Chapter:1 – Matter in our surroundings:

I. Important terms and concepts:

1. Matter:
It is a substance which occupies space and mass. Air, earth, fire, sky and water are five
basic elements. The panchTatva according to the earlier Indian philosophers, according to
them everything i.e. living or non-living is made up of these five elements.
2. Classification of matter:
Nowadays scientists have classified matters in following two ways:
(i) The physical classification based on physical properties of matter.
a. Solid b. Liquid c. Gas
(ii) The chemical classification based on chemical composition of matter
a. Elements b. Compounds c. Mixtures
3. Physical nature of matter:
Matter is made up of small particles and there is space between particles of matter. It
can be proved with the help of following experiment.
(i) Aim:
To show that there is space between the particles of matter.
(ii) Materials required:
100 ml beaker, glass rod, water, salt.
(iii) Procedure:
Take a 100 ml beaker fill it with water, mark the level of water.
Dissolve the given salt with the help of glass rod.
Observe the change in the water level and record your observation.
(iv) Observation:
The salt gets dissolved in water. The particles of salt entered the space in between
the water molecules. Therefore, the level of water does not change.
(v) Diagram:

(vi) Conclusion:
The salt consists of large number of small particles which occupy the space
between molecules of water.
4. Size of particles of matter:
The particles of matter are extremely small in size which cannot be seen even in
powerful microscope. Their size can be observed with the help of following experiment.
 (i) Aim:
To show that matter is made up of small particles.
(ii) Materials required:
Crystals of potassium permanganate (KMnO4), Water, three separate beaker.
(iii) Procedure:
Take 2-3 crystals of KMnO4 dissolve them in 100 ml of water in beaker-1.
Take 100 ml of solution from beaker-1 put into 100 ml of water in beaker-2 &
observe the colour of solution.
Take 100 ml of solution from beaker-2 and put into 100 ml of water in beaker-3
and observe the colour of solution.
(iv) Diagram:

