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Adaptation Strategies for Protected Cultivation Under Changing Climate

Patterns in Dry Regions

Chapter · March 2023

DOI: 10.1007/978-981-19-9159-2_24

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Adaptation Strategies for Protected
Cultivation Under Changing Climate 24
Patterns in Dry Regions

Sushmita Thokchom, Dharavath Saicharan, Burjikindi Madhuri,

Koosari Supriya, Sravanthi Erla, and Satwika Maharaj

Abstract

Climate change (CC) is the main obstacles being faced by mankind throughout
the entire world. Majority of the agricultural sector is harmed not only by the
biotic factor like pests and diseases but also due to a rapid decline in the
supporting environment due to climate change because of its less publicity. Dry
land ecosystems are mainly grasslands which have special strategies for handling
climate change. Rural people are much prone to changes in the climate and thus
there is a need to introduce adaptation strategies in protected cultivation in dry
regions. New implementations have been developed by adjusting the human and
natural systems to their response to climatic factors; manipulating the
experiments; making the temperature to fluctuate; checking the responses created
by plants through a long observation; changing the crop pattern, new varieties,
novel insecticidal treatment, and sowing techniques; etc. Due to a lack of
improved technology, less training, and signs of warnings in climate change,
there are constraints in adaptation strategies. Hence, the much-needed informa-
tion relating to the climate patterns especially in dry regions must be organised in
order to fulfil farmer’s adaptive approaches against climate change.

Keywords

Climate change · Dry land · Adaptation strategies · Protected cultivation

S. Thokchom (✉)
Department of Entomology, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam, India
D. Saicharan · B. Madhuri · K. Supriya · S. Erla · S. Maharaj
Professor JayashankarTelangana State Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad,
Telangana, India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 487
Ltd. 2023
A. Naorem, D. Machiwal (eds.), Enhancing Resilience of Dryland Agriculture Under
Changing Climate, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9159-2_24
488 S. Thokchom et al.

24.1 Introduction

Climate change (CC) is the most challenging issue nowadays as it has long-term
effects and causes grief to mankind worldwide. Most of the time agriculture is
hampered by the change in climate causing low yields and insect pest proliferation
and in long run the productivity of the food is declined. Climate change quickens
land degradation which is known as dry land. Dry land is generally the ecosystem
which consists of grassland, rangeland, and woodlands which covers about 40% of
terrestrial surface (IUCN 2019). In dry land, water scarcity is the main obstacle faced
by the people, which is reported to further increase due to climate change, the growth
of demographic variables, and the change in land cover (Hassan et al. 2005; UNCCD
2017). Scientists stated that the areas of dry land will get increased by 50% globally
by climate change by 2100 (Huang et al. 2015). Rural people are much prone to
change in the climate as they are mostly dependent on agriculture which affects their
livelihood like crop decline, livestock failure, decreasing marine resources, decline
of forest products, and outbreaks of diseases and pests (Molnar 2010). Rural people
faced the risks more in climate change due to high poverty, more population, ethnic
tensions, insecurity of food, and instability of political order (Misselhorn 2005;
Reynolds et al. 2007; FAO 2009, 2018). Due to climate change, the introduction
of adaptive strategies in development sectors is needed (World Bank 2010). The
adaptive strategies should be sustainable and eco-friendly and should be easy for
farmers to adopt economically (ATPS 2013). Adaptation to climate change signifies
adjusting the human and also natural systems to their response to the climatic factors
and experimental manipulation which balances the harm or utilisation of good
opportunities (IPCC 2001). UKCIP (2003) also explained adaptive strategies as “a
process which includes risk of harm and also realization of benefits connected with
climate change and climate variability”. Adaptation strategies is a strategy of finding
the information and conditions related to the impacts of climate change and the
major factors in which people find it difficult to adopt, decreasing their vulnerability
and making them ready for environmental hazards (Khajuria and Ravindranath
2012). Because of the changing climate scenario and its adverse effects, protected
cultivation is being introduced with different adaptive strategies to combat change of
climate at the farm level. Protected cultivation provides a microclimate to crops,
giving them a friendly environment to either fully or partially control their growth
period (Mishra et al. 2010). Individual plant species needs different protected
cultivation like net houses, greenhouses, and tunnels which helps the plants to
decrease yield loss due to extreme climate condition and gives them protection
from several diseases, weeds, and pests, allowing for crop quantity and quality
improvement and productive resources and expanding farmer’s income (Ummyiah
et al. 2017). Most of the time, protected cultivation is used for vegetables, flowers,
and fruits as they are more unsafe to variability of climate and extreme climate
(Knox et al. 2010; Choudhary et al. 2015). Adaptation strategies are indispensable as
they reduce the adverse effects of climate change, but due to a lack of much-needed
information relating to climate change patterns, high cost of adaptation procedures,
and less training and signs of warnings in climate change, farmers are facing major
24 Adaptation Strategies for Protected Cultivation Under Changing. . . 489

problems. Usually they faced several problems while adopting the adaptive
strategies to climate change which cannot fulfil the adaptation approaches. There-
fore, improved technology and strategies which will strengthen farmers’ adaptive
approaches against climate change are needed.

