1] What is Arduino ?

Arduino is an open source computer hardware and software company, project,

and user community that designs and manufactures single-board
microcontrollers and microcontroller kits for building digital devices and
interactive objects that can sense and control objects in the physical world.
Arduino boards are available commercially in preassembled form, or as do-it-
yourself kits.

Arduino board designs use a variety of microprocessors and controllers. The

boards are equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that
may be interfaced to various expansion boards (shields) and other circuits. The
boards feature serial communications interfaces, including Universal Serial
Bus (USB) on some models, which are also used for loading programs from
personal computers. The microcontrollers are typically programmed using a
dialect of features from the programming languages C and C++.

The Arduino project started in 2003 as a program for students at the Interaction
Design Institute Ivrea in Ivrea, Italy, aiming to provide a low-cost and easy way
for novices and professionals to create devices that interact with their
environment using sensors and actuators. Common examples of such devices
intended for beginner hobbyists include simple robots, thermostats, and motion
detectors.

The name Arduino comes from a bar in Ivrea, Italy, where some of the founders
of the project used to meet. The bar was named after Arduin of Ivrea, who was
the margrave of the March of Ivrea and King of Italy from 1002 to 1014.
2] Different Arduino Boards

The original Arduino hardware was produced by the Italian company Smart
Projects. Some Arduino-branded boards have been designed by the American
companies SparkFun Electronics and Adafruit Industries. As of 2016, 17
versions of the Arduino hardware have been commercially produced.
3] Arduino Shields

Arduino and Arduino-compatible boards use printed circuit expansion boards

called shields, which plug into the normally supplied Arduino pin headers.
Shields can provide motor controls for 3D printing and other applications, Global
Positioning System (GPS), Ethernet, liquid crystal display (LCD), or
breadboarding (prototyping). Several shields can also be made do it
yourself (DIY).
4] Arduino Uno

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328. It has 14

digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog
inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP
header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the
microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it
with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.

Technical Specifics

 Power

The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external
power supply. The power source is selected automatically.

External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-
wart) or battery. The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-
positive plug into the board's power jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in
the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the POWER connector.

The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less
than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may
be unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and
damage the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts.

The power pins are as follows:

 VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external
power source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other
regulated power source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if
supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.
 5V.This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The
board can be supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V),
the USB connector (5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-12V). Supplying
voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the regulator, and can damage
your board. We don't advise it.
 3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum
current draw is 50 mA.
  GND. Ground pins.
 IOREF. This pin on the Arduino board provides the voltage reference with
which the microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read
the IOREF pin voltage and select the appropriate power source or enable
voltage translators on the outputs for working with the 5V or 3.3V.

Memory

The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the bootloader). It also has 2
KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with
the EEPROM library).

Input and Output

Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output, using
pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts.
Each pin can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up
resistor (disconnected by default) of 20-50 kOhms. In addition, some pins have
specialized functions:

 Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL
serial data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the
ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip.
 External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an
interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See
the attachInterrupt() function for details.
 PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the
analogWrite() function.
 SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI
communication using the SPI library.
 LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin
is HIGH value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off. The Uno has 6
analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of which provide 10 bits of
resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure from ground
to 5 volts, though is it possible to change the upper end of their range using
the AREF pin and the analogReference() function. Additionally, some pins
have specialized functionality:
 TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication
using the Wire library. There are a couple of other pins on the board:
 AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with
analogReference().
  Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to
add a reset button to shields which block the one on the board.

Communication

The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer,
another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART
TTL (5V) serial communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1
(TX). An ATmega16U2 on the board channels this serial communication over
USB and appears as a virtual com port to software on the computer. The '16U2
firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no external driver is needed.
However, on Windows, a .inf file is required. The Arduino software includes a
serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the
Arduino board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being
transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but
not for serial communication on pins 0 and 1).

A SoftwareSerial library allows for serial communication on any of the Uno's

digital pins.

The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino
software includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; For SPI
communication, use the SPI library.