(v) Observation:
The colour of solution remains purple in the entire beaker. But the purple colour
will be diluted.
(vi) Conclusion:
It shows that even 2-3 crystals of KMnO4 consist of millions of small particles
which dissolve in water giving purple colour of the solution.
5. Space between particles of matter:
When we dissolve sugar, salt in water particles get evenly distributed in the water. When
we prepare tea or coffee the particles of one type of matter diffused into space between
particles of the other. This shows that there is enough space between particles of matter.
6. Continuous movement of matter:
Particles of matter are continuously moving that is they possess kinetic energy which
increase with temperature.
(i) Aim:
To show the particles of matter are continuously moving.
(ii) Procedure:
Put an unlit incense stick in a corner of your class.
Go close to the increase stick to smell it.
Now light the incense sticks and try to get smell from incense stick.
(iii) Observation:
The smell of unlit incense stick can be observed by only going close to it.
Whereas the smell of lighted incense stick can be observed from a distance.
 (iv) Conclusion:
The particles of matter are continuously moving but the speed of particles of very
slow. The speed of particles increases with increasing temperature.
7. Diffusion:
The process of intermixing of particles of two or more substance on their own is called
diffusion.
The rate of diffusion increases on heating that is why an incense stick gives smell
only when we go close to it, but on lighting the stick we get the smell when for away
from it.
8. Classification of matter on the basis of physical state:
Matter can be classified into solid, liquid & gas.
9. Properties of solid:
 They have fixed shape.
 They have fixed volume.
 They are rigid and have fixed boundaries.
 They are incompressible because their intermolecular space is less.
 They have high density as compared to another state of matter.
 They have strong force of attraction between the particles.
 The particles are closely packed in solid; therefore there is less intermolecular
space between the particles.
 The kinetic energy of particles is very less.
 They vibrate only at their mean position that is why solids have rigid shape.
 Solid diffuse into solid to very less extent.
 It is difficult to rule a black board on which something is written in chalk without
cleaning it for 10 to 15 days.
10. Volume:
The space occupied by a substance is known as volume.
Common unit = litre.
SI unit = cubic metre or m3.
11. Density:
The mass per unit volume of a substance is known as density.
Common Unit = Mass/Volume.
SI unit = Gram/Metre cube.
12. Kinetic energy:
The energy possessed by a particle by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy.
13. Properties of liquid states:
 Liquids do not have fixed shape and boundaries.
 They have fixed volume
 They can flow i.e., fluidity.
 They have low compressibility but more than solids.
  They have lower density s compared to solids.
 The intermolecular forces of attraction are weaker as compared to solids.
 The intermolecular space is more than that of solid.
 The particles in liquid state can move freely and hence have higher kinetic energy
than solids but less than that of gas.
 They show the property of intermixing and thus they can diffuse.
14. Factors affecting rate of diffusion:
(i) Density:
The rate of diffusion depends upon density of liquid. Higher the density, lesser will
be the rate of diffusion.
(ii) Temperature:
The rate of diffusion depends upon temperate i.e., the rate of diffusion increases with
an increase in temperature.
(iii) Physical State:
Solids can diffuse into liquids slowly whereas liquids can diffuse into liquids faster
and gases also can diffuse into liquids.
15. Diffusion of gases in liquids:
Gases can also diffuse liquids. Oxygen and CO2 get dissolved in water which is essential
growth of aquatic plants & animals.
16.Properties of gaseous state:
 Gases do not have fixed shape. i.e., they take the shape of the container.
 They do not have fixed volume therefore no definite boundaries.
 They can flow in all directions hence gases also show fluidity.
 They are highly compressible.
 They have lower density as compared to liquids & solids.
 They have higher kinetic energy as compared to liquids & solids.
 The rate of diffusion is fastest in gases.
 There is weak intermolecular force of attraction.
 There is large intermolecular space. Therefore gases can be easily compressible.
17.Pressure:
It is defined as force exerted per unit area. Ex: Gases exert pressure on the walls of the
container. The kinetic energy of the particles in gaseous state is maximum. The particles
are in state of constant random motion. Therefore, they collide with themselves as well
as with the walls of the container and exert pressure.
18. Change of state:
The state of substance depends upon temperature and pressure. Ex: Water exist as solid
at 0°C as liquid at room temperature whereas in gaseous state at 100°C. The state of
matter will change by changing temperature and pressure.
19.Melting point:
The temperature at which solid change into liquid completely is called melting point.
Melting point of solid gives indication of strength of intermolecular forces of attraction.
The higher melting point more will be intermolecular forces of attraction.
20.Melting:
The process in which solid changes into liquid is called melting. It is also called fusion.
21.Kelvin: It is SI unit of temperature 0°C=273.16 K. If we want to change Kelvin into
Celsius subtract 273.16 from the temperature given in Kelvin. For converting Celsius to
Kelvin add 273.16.
22.Latent heat of fusion:
The amount of energy i.e., required to change 1 kg of solid into liquid at atmospheric
pressure without any change of temperature as its melting point is called latent heat of
fusion.
23.Boiling point:
The temperature at which a liquid changes into gas or vapour is known as boiling point.
It also indicates strength of intermolecular forces of attraction. Greater the intermolecular
forces of attraction higher will be the boiling point. The boiling point of the water is
100°C or 373 K.
24.Boiling:
The process of converting liquid into vapour is called boiling. It is bulk phenomenon i.e.,
particles from inside the liquid gain enough energy to change into vapour state. It takes
place only at boiling point.
25. Latent heat of vaporisation:
The amount of energy that is required to change 1 kg of liquid into vapour at
atmospheric pressure without any change in temperature at its boiling point.
26.Gas:
It is stable state as compared to vapours. Ex: O2, N2, H2O, CO2
27.Vapour:
It is constable state on cooling vapours change into liquid state. The word vapour is used
to describe those gases which usually exist as liquid at room temperature.
28.Volatile liquids:
The liquids which can change into vapour easily are called volatile liquids. Ex: Petrol,
alcohol, acetone, etc… evaporate easily because they have low boiling points due to
weak intermolecular forces of attraction. Water has high boiling point due to strong
intermolecular forces of attraction.
29.Sublimation:
It is a process in which solids directly changes into vapour without changing into liquid
state. Ex: Camphor, NH4Cl, Iodine, Naphthalene, can sublime. It can be shown
experimentally.
 Experimentally:
To shown the process of sublimate experimentally.