24.2 Need for Adaptation Strategies Under Protected

Cultivation in Dry Regions

Adaptation implies the ability of a system to adjust to climate change (including

climate variability and extremes) and to moderate potential damages, to take advan-
tage of opportunities, or to deal with the consequences (IPCC 2001). Climate change
is more visible in recent decades, resulting in heightened awareness of the phenom-
ena. The high temperature and drought events are becoming more often because of
climate change, putting agriculture in arid regions at risk (Giorgio and Lionello
2008; IPCC 2014). The unpredictability of water in semi-arid zones will be unsafe
for crop productivity and also create socio-economic effects (Polade et al. 2017).
Crop adaptations (in protected structures) in the cropping systems are the approaches
or practices which are employed particularly on the agricultural field and will be
required to tackle the susceptibility of dry regions to climate change. Anticipated
climatic changes encourage the expansion of protected agriculture, i.e. greenhouses
and screenhouses, within which external climatic effects are restrained. According to
Boulard et al. (2011), non-protected agriculture or natural systems such as forests
and pastures are thought to be more climate-dependent than protected ones. How-
ever, even if protected farming were less dependent on local climate circumstances,
it would still be a reason for concern because internal climate and energy balance and
thus economic models are heavily influenced by external factors. Various
approaches and technologies are accessible for improving adaptation of crops in
the farm level to climate change. Subsequently, scientists started to produce climate
models, both regional and global, to obtain an insight into future changes. The
results obtained serve nowadays as a basis for decision-makers and scientists to
create adaptation strategies for use in the future. The model changes are an increas-
ing global mean temperature, an increase in atmospheric CO2, and more extreme
climatic factors such as heat waves (IPCC 2013).
The adaptation strategies comprise of genetic improvement by providing new
cultivars which have a high potential for yield, adapting to water scarcity and high
temperature, adopting agronomic practices which are efficient in irrigated as well as
rainfed areas, discovering symbiosis between microbes and plants, and producing
vegetation which can endure abiotic stress (Araus et al. 2008; Borras and Slafer
2008; Lehmann et al. 2013; Bodner et al. 2015; Dessaux et al. 2016). Based on farm
level, the adaptation strategies consist of dealing with the farmer’s behaviour for
implementing new practices and also economic incentives. Leafy vegetables which
require continuity of supply are particularly vulnerable to extreme weather events.
Normally these crops rely on a combination of successional plantings and appropri-
ate genotypes for reliable scheduling. Greater fluctuations in temperature may result
490 S. Thokchom et al.

in a compression of harvest dates (Collier et al. 2008). Climate change affects crops
in various ways, so adaption with new strategies to overcome the impacts of climate
change is very much important. By 2100, majority of climate models have forecast a
sudden decrease of precipitation and rise in temperature (Giorgio and Lionello 2008;
García-Ruiz et al. 2011; Williams 2017). Scientists also reported that winter precipi-
tation frequency will also decrease and rainfall will increase in some areas (Polade
et al. 2017). The constraints faced in the environment due to climate change would
reduce the crop yield as well as the quality of crop and in addition it will affect the
planted area of several crops (Challinor et al. 2014; Lesk et al. 2016).

24.2.1 Impacts of Climate Change

24.2.1.1 Increase in Atmospheric CO2

CO2 is predominantly released into the atmosphere because of the combustion of
fossil fuels. After burning, this carbon is released into the atmosphere, with only a
small chance of being re-sequestered, resulting in an accumulation of greenhouse
gases (CO2, CH4, N2O) and subsequent warming due to the greenhouse effect. CO2
levels in the atmosphere are predicted to rise to between 442 and 540 parts per
million by mid-century (IPCC 2013). Increased CO2 concentrations may be benefi-
cial for agricultural productivity, particularly the summer and depending on the
current climate scenario.

24.2.1.2 Increase in Air Temperature

Since climate change is generally associated with globally increased air temperature,
it may support to cultivate new crop species, a higher crop production, and an
increase of proper areas for crop cultivation in northern areas. However, in southern
areas some disadvantages may predominate. The possible increase in shortage of
water and extreme weather conditions will probably cause higher as well as lower
yield variability and lessen the areas producing traditional crops (Olesen and Bindi
2002). In our opinion, this statement could be generally applied for warmer regions
worldwide, even if the local climate specifics and particularities must be considered.
Since climate changes will be associated with generally higher temperatures, it is
safe to assume that this trend of increasing area of simple greenhouses with a passive
control of environmental conditions will continue in nations with mild winter
climates in the nearby future (Montero et al. 2009). Unforeseeable climate events
and consumer requirements for all year-round ornamental plants and health-
promoting plant compounds from fresh vegetables will enhance the trend of inten-
sive cultivation in temperate areas as well (Gruda et al. 2019).

24.2.1.3 Change in Rainfall

Due to the consequences of climate change, the spatial distribution of rainfall in
some areas is changing, resulting in water shortages. Because irrigated horticulture
needs plenty of water, there will be increased rivalry among water users in the future
(Bisbis et al. 2018a, b). Plants will undergo drought stress if growers fail to maintain
24 Adaptation Strategies for Protected Cultivation Under Changing. . . 491

proper irrigation due to water shortages, which could result in crop failure (Gruda
et al. 2009).

24.2.1.4 Instability in Yields of High-Quality Products

On account of the problems in greenhouse climate control, adaptive measures will be
required to provide stable yields of excellent product quality. In this scenario,
manufacturers must invest in improved technology that decreases wastage by low-
ering the percentage of unmarketable yield and boosting the level of sugars,
vitamins, and antioxidants in their products. The market expects a flawless product
that is also safe to eat. This puts vegetable producers under a lot of stress since they
have to meet market and consumer needs while climate circumstances are
deteriorating. Water conservation, for example, would become a key factor in
cultivation tactics such as the use of shading screens to mitigate climate change
consequences such as increase air temperatures and water scarcity.

24.2.1.5 The Impacts of Elevated Temperatures on Pests and Diseases

Changes in the climatological framework will affect not just vegetable harvests but
also insect pest life cycles and reproduction rates. Winter death rates of insects will
decrease as global temperatures rise, allowing for earlier infestations and more
generations per year, such as aphids, along with the introduction of new species,
e.g. Tuta absoluta (Van Damme et al. 2014; Bisbis et al. 2018a). Increasing CO2
levels in the atmosphere have an effect on plant-insect interactions by changing the
host plant’s food quality, which either reduces insect health or increases infestation
severity, depending on the species involved (Dader et al. 2016). Warm winter
temperatures usually result in increased crop transpiration rates and reduce the
vapour pressure deficit (VPD) in the greenhouse. High winter precipitation with
more humid days would exacerbate the situation. This winter pattern highlights the
need for better greenhouse humidity control in the future to avoid phytosanitary
issues including mildew, Botrytis, and grey mould. The installation of insect-proof
screenhouses may help to increase water efficiency while also lowering pesticide
application, which has become increasingly important for consumers who prefer
pesticide-free products (Bisbis et al. 2018a).