Programming
The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the Arduino software (download).
Select "Arduino Uno from the Tools > Board menu (according to the
microcontroller on your board

The ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno comes preburned with a bootloader that
allows you to upload new code to it without the use of an external hardware
programmer. It communicates using the original STK500 protocol.

You can also bypass the bootloader and program the microcontroller through the
ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header using Arduino ISP or similar.

The ATmega16U2 (or 8U2 in the rev1 and rev2 boards) firmware source code is
available. The ATmega16U2/8U2 is loaded with a DFU bootloader, which can
be activated by:
  On Rev1 boards: connecting the solder jumper on the back of the board
(near the map of Italy) and then resetting the 8U2.
 On Rev2 or later boards: there is a resistor that pulling the 8U2/16U2 HWB
line to ground, making it easier to put into DFU mode.

You can then use Atmel's FLIP software (Windows) or the DFU
programmer (Mac OS X and Linux) to load a new firmware. Or you can use the
ISP header with an external programmer (overwriting the DFU bootloader).

Automatic (Software) Reset

Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload, the
Arduino Uno is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software running
on a connected computer. One of the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of the
ATmega8U2/16U2 is connected to the reset line of the ATmega328 via a 100
nanofarad capacitor. When this line is asserted (taken low), the reset line drops
long enough to reset the chip. The Arduino software uses this capability to allow
you to upload code by simply pressing the upload button in the Arduino
environment. This means that the bootloader can have a shorter timeout, as the
lowering of DTR can be well-coordinated with the start of the upload.

This setup has other implications. When the Uno is connected to either a
computer running Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made
to it from software (via USB). For the following half-second or so, the bootloader
is running on the Uno. While it is programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e.
anything besides an upload of new code), it will intercept the first few bytes of
data sent to the board after a connection is opened. If a sketch running on the
board receives one-time configuration or other data when it first starts, make sure
that the software with which it communicates waits a second after opening the
connection and before sending this data.

The Uno contains a trace that can be cut to disable the auto-reset. The pads on
either side of the trace can be soldered together to re-enable it. It's labeled
"RESET-EN". You may also be able to disable the auto-reset by connecting a
110 ohm resistor from 5V to the reset line.

USB Overcurrent Protection

The Arduino Uno has a resettable polyfuse that protects your computer's USB
ports from shorts and overcurrent. Although most computers provide their own
internal protection, the fuse provides an extra layer of protection. If more than
500 mA is applied to the USB port, the fuse will automatically break the
connection until the short or overload is removed.

Physical Characteristics
The maximum length and width of the Uno PCB are 2.7 and 2.1 inches
respectively, with the USB connector and power jack extending beyond the
former dimension. Four screw holes allow the board to be attached to a surface or
case. Note that the distance between digital pins 7 and 8 is 160 mil (0.16"), not an
even multiple of the 100 mil spacing of the other pins.

5] Arduino Uno Pin Description

6] Basic Electronics

Voltage, electric potential difference, electric pressure or electric tension is

the difference in electric potential energy between two points per unit electric
charge. The voltage between two points is equal to the work done per unit of
charge against a static electric field to move the test charge between two points.
This is measured in units of volts (a joule per coulomb)

An electric current is a flow of electric charge. In electric circuits this charge is

often carried by moving electrons in a wire. It can also be carried by ions in
an electrolyte, or by both ions and electrons such as in an ionised gas (plasma).
The SI unit for measuring an electric current is the ampere, which is the flow of
electric charge across a surface at the rate of one coulomb per second. Electric
current is measured using a device called an ammeter.

The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is a measure of the difficulty

to pass an electric current through that conductor. The inverse quantity
is electrical conductance, and is the ease with which an electric current passes.
Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the notion of
mechanical friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω), while
electrical conductance is measured in siemens (S).