Materials required:
Ammonium Chloride, funnel, tripod stand, china dish, wire gauze, burner or spirit lamp.
Procedure:
Take 2 gram of Ammonium Chloride in china dish.
Put an inverted funnel over it whose steam is closed by cotton plug and set the apparatus
as shown in diagram.
Heat the china dish show that vapours are formed and record the observation.
The vapours of Ammonium Chloride get condensed on the walls of the funnel.
Observation:
The vapours of Ammonium Chloride get condensed and change into solid Ammonium
Chloride.
Conclusion:
Ammonium Chloride can sublime and can be purified by sublimation.
30.Effect of pressure on change in state:
When we supply pressure and compress the gas, intermolecular force of attraction
increases and molecules come close to each other. It may change into liquid depending
upon temperature and the nature of the gas.
31.Liquefaction of Gas:
Gases can be liquefied at low temperature and high pressure. Ex: H2, N2, O2 can be
liquefied at low temperature and high temperature Ammonia (NH3), can be liquefied at
 room temperature. CO2 can be solidified at low temperature and high temperature. Solid
CO2 is also called dry ice.
32.Evaporation:
It is a process in which liquid changes into vapours. Example: H2O changes into vapour
if left uncovered with wet clothes dry up because water gets evaporated. The particles of
H2O collide with each other as well as within particles of gases in atmosphere. After
some time, the particles on the surface gain sufficient energy so as to change into
vapours. It is a surface phenomenon.
33.Factors affecting Evaporation:
a. Surface Area: Greater the surface area more will be the rate of evaporation because
it is a surface phenomenon. There will be more number of molecules on the surface
which will change into vapours easily.
b. Humidity: It is the amount of water vapours present in the air. The air around us
cannot hold more than a definite amount of water vapours at a given temperature. If
the amount of water in air is already high, the rate of evaporation decreases in
humidity rates leads to increase in rate of evaporation.
c. Temperature: The rate of evaporation increases with increase in temperature
because more number of particles gains enough kinetic energy to go to vapour state.
d. Wind speed: The rate of evaporation increases with increase in wind speed because
particles of water vapours are taken away decreasing the amount of water vapour in
atmosphere.
34.Effect of evaporation:
Evaporation leads to cooling because high energy molecules leave the surface and
average energy of remaining molecules decreases, which results in drop in temperature
of the part of liquid that is left. Therefore, evaporation causes cooling.
35. Effect of temperature on types of fibre:
Cotton is good absorber of water, help in observing the sweat and exposing it to
atmosphere for easy evaporation during summers. It causes cooling of our body.
Synthetic clothes do not absorb sweat and air cannot pass through them.
 WORKSHEET
1. Sodium chloride and sugar have same appearance. Are they same or
different?
2. All substances around us are alike. How?
3. Pressure on the surface of a gas is increased. What will happen to the inter
particle forces?
4. A gas can exert pressure on the walls of the container. Assign reason.
5. Convert the following temperature to Kelvin Scale
(a) 100°C (b) 37°C.
6. What is the effect of temperature on a matter?
7. What are fluids?
8. What are ‘intermolecular forces’? How are these related to the three states
of matter?
9. Separate the following substances in groups of high and low intermolecular
force:
Ice, sulphur vapour, nitrogen, sugar, copper, air, salt, plastic.
10. Which of the following substances you expect strongest and in which
weakest intermolecular force: Water, alcohol, sugar, sodium chloride,
carbon dioxide.
11. How is pressure developed in a container full of a gas?
12. Define Sublimation with examples.
13. Do we sweat more on a dry day or humid day? Justify your reason.
14. What are the applications of inter conversion of states of matter?
15. Which of the following substances is most compressible? CO2, H2O, NaCl.
16. Which property of a gas results in steady pressure of the gas?
17. One gas mixes with another gas easily. What is this property called?
18. Define the term
(a) Latent heat of fusion (b) Latent heat of vaporization
19. Is it possible to liquify atmospheric gases? If yes, suggest a method.
20. Define: Melting point, Freezing point & Boiling point.
21. What is the physical state of water at 250°C, 100°C, 0°C?
22. Why do solids have a fixed shape and gases have neither a fixed shape nor a
fixed volume?
23. What is difference between vapour and gas?
24. Why does the temperature remain constant until whole of the solid changes
into liquid, though the heat energy is constantly supplied?
25. Both the process of evaporation and boiling involves the change of state
from liquid to gas but still they are different from each other.
26. Why is Kelvin considered as the best scale for measuring the temperature?
27. How can you show that evaporation causes cooling?
28. When we put CuSO4 in water, after sometime we find the solution turns
blue. Why?
29. How can you justify that table is a solid?
30. How can we say that air is a matter?
Chapter-2. IS MATTER AROUND US PURE
I. Important terms and concepts:
1. Substance:
A substance is a kind of matter that cannot be separated into other
kinds of matter by any physical process.
2. Pure Substance:
They have uniform composition and always have same properties,
texture & taste. Ex: H2O, Sodium Chloride, Sugar, O2.
3. Mixture:
A mixture contains more than one element or compounds in any ratio.
A mixture can be separated by physical methods. Their formation does not
involve any chemical change. A mixture shows properties of constituting
substances. Ex.: Mixture of iron filings and sulphur, salt solution.
4. Homogeneous mixture:
A mixture which has uniform composition is called homogeneous
mixture. Ex: Copper sulphate dissolved in H2O.
5. Heterogeneous mixture:
Mixture which does not have uniform composition. Ex: Iron filings
and sulphur powder, salt, sulphur, oil and water, solid CuSO4 and solid
KMnO4.
6. Solution:
It is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
7. Alloys:
They are homogeneous mixtures of metals and cannot be separated by
physical methods. But still it’s a mixture because it shows the property of its
constituents and can have variable composition. Ex.: Brass is an alloy of
copper 80% Cu + 20% Zn.
8. Solute:
The component of solution which is present in small amount is called
solute. Ex: In salt solution salt is solute.
9. Solvent:
The substance which is present in large amount is called solvent.
Ex: In salt solution water is solvent.
10. Types of solutions:
Solid in solid - Alloys like brass, bronze, gold.
Solid in liquid - Salt solution, sugar solution, tincture of iodine.
Liquid in liquid - Vinegar which is solution of acidic acid in water.
 Gas in liquid - CO2 in water.
Gas in gas - Mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, etc...