24.3 Different Adaptations Strategies for Protected Cultivation

to Reduce the Climate Change Effect in Dry Regions

Extreme weather condition for instance heat waves and drought periods will become
more often because of climate change, and a corresponding overall increase in air
temperature during the winter may provide new opportunities. Here we describe the
benefits and drawbacks of several adaptation strategies for dealing with the issues
posed by the effect of climate changes.
492 S. Thokchom et al.

24.3.1 To Combat Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Emissions Must

Be Increased

The framework conditions in agriculture will change due to global warming and
preserving crops from poor weather conditions will become a crucial concern for
adaptation. Extreme weather, such as wind or hail storms, is protected by the
structure and cover, which also makes it easier to control environmental parameters
like temperature, humidity, and radiation. Greenhouses provide excellent chances to
control indoor climate conditions and become less reliant on the outside environ-
ment. This is a significant advantage over open-field production and a valuable tool
for dealing with climate change issues. It’s especially relevant for hot climates like
the Caribbean (Lawrence et al. 2015) and Africa (Abukari and Tok 2016;
Schreinemachers et al. 2018), where a controlled environment was regarded as a
promising adaptation approach for limiting climate change effects. Controlled envi-
ronment agriculture, according to Lawrence et al. (2015) and Schreinemachers et al.
(2018), contains inherent qualities that reduce some of the abiotic and biotic
challenges to agricultural production in a changing environment. Structural designs,
roof and side coverings, and growth methods are among the features that protect the
crops from unfavourable weather conditions, maximise the use of inputs (particu-
larly land and water), and result in higher yields per unit area (Lawrence et al. 2015).
Furthermore, even on non-productive lands, year-round and high-quality vegetable
crops might be grown with a significant reduction in the quantity and amounts of
agrochemicals utilised. Nonetheless, greenhouse structures may need to be modified
to accommodate new climates. Their construction has a significant impact on the
indoor climate. Many greenhouses in Germany are over 25 years old (Gruda et al.
2009) and lack the requisite temperature control capabilities for a more harsh
environment. Because of the low ridge height in these structures, heat builds up
quickly in the summer, causing plants stress (Von Elsner et al. 2000). The buoyancy
effect causes hot air to ascend above the crop environment because of the ridge
height of modern buildings (5–6 m or even 8 m). This provides a better temperature
buffer during hot periods, but it consumes more energy to heat during cold periods.
High buildings also provide more room for climate control technology, which will
be required to maintain effective temperature control as the world warms (Von
Elsner et al. 2000). However, placing such equipment beneath the roof and above
the plants provides shadowing, which is normally undesirable in northern climates.

24.3.2 To Reduce Water Scarcity, Water Consumption Must Be

Reduced and Water Usage Efficiency Must Be Increased

Climate change scenarios forecast more frequent occurrences of extreme conditions,

such as drought years, along with an uneven distribution of precipitation throughout
the year, requiring increased irrigation efficiency. Increasing the efficiency of water
use and protecting crops from harsh weather conditions are two significant
24 Adaptation Strategies for Protected Cultivation Under Changing. . . 493

adaptation challenges. Screenhouses, naturally ventilated greenhouses, semi-closed

greenhouses, and closed greenhouses are described in detail below.

24.3.2.1 Screenhouses
The usage of shade screens is proven to lower atmospheric water consumption while
also allowing for increased water efficiency (Tanny et al. 2015). As a result, it could
be a viable strategy for dealing with the negative consequences of climate change.
Tanny et al. (2009) found that during the daylight, VPD fell beneath the screens,
which shows that the air was more humidified by the lower air exchange rate
expected beneath the screen. Similarly, when a pepper crop was shaded by a shading
screen cover, the screenhouse air provides more humidity in comparison to the
outside air most of the time (Moller and Assouline 2007). Kittas et al. found that
the VPD of shaded plants was 50% lower in comparison to unshaded plants. The
increase in air humidity and thus the associated decrease in the vapour pressure
deficit may reduce the orchard’s irrigation demand, resulting in water savings, which
is a significant benefit in changing climate and the frequent occurrence of drought
(Siqueira et al. 2012).
Screens reduce VPD (i.e. increase air humidity), but their effect on air tempera-
ture is complex and dependent on other factors, most notably ventilation rate.
Through the Penman-Monteith equation, the four microclimatic variables of solar
radiation, wind speed, air humidity, and air temperature, as well as additional plant
and soil properties, determine crop evapotranspiration (Allen et al. 1998). As a
result, growing crops under screens may reduce evapotranspiration due to the effects
of the screens on the microclimate. Pirkner et al. (2014) demonstrated that crop
evapotranspiration under a light shading screen was 66% of evapotranspiration of a
similar crop estimated under outside climatic conditions in the same region for a
table-grape vineyard covered by a light shading screen. As a result, this study
suggested a potential water savings of more than 30%. According to a sensitivity
analysis (Haijun et al. 2015), the reduction in evapotranspiration is primarily due to
the effects of the screen on radiation and wind speed. Farmers are interested in water
use efficiency (WUE), which is the yield obtained per unit of irrigation water, in
addition to water savings through reduced evapotranspiration. As a result, low-cost
structures such as screenhouses and naturally ventilated greenhouses may improve
water efficiency. Aside from adjusting the crop environment to climate change
situations, screens may minimise greenhouse gas emissions, so directly contributing
to future climate change reduction.
Growing in a greenhouse, like growing in a screenhouse, can save water because
of reduced wind speed and elevated humidity under the cover, resulting in less
evaporative demand and thus crop transpiration (Stanghellini 1992). This environ-
ment provides an excellent opportunity to transition from soil to soilless culture
systems and increases water use efficiency even further, particularly in recirculating
systems that recapture drain water for reuse (Gruda 2009). In addition, the lack of
bacterial activity in some growing media reduces CO2 emissions when compared to
open-field production (Hashida et al. 2014).
494 S. Thokchom et al.