7] Ohm’s Law
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the voltage across the two points. Introducing the
constant of proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical
equation that describes this relationship:

VαI
V = I×R (R is proportionality constant)

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the

voltage measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is
the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law
states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current.
8] Kirchoff’s Law

Kirchhoff's circuit laws are two equalities that deal with

the current and potential difference (commonly known as voltage) in the lumped
element model of electrical circuits. They were first described in 1845 by
German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff. This generalized the work of Georg
Ohm and preceded the work of Maxwell.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law

This law is also called Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point rule, or Kirchhoff's
junction rule (or nodal rule).
The principle of conservation of electric charge implies that:
 At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing
into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node or
equivalently

 The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point

is zero.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

This law is also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop (or mesh) rule,
and Kirchhoff's second rule.
The principle of conservation of energy implies that
 The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage)
around any closed network is zero, or:

 More simply, the sum of the emfs in any closed loop is equivalent to
the sum of the potential drops in that loop, or:

 The algebraic sum of the products of the resistances of the conductors

and the currents in them in a closed loop is equal to the
total emf available in that loop.
9] Types of Communication

1. Analog Communcation
2. Digital Communication

Analog System

 The system in which signals take any value from a given range, and each
unique signal value represents different information.

V(t)

Digital System
The system in which signal is constructed from a discrete set of values.
10] Arduino IDE

 The Arduino integrated development environment (IDE) is a cross-platform

application written in Java, and derives from the IDE for the Processing
programming language and the Wiring projects

 It includes a code editor which is capable of compiling and uploading

programs to the board with a single click.

 A program or code written for Arduino is called a "sketch“

 Arduino programs are written in C or C++

Settings: Tools  Board

Settings: Tools  Serial Port

11] setup() and loop()

Two required functions/ methods / routines:

void setup(){
// runs once
}

void loop(){
// repeats
}

12] Menu items & the icons

File: Contains options to save, load, and print sketches; a thorough set of
example sketches to open; as well as the Preferences submenu
Edit: Contains the usual copy, paste, and search functions common to any
word processor
Sketch: Contains the function to verify your sketch before uploading to a
board, and some sketch folder and import options
Tools: Contains a variety of functions as well as the commands to select the
Arduino board type and USB port
Help: Contains links to various topics of interest and the version of the IDE

 Verify : Click this to check that the Arduino sketch is valid and doesn’t
contain any programming mistakes.
 Upload : Click this to verify and then upload your sketch to the Arduino
board.
  New : Click this to open a new blank sketch in a new window.
 Open : Click this to open a saved sketch.
 Save : Click this to save the open sketch. If the sketch doesn’t have a name,
you will be prompted to create one.
 Serial Monitor : Click this to open a new window for use in sending and
receiving data between your Arduino and the IDE.

13] Programming Basics

Comments
It is a programmer-readable explanation or annotation in the source code of a
computer program
It is not processed by the Compiler
 Single line comment : example :- // a formal statement
 Multi-line comment : example :- /* a formal statement */

Constants
A quantity or parameter that does not change its value
 HIGH and LOW
 INPUT and OUTPUT

Curly Braces
Curly braces defines the beginning and ending of function blocks and statement
blocks such as void loop() and for and if.
type function name()
{
statements;
}
Semicolon
A semicolon must be used to end a statements and to separate the elements
of the program.
Example:- int a;

Datatypes and Variables

It is a kind of data item, that defines what values it can store and the operations
that can be performed on it.

Variable declaration
 All variables have to be declared before they can be used.
 Declaring a variable means defining it’s type as int, float, long etc.
 This only needs to be done once in the program but the value can be
changed at any time using arithmetic or various assignment operators.
 A variable can be declared at the beginning of the program before void
setup, locally inside the function, and sometimes within a statement block
such as for loops.
 Example :- int led=13;
Comparison operators
Comparison of one variable or constant with another are often used to test
whether given condition is true.
 X==Y // X is equal to Y
 X!=Y // X is not equal to Y
 X<Y // X is less than Y
 X>Y // X is greater than Y
 X<=Y // X is less than or equal to Y
 X>=Y // X is greater than or equal to Y

Logical operators
Logical operators are way to compare two expressions and return a TRUE or
FALSE depending on the operator.
 Logical AND
if(x>0 && x<5) // TRUE only if both expressions are true
 Logical OR
if(x>0 || y>0) // TRUE only if either expression is true
 Logical NOT
if(!x>0) // TRUE only if expression is false