11. Properties of solution:

 Solution is a homogeneous mixture.
 The particle of solution is less than 1nm in size. Therefore
cannot been easily.
 They do not show tyndall effect i.e., do not scatter light because
the particles are off very small in size.
 They cannot be separated by filtration.
 The particle do not settle due to gravitation i.e., solution is
stable.
12. Concentration of solution:
The concentration of solution can be specified by measuring amount
of solute dissolved in per litre of solution.
13. Saturated solution:
A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at a particular
temperature is called saturated solution. Ex: 36g of NaCl in 100g of H2O at
20oC.
14. Unsaturated solution:
If more amount of solute can be dissolved in the given amount of
solution is called unsaturated solution. Ex: More than 36g of NaCl in 100g of
water without rising temperature.
15. Super saturated solution:
If solution contains more amount of solute than solvent, the saturated
solution’s concentration is called super saturated solution.
16. Measuring concentration of solution:
It is defined as the amount of solute dissolved in the given amount of
solution. It can also be defined as amount of solute dissolved in given mass
or volume of solvent.
Amount of solute
Concentration of solution =
Amount of solution

Solute + solvent
17. Mass by mass percentage of solution:
It is defined as amount of solute dissolved per 100g of solution.
Mass of solute
Mass percentage of solution = x 100
Mass of solution
18. Mass by volume percentage of solution:
It is defined as amount of solute dissolved per 100ml of solution.

Mass of solute
Volume percentage of solution = x 100
Volume of solution
19. Suspension:
It is heterogeneous mixtures in which solid particles which are
insoluble in solvent remain suspended in the bulk of the medium and are
visible to the naked eye. Ex: Muddy river water, chalk powder in water,
sulphur powder in water, limestone in water, barium sulphate in water, dust
storm.
20. Uses of suspension:
Partially soluble in BaSO4 dispersed in H2O forms an opaque medium
and is therefore used for diagnostic X-rays.
Aluminium paint is a suspension of aluminium particles in varnish
and it is used as silver paint.
21. Properties of suspension:
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.
The particles of suspension do not pass through filter paper and hence
can be separated by filtration.
The particles are visible to the naked eye or can be seen with the help
of a simple microscope.
The particles of suspension may settle down on keeping for sometime
due to gravity.
The particles size is greater than 1nm. (1000 nm i.e., 10-6m).
A suspension is opaque (not transparent) to liquid.
22. Colloids:
The solution in which particle size is between 1nm i.e., 10 -9m and
1000nm i.e., 10-6m solute particles are 10 to 1000 times bigger than the size
of a single small molecules is called colloid. Particles are smaller than those
in suspension.
23. Dispersion medium:
The medium in which colloidal particles are dispersed is called
dispersion medium. Ex: In milk, water is the dispersion medium.
24. Dispersed phase:
A colloidal particles which are distributed in solvent like medium
called dispersion medium. Formed the dispersed phase. Ex: In milk, fats,
proteins, lactose are dispersed in water and formed the dispersed phase.
25. Properties of colloidal solution:
A colloidal solution appears to be homogeneous but actually it is
heterogeneous.
 Colloidal particles can pass through filter paper.
Tyndall effect: When a beam of light is passed through in colloidal solution
placed in a dark place, its path becomes clearly visible this process is called
tyndall effect. It is due to the scattering of light by the colloidal particles.
This effect can be absorbed in theatres. When a beam of light is thrown on
the screen, we observe the path of light clearly because dust particles in air
scatter the light. This effect can above be observed when sunlight passes
through a dense forest.
The colloidal particles are not visible by naked eye. But they can be
sun with an electron microscope.
Brownian movement: The constant random motion of colloidal particles in
a zig-zag path is called Brownian movement. It is due to collision between
the colloidal particles themselves and the molecules of dispersion medium.
You must have observed when a fine beam of light enters a room through a
small hole, dust particles move in a zig-zag manner.

Brownian Movement

Tyndall Effect

(True solution) (Colloidal solution)

Light passes but Path is illuminated
path is not illuminated.
26. Types of Colloidal Solutions…..
S. Dispersed Dispersion
Type Example
No. phase medium
Smoke, automobile exhaust,
1. Solid Gas Aerosol
dust particles in air.
2. Solid Liquid Sol Milk of Magnesia [Mg(OH)2],
 mud, sulphur sol, gold sol.
Some coloured gemstones,
3. Solid Solid Solid sol
Milky glass, and Ruby glass.
Jelly, cheese, solidified butter,
4. Liquid Solid Gel
shoe polish.
Milk, face cream, liquid butter,
5. Liquid Liquid Emulsion
hair cream.
6. Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, Mist, Cloud
Foam rubber, sponge, pumice
7. Gas Solid Foam
stone, cork.
Saving cream, lemonade froth,
8. Gas Liquid Foam
whipped cream.

27. Differences among true solution, colloidal solution and suspension:

S.
True solution Colloidal solution Suspension
No.
It is appear to be as
homogeneous but
1. It is homogeneous It is heterogeneous
actually it is
heterogeneous
The particles are very The particles are 1 to
The particles are larger than
2. small i.e. less than 1000nm (larger than
1000 nm in diameter.
10-9m (1nm) those of solution)
The particles are
The particles are not
visible with the help The particles are visible
3. visible even with a
of an electron even with a naked eye.
powerful microscope.
microscope
The entire solution The particles can pass
The particles cannot pass
4. passes through fitter through ordinary
through filter paper.
paper filter paper slowly
The solute particles do
The particles show They do not show tyndall
5. not show tyndall
tyndall effect effect
effect
The particles may settle due
The particles do not The particles do not
6. to gravity if this particles
settle due to gravity settle due to gravity
are heavy.
28. Differences between compounds and mixtures.
S.
Compounds Mixture
No.
A compound is a substance made A mixture is more than element on
1.
up of two or more elements compound which are not in any
 chemically combined with another fixed ratio.
in a fixed ratio.
They are not pure substances and
It is a pure substance & has fixed
2. are formed by mixing of two or
melting & boiling point
more substances physically.
It contains same kind of molecules
They do not contain same kinds of
3. and its formation involves change
atoms or molecules
in energy
They have variable composition.
It is homogeneous i.e., has a same
4. They can be homogeneous or
composition throughout.
heterogeneous.
They do not have particular
It can be represented by chemical chemical formula because it is
5.
formula mixture of two or more
compounds.
Its properties are different from its Their properties are similar to
6.
components their components.

WORKSHEET
1. Explain the following giving examples:
(a) Saturated solution (b) Pure substance (c) Colloid (d) Suspension
2. Why is hydrogen considered as element? Give two reasons.
3. Why water is a compound and not a mixture?
4. Name and chemical formula of common salt
5. What is meant by mass percentage of solution?
6. Arrange the following in decreasing order of size of the particles.
True Solution, Suspension and Colloid.
7. Give an example of an aqueous solution in which gas is dissolved.
8. Classify each of the following as a homogeneous or heterogeneous mixture:
soda water, wood, air, soil, vinegar, filtrated tea.
9. How can you prove that air is a mixture?
10. How can we obtain pure copper sulphate from an impure sample?
11. Which of the following materials fall in the category of a pure substance?
a) Ice b) Milk c) Iron d) Hydrochloric acid
e) Calcium oxide f) Mercury g) Brick h) Wood.
12. What do you understand by saturated solution and unsaturated solution?
13. What do you observe when sunlight passes through a dense forest?
14. Classify the following into elements, compounds and mixtures:
 a) Sodium b) Soil c) Sugar solution d) Silver
e) Calcium carbonate f) Tin g) Silicon h) Coal i) Air j) Soap
k) Methane l) Carbon dioxide m) Blood.
15. What are the Characteristics exhibited by a pure substance
16. How properties of substance are used to check its purity
17. Which physical process is being used to separate dissolved sodium chloride
from water?
18. Write the Constituents of brass
19. Explanation of saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated solutions with
examples
20. What do you mean by suspension? Enlist the properties of suspension?
21. What is the basis of classification of colloid?
22. List all the ways to separate the solid mixture and prepare this as long
question
23. Name the elements are in liquid state at room temperature.
24. Solutions do not exhibit Tyndall effect. Reason
25. What are suspensions? Explain with an example.
26. What is meant by Tyndall effect? What is its cause? Illustrate with
example.
27. Write the steps you would use for making tea. Use the words - solution,
solvent, solute, dissolve, soluble, insoluble, filtrate and residue.
28. Name the dispersion medium and dispersed phase in the white material
inside an egg.
29. What happens when hot saturated solution is cooled?
30. How much water should be added to 15 grams of salt to obtain 15 % salt
solution?
Chapter-3. ATOMS AND MOLECULES
I. Important terms and concepts:
1. Law of chemical combination:
i. Law of conservation of mass:
Mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
The total mass of the products is equal to the total mass of the
reactants. There is no change in mass during a chemical reaction.
ii. Law of constant proportion or law of definite proportion:
In a chemical substance the elements are always present in
definite composition by mass.
2. Postulates of Daltons atomic theory:
All matter is made up of very tiny particles called atoms.
Atoms are indivisible particles, which cannot be destroyed or created
in a chemical reaction.
Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemical
properties.
Atoms of different elements have different mass and chemical
properties.
Atoms combined in the ratio of small whole numbers to form
compounds.
The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in given
compound.
3. Limitations of Dalton’s atomic theory:
According to Dalton’s atomic theory atoms of a given element are
identical in mass and chemical properties. Atoms of different elements have
different masses and chemical properties. This is wrong because atoms of
some elements vary in their mass and density. Such atoms of the same
elements having different masses called isotopes. For example, chlorine has
two isotopes having mass number 35amu and 37amu.
According to Dalton’s atomic theory atoms of different elements have
different mass and chemical properties. This has been proved wrong in
certain cases like argon and calcium atom, which have the same atomic
masses 40, such atoms have different elements that have the same atomic
mass called isobar.
According to Daltons atomic theory atoms combined in the ratio of
small whole numbers to form compound. This is not same in complex
organic compound like sugar C12H22O11. Ratio of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen is 12:22:11 which is not simple.
4. Atom:
Atoms are building block of all matter.
Atomic radius is measured in nanometers that is 1nm=10 -9m,
1nm=10-12pm.
Individual atoms can be observed by STM-Scanning Tunneling
Microscope.
5. Rules for assigning symbols for atoms of various elements:
Each element has a name and a unique symbol.
The abbreviation used to represent an element is generally a first letter
capital of the English name of the element.
S. No. English name of the element Symbol
1. Hydrogen H
2. Boron B
 3. Oxygen O
4. Nitrogen N
5. Fluorine F
When the names of two or more elements begin with the same initial
letter, the initial letter followed by the letter appearing later in the name is
used to symbolize the element.
S. No. English name of the element Symbol
1. Barium Ba
2. Bismuth Bi
3. Bromine Br
4. Silicon Si
5. Calcium Ca
Symbols of elements are derived from their Latin names.
Name of the elements Latin name Symbol
Sodium Natrium Na
Potassium Kalium K
Copper Cuprum Cu
Iron Ferrum Fe
Gold Aurum Au
Silver Argentum Ag
6. Atomic mass:
One atomic mass unit is a mass unit equals to exactly 1/12th of the
mass of one atom of carbon-12.
Atomic mass unit = 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
7. Relative atomic mass:
Relative atomic mass of atom of an element is defined as the average
mass of the atom as compound to the 1/12th mass of a 1 carbon-12 atom.
8. How do atoms exist:
Atoms of most elements are not able to exist independently. Atoms
usually exist in two ways:
 In the form of molecules.
 In the form of ions.
i. Molecules:
A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms
chemically bonded together. A molecule is the smallest particle of a
substance (element or compound) which has the properties of that substance
and can exist in the free State.
ii. Molecules of elements:
The molecule of an element contains two or more similar atoms
chemically combined together called molecules of elements.
Example: H2, O2, N2, Cl2, S8, O3, etc.
9. Atomicity:
The number of atoms present in one molecule of an element is called
its atomicity.
i. Monoatomic molecules:
Noble gases exist in atomic forms i.e., they are monoatomic because
those consist of only atom. Example: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Mg, Ca, C, Na, etc.
ii. Diatomic molecules:
This molecules consist of two atoms. Example: H2, Cl2, O2, HCl, CO
and NaCl.
iii. Triatomic molecules:
This molecule consist of three atoms. Example: O3, CO2, H2O, NO2
and H2S.
iv. Tetra atomic molecules:
This molecules consist of four atoms. Example: P4 (Phosphorous).
v. Polyatomic molecules:
Any molecule containing more than four atoms. Example: S8,
CH4(Methane), HNO3 (Nitric acid), CH3CH2OH (Ethanol), C6H12O6
(Glucose), C12H22O11 (Sugar).
10. Molecules of compound:
The molecule of compound contains two or more different types of
atoms chemically combined together. Example: HCl, H2O.
i. Molecular compound:
A compound which consist of molecules.Example: NH3, SO2, CH4,
etc.
11. Ion:
An ion is a charged particle and can be negatively or positively
charged.
A negatively charged ion is called anion.
A positively charged ion is called cation.
Ions may consist of a single charged atoms or group of atoms that
have a net charge of them.
Ionic compounds contain charged species called ions as their smallest
unit.
A group of atoms carrying a fixed charged on them are called
polyatomic ions or radicals.
12. Chemical formulae:
A chemical formula represents the composition of molecule of the
substance in terms of the symbols of the elements present in the molecule.
The chemical formula of compound is the symbolic representation of
its composition.
13. Valency:
Valency is the combining capacity of an element.
Valency can be used to find out how the atoms of the element will
combine with the atoms of another element to form a chemical compound.
14.
Non-metallic Polyatomic symbol
Valency Name of ion symbol
symbol element ions
1. Sