-
bility assessment.
Key Findings: Summarize the main finding of the assessment, highlighting
key vulnerabilities identified.
Recommendations: Provide high-level recommendations based on the
assessment findings.
Key Impacts: Summarize the potential impacts of climate change on the
studied system or community.
Table of Contents:
• List the main sections and subsections of the report.
Introduction:
• Background: Provide background information on the region, community,
or system being assessed. Include the rationale for conducting the vulner-
ability assessment.
Objectives:
• Clearly state the objectives of the vulnerability assessment.
What specific questions or issues is the assessment aiming to address?
Methodology:
• Data Collection: Describe the methods and tools used for data collection,
including any surveys, interview or modelling approaches.
Data Sources: Specify the sources of data used in the assessment, such as
climate models, socioeconomic data, and historical records.
Analytical Framework: Explain the analytical framework used to assess
vulnerability, including exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity.
Climate change Scenario:
• Present the climate change scenario considered in the assessment:
Describe the range of potential climate impacts considered. Include both
current and projected future climate conditions.
41.6 Adaptation Planning
The adaptation planning phase follows the completion of the Vulnerability

Assessment. Adapting to climate change is a multifaceted and dynamic process
encompassing various strategies and actions to reduce vulnerability and enhance
resilience in changing climatic conditions. As the global climate continues to evolve,
with observable shifts in temperature, precipitation patterns, sea levels, and the reg-
ularity and severity of adverse weather conditions, the imperative for effective adap-
tation planning becomes increasingly evident. Adaption involves anticipating and
responding to the impacts of climate change, recognizing that some level of change
is inevitable due to past and present emissions (Amorim-Maia et al. 2022).
At its core, adaptation planning is a systematic and iterative process that requires
a deep understanding is a systematic and iterative process that requires a deep
understanding of current and projected climate risks, vulnerability assessment of
specific systems or communities, and the development and implementation of tar-
geted strategies to minimize negative impacts (Kumar et al. 2019). The planning
process is not a one-size-fits-all endeavor; instead, it demands a contextualized
approach that considers the unique characteristics, needs, and capacities of the enti-
ties involved, which can range from local communities and ecosystems to national
governments and global institutions (Sample et al. 2022). One key element of adap-
tation planning is the identification of climate change’s impacts on different sectors,
such as water resources, agriculture, health, infrastructure, and ecosystems.
Understanding the specific vulnerabilities within these sectors is crucial for devis-
ing effective and tailored adaptation measures. For instance, in agricultural plan-
ning, considerations may include shifts in growing seasons, changes in precipitation
patterns, and developing drought-resistant crops. Similarly, infrastructure adapta-
tion planning might involve the assessment and modification of buildings and trans-
portation systems to withstand more frequent and severe storms or rising sea levels
(Palik et al. 2022).
A critical aspect of successful adaptation planning is integrating scientific knowl-

edge, traditional and indigenous knowledge, and local expertise. Collaborative
efforts that involve scientists, policymakers, local communities, and other stake-
holders foster a holistic understanding of the challenges and potential solutions.
This all-encompassing strategy guarantees that adaptation strategies reflect the best
available scientific information and account for the unique experiences and observa-
tions of those on the front lines of climate impacts. Moreover, effective adaptation
planning necessitates a commitment to long-term thinking and flexibility. Climate
change is an evolving and complex phenomenon, and adaptation strategies must be
designed with a horizon that extends beyond short-term political cycles. Adaptive
management approaches, which allow for adjustments based on new information
and changing circumstances, are integral to the success of long-term adaptation
initiatives. This flexibility is particularly relevant given the ambiguities around
potential climate scenarios and the need for continuous learning and improvement
(Singh and Kumar 2022a, b).
Financial and technological resources play a crucial role in adaptation planning
and implementation. Adequate funding is required for the development and execu-
tion of adaptation strategies, especially in vulnerable regions that may lack the
financial capacity to invest in resilience measures. Transferring technology and
knowledge between regions and countries can facilitate more effective adaptation.
This includes sharing best practices, innovative technologies, and capacity-building
initiatives to empower communities to adapt successfully to changing climate con-
ditions. International collaboration is another key aspect of adaptation planning,
recognizing that climate change is a global challenge that requires coordinated
efforts. Through platforms like the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), countries come together to share experiences, negoti-
ate agreements, and mobilize resources for adaptation projects. Global initiatives
also allow developed nations to support developing nations in their adaptation
efforts, acknowledging countries’ differentiated responsibilities and capacities to
address climate change impacts (Singh et al. 2014).
41.7 What Types of Approaches Are Being Used

in Adaptation Planning and Implementation?
Adapting to the impacts of climate change on forests requires a diverse portfolio of

planning and practices. The following list outlines adaptations that encompass vari-
ous subsets of forest management and climate change resilience:
Climate-resilient tree species selection: Identify and promote tree species with
Inherent tolerance to climate stressors. Implement genetic research and breeding
programs to develop climate-resilient tree varieties. This approach must compre-
hensively understand the traits associated with climate resilience and the mecha-
nisms involved in promoting such resilience in tree populations.
• Ecological Assessment: It needs intensive research to choose representative sites

across diverse climate zones to capture various environmental conditions. It can
be done through field surveys to assess the performance of different tree species
under prevailing climate stressors. Gather data on tree growth rates, mortality
rates, and reproductive success, considering variables such as temperature, pre-
cipitation, and soil characteristics (Singh and Verma 2013).
• Genetic research needs molecular techniques such as DNA sequencing to assess
the genetic diversity within and among tree populations (Singh et al. 2017). It
includes exploring the genetic basis of climate resilience by identifying genes
associated with stress response, adaptation, and physiological tolerance. More
specifically, GWAS should be conducted to connect particular genetic markers to
climate resilience-related aspects (Gupta et al. 2019).
• Efficiently, breeding programs need to be established by choosing a parent tree
with demonstrated resilience traits based on the genetic research findings. For
cross-breeding, employ controlled pollination methods to create hybrid offspring
with a combination of desirable traits. The most mandatory step is to evaluate the
performance of the progeny in controlled environments and field trials to identify
promising climate-resilient varieties.
• Climate modelling is essential to forecast future climatic scenarios for the
research region. Additionally, the possible distribution of tree species under
future climatic circumstances will be evaluated by utilizing species distribution
modelling (SDM) tools (Gupta et al. 2018a, b). Analyze the candidate species’
climatic niches to determine which are more likely to adapt to changing environ-
mental circumstances.
• Set up experimental plots with diverse tree species, including those identified as
potentially resilient through genetic and ecological assessments.
• Regularly monitor trees’ growth, survival, and reproduction in the experimental
plots, collecting data on environmental variables.
41.8 Carbon Sequestration and Carbon Trading for Climate

Change Assessments
The imperative to address climate change has propelled research and policy efforts
toward innovative tactics that improve carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere
and lower greenhouse gas emissions (Sharma et al. 2017). Carbon trading, cap-and-
trade systems, and carbon sequestration are pivotal components in this global
endeavor. While both play integral roles in climate change mitigation, persistent
research gaps underscore the need for deeper insights and methodologies to maxi-
mize their effectiveness (Sharma et al. 2019). Carbon sequestration involves captur-
ing and storing carbon dioxide to prevent its release into the atmosphere. This
encompasses diverse strategies, including ecosystem-based sequestration in forests
and wetlands, direct air capture technologies, and novel farming techniques that
improve soil carbon sequestration (Yadav et al. 2019). However, research gaps per-
sist in these domains, hindering the entire deployment and optimization of carbon
sequestration strategies. Challenges related to the long-term stability of stored car-
bon, the scalability and environmental impact of direct air capture technologies, and
the social acceptance and governance of sequestration projects demand comprehen-
sive investigations and updated methodologies (Kumar et al. 2020a, b, c, d).
On the other hand, it involves the establishment of emission caps, allowing enti-
ties to buy and sell emission allowances. Despite its widespread adoption, several
research gaps challenge optimizing carbon trading mechanisms. Market dynamics,
inclusivity, social equity, and potential linkages between regional markets demand
a more nuanced understanding (Rawat et al. 2020). Additionally, preventing fraud,
determining an accurate baseline for emissions, and comprehending the behavioral
economics influencing market participants necessitate innovative research method-
ologies. As the world endeavors to transition to a low-carbon economy, addressing
these challenges becomes crucial for the success of carbon trading systems (Kumar
et al. 2020a, b, c, d). Carbon trading and carbon sequestration represent essential
components in the global effort to mitigate climate change by reducing greenhouse
gas emissions and enhancing carbon removal from the atmosphere. Even though
these fields have seen tremendous advancements, persistent research gaps necessi-
tate a deeper understanding and updated methodology to address the complexities
involved (Joshi and Singh 2020).
41.9 Carbon Sequestration Research Gaps
Carbon sequestration involves capturing and storing carbon dioxide to prevent its
release into the atmosphere, contributing to the reduction of greenhouse gas concen-
trations. Despite its potential, several research gaps hinder the deployment and opti-
mization of carbon sequestration strategies.
41.9.1 Ecosystem-Based Sequestration Potential
Research Gaps: Assessing the full potential of ecosystem-based sequestration,

including forests, wetlands, and agricultural practices.
Updated Methodology: Employ remote sensing technologies, advanced model-
ing, and field experiments to quantify the carbon sequestration capacities of diverse
ecosystems under varying climatic conditions.
41.9.2 Long-Term Carbon Storage and Stability
Research Gap: Understanding carbon storage’s long-term stability and permanence

in sequestration projects.
Updated Methodology: Implement rigorous monitoring protocols, including iso-
topic tracing and soil carbon modeling, to evaluate stored carbon’s long-term stabil-
ity and vulnerability in different sequestration approaches.
41.9.3 Technological Innovations in Direct Air Capture
Research Gap: Investigating direct air capture technologies’ scalability, cost-

effectiveness, and environmental impact.
Updated Methodology: Conduct life cycle assessments and techno-economic
analyses to evaluate the environmental and economic feasibility of direct air capture
methods, considering factors such as energy requirements, materials, and potential
co-benefits.
41.9.4 Carbon Sequestration in Urban Environments
Research Gap: Exploring the potential for carbon sequestration in urban settings
and incorporating green infrastructure into city planning.
Updated Methodology: Combine urban ecology studies, satellite imagery, and
modeling to quantify the carbon sequestration benefits of urban green spaces, green
roofs, and other nature-based solutions.
41.9.5 Enhancing Soil Carbon Sequestration
Research Gap: Finding environment-friendly farming methods that enhance soil

carbon sequestration without compromising food security.
Updated Methodology: Integrate precision agriculture techniques, cover crop-
ping, and agroforestry models to optimize soil carbon sequestration in agriculture
while maintaining productive yields.
41.9.6 Social Acceptance and Governance
Research Gap: Assessing the social acceptance of carbon sequestration projects and
the effectiveness of governance structures.
Updated Methodology: Conduct social impact assessments, stakeholder engage-
ment, and participatory governance models to ensure community involvement and
acceptance of carbon sequestration initiatives.
41.9.7 Carbon Trading Research Gaps
Carbon trading, or cap-and-trade systems, operates on the principle of setting a limit

(cap) on the overall quantity of emissions of greenhouse gases and allowing indus-
tries or entities to buy and sell emission allowances. Despite being widely used,
notable research gaps impede the optimization and effectiveness of carbon trading
mechanisms.
41.9.8 Price Volatility and Market Dynamics
Research Gap: Understanding the drivers of price volatility in carbon markets and
the dynamics influencing market behavior.
Updated Methodology: Implement advanced economic modeling and scenario
analysis to simulate market responses to various factors, including policy changes,
financial conditions, and technological advancements.
41.9.9 Inclusivity and Social Equity
Research Gap: Assessing the social and economic impacts of carbon trading on
marginalized communities and ensuring inclusivity in market participation.
Updated Methodology: Conduct comprehensive social impact assessments,
incorporating qualitative and quantitative data to guide the development of policies
prioritizing equity and justice within carbon trading frameworks.
41.9.10 Linkages Between Regional Markets
Research Gap: Investigating the potential benefits and challenges of linking regional
carbon markets to create a more globally integrated system.
Updated Methodology: Employ network analysis and economic modeling to

evaluate the implications of linking markets, considering factors such as regulatory
misalignment, market size, and the harmonization of trading rules.
41.9.11 Integrity and Fraud Prevention
Research Gap: Developing effective mechanisms to prevent fraud and maintain the
integrity of carbon trading systems.
Updated Methodology: Explore the application of blockchain technology and
artificial intelligence for transparent and secure transaction verification, reducing
the risk of fraudulent activities.
41.9.12 Baseline Determination and Additionality
Research Gap: Enhancing methodologies for establishing accurate emission base-

lines and ensuring the additionality of emission reduction projects.
Updated Methodology: Combine satellite-based monitoring, ground-based mea-
surements, and machine learning algorithms to improve the precision of baseline
determination and verify the additional emissions reductions achieved through spe-
cific projects.
41.9.13 Behavioral Economics and Market Participant

Decision-Making
Research Gap: Understanding the role of behavioral economics in shaping market

participants’ decisions and compliance behaviors.
Updated Methodology: Integrate behavioral economic theories into market
design and policy frameworks, considering risk perception, cognitive biases, and
social influences on decision-making.
41.10 Issues and Difficulties with Research in the Context

of Global Climate Change
In the current conversation about climate change on a global scale, the confluence
of intricate research challenges and persistent issues within the ambit of forestry
emerges as a complex and nuanced domain (Singh et al. 2021). This investigation
delves into the multifaceted threats confronting forest ecosystems, transcending

conventional boundaries and encompassing interdisciplinary considerations. The
amalgamation of research challenges within forestry necessitates a meticulous
examination, incorporating dimensions of carbon trading, sequestration methodolo-
gies, and broader ecological dynamics (Kumar et al. 2022). This scientific inquiry
seeks to dissect the subtleties of climate change impacts on forests, fostering an
incisive comprehension imperative for discerning decision-making and formulating
sustainable management paradigms.
41.10.1 Limited Understanding of Genetic Bases
Challenges: The genetic basis of climate resilience in many tree species remains
poorly understood.
Research Problem: Identifying specific genes and mechanisms associated with
resilience poses a challenge, requiring more in-depth genetic research and techno-
logical advancements.
41.10.2 Integration of Local and Scientific Knowledge
Challenge: Including traditional ecological knowledge from local communities

with scientific research.
Research Problem: Developing methodologies to effectively incorporate local
insights into the selection process and ensuring cultural relevance in climate-
resilient tree species programs.
41.10.3 Long-Term Monitoring and Evaluation
Challenge: Assessing the long-term performance of tree species in dynamic

climates.
Research Problem: Develop monitoring protocols and methodologies to evaluate
the adaptive capacity of tree populations over extended periods.
41.10.4 Scaling Up Resilient Varieties
Challenge: Translating promising results from small-scale breeding programs to

large-scale applications.
Research Problem: Identifying strategies for efficient scaling up of resilient tree

varieties, considering logistical, economic, and ecological factors.
41.10.5 Climate Modeling Uncertainties
Challenge: Uncertainties in climate modeling and predicting future environmental

conditions.
Research Problem: Addressing uncertainties and refining climate models to
enhance the accuracy of predictions, ensuring the relevance of selected tree species
under future climate scenarios.
41.10.6 Resource Limitations and Technological Barriers
Challenge: Limited resources for extensive genetic research and breeding programs.
Research Problem: Developing cost-effective methodologies and leveraging
technological advancements to overcome financial and technological barriers in
implementing large-scale resilient tree species programs.
41.10.7 Ethical Considerations in Community Engagement
Challenge: Ensuring the ethical inclusion of local communities in the decision-

making process.
Research Problem: Developing guidelines for ethically engaging with communi-
ties, respecting indigenous knowledge, and ensuring equitable participation in
selecting and promoting climate-resilient tree species.
41.10.8 Policy and Regulatory Challenges
Challenge: Navigating complex policy frameworks and regulatory environments.

Research Problem: Identifying policy gaps, advocating for supportive regulatory
environments, and developing strategies to streamline the integration of climate-
resilient tree species into forestry policies.
41.11 Recent Studies to Address Forest and Climate