Functions
A function is a block of code that has a name and a block of statements that are
executed when function is called.
Custom functions can be used to perform repetitive task.
Functions are declared by first declaring function type like int, void.
Type function name( parameters) {
statements;
}
14] Basic functions in Arduino

 delay(milliseconds) : pauses the program for the given

amount of time.
1 second = 1000 millisecond
 pinMode(pin,INPUT / OUTPUT) : Configures the specified pin to
behave either as an input or an output
 digitalWrite(pin,HIGH / LOW) : writes a HIGH or LOW value
to digital pin
 digitalRead(pin) : Reads the value from a specified digital
pin, either HIGH or LOW
 analogWrite(pin,value) : Writes an analog value to a pin
 analogRead(pin) : Reads the value from the specified analog
pin
The value ranges from 0 – 1023

15] C Programming – Flow Control Statements

if()
 If statement tests whether certain condition has been reached or not.
 If the condition contained in the brackets() is TRUE the statements in side
curly braces executes.
 If FALSE then the statements are skipped.

if ( condition ){
// dosomething;
}
if..else…
If….. Else….. Is used where we have “ either… or…..” decisions to be made.
if( condition){
do thing A;
}
else {
dothing B;
}

16] C Programming – looping statements

while
 While loop loops continuously, infinitely until condition in the parenthesis
or brackets becomes false.
 Something must change the tested variable inside parenthesis, or the while
loop will never exit.
while(somevariable < 200) // tests condition whether less
// than 200 or not
{
dosomething; // executes statement
somevariable++; // increments variable by 1
}
for
 The for statement is used to repeat the block of statements enclosed in a
curly braces a specified number of times.
 There are three parts in the for loop separated by semicolons(;)
for(initialization; condition; expression)
{
dosomething;
}
17] Breadboard
A breadboard is a construction base for prototyping of electronics. Originally it
was literally a bread board, a polished piece of wood used for slicing bread. In
the 1970s the solderless breadboard (AKA plugboard, a terminal array board)
became available and nowadays the term "breadboard" is commonly used to refer
to these.
Because the solderless breadboard does not require soldering, it is reusable. This
makes it easy to use for creating temporary prototypes and experimenting with
circuit design.

18] Need for Motor Driver

 Arduino provides 5V output

 But we need more voltage(power) to run the motors i.e. Arduino power is
not sufficient for motor.
 Motor Driver acts as bridge in between this two power differences.
19] Ultrasonic Sensor

An Ultrasonic sensor is a device that can measure the distance to an object by

using sound waves. It measures distance by sending out a sound wave at a
specific frequency and listening for that sound wave to bounce back. By
recording the elapsed time between the sound wave being generated and the
sound wave bouncing back, it is possible to calculate the distance between the
sonar sensor and the object.

Ultrasonic Sensor Working

1. Using IO trigger for at least 10us high level signal
2. The Module automatically sends eight 40 kHz and detect whether there is a
pulse signal back
3. If the signal is back, through high level , time of high output IO duration is
the time from sending ultrasonic to returning.
4. Test distance = (high level time × velocity of sound (340M/S) / 2
Circuit Connections

20] Get Ultrasonic sensor value via Arduino

pulseIn
 Reads a pulse (either HIGH or LOW) on a pin.
 For example, if value is HIGH, pulseIn() waits for the pin to go HIGH,
starts timing, then waits for the pin to go LOW and stops timing. Returns
the length of the pulse in microseconds. Gives up and returns 0 if no
pulse starts within a specified time out.
 pulseIn(pin, value)
 pin: the number of the pin on which you want to read the pulse.
 value: type of pulse to read: either HIGH or LOW

Algorithm
1. Apply 5v to trigger pin for 10 microseconds
2. Apply 0v to trigger pin for 2 microseconds.
3. Measure time period of echo pulse.
4. Distance is given by formula , D=time*340/(2*10000)
5. Observe in Serial monitor.