24.3.2.2 Semi-/Closed Greenhouses

Despite lower summer precipitation in Europe, ensuring adequate water supply is
critical for vegetable production. Longer drought periods during the main growing
season will necessitate a more efficient and sustainable use of water resources, in
addition to ensuring adequate total amounts of water (Bisbis et al. 2018a). Due to the
reduced opening of ventilation windows in closed and semi-closed greenhouses,
transpiration is reduced by the overall higher RH of around 75–85% (Dannehl et al.
2014). Reduced water consumption increases water use efficiency (WUE) of up to
71% (Dannehl et al. 2014). Another intriguing aspect is the ability to capture and
recycle the water transpired by plants in the nutrient solution. Up to 85% of the total
irrigation water condenses on the heat exchangers during the air cooling process and
can be added to the nutrient solution without concern (Teitel et al. 2012). With both a
reduction in total water consumption and the recycling of transpired water, future
water shortage challenges can be effectively mitigated without sacrificing produc-
tivity or quality (Van Kooten et al. 2008). Finally, water conservation and increased
water use efficiency in screens and naturally ventilated greenhouses are critical for
delivering food during drought years or when precipitation levels vary and do not
correspond to the cropping season. Such structures require little capital commitment
on the part of the farmer, as they are cost effective in underdeveloped nations where
high-tech greenhouses are out of reach. Only high-tech greenhouses with very
significant investment costs should employ semi-/closed greenhouses. The overall
greater relative humidity in such structures reduces transpiration due to the restricted
opening of ventilation windows. Water use efficiency improves due to lower water
consumption and the ability to extract water from greenhouse air.

24.3.3 For Winter Production, Increased Usage and Improvement

of Natural and Extra Light

The greatest constraint to growing crops in winter in Western Europe is the lack of
sunlight and cold temperatures. Cloud cover may intensify in the future as climate
change increases winter precipitation, resulting in even more shade. To take use of
the increased warmth given by climate change, maximising light within the green-
house will become increasingly vital in the future. The structure and cover of the
greenhouse have a significant impact on light transmission. The amount of light that
reaches the crop is greatly influenced by architectural design, orientation, and the
type of the cladding material. Teitel et al. (2012) discovered that the greatest
reduction in radiation occurred around midday, in the area beneath the roof
openings. Light transmission is better in the winter when the greenhouse is aligned
east-west; however, light transmission is better in the summer when the greenhouse
is aligned north-south (Von Elsner et al. 2000; Kempkes et al. 2015).
Cover materials, both plastic films and glass, are constantly improving their
optical characteristics. Any major improvement in light transmission is mostly
dependent on advancements in transparent roof materials (Bakker et al. 2008). In
the greenhouse business, numerous anti-reflex coatings have recently been
24 Adaptation Strategies for Protected Cultivation Under Changing. . . 495

introduced. They improve light transmission to some extent. Double-sided coated

anti-reflex glass (Hemming et al. 2006), micro-V treated glass (Sonneveld and
Swinkels 2005), and triple-layer systems are also promising alternatives (Bot et al.
2005; Bakker et al. 2008). Improving greenhouse light transmission benefits photo-
synthesis while also lowering the amount of supplemental heating electricity
required during the winter, improving energy efficiency (Elings et al. 2005).
The winter-light greenhouse concept was created in the Netherlands, with wider
windows, diffuse glazing with an anti-reflection coating, specific energy screens
built for high light transmission, and a white coating for construction parts to
improve light reflectance (Hemming et al. 2017). When compared to traditional
greenhouses, this design enhanced light transmission by 12% in the winter
(Kempkes et al. 2015). Artificial lighting has become a prevalent practice in the
endeavour to achieve year-round output (Bakker et al. 2008). Artificial light was first
used on floriculture crops such as chrysanthemums and roses, but in the last decade,
it has also been used on fruits and vegetables (Bakker et al. 2008).

24.3.4 Heat Waves and Required Cooling

It is useful to draw lessons from natural processes while coping with natural
extremes. Microclimatic effects caused by forest canopy closure can buffer biotic
responses to macroclimate warming driven by CC, according to a study of under-
story canopy in a forest. The rise in the presence of warm-adapted species was
mitigated in forests with denser canopies, which is possible because of higher shade
and colder growing-season ground temperatures. As a result, the forest trees’ canopy
closure induced natural shade in a similar way as an artificial shading screen.
Providing fruit orchard shading by porous screens can reduce noontime air tempera-
ture by 1–2 °C (Tanny et al. 2009), which may be the most important factor in
preserving great fruit quality in changing climates. It may be possible to solve
concerns with supply continuity owing to CC by switching to varieties with different
temperature requirements for green crops (Collier et al. 2008).

24.3.4.1 Cooling and Ventilation by Screens

Air temperature and humidity were monitored within the trees’ foliage in a field
experiment in an apple orchard covered with screens of various shade levels (0, 16,
30, and 60%, where 0 is control without shading). The cooling impact increased with
the shade level, and the air temperature under the screen was lower by around 1.4 °C
at noon (Tanny et al. 2009). This drop in daytime air temperature could have a
substantial impact on fruit quality, especially during intense heat waves, which are
more common under climate change conditions. The air temperature in the screened
treatments increased somewhat at night, by around 0.3 °C, by reducing radiative
cooling. Because of the good yields and water reserves, cultivating banana orchards
beneath light shade screens has become standard in Israel (Dicken et al. 2013). Air
temperature was reduced by 1% and relative humidity increased by 8% in a banana
screenhouse when compared to a nearby external meteorological station, according
496 S. Thokchom et al.

to measurements (Haijun et al. 2015). The lower ventilation in the banana

screenhouse, with side walls, and the apple orchard, which was covered by a shading
screen cover on the roof only, with no sidewalls, and presumably was much better
ventilated, is attributed to the small change in air temperature as compared to that of
the abovementioned apple orchard. Moller and Assouline (2007) found that the
indoor air temperature was lesser than the outside temperature most of the time in a
shading screenhouse (30% black shading screen) covering a pepper crop. They
discovered that the air temperature under the screen was approximately identical to
that outside, and the leaf temperature of shaded leaves was roughly lower by 5 °C
than that of exposed leaves. They pointed out that the screen was only installed on
the roof, allowing for adequate ventilation and balancing the inside and outside air
temperatures. The most noticeable consequence of screens is that they only transmit
a fraction of sun radiation. They also convert a portion of the direct radiation to
diffuse, which may improve photosynthesis in huge plants with a lot of shaded
leaves.

24.3.4.2 Cooling in Passively Ventilated Greenhouses

The microclimate in naturally ventilated greenhouses is determined by the kind and
geometry of the greenhouse, and it can be modified by opening and closing the vents.
The reduction of internal temperature and humidity due to ventilation increased with
the height of the window opening and wind speed, but decreased with solar radia-
tion, according to the findings. On hot sunny days, technologies to cool greenhouse
air have become more vital, notably natural ventilation systems, which use far less
energy than fan ventilation systems. In mild winter regions, natural ventilation
systems in greenhouses consist of either roof or side windows, or a combination of
both. The windows can be opened or closed depending on the desired indoor
microclimate and outside weather conditions. The ventilation method used is deter-
mined by the climate, crop, and structure type. For example, side ventilation is
ineffective in particularly large greenhouses; hence, ventilation is mostly relied on
roof vents. Bournet et al. (2007) utilise computational fluid dynamics techniques to
optimise the location and distribution of apertures over the greenhouse cover. These
tools allow modelling of the ventilation rate under various conditions. Such
simulations can also anticipate the internal geographical distribution of air tempera-
ture at the canopy level, a variable that is critical for crop yield, particularly in
changing climates. Cooling solutions based on wet pad (Kittas et al. 2003) or
fogging (Arbel et al. 2003) are employed if natural ventilation is insufficient to
achieve the appropriate internal air temperature.

24.3.4.3 Air Velocity and Ventilation Rate Are the Main Features
to Efficient Passive Cooling
Screens impose, or drag, resistance to air flow due to the distortion of streamlines
around the screen threads. This, in turn, reduces the air velocity under the screen and
the ventilation rate or exchange rate between the inside and outside air temperatures.
Tanny et al. (2006) have reported the measurements of air velocity at 5 m height in a
banana screenhouse and showed that the internal (uin) and external (uout) relation
24 Adaptation Strategies for Protected Cultivation Under Changing. . . 497

between of air velocity was uin = 0.6 (uout - 0.18), R2 = 0.89. In a soybean field
covered by a shade cloth, Allen (1975) reported a reduction of 67% in air velocity,
i.e. uin = 0.33 uout. Reducing air velocity is an advantage in high wind speed region
which may cause damage to leaves and yield. Air exchange rate is an important
parameter for protected cultivation; sufficient exchange is essential for adequate
supply of CO2 for plant photosynthesis and for the removal of excess heat and water
vapour from within the structure. For a large banana screenhouse Tanny et al. (2006)
compared their results with the volume flow rate of a pepper screenhouse (Tanny
et al. 2003), as well as with the flow rate obtained by Demrati et al. (2001) in a
naturally ventilated banana greenhouse. The flow rate in the banana screenhouse was
much larger than those in the banana greenhouse and the pepper screenhouse. This
result clearly shows the effect of the screen permeability on air exchange rate. A
numerical simulation by Teitel and Wenger (2010) showed that not only the screen
type and porosity affect internal air velocity but also the structural shape of the roof.
In particular they have shown that pitched screened roofs with inclinations of 22°
and 33° induced a larger air exchange rate through the screenhouse than flat roofs.
Boulard et al. (1997) investigated ventilation in six types of naturally ventilated
greenhouses and tunnels. Using neural network analysis, they have shown that
ventilation rate is mostly affected by the area of openings and external wind speed.

24.3.4.4 Semi-closed Greenhouse Cooling and Efficient Use of CO2

The heart of the system is cooling. The semi-closed greenhouse is a powerful tool to
technically control the crop environment, allowing a higher degree of climate
control. Hemming et al. (2006) reported about the use of the greenhouse as solar
energy collector based on the principle of heat storage and heat pump system and an
efficient heat exchanging system near the crop. A number of technical devices can be
used to realise climate control in the semi-closed greenhouse. The concept by Qian
et al. (2009) was reported to be based on a system that removed the warm and moist
greenhouse air by forced ventilation to be cooled in air treatment units (ATU) based
on heat exchangers. The ATU served as a dehumidification unit because vapour
condensated on the cold heat exchanging surface. After the air conditioning process,
fresh air is returned to the crop. It was shown that cooling from above does not
induce vertical temperature gradients while cooling from below traps the cold air on
the bottom of the greenhouse due to density gradients. All technical improvements
that reduce the ventilation requirement of the greenhouse could have the capability
to limit the natural inflow of carbon dioxide, thereby limiting photosynthesis and
reducing yield (Montero et al. 2009). This technology is most likely to be profitable
also in simple greenhouses and the injection rate must be linked to the ventilation
opening. Since CO2 concentration will be increased in the future due to climate
change, a balance with the outside concentration can be reached through the
injection of outside air. This is the “wise use” of CO2 in greenhouse production
without high-cost investments.
498 S. Thokchom et al.

24.3.5 Plant Protection in a Changing Climate

Qian et al. (2009) observed yield reductions in tomato, due to Botrytis mould, during
the growing season, but without correlation to high humidity. RH was similar or
even lower to that in the control, where plants remained healthy. The incidence of
diseases and pests can be enormously lowered through the use of protected cultiva-
tion systems. Such systems enable producers to gain more control over their
production environment (Schreinemachers et al. 2018). However, even though
greenhouses are protected environments, pests and diseases can still manage to
enter through ventilation windows or other openings. Closed greenhouses appear
to be a suitable solution for this issue because windows remain sealed. This was
confirmed by Opdam et al. (2005), who showed that tomato production is possible
with an 80% decrease in chemical plant protection. However, due to high cooling
investment and running costs, the trend is rather towards semi-closed greenhouses,
where window opening is only reduced, but allowed. Thus, these greenhouses
should include insect screens installed on the windows to prevent pests from
entering, while guaranteeing sufficient air exchange (Teitel 2007). Apart from the
openings, the climate conditions within the greenhouse can favour the spread of
diseases and pests in the crop if the environment is not managed properly. High
relative humidity may result in fungal diseases such as Botrytis, especially when
droplets form on the leaves of the crop (De Gelder et al. 2012).

24.3.6 Breeding

Crop breeding is an adaptive response to change in climate for using both traditional
and biotechnology techniques that allow the introduction of resistant crop varieties.
Bindi and Howden (2004) stated the selection of cultivars with appropriate thermal
time and vernalisation requirements, heat shock resistance, drought tolerance, high
protein and nutritional levels, and resistance to new pests and diseases. It is essential
to preserve high irrigation efficiency in reduced water supply conditions. In our
opinion, this will be necessary for plastic houses or tunnels without climate control
facilities; breeding of fruit vegetable cultivars with higher productivity and a low
biomass will help to maintain irrigation efficiency. According to Lankhorst (2017),
on average, crops convert only 0.5% of incident sunlight into biomass, whereas
some wild plants convert sunlight up to eight times more efficiently. Therefore, more
robust and efficient photosynthesis will bring climate-proof, high-yielding food
crops within reach. According to Collier et al. (2008), it may be possible to
overcome problems in continuity of supply by changing to varieties with altered
temperature requirements; however, further research will be required to identify or
breed such adapted varieties. Thus, several projects, such as the EU projects
TOMGEM (www.tomgem.eu) and/or TOMRES (www.tomres.eu), take place now-
adays, in order to select superior tomato genotypes with improved adaptability of
fruit production to suboptimal environmental conditions, or to combine novel
genotypes with management strategies, having as a goal the reduction of fertilizer
24 Adaptation Strategies for Protected Cultivation Under Changing. . . 499

application amount and water input, while granting environmental sustainability and
economic viability.

24.3.7 Ensuring Continuous Market Supply Under Climate Change

The challenge to supply year-round high-quality horticultural products can be

afforded either by growing in high-tech greenhouses or by producing in different
locations, whose harvesting periods are complementary. For instance, in the south of
Spain, the absence of greenhouse production during the summer months in coastal
areas is being substituted by the vegetable produce from screenhouses in the
highlands, enabling the year-round market supply (Montero et al. 2009). Similarly,
strawberry plants can be propagated under favourable conditions for floral induction
in northern areas and then transplanted in southern areas to stimulate floral organ
formation and development (Neri et al. 2012); growers are facing climate change
with innovations in cultivated varieties and cultural techniques and by the integration
of the different production areas, with their specific optimum yield seasons, to
continuously fulfil the demands of the market.

24.3.8 Other Adaptation Possibilities

Other important factors are playing a central role in facing sustainable agriculture
under climate change, e.g. farmer incentives (Tilman et al. 2002). More publicity and
more private investment in resources and technology are desirable internationally
and also low-income nations make agriculture/horticultural systems more sustain-
able. The global research expenditures are less than 2% of agricultural GDP world-
wide, 5.5% of agricultural GDP in developed countries, and 1% less in developing
countries, and the increased food demand will occur during the next 50 years (Pardey
and Beintema 2002; Tilman et al. 2002). Foley et al. (2011) stated that to achieve
global food security and environmental sustainability, agricultural systems should be
transformed to address the challenges of food production and environmental protec-
tion. According to Howden et al. (2007), multidisciplinary complications need
multidisciplinary solutions, i.e. focusing more on integrated instead of disciplinary
science and strengthening the interaction with decision-makers. Gruda et al. (2019)
suggested that year-round fresh vegetables, produced in a sustainable way under
covered areas, are a central cornerstone to address the future challenges of climate
change.
500 S. Thokchom et al.

24.4 Constraints in Adaptive Strategies in Protected Cultivation

Under Climate Change (CC) in Dry Region

Climate change (CC) and agriculture are dependent on each other. On the one hand
CC is affected by agricultural activity, and the effects rising from climate change
also affect substantially on agriculture in terms of yield and crop losses in agricul-
ture. A striking feature of greenhouse production is the large amount of energy
consumption for heating, especially in temperate areas and during the cold season,
but in hotter areas and tropical regions, it is essential to minimise temperature to
obtain efficient yields. In cooler regions the main purpose of adopting greenhouses is
mainly to increase the inner than the external temperature to avoid chilling and frost
injury to the crop, but in hotter parts the purpose was vice versa to the cool areas. In
tropical regions high temperatures encourage huge crop losses by promoting high
transpiration and other nutritional losses. Consequently, high greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions are produced (Gruda et al. 2019). Anticipated climatic changes encourage
the expansion of protected agriculture, i.e. greenhouses and screenhouses, within
which external climatic effects are restrained. Climate change has already begun and
its impacts on rural areas will be particularly affected as it impacts on natural
resources, agriculture, overall biodiversity, and ecosystems like forests and coastal
zones, as well as human health. While the trend of temperature increases gradually,
key climate variables like precipitation are hard to project. This means that decision-
making for climate change adaptation is fraught with uncertainty.

24.4.1 Climate Change Impacts

The climatic changes defined in the above will cause several harmful consequences
both for resources and number of sectors such as water abundance, agriculture, and
coastal zones. Climatic change will influence the magnitude and frequency of natural
disasters. A slight change of temperature can have major effects on systems where
human’s livelihoods depend, which includes crop productivity and water availabil-
ity, land loss by rising sea level, and the spread of disease. Decreased snow cover
will affect snow-fed and glacial systems such as the Ganges and Brahmaputra.
Erratic monsoons will affect rainfed agriculture, peninsular rivers, and water and
power supply. Wheat production will drop by 4–5 million tonnes, even with a rise in
temperature of only 1°C. Rising sea levels will cause displacement in densely
populated coastlines in the world, also threatening freshwater sources and mangrove
ecosystems. Floods will increase in frequency and intensity. This will heighten the
vulnerability of people in the coastal, arid, and semi-arid zones. Over 50% of forests
are likely to experience shift in forest types, adversely impacting associated biodi-
versity, regional climate dynamics, and livelihoods based on forest products.
24 Adaptation Strategies for Protected Cultivation Under Changing. . . 501

24.4.1.1 Impacts of Climate Change on Crop Production in Protected

Environments
Climate scenarios like the four representative concentration pathways (RCPs),
RCP2.6, RCP4.5, RCP6.0, and RCP 8.5, were designed by the scientific community
for the IPCC’s Assessment Reports (IPCC, 2013). The future impacts of these
climate change scenarios on production of greenhouse vegetables are difficult to
predict because of the large differences, including drastic changes, as well as more
moderate scenarios. However, by studying regional and global climate simulations,
we can attempt to deduce some possible impacts on greenhouse vegetable produc-
tion and the resulting shift of quality which could potentially become a reality even
in the near future.

24.4.1.2 The Impacts of Increasing Atmospheric CO2

By mid-century, carbon dioxide (CO2) levels are anticipated to rise to between
442 ppm (RCP2.6) and 540 ppm (RCP8.5) in the atmosphere (IPCC 2013).
Increased yields are common when producers supplement CO2 levels in their
veggies. More atmospheric CO2 may lower CO2 fertilisation input costs, but this
practice will become obsolete in the near future as plants can benefit from even
higher levels than those predicted; the most pessimistic scenario, the RCP8.5,
forecasts atmospheric CO2 concentrations of 935 ppm in 2100 (IPCC 2013).
When compared to a non-enriched greenhouse, greenhouse yields of eggplant,
cucumber, and pepper were high (Akilli et al. 2000). However, in vented
greenhouses, the time of year when plants benefit the most is when CO2 corresponds
with the time of year when ventilation requirements are highest, rendering CO2
enrichment inefficient and costly due to losses to the outside (Bisbis et al. 2018a, b).
With the forecasted rise in heat waves and the resulting increase in the frequency of
required ventilation, it is expected to become more pronounced (Bisbis et al.
2018a, b). As a result, rising CO2 levels in the atmosphere may benefit agricultural
output, especially during the summer and depending on the current climate scenario.
The influence of CO2 on vegetable quality was examined by Dong et al. (2018a). In
the edible part of vegetables, increased CO2 concentrations increased the
concentrations of fructose, glucose, total soluble sugar, total antioxidant capacity,
total phenols, total flavonoids, ascorbic acid, and calcium, but decreased the
concentrations of protein, nitrate, magnesium, iron, and zinc, according to the
authors of a meta-analysis.
Increased nitrogen uptake by the crop will result from expected increases in
atmospheric CO2 concentrations, necessitating more fertilizer applications (Dong
et al. 2018b, c). Changes in climate may alter nitrogen losses by leaching or gaseous
losses, with the direction of change varying depending on the unique climate change
at a place. Changes in fertilizer demand may result (Bindi and Howden 2004). CO2
from the atmosphere may have a stronger influence on screenhouses. As a result,
increased CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere may benefit the crop directly.
However, due to the porous structure of the cover and the high mass exchange
with the outside environment, CO2 enrichment may be ineffective (Tanny et al.
2003).
502 S. Thokchom et al.

24.4.1.3 The Impacts of Changing Precipitation Patterns

Precipitation patterns in Northern Europe change with an increase in rainfall in the
autumn, winter, and spring and decrease in the summer, when huge amounts of
water are required (Jacob et al. 2014). Furthermore, because of climate change
impacts, the spatial distribution of rainfall in some areas is shifting, resulting in
water shortages in some areas. Because irrigated horticulture consumes a lot of
water, there will be increased rivalry among water users in the future (Bisbis et al.
2018a, b). Plants will undergo drought stress if growers fail to maintain proper
irrigation due to water scarcity, which could lead to crop loss (Gruda et al. 2009).
Saadi et al. (2015) found that between 2000 and 2050, yearly precipitation will
decrease by 39.1–55.1 mm and air temperature will be rise by 1.57 0.27 °C (from
0.84 to 2.31 °C), according to a study on the influence of CC on agricultural
production of winter wheat and tomato in the Mediterranean region. However, the
growing season length is probably shortening, reduced by crop evapotranspiration
by 6% and 5% for wheat and tomato, respectively, and net irrigation requirements
under optimal water supply by 11% and 5% for wheat and tomato, respectively.
Because greenhouse plants are in a protected environment, the impact of external
weather conditions is predicted to be reduced. Winters will very certainly be
accompanied with greater sky cover if precipitation increases in the winter, unless
the majority of it falls in brief bursts of heavy rain. Aside from the short days, the low
amount of solar radiation during the winter season is already a major limiting factor
for productivity. Plant performance and product quality are both harmed by low light
intensity (Gruda 2005; Gruda and Tanny 2015). Solar radiation is a limiting factor in
northern latitudes, such as the Netherlands, where 1% of light loss is projected to
result in a 0.5–1% yield reduction in vegetables and ornamentals (Marcelis et al.
2006). CC’s effects on productivity in the Chinese solar greenhouse system were
investigated in a study conducted in China (Ge and Zhang 2006). The findings
revealed that in the winter, severe low air temperatures, fog, and fully cloudy days all
rose. In the north and south of the Weihe River, however, the trend of climate
variations was distinct. As a result, the recommendations were to enhance vegetable
and fruit greenhouse production in Dali County while reducing greenhouse output in
the Weihe River valley.

24.4.1.4 The Impacts of High Summer Temperatures

In comparison to 1986–2005, climate change models forecast a rise in global mean
temperature of 1 °C (RCP2.6) to 2 °C (RCP8.5) until the middle of the century
(IPCC 2013). This means that summers in Western Europe will be marked by longer
and extreme frequent heat waves, as well as temperature extremes never seen before
(IPCC 2013). According to a review by Cramer et al. (2018), the Mediterranean has
already experienced a temperature rise of 0.4 °C above the global average, and
increased temperature may reduce summer precipitation by up to 30% and increase
irrigation demand by up to 18% in some regions until the end of the century,
according to future projections. Even in sheltered cops, high temperatures and
unpredictable weather events can result in uneven yields and waste. The explanation
could be physiological in nature, such as uneven ripening, soft fruit, poor/late set,
24 Adaptation Strategies for Protected Cultivation Under Changing. . . 503

and delayed ripening of truss types in tomatoes or difficulty in anticipating crop

cultivation sequences in other crops (Collier et al. 2008). Furthermore, heat stress
during flowering can delay fruit set and later cause BER and sunburns on fruits
(Gruda 2005; Abdelmageed and Gruda 2009), lowering yield and increasing waste
products (Gruda 2005; Abdelmageed and Gruda 2009) (Bisbis et al. 2018a). Crops
that require a steady supply of nutrients, such as green vegetables, are particularly
sensitive to harsh weather. For reliable scheduling, these crops usually rely on a
combination of successional plantings and the right genotypes. Increased tempera-
ture changes may cause harvest dates to be pushed forward (Collier et al., 2008).

24.4.1.5 The Impacts of Elevated Temperatures on Pests and Diseases

Not only will climate change effect vegetable harvests, but it will also disrupt insect
pest life cycles and reproduction rates. Winter death rates of insects would decrease
as global temperatures rise, allowing for earlier and stronger infestations, with more
generations per year, for example, aphids, and the introduction of new species, such
as Tuta absoluta (Hulle et al. 2010; Van Damme et al. 2014; Bisbis et al. 2018a).
Increasing atmospheric CO2 can also affect plant-insect interactions by changing the
host plant’s food quality, which can result in lower insect health or increased
infestation intensity depending on the species involved (Dader et al. 2016). Changes
in wind speed and direction are anticipated to have a major influence on pest and
disease prevalence and transmission, despite the fact that current climate models do
not include wind prediction (Collier et al. 2008). Teitel et al. (2005) found that the
number of whiteflies was higher near the roof opening through which wind entered
the greenhouse in a naturally ventilated greenhouse in which pepper was grown.
This implies that climate change-induced changes in wind speed and direction may
affect insect entry into greenhouses. Food safety is a crucial part of human nutrition,
in addition to ensuring food supply. Alternaria mould may appear more frequently in
cool locations, such as Poland, and less frequently in warm regions, such as Spain,
by means of global warming, resulting in changes in mycotoxin content in fruits
(Van de Perre et al. 2015) demonstrated in tomato. Winters are growing milder on
account of the rising temperatures (Bisbis et al. 2018a). Warm winter temperatures
typically result in increased rates of crop transpiration and reduce the greenhouse’s
vapour pressure deficit. Increased winter precipitation together with hotter days
would exacerbate the problem. This winter pattern recognises the need for better
greenhouse humidity control in the future to avoid phytosanitary issues including
mildew, Botrytis, and grey mould, as well as other product quality issues (Gruda and
Tanny 2014; Bisbis et al. 2018a, b).

24.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects

This chapter presents the effects of climatic change on protected cultivation, the
different facets of climate change, and how this affects the greenhouse horticulture in
the future as well as innovation-based adaptation strategies to overcome or mitigate
those impacts. Changes in climate can interact with other greenhouse parameters and
504 S. Thokchom et al.

affect plant growth, yield, and quality of produce. It is our belief that research and
development of controlled environment agriculture systems should move forward
into two main directions. The first is hi-tech greenhouses, equipped with state-of-the-
art active climate control and management systems. Such structures are more
feasible for long-term production of a specific crop which is under stable and high
consumer demand. This is because investment in such structures and the associated
control devices is high and hence requires high and stable economical return. The
second direction is low-tech greenhouses, based on passive climate control, includ-
ing naturally ventilated greenhouses and screenhouses. These structures are low cost
and will be affordable for regions where agricultural production is less stable
economically and in developing countries where farmers cannot afford high
investments. Obviously protected cultivation systems of intermediate level,
e.g. greenhouses equipped with a wet pad cooling system, are also feasible,
depending on specific crop and regional climate. Low-cost structures like naturally
ventilated greenhouses and screenhouses will become more popular as an alternative
to open-field cultivation. This is because such structures will moderately restrain the
effects of climate change while keeping the production highly sustainable and
environmentally friendly in terms of water and energy consumption. The adaptations
that we presented in this require a new redesigned, multidisciplinary research
approach starting with genetics and crop physiology, through greenhouse engineer-
ing, plant phenotyping and modelling, and modern farming management and
optimisation while ensuring social acceptance.

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