Change Challenges
41.11.1 Community Engagement and Social Impact
The global climate is significantly regulated by forests thanks to their crucial contri-
bution to carbon and nitrogen cycles. Its productivity is highly affected by specific
changes in the structure and function of the ecosystem induced by climate change.
Consequences include forest fires, droughts, pest outbreaks, and, most importantly,
the livelihood of forest-dependent communities. A series of challenges in meeting
necessities, including food and clean water, affect their well-being. Consequently,
this leads to a decline in their economic stability, compromised health, and probable
social conflicts. Hence, there is a dire need to empower indigenous people and local
communities dependent on forests as a primary pathway to achieve effective conser-
vation goals (Zhang et al. 2017; Dawson et al. 2021).
Soe and Yeo-Chang (2019) studied the factors to encourage and promote the
participation of local people in forest conservation. They revealed that providing
income opportunities was the most important incentive for people’s involvement.
As a result, respective policymakers and conservationists must consider the socio-
economic characteristics of a forest-dependent community. For instance, activities
implemented by the Joint Forest Management committees in the fringe villages of
the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve, West Bengal, involve active participation by
local people to achieve progressive management and conservation of the biosphere
reserve. Significant steps like sustainable management of NWFPs, expansion of
small-scale industries, and incorporation of views of indigenous people with the
expert’s knowledge have been undertaken (Chandra and Mukhopadhyay 2022).
Another instance where forest-dependent communities have shown collaborative
efforts to conserve biodiversity is the indigenous Naga tribe from Pangti village in
Nagaland, India, where the Amur Falcon Conservation Project unfolded. (Aiyadurai
and Banerjee 2020) Forest conservation and management can become more effec-
tive through an increased focus on governance type and quality and fostering solu-
tions that reinforce the role and rights of indigenous people and local communities
as climate change impacts substantially influence them (Dawson et al. 2021).
Abbass et al. (2022) highlighted the socio-scientific impact of climate change,
such as the fact that climate variations increase the likelihood of particular food and
water-borne and vector-borne diseases. It also accelerates the enigma of anti-
microbial resistance, posing another threat to human health due to increased resis-
tant pathogenic infections. In addition, people living in areas prone to natural
calamities have been deeply affected mentally and suffer from anxiety and distress,
especially those who are economically disadvantaged (Association 2020). Besides,
climate change has been shown to substantially impact the distribution of current
tourist flow (worldwide) by changing patterns of seasonal volumes of tourist
demand. This might eventually lead to monumental challenges to the local economy
of an area and the nation’s economy. Therefore, this being one of the challenges
ahead, an adaptation design framework and careful planning are needed in the form
of a policy to counteract the expected economic losses induced by climate change
on both regional and global scales (Bujosa et al. 2015).
41.11.2 Policy Governance for Forest Conservation
In addition to providing essential ecological services for human welfare and sus-
tainable development, forests are critical to accomplishing the seventeen Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations 2030 Agenda (Katila et al. 2019).
Despite their global contribution and importance, forests continue to be affected
adversely due to climate change impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity. Various
International Forest Governance and Policy Arrangements (IFGAs) have been
developed to promote the protection and sustainable management of forests (Rayner
et al. 2010).
Verkerk et al. (2020) presented the significance of the idea of Climate-Smart
Forestry (CSF) and its policy implications on finding the right balance between
short and long-term sustainable development goals, as well as between the need for
wood production, the protection of biodiversity and the provision of other important
ecosystem services. CSF aims to achieve the need to adapt to the effects of climate
change and mitigate its adverse impacts in the forestry sector. Here comes the role
of policymakers to provide strategies needed to activate forest management, adapta-
tion, and mitigation measures and create investment incentives to achieve sustain-
able forest management needs (Verkerk et al. 2018). Such an initiative requires
crucial designing of a multilevel framework and careful planning to construct a
roadmap that will benefit on a global scale (Rockström et al. 2017).
With the adoption of various policies and agreements, countries have committed
to achieving much-needed sustainable development goals and undertaking suitable
actions to increase decarbonization and mitigate the degradation of forests. For
instance, the New York Declaration on Forests (NYDF) 2014, a political statement
declaring objectives to fulfill international forest-relevant goals, one of it being to
halve the rate of natural forest loss by 2020 and to strive to end it by 2030
(Summit 2014).
Another noteworthy example is a six-year project (2019–2025) implemented in
the coastal states and union territories of India named Enhancing Climate Resilience
of India’s Coastal Communities (ECRICC) that aims to increase the most vulnera-
ble groups resilience in their lives and means of subsistence, especially women in
the coastal areas of India, to climate change and extreme events, using an ecosystem-
centered and community-based approach. Implemented with support from UNDP,
the projects aim to shift the paradigm towards a new approach integrating ecosystem-
centered and community-based approaches to adaptation into coastal management
and planning by the public sector, the private sector, and civil society for mitigating
climate change effects in coastal regions (https://ecricc.org/).
41.11.3 Ecosystem Services: An Economic Assessment
Globally, forests provide ecosystem services such as the production of oxygen,

purification of air, carbon sequestration, groundwater recharge, maintenance of the
hydrological cycle, maintenance of land fertility, soil conservation, nutrient recy-
cling, creation of microclimate, and prevention of natural calamities in case of the
mangrove ecosystem (Singh et al. 2014). Recent impacts of climate change have
degraded forest productivity, leading to a decline in ecosystem services.
Changes in the material commodities that people get from ecosystems, or the
provisioning services altered by climate change, can have significant effects on
human economies and well-being (Weiskopf et al. 2020).
Economic value of forest services is majorly dependent on factors such as GDP
per-capita, proportion of forest cover, continental location, type of forest, ecological
zone, forest area, ecosystem services being valued and the valuation method
employed (Taye et al. 2021a, b) Selection of an appropriate approach to ecosystem
services valuation with respect to the fairness and sustainability goals must be done
with an approach that is more in line with community or societal preferences and
whole system ecological sustainability issues, rather than the conventional eco-
nomic approaches (Costanza 2020) Valuation method such as Net Present Value
(NPV) has been adopted based on the outcome or social performance of forest man-
agement after scientific assessment of ecosystem goods and services (Pukkala 2021)
Moreover, another technique applied for timberland valuation is the current value,
per unit area, of the anticipated expenses and profits from an endless sequence of
identical even-aged forest rotations, beginning with bare land, is taken into account
by the Land Expectation Value (LEV)/Soil Expectation Value (SEV) (Straka and
Bullard 1996). In addition, Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP) summarizes the value
of the ecosystem services of not only forests but can be applied to an entire province
(Ouyang et al. 2020).
Taye et al. (2021a, b) comprehensively assessed the economic values of forest
ecosystem services. They mentioned limitations associated explicitly with the value
standardization process and lack of accounting for local contexts at a more micro or
site-specific scale. Hence, there is a noteworthy research gap in identifying accurate
techniques for valuing ecological services that have a profound scope in curbing the
effects of climate change that directly affect communities. It should be highlighted
that primary valuation studies should focus on particular policy goals and local
contexts. These techniques will help policymakers formulate new policies and help
spread awareness with active participation from people and governing authorities,
eventually aiding in achieving the conservation goals.
41.11.4 Technological Innovations for Forest Management
Climate change has resulted in a considerably quicker loss of forest health. It is

critical to comprehend the role of remote sensing in monitoring forest health and
further discuss its scope of future advancements (Geller et al. 2020). In the last sev-
eral years, it has proven to be an efficient technological advancement for assessing
and monitoring forest health (Singh et al. 2017).
A proper surveillance mechanism is the Electronic-Eye, a large-scale technology
capable of 24/7 all-weather, live-feed wildlife surveillance in vulnerable areas and
sanctuary perimeters, collecting and interpreting wildlife crime data to alert law
enforcement before violations occur. It has proven a practical management approach
in wildlife monitoring and management (Jhala et al. 2021). Another significant need
for forest management and monitoring is early forest fire detection. Goyal et al.
(2020) devised a YOLO-based technique to use the YOLO method and the deep
learning idea to find a forest or a conflagration.
41.12 Conclusion
Exploring the multifaceted landscape encompassing forest and climate change chal-
lenges has provided a comprehensive understanding of the critical issues. The
examination of vulnerability, grounded in a well-defined conceptual framework, has
paved the way for a nuanced comprehension of ecological systems’ susceptibility.
Integrating rapid vulnerability assessment tools into this discourse offers a dynamic
and efficient means of gauging the impacts of climate change on forests. Adaptation
planning emerges as a critical player in the proactive response to these challenges,
with diverse approaches employed worldwide. Combining local, traditional knowl-
edge with cutting-edge technologies forms a formidable alliance in pursuing sus-
tainable solutions. This chapter has meticulously addressed the structure and content
of narrative reports, offering a blueprint for communicating vulnerability assess-
ments effectively. The intricate relationship between carbon sequestration and envi-
ronmental change alleviation has been investigated, uncovering promising avenues
and existing research gaps. The potential of carbon trading as a mechanism for
incentivizing sustainable practices warrants further investigation, as do the gaps in
our current understanding of carbon sequestration dynamics. It becomes evident
that a multidisciplinary and collaborative approach is imperative. This chapter high-
lights the ongoing efforts to tackle these challenges head-on, offering insightful
information on policy management and governance techniques for the conservation
and management of forests. In the grand tapestry of forest and climate change stud-
ies, this chapter guides future endeavors toward sustainable, adaptive, and equitable
solutions. The collective responsibility is to foster continued exploration, innova-
tion, and collaboration to address the pressing issues highlighted herein. This
approach may contribute to a more resilient and harmonious coexistence between

humanity and the intricate ecosystems upon which collective well-being depends.
References
Abbass K, Qasim MZ, Song H et al (2022) A review of the global climate change impacts, adapta-
tion, and sustainable mitigation measures. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29:42539–42559. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11356-022-19718-6
Aiyadurai A, Banerjee S (2020) Bird conservation from obscurity to popularity: a case study
of two bird species from Northeast India. GeoJournal 85:901–912. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10708-019-09999-9
Amorim-Maia AT, Anguelovski I, Chu E, Connolly J (2022) Intersectional climate justice: a con-
ceptual pathway for bridging adaptation planning, transformative action, and social equity.
Urban Clim 41:101053
Association A (2020) Climate change is threatening mental health, American Psychological
Association, "Kirsten Weir”, from https://www.apa.org/monitor/2016/07-08/cl
Berkes F (2021) A social-ecological systems lens for community conservation. Communities, con-
servation and livelihoods, vol 13
Bujosa A, Riera A, Torres CM (2015) Valuing tourism demand attributes to guide climate change
adaptation measures efficiently: the case of the Spanish domestic travel market. Tour Manage
47:233–239. Accessed on 26 Jan 2020
Chandra S, Mukhopadhyay M (2022) Social involvement in joint forest management programme
in Fringe villages of the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve Area, West Bengal, India. In: Hassan
MI, Sen Roy S, Chatterjee U, Chakraborty S, Singh U (eds) Social morphology, human wel-
fare, and sustainability. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96760-4_22
Chanza N, Musakwa W (2021) “Trees are our relatives”: local perceptions on forestry resources
and implications for climate change mitigation. Sustain For 13(11):5885
Costanza R (2020) Valuing natural capital and ecosystem services toward the goals of effi-
ciency, fairness, and sustainability. Ecosyst Serv 43:101096. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ecoser.2020.101096
Dawson NM, Coolsaet B, Sterling EJ, Loveridge R, Gross-Camp ND, Wongbusarakum S, Sangha
KK, Scherl LM, Phuong Phan H, Zafra-Calvo N, Lavey WG, Byakagaba P, Idrobo CJ, Chenet
A, Bennett NJ, Mansourian S, Rosado-May FJ (2021) The role of Indigenous peoples and
local communities in effective and equitable conservation. Ecol Soc 26(3):19. https://doi.
org/10.5751/ES-12625-260319
Geller GN, Cavender-Bares J, Gamon JA, McDonald K, Podest E, Townsend PA, Ustin S
(2020) Epilogue: toward a global biodiversity monitoring system. Remote Sensing Plant
Biodiv:519–526
Goyal S, Shagill M, Kaur A, Vohra H, Singh A (2020) A yolo based technique for early forest
fire detection. Int J Innov Technol Explor Eng 9:1357–1362. https://doi.org/10.35940/ijitee.
F4106.049620
Gupta SK, Ram J, Singh H (2018a) Comparative study of transpiration in cooling effect of tree
species in the atmosphere. J Geosci Environ Protect 6:151–166
Gupta SK, Ram J, Singh H, Kumar P (2018b) Comparative study of cooling under shades of some
forestry tree species with respect to ambient temperatures. J Geosci Environ Protect 6:51–66
145(6):509–515. https://ecricc.org/
Jhala Y, Gopal R, Mathur V, Ghosh P, Negi HS, Narain S et al (2021) Recovery of tigers in India:
critical introspection and potential lessons. People Nat 3(2):281–293
Katila P, Colfer CJP, De Jong W, Galloway G, Pacheco P, Winkel G (eds) (2019) Sustainable devel-
opment goals. Cambridge University Press
dence on forests to safeguard forests in rainfed areas of India. In: Dhyani S, Gupta A, Karki
M (eds) Nature-based solutions for resilient ecosystems and societies. Disaster resilience and
green growth. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4712-6_17
tunities and challenges. In: ICFRE (eds) A handbook on invasive species. Indian Council of
Kumar N, Singh H, Sharma SK (2020c) Antioxidants: responses and importance in plant
defense system. In: Roychowdhury R, Choudhury S, Hasanuzzaman M, Srivastava S (eds)
Sustainable agriculture in the era of climate change. Springer, Cham, pp 251–264. https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-3-030-45669-6_11
Kumar P, Singh R, Singh H, Chand T, Bala N (2020d) Assessment of soil carbon dioxide efflux and
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126900
49(1):38–44
org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120191
Li ZL, Wu H, Duan SB, Zhao W, Ren H, Liu X et al (2023) Satellite remote sensing of global
land surface temperature: definition, methods, products, and applications. Rev Geophys
61(1):e2022RG000777
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
vices of a 30-year-old reclaimed limestone mine Area in Foothills of Himalaya. Indian Forester
Nepstad DC, Stickler CM, Filho BS, Merry F (2008) Interactions among Amazon land use, forests
and climate: prospects for a near-term forest tipping point. Philos Trans Royal Soc B: Biol Sci
363(1498):1737–1746
Hill Farm 34:272–276. (ISSN: 0970-6429)
Ouyang Z, Song C, Zheng H, Polasky S, Xiao Y, Bateman IJ et al (2020) Using gross ecosystem
product (GEP) to value nature in decision making. Proc Natl Acad Sci 117(25):14593–14601
Palik BJ, Clark PW, D'Amato AW, Swanston C, Nagel L (2022) Operationalizing forest-
assisted migration in the context of climate change adaptation: examples from the eastern
USA. Ecosphere 13(10):e4260
Peng Y, Welden N, Renaud FG (2023) A framework for integrating ecosystem services indicators
into vulnerability and risk assessments of deltaic social-ecological systems. J Environ Manag
326:116682
Potapov P, Yaroshenko A, Turubanova S, Dubinin M, Laestadius L, Thies C et al (2008) Mapping
the world’s intact forest landscapes by remote sensing. Ecol Soc 13(2)
Pukkala T (2021) Measuring the social performance of forest management. J For Res 32:1803–1818.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-021-01321-z
org/10.36808/if/2020/v146i2/151208
Rayner JM, Buck A, Katila P (eds) (2010) IUFRO World series embracing complexity: meeting
the challenges of international forest governance. A global assessment report. Prepared by
the Global Forest Expert Panel on the International Forest Regime, vol. 28. IUFRO: Vienna,
Austria. ISBN 978-3-902762-01-6
Rockström J, Gaffney O, Rogelj J, Meinshausen M, Nakicenovic N, Schellnhuber HJ (2017) A
roadmap for rapid decarbonization. Science 355(6331):1269–1271
Sample M, Thode AE, Peterson C, Gallagher MR, Flatley W, Friggens M et al (2022) Adaptation
strategies and approaches for managing fire in a changing climate. Climate 10(4):58
or nutraceuticals properties of medicinal plants. J Pharmacog Phytochem 8(1):1924–1926
Singh H, Kumar M (2022a) Climate change and its impact on Indian Himalayan Forests: cur-
rent status and research needs. In: Rani S, Kumar R (eds) Climate change. Springer climate.
Singh H, Kumar M (2022b) Climate change and its impact on Indian Himalayan forests: cur-
org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11

s11356-023-30789-x
Smith P, Arneth A, Barnes DK, Ichii K, Marquet PA, Popp A et al (2022) How do we best synergize
climate mitigation actions to co-benefit biodiversity? Glob Chang Biol 28(8):2555–2577
Soe KT, Yeo-Chang Y (2019) Perceptions of forest-dependent communities toward participation in
forest conservation: a case study in Bago Yoma, South-Central Myanmar. Forest Policy Econ
100:129–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2018.11.009
Sonter LJ, Herrera D, Barrett DJ, Galford GL, Moran CJ, Soares-Filho BS (2017) Mining drives
extensive deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. Nat Commun 8(1):1013
Straka TJ, Bullard SH (1996) The land expectation value calculated in timberland valuation
Summit UC (2014) Forests: action statements and action plans. New York, UN Headquarters, p. 17
Taye FA, Folkersen MV, Fleming CM, Buckwell A, Mackey B, Diwakar KC, Le D, Hasan S, Saint
Ange C (2021a) The economic values of global forest ecosystem services: a meta-analysis.
Ecol Econ 189:107145. ISSN 0921-8009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2021.107145
Taye FA, Folkersen MV, Fleming CM, Buckwell A, Mackey B, Diwakar KC et al (2021b) The
economic values of global forest ecosystem services: a meta-analysis. Ecol Econ 189:107145.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2021.10714
Verkerk PJ, Martinez de Arano I, Palahí M (2018) The bio-economy as an opportunity to tackle
wildfires in Mediterranean forest ecosystems. Forest Policy Econ 86:1–3., ISSN 1389-9341.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2017.10.016
Verkerk PJ, Costanza R, Hetemäki L, Kubiszewski I, Leskinen P, Nabuurs GJ, Potočnik J, Palahí
M (2020) Climate-smart forestry: the missing link. Forest Policy Econ 115:102164., ISSN
1389-9341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2020.102164
Weiskopf SR, Rubenstein MA, Crozier LG, Gaichas S, Griffis R, Halofsky JE, Hyde KJ, Morelli
TL, Morisette JT, Muñoz RC, Pershing AJ (2020) Climate change effects on biodiversity, eco-
systems, ecosystem services, and natural resource management in the United States. Sci Total
Environ 733:137782., ISSN 0048–9697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137782
Zhang M, Liu N, Harper R, Li Q, Liu K, Wei X, Ning D, Hou Y, Liu S (2017) A global review
on hydrological responses to forest change across multiple spatial scales: importance of scale,
climate, forest type and hydrological regime. J Hydrol 546:44–59., ISSN 0022-1694. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.040
Zhou H, Milani Fard A, Makanju A (2022) The state of ethereum smart contracts security: vulner-
abilities, countermeasures, and tool support. J Cybersecur Privacy 2(2):358–378
Chapter 42
Integrating Ecosystem-Based Adaptation
(EbA) into the Educational Curricula
of Nepal
Deependra Joshi, Krrish Gubhaju, Top Bahadur Khatri,

Keshav Prasad Khanal, Prakash Lamsal, and Rajeev Joshi
Abstract Integrating climate change and ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA)

courses in community schools is critical to help future generations understand and
recognize the global challenges of climate change and find ways to adapt. Until
now, EbA has not been mainstreamed within the formal education system in Nepal.
Integrating EbA into the formal education system presents a direct opportunity to
enrich the curriculum. This integration involves examining the role of ecosystems in
reducing vulnerability and fortifying community resilience. Introducing the science
and practices of EbA within formal education guarantees effective learning and a
profound understanding of the subject. Through nature-based solutions, this
approach empowers students to comprehend the intricate connections between their
environment, daily lives, and community relationships. This study assessed stu-
dents’ level of education, understanding, and awareness of climate change and EbA
after introducing the new curriculum at the community schools of Bhimeshwar
Municipality of Dolakha district. While the survey results showed a statistically
significant number of students aware of the impact of climate change adaptation
measures, teachers lacked adequate training and pedagogical knowledge in their
disciplines, thus calling for the promotion of field-based and project-based learning
activities. This study provides a roadmap to position climate change and EbA as an
approach to address challenges related to climate variability. It reinforces the need
to integrate EbA into the curriculum, supported by a syllabus explicitly presenting
D. Joshi · T. B. Khatri · K. P. Khanal · P. Lamsal

Ecosystem Based Adaptation-EbA II Project, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Climate
Change Management Division, Govt. of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal
K. Gubhaju
Mahendrodaya Secondary School, Bhimeshwar Municipaliity-5, Dolakha, Nepal
R. Joshi (*)
College of Natural Resource Management, Faculty of Forestry, Agriculture and Forestry
University, Katari, Udayapur, Nepal
Ltd. 2024
880 D. Joshi et al.
topics and learning activities. Therefore, the findings of this research are critical to
provide input to the government while reviewing the curriculum in the future.
Keywords Awareness · Climate change · Curriculum · EbA · Education
42.1 Introduction
Education is a critical agent in addressing the issue of climate change (Stephens

et al. 2008; Singh and Kumar 2022). School education is a strategic platform to cre-
ate climate change education and social awareness for intergenerational learning
(Lawson et al. 2019; Bisht et al. 2021). As students learn about climate change (CC)
and ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) in their schools, they communicate the
information with their parents and relatives as well as provide practical ideas to
build resilience to the changing climate (Richerzhagen et al. 2019; Singh et al.
2010). Educational institutions like community schools may play a crucial role in
result-oriented communication on climate change (Odoom 2020; Kumar et al.
2020a, b). It is an important means to combat climate change by enhancing stu-
dents’ knowledge and ultimately raising society’s collective awareness (Anderson
2012; Phukon et al. 2022). Climate change education has gained significance in
recent years because of the global interest in international and national educational
programmes (Læssøe and Mochizuki 2015; Singh 2021). Therefore, strengthening
climate change education and awareness, adaptation, and mitigation is a goal shared
by the government, educational institutions, national and international organiza-
tions, and other stakeholders in Nepal (MoFE 2019). The National Climate Change
Policy (2019) has also emphasized the causes and impacts of climate change and
capacity building of students through formal and non-formal education curricula of
lower secondary and secondary levels (GoN 2019). So far, EbA has not been fully
integrated into Nepal’s formal education system. Integrating EbA into this system
presents a chance to enrich the curriculum by examining the role of ecosystems and
their solutions in reducing vulnerability and bolstering community resilience
(Spalding et al. 2014). Introducing the science of EbA in formal education ensures
effective learning and a deep understanding of the subject matter, enabling youths
to learn how the environment is connected to their daily lives and relationships
within their communities through nature-based solutions (Tanik-Önal and Önal
2020; Singh and Verma 2013). The Ministry of Forests and Environment (MoFE)
has prioritized the need to raise global climate action through climate change educa-
tion and training in Nepal. The Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA II) project exe-
cuted by MoFE’s Climate Change Management Division (CCMD) has been working
with local governments to reduce climate vulnerability and enhance the capacity of
government and local communities to adapt to climate change by implementing
EbA in degraded forests and rangelands in mid-hills and high mountain areas
(Kumar et al. 2019). As part of its concurrent responsibility, Bhimeshwar
Municipality of Dolakha district has rolled out local curriculum on climate change
42 Integrating Ecosystem-Based Adaptation (EbA) into the Educational Curricula… 881
and EbA for students of grades 6 to 8 in 30 schools within its jurisdiction. To this
end, the EbA II Project supported Bhimeshwar Municipality to develop local cur-
riculum to educate the next generation of policymakers on climate change and EbA.
The overall objective of the study was to understand the state of climate curricula
amongst the students of grades 6 to 8 of community schools of Bhimeshwar munici-
pality of Dolakha district. The specific objective of the study was to assess students’
level of education, understanding, and awareness of climate change and EbA after
introducing the new curriculum at the community schools of Bhimeshwar
Municipality. The study can be beneficial for future climate change curriculum
updates and revision in incorporating climate-friendly behaviors and practices in
everyday activities, promoting partnerships to build capacity in developing teach-
ers’ teaching competence, and designing student-centered learning programmes.
This study can also be relevant for teachers and educators to identify gaps in current
curricula and work on bridging them. Eventually, this will improve the students’
responsiveness to the initiatives that aim at building community resilience through
EbA. This is the first study conducted in the municipality that can contribute to
replicating climate change and the EbA curriculum across Nepal. The research
emphasizes the significance of grasping students’ perspectives on climate change
and EbA in a nation highly susceptible to climate change due to its geographical
characteristics. The research study intends to generate critical findings related to
CC/EbA knowledge amongst school students: (i) do the students know what climate
change and EbA are all about? (ii) do they know its leading causes? and (iii) do they
know its significant effects and how to protect the environment through nature-
based solutions?
42.2.1 Study Area
Six community schools of Bhimeshwar Municipality were selected to assess stu-

dents’ perceptions and knowledge levels regarding climate change and EbA consid-
ering the newly introduced climate curriculum. Bhimeshwar Municipality is located
about 130 kilometers east of Kathmandu, Nepal’s capital city (Fig. 42.1). The
municipality consists of 30 community schools with 1864 school children benefit-
ting from the recent implementation of climate change curriculum. EbA II Project
has supported Bhimeshwar Municipality in developing the climate change and EbA
curriculum. The project also supported the formation of six student-supervisor net-
works and six green clubs to raise awareness about climate change and EbA in the
municipality.
882 D. Joshi et al.
Fig. 42.1 Map of the study area
42.2.2 Study Methodology
The methodology employed quantitative (student survey) and qualitative (focus

group discussions and key informant interviews) methods. One hundred fifty survey
questionnaires were administered to grade 8 students from six community schools
in Bhimeshwar Municipality. Additionally, 30 survey questionnaires were adminis-
tered to parents, and ten focused group discussions were conducted with subject
teachers from the municipality. The aim was to gauge the students’ understanding
of climate change and EbA in the classroom, alongside assessing the teachers’
awareness and comprehension of the topic. Both groups were surveyed using differ-
ent questionnaires. The questionnaire consisted of multiple-choice and open-
response items and was completed during regular classes with the students’ usual
science teacher. This investigation utilized a questionnaire survey designed for stu-
dents, parents, and teachers as the primary knowledge assessment and data collec-
tion tool. The survey comprised yes and no questions and subjective queries, which
were evaluated by experts for relevance, readability, accuracy, clarity, and interpret-
ability. An extensive literature review was carried out before data collection.
Secondary sources of information mainly review local climate change curricula,
national policies and priorities, and archival research. These sources included books,
government documents, conference papers, and reports from the Curriculum

Development Centre.
42.2.3 Sample Size
The survey was conducted in September 2023. A sample of 150 grade 8 students
participated in this study. The age range of the students was between 11 and 14 years.
This minimum sample size was calculated using the following Newey and McFadden
formula:
n =  Z 2 PqN / e 2 ( N − 1) + Z 2 
where n = sample size, P = representative population size, q = 1 − p, Z = 1.96 at a

confidence level of 95%, e = margin of error, N = size of the population (Newey and
McFadden 1994).
The study used a self-administered questionnaire survey to avoid the undesirable
effects of interviewers and to prefer a cost-effective approach. A standardized ques-
tionnaire was designed in the Nepali language following Özdem et al. (2014) and
Berse (2017), consisting of open and closed-ended questions. In terms of data anal-
ysis and reporting, both quantitative and qualitative data were triangulated to build
up a fully rounded analysis. Microsoft Excel was used for data entry and storage
before importing the data and information to the Statistical Packages for Social
Science (SPSS) to generate quantitative data, while qualitative data was themati-
cally analyzed.
The present study from community schools of Bhimeshwar Municipality highlights

the need for improvement in the knowledge level of schoolchildren. Data gathered
through the survey and interviews provided valuable insights into the awareness and
understanding of the EbA curriculum in Bhimeshwar Municipality. The results of
the local curriculum analysis focus on the students’ perception of CC, with qualita-
tive analysis focusing on the surveyed schools’ results and presenting them com-
paratively. The majority of the surveyed students were female (53%), whereas 47%
were male, and survey respondents (n = 150 students) represented grade 8 students
from six community schools of Bhimeshwar municipality (Table 42.1).
Regarding the level of students’ awareness of climate change, the survey result
indicated that 138 students (92% of the respondents) were familiar with the term
climate change, and just five students (3%) were unfamiliar with climate change.
Although most students are familiar with climate change, it is essential to differenti-
ate between mere familiarity and a comprehensive understanding of the subject.
884 D. Joshi et al.
Table 42.1 Summary of total responses by school and their segregation based on gender
Name of schools surveyed in Bhimeshwar Municipality Male Female Total
Responses 71 79 150
Kshamawati Secondary School, Bhimeshwar-1 9 15 24
Kalinchowk Secondary School, Bhimeshwar-3 9 16 25
Mahendrodaya Secondary School, Bhimeshwar-5 13 9 22
Kutidanda Secondary School, Bhimeshwar-7 16 19 35
Devi Secondary School, Boch, Bhimeshwar-8 15 12 27
Surke Secondary School, Kharidhunga, Bhimeshwar-9 9 8 17
100 92
80
60
40
20
3 5
0
Familiar I have never heard Quite familiar
Fig. 42.2 Level of awareness of the term climate change
Continued education on this topic will ensure students make informed decisions
about climate change (Fig. 42.2).
The local climate curriculum implemented by Bhimeshwar Municipality recog-
nizes climate change as a pressing problem with anthropogenic causes. Students
must learn about climate change science, the impacts of climate change, and the
need for EbA. The result shows that most respondents sampled had heard about
climate change. A negligible number of respondents (5 out of 150 students) claimed
to have never heard about climate change. Those who have heard about climate
change quoted school environment club activities, social media, television, and
radio as the primary sources of information. The rest had heard about climate change
through other sources, including newspapers, street shows, and peers. The issue of
climate change is also widely acknowledged in the local school curriculum imple-
mented within Bhimeshwar Municipality.
The fact that students have “heard” of these terms reflects their familiarity with
them. It does not, however, imply complete understanding but suggests that the
students have some awareness of the concept of climate change and EbA. It must be
noted that there is a distinct difference between awareness and knowledge.
Awareness is perceiving, knowing, feeling, or being conscious of events, objects,
thoughts or emotions. Knowledge is facts, information, and skills acquired through
experience or education. When asked about what students know about climate
change, a meager percentage of students (4%) could not express what it meant,
which could be due to several factors such as lack of access to education or informa-
tion or because they live in a remote area or possibly reflecting uncertainty in the
way they were taught at schools in previous classes. Hence, it is important to reach
out to these students and educate them about climate change.
However, on the better side, the chart below reveals that 84% of students believe
climate change results from human activity, 89% comprehend its adverse effects on
human lives, and 88% correlate climate change to forest degradation and increasing
global temperatures. This is a good sign, as it reflects environmentally aware and
empowered youths are potentially the most significant agents of change for the
long-term protection and stewardship of the environment(Fig. 42.3).
On being asked if the students have ever spoken about climate change with
teachers, 57 respondents (38%), students said they regularly discuss the issue with
their teachers, followed by 27% of students (41 respondents) concerning climate
change with their friends in school, 21% (31 respondents) with their friends outside
of the school and 14% (21 respondents) with their family members. It suggests that
students are talking about climate change with the students they are closest to. This
indicates that students are having conversations with peers about this important
issue. However, it is essential to note that talking about climate change does not
necessarily mean that students are taking action to address it (Fig. 42.4).
This shows that the number of students who have read or discussed the topic of
climate change is interested in participating and engaging in climate action.
Figure 42.5 shows that majority of students, 83 (56%) have read about climate
change in school, while 62 students (41% of respondents) have discussed climate
change in school (Fig. 42.5). This suggests that climate change is being discussed
and taught in schools, but there is still room for improvement. It is crucial to ensure
that all students have the opportunity to learn about climate change and its impacts.
The study of understanding students’ perception and engagement revealed that
understanding of EbA is increasing amongst the students surveyed. This shows the
level of awareness of the term “EbA” among a group of 150 students. Figure 42.6
What do you know about climate change?
Don’t know
It occurs as a result of human action
Greenhouse gas emission
Occurs by harmful gas emissions
Climate change
Melting of glaciers as consequence
Temperature increase on the earth
Consequences of forest degradation
Climate changes negatively affecting people’s life
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Fig. 42.3 Perception of respondents about climate change?

886 D. Joshi et al.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Friends from school With teacher With friends With family members
Fig. 42.4 Have you ever spoken about climate change with?
Read the article We discussed the topic in school None of the above
3%
41%
56%
Fig. 42.5 Have you ever read or discussed the topic of climate change in school?
I have heard but do not know I have never heard of it Yes, I have heard and know EbA
18%
55%
27%
Fig. 42.6 Do you know what ecosystem-based adaptation is?
shows that 27 students (18%) have heard of the term but don’t know what it is, 41
students (27%) have never heard of the term, and 80 students (53%) know what the
term means. This chart suggests that there is a need to increase awareness of EbA.
Fig. 42.7 What is

ecosystem-based 19%
adaptation?
42%
39%
It is the natural response to climate change

It is the protection of natural resources surrounding us
It is sustainable management & restoration of ecosystems
Fig. 42.8 Importance of Very important Important Not too important

ecosystem-based
adaptation
7%
39% 54%
To measure the respondents’ understanding of EbA, they were asked to define or

express their views about EbA. Regarding what EbA meant to the students, 63 stu-
dents (42% of respondents submitted that EbA is the natural response to climate
change. Similarly, 58 students (39% of respondents) think that EbA is the protection
of natural resources surrounding us, and 29 students 19% of respondents) believe
that EbA is the conservation, sustainable management, and restoration of ecosys-
tems (Fig. 42.7). After assessing the response obtained from the students, it can be
advocated that majority of the respondents showed appreciation of the word
EbA. Notably, 19% of respondents labeled EbA as a measure for conservation, sus-
tainable management and restoration of the ecosystems.
A total of 80 students (54% of respondents) responded that EbA is very impor-
tant for sustainable livelihoods, whereas 59 students (39% of respondents) opined
that EbA is a vital topic to study in the school. Only 11 students (7% of respondents)
argued that EbA is not too important (Fig. 42.8). This reflects that the majority of
the students understand the importance of EbA. However, there is a need to further
educate students about the significance of EbA.
The percentage of students participating in awareness-raising activities within
the school premises depicts a dismal picture. The chart shows that only 59 of 150
888 D. Joshi et al.
Fig. 42.9 Participation in Yes No

awareness-raising activities
within school premises
39%
61%
Fig. 42.10 Applying Yes, at home No Yes, in school Do not know

measures to protect the
environment
1%
40%
54%
5%
students (39% of respondents) participated in awareness-raising activities within

the school premises. In contrast, most students (91 respondents) did not participate
in any environment awareness-raising activity at schools (Fig. 42.9). This needs
improvement as students must be provided practical information about important
issues. However, there is still room for improvement in the upcoming academic
calendars.
The data collected indicates that students are moderately knowledgeable about
applying measures to protect the environment within their surroundings. Sixty-one
students (40% of respondents) have scored a moderate amount in using climate
change knowledge at home. In contrast, only 81 students(54% of respondents)
apply that activity at school (Fig. 42.10). It has to increase the activities aimed at
protecting the environment at home so that family members of the students also
participate in environment protection activities.
Regarding students’ readiness to transfer knowledge to parents/friends, 72%
(108 respondents) expressed their readiness to transfer knowledge about EbA to
parents and friends. The remaining respondents (42 out of 150) were reluctant to
share their climate knowledge with parents and friends (Fig. 42.11). This brings to
the notion that students need to be made more familiar with climate trends through
increased level of awareness and exposure to the outside world in addition to inte-
grating additional information about climate science right from primary to second-
ary levels.
Fig. 42.11 Readiness to Yes No

transfer knowledge to
parents/friends about EbA
28%
72%
Willingness to undertake measures in reducing harmful gas emissions
Buy/use local products

Use improved cook stoves
Use recycled paper
Less use of plastic/packing bags
Rationale use of water
Select waste for recycling
Saving electricity
Lesser use of vehicles
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Yes No
Fig. 42.12 Willingness to undertake measures to reduce harmful gas emissions
Data analysis revealed that 138 respondents (92% of students) related their will-
ingness to undertake various measures in reducing harmful gas emissions and attrib-
uted the change in their lifestyle to the fact that they have started using less plastic/
packing bags. In addition, a significant fraction, 135 respondents (90% of students),
stated that because of the increase in their awareness level, they have been making
judicious use of water resources (Fig. 42.12). Majority of the students argue that the
measures for reducing harmful gas emissions are lesser use of vehicles, saving elec-
tricity, selecting waste for recycling, rational use of water, less use of plastics, use
of recycled paper, improved cooking stoves, and use local products.
Students’ willingness to participate actively in climate-related aspects appears to
be an outcome of the vital link between the environment and socio-cultural aspects
of the mountain people of Bhimeshwar Municipality. Educating children about the
environment and its interlinkage with daily lives is an integral component, and
young minds’ education, awareness, and interest in action on climate change is
crucial in fostering practical actions for adaptation.
In response to a close-ended question, most students (84%) agree that the topic
of EbA in the curriculum is interesting. This gives the notion that EbA can be posi-
tioned as an approach to address challenges related to climate variability and rein-
forces the need to integrate EbA into formal curricula, which is essential in
developing a sustained culture of awareness about the role of ecosystems in
890 D. Joshi et al.
Fig. 42.13 Extra- Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

curricular activities provide
practical lessons of EbA
6% 1%
18%
75%
supporting livelihood pathways that can better adapt to the effects of climate change
in Nepal. The majority of the students (75%) argued that regular participation in the
extra-curricular activities offered through the school enhances their knowledge
about the environment, ecosystem, and EbA (Fig. 42.13). This signifies the school
has to organize such extracurricular activities and the curriculum designer should
design a more activity-based curriculum. These scores, therefore, show that the stu-
dents have a positive attitude towards the environment. This finding is essential as
the respondents have a positive attitude towards learning about climate change and
EbA being taught in the Bhimeshwar Serofero textbook in Grade 8. The positive
attitude and increasing level of knowledge amongst students signifies that climate
education has excellent prospects in realizing the national objectives of climate edu-
cation and awareness, thereby creating a positive attitude amongst the citizens.
Students are already practicing some activities to adapt to climate change, includ-
ing supporting parents in planting trees, growing vegetables, protecting water
sources, not littering even when bins are unavailable, and turning off water taps/
pipes and lights when not in use (Manoj et al. 2021). One hundred twenty-nine stu-
dents responded that they have supported their parents to plant trees and grow veg-
etation in their villages. They seem to have a good level of education (142 out of 150
students) on not littering plastic waste even when waste bins are not available within
the school premises. The reasoning behind this could be associated with the content
of the existing curriculum, which provides a strong base for the basics of environ-
mental education and the curriculum offers an opportunity for teachers to shape
students’ awareness of climate change and EbA. However, a few students (16 out of
150) had also expressed their ignorance in coping with climate change, which calls
for engaging students more on the practical aspect of environment management and
considering climate change education as an absolute requirement for students in the
study area (Fig. 42.14).
A total of 137 respondents (91% of students) argued that forests help the com-
munity cope with climate change (Fig. 42.15). This is a good sign that they are
aware of the importance of forests in resilience to climate change. This reflects that
climate change awareness is a component of environmental consciousness. In
I don't know/remember
Nothing
Not litter even when bins are not available
Turn off water tap/pipe when you are not using it
Turn off lights when not in use
Supported parents to protect water sources
Supported parents to plant trees and grow vegetation
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Yes No
Fig. 42.14 What have you done to adapt/cope with climate change?
160
140
120 137
100
80
60
40
20 13
0
Yes No
Fig. 42.15 Forests help in coping with climate change
addition, students are aware that everyone can contribute to mitigating climate
change. Individuals can help reduce climate change by changing environmentally
friendly behavior, lifestyles, and cultures.
Except for a few, almost all the participating students strongly agree that teachers
have the necessary knowledge and understanding to teach climate change and
EbA. On average, 88 percent of students opine that the existing curriculum has
motivated them to protect the environment and encouraged them to carry out proj-
ects on plantation forest restoration to generate public awareness and nature-based
solutions for societal challenges and biodiversity benefits (Fig. 42.16).
Having analyzed the responses, it was found that most informants desire and
intend to engage in climate change and EbA initiatives within their surroundings. It
shows girls are more aware and likely to get involved directly in environmental
planning than boys. Boys were better in indirect involvement. The level of percep-
tion among the students gives hope that appropriate future actions can be developed
and adopted to motivate students to protect the environment. It hints that the stu-
dents, if appropriately mentored and exposed to a deeper understanding of the
892 D. Joshi et al.
The existing curriculum encourages us to do projects on

plantation, forest restoration and nature-based solutions.
Learning from the curriculum helps to generate public

awareness
The curriculum motivates us to protect our environment
The curriculum provides opportunities to make a resilient

society
Teachers have the necessary knowledge and

understanding to teach CC and EbA
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Strongly disagree Disagree Strongly agree Agree
Fig. 42.16 To what extent do you agree with the following statements?
science of climate change and its implications, could help develop effective future
adaptation strategies.
42.3.1 Teachers and Parents’ Perceptions of Climate Change
Perceptions of climate change and EbA often rely upon an individual’s views,
values, and experiences. Personal experience and observations of the direct
impacts of climate change have been found to impact climate risk perceptions,
resulting in various and multidimensional understandings of climate change adap-
tation that vary even within communities. Based on the evidence collected from
the discussion with teachers, it has been found that they are aware of the impor-
tance of teaching climate change to students. However, teachers do not have the
required training to teach climate education. Some obstacles teachers face include
lack of time, financial resources, unsupportive school culture, and pressure to pre-
pare students for tests. Most of the interviewees suggested integration across sub-
jects. It was evident that teachers expressed difficulties in teaching aspects of
climate change in the existing curriculum. This was demonstrated by their lack of
pedagogical content knowledge of climate change and EbA. These included simu-
lations, fieldwork, and inquiry-based and problem-solving approaches to learning.
From this, it seems that the teaching and learning of climate change education are
driven by the context of the school and, more problematically, that climate change
is often seen as a global rather than a local issue. Climate change is happening
worldwide and is an undeniably global problem. However, this is not always a
helpful perception for schools, which may focus very much on the needs of their
local community.
On the other hand, discussions with parents brought to light that climate change
is real and ongoing. Parents have noticed changes in the timing of rain with higher
intensity and frequency (Kumar et al. 2020a, b). Parents also observed that changes
have followed in the flowering and maturing of fruits and vegetables and the timing
of farming. They try to adapt to and cope with those changes through their daily
livelihood activities and cultivation practices. They suggested including climate
curriculum from the primary up to secondary levels as its integration into all grades
has a significant role in shaping the cognition and attitude of students about climate
change. The more aware students are about climate change and EbA, the more
effective and efficient the measures to prevent and control climate change impacts
and natural disasters become. With parents’ perceptions, most respondents (82%)
expressed that they lack awareness of ecosystem-based adaptation.
On the contrary, 58% of teachers knew the term EbA. In addition, 80% of teach-
ers reported that it is crucial to mainstream EbA concept within the curriculum.
While 81% of parents were at least worried about climate change, 71% of teachers
responded that they had not discussed environmental protection, climate change, or
sustainable development within the class.
42.4 Conclusion and the Way Forward
This study involved assessing the perception of 150 students regarding their under-
standing of climate change and EbA, as well as how these topics are integrated into
the school curriculum. This research endeavor is a preliminary undertaking to facili-
tate a broader initiative focused on gathering insights into students’ awareness and
understanding of climate change and EbA. The findings derived from the survey
unequivocally underscored the imperative to augment the prominence of climate
education within the local community schools, particularly at the primary and sec-
ondary levels. In general, the study reveals that students are relatively aware of the
impact of climate change. However, the students’ grades are among the most critical
factors influencing their knowledge level. As the survey was conducted on grade 8
students, it may be corroborated that the maturity level of the students to understand
and grasp the depth of the content in their text about climate change adaptation
increases with their grades. Hence, the climate change curriculum must be imple-
mented at the primary and secondary levels.
Teachers are responsible for preparing future generations better by highlighting
the need to take urgent climate action and its impacts. The community schoolteach-
ers of Bhimeshwar Municipality do not have adequate training. Teachers need to
understand their disciplines’ fundamental concepts and pedagogical knowledge, not
merely have a massive collection of facts. The local government must promote
field-based and project-based learning activities and use local resources to educate
students hands-on. Project-based learning imparts hands-on learning by actively
engaging students in understanding climate change and EbA. Many lessons have
been learned from the results of this study. One is the need to develop a local climate
curriculum from primary to secondary levels. Currently, either schoolteachers are
not well trained in climate science, or the students cannot understand the prescribed
894 D. Joshi et al.
course materials. Critical gaps identified are lesser priority given to climate change
issues in school education, lack of personnel training and teaching materials, and
lack of integration of EbA in the current pedagogy. Resonating with this, the survey
suggests prioritizing teacher training, equipping students with the requisite
resources, and experiential climate education with an inclusive curriculum.
Acknowledgement The author gratefully acknowledges the Ministry of Forests and Environment,
GEF, and UNEP for their technical and financial support of the EbA II Project. Special thanks go
to Dr. Buddi Sagar Poudel, Mr. Binod Thapa, and Mr. Raju Sapkota from the Climate Change
Management Division of the ministry.
References
Anderson A (2012) Climate change education for mitigation and adaptation. J Educ Sustain Dev
6(2):191–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/0973408212475199
Berse K (2017) Climate change from the lens of Malolos children: perception, impact and adapta-
tion. Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 26(2):217–229
GoN (2019) National Climate Change Policy. Ministry of Forests and Environment, Government
of Nepal
Kumar M, Padalia H, Singh H (2020a) Remote sensing for mapping invasive alien plants: oppor-
agricultural productivity at higher altitudes. In: Goel R, Soni R, Suyal DC (eds) Microbiological
advancements for higher altitude agro-ecosystems & sustainability. Springer, pp 55–70
Læssøe J, Mochizuki Y (2015) Recent trends in national policy on education for sustainable
development and climate change education. J Educ Sustain Dev 9(1):27–43. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0973408215569112
Lawson DF, Stevenson KT, Peterson MN, Carrier SJ, Strnad RL, Seekamp E (2019) Children
can foster climate change concern among their parents. Nature Climate Change 9(6):458–462.
Manoj M, Sweta NP and Singh H (2021) The role of communities in sustainable land and forest
management. In: Forest resources resilience and conflicts. Academic, Elsevier, doi: https://doi.
org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822931-6.00024-1
MoFE (2019) Climate change scenarios for Nepal for National Adaptation Plan (NAP). Ministry
of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu
Newey WK, McFadden D (1994) Large sample estimation and hypothesis testing. Handbook of
econometrics. 4, 2111–2245
Odoom M (2020) Constraints and contributing factors to implementing climate change education
as an emerging curriculum area at the basic education level in Cape Coast Metropolis, Ghana
(Doctoral dissertation)
Özdem Y, Dal B, Öztürk N, Sönmez D, Alper U (2014) What is that thing called climate change?
An investigation into the understanding of climate change by seventh-grade students. Int Res
Geogr Enviro 23(4):294–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2014.946323
Richerzhagen C, Rodríguez de Francisco JC, Weinsheimer F, Döhnert A, Kleiner L, Mayer M,
Philipp E (2019) Ecosystem-based adaptation projects, more than just adaptation: analysis of
social benefits and costs in Colombia. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16(21):4248. https://doi.
org/10.3390/ijerph16214248
pp 336–361
Singh, H., & Kumar, M. (2022). Climate change and its impact on Indian Himalayan forests:
current status and research needs. In Seema Rani, Rajesh Kumar (eds) Climate change:
impacts, responses and sustainability in the Indian Himalaya (pp. 223–242). Cham: Springer
International Publishing. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92782-0_11
Spalding MD, Ruffo S, Lacambra C, Meliane I, Hale LZ, Shepard CC, Beck MW (2014) The role
of ecosystems in coastal protection: adapting to climate change and coastal hazards. Ocean
Coastal Manag 90:50–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.09.007
Stephens JC, Hernandez ME, Román M, Graham AC, Scholz RW (2008) Higher education as a
change agent for sustainability in different cultures and contexts. Int J Sustain Higher Educ
9(3):317–338. https://doi.org/10.1108/14676370810885916
Tanik-Önal N, Önal N (2020) Teaching science through distance education during the COVID-19
pandemic. Int Online J Educ Teach 7(4):1898–1911

Singh

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Singh

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Singh

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hukum Singh Editor

Forests and Climate Change

ISBN 978-981-97-3904-2 ISBN 978-981-97-3905-9 (eBook)

If disposing of this product, please recycle the paper.

effectiveness of adaptation and mitigation measures, and guide adaptive manage-

1  limate Change and Forests: Biological Perspectives�������������������������� 1

9 Climate-Induced Adaptations in Gluta travancorica Bedd.:

21  orests and Agroforestry: Nature-Based Solutions for Climate

32  uman-Induced Soil Acidification in the Indian Sundarbans:

Hukum Singh is an esteemed scientist in forest physiology, climate change, and

Keywords Climate change · Biological perspectives · Ecosystem services · Forest

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 1

1.2 Climate Change Impact on Forests

Climate change manifests in various ways, including Physiological, Morphological,

Climate change profoundly influences plant physiology, impacting fundamental

Climate change significantly influences the morphological characteristics of plants,

1.2.5 Molecular and Gene Expression

1.3 Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies

regions, affect ecosystem dynamics, influencing species interactions, carbon

1.4 Forest Conservation and Restoration

1.5 Climate-Smart Forestry Practices

Implementing climate-smart forestry practices can help forests adapt to changing

1.6 Community Engagement and Stakeholder Collaboration

Effective forest management requires active engagement and collaboration among

1.7 Policy and Institutional Support

Governments and international organizations are crucial in developing and imple-

1.8.1 Understanding Species Responses

1.8.6 Long-Term Phenological Monitoring

Establish and maintain long-term phenological monitoring networks at various spa-

1.8.7 Long-Term Eco-Physiological Monitoring

The study should focus on developing innovative eco-physiological monitoring

1.8.8 Long-Term Hydrological and Sap Flow Monitoring

Enhanced long-term monitoring of hydrological processes and sap flow dynamics

Improve our understanding of carbon dynamics in forest ecosystems under chang-

Evaluate the effectiveness of silvicultural practices (e.g., thinning, prescribed burn-

1.8.11 Remote Sensing and Monitoring

Integrate biological research with social science perspectives to understand the

Climate change presents substantial obstacles to forests on a global scale, threaten-

Purnima Rawat and Mithilesh Singh

Keywords Environmental factors · Secondary metabolites · Medicinal plants ·

Large classes of organic molecules, usually categorized as primary and secondary

P. Rawat · M. Singh (*)

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 19

precursor molecules, chemical structures, or origins in biosynthesis. For instance,

2.1.3 Flavonoids and Phenolic Compounds

Flavonoids are fifteen-carbon polyphenolic compounds with two aromatic rings

Fig. 2.2 Applications of plant secondary metabolites and their properties

Criteria Inclusion Exclusion

2.3 Effect of Abiotic Stress on Medicinal Plants

Potential articles included

Articles screened (Inclusion

Eligibility Full text articles

Included Articles reviewed = 120

Criteria Inclusion Exclusion

Fig. 2.3 The methodology followed in the study

2.4 Effect of Biotic Stress on Medicinal Plants

Table 2.1 Impact of abiotic stress on some medicinal plants

Table 2.1 (continued)

Table 2.1 (continued)

Table 2.1 (continued)

1 limate Change and Forests: Biological Perspectives�� 1

9 Climate-Induced Adaptations in Gluta travancorica Bedd.:

21 orests and Agroforestry: Nature-Based Solutions for Climate

32 uman-Induced Soil Acidification in the Indian Sundarbans:

1.2 Climate Change Impact on Forests

1.2.5 Molecular and Gene Expression

1.3 Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies

1.4 Forest Conservation and Restoration

1.5 Climate-Smart Forestry Practices

1.6 Community Engagement and Stakeholder Collaboration

1.7 Policy and Institutional Support

1.8.1 Understanding Species Responses

1.8.6 Long-Term Phenological Monitoring

1.8.7 Long-Term Eco-Physiological Monitoring

1.8.8 Long-Term Hydrological and Sap Flow Monitoring

1.8.11 Remote Sensing and Monitoring

2.1.3 Flavonoids and Phenolic Compounds

2.3 Effect of Abiotic Stress on Medicinal Plants

2.4 Effect of Biotic Stress on Medicinal Plants

2.6 Conclusion and a Way Forward

3.2 Climate Change and Drivers

3.3 Morphological Changes in Forests

3.3.1 Shifts in Species Composition

3.3.2 Altered Growth Patterns Among Forest Species

3.3.3 Heightened Occurrence and Severity of Disturbances

3.3.5 Spread of Invasive Species

3.3.7 Shifts in Forest Distribution

3.3.9 Changes in Nutrient Availability

3.4 Physiological Responses of Trees

3.4.1 Altered Rates of Photosynthesis

3.4.2 Increased Water Stress

3.4.3 Changes in Carbon Dynamics

3.4.4 Species Migration and Adaptation

3.4.5 Temperature-Dependent Growth and Metabolism

3.4.6.2 Increased Forest Fires

3.4.6.5 Shifts in Vegetation Types

3.5.1 Shifts in Tree Distribution and Range

3.5.2 Phenological Changes and Altered Tree Growth Rates

3.5.3 Increased Forest Stress and Vulnerability to Pests

3.5.4 Changes in Carbon Sequestration

3.5.5 Impacts on Ectomycorrhizal Symbiosis

3.6 Mitigation and Conservation Strategies

3.6.1 Afforestation and Assisted Migration

3.6.2 Climate-Smart Forestry Practices

3.6.3 Preserving Genetic Diversity and Restoring

3.6.4 Promoting Resilient Tree Species

3.6.5 Integrated Fire Management and Early Warning Systems

3.6.6 Community Involvement and Policy and Legal Measures

3.7.1 Advancements in Remote Sensing and Monitoring

3.7.2 Integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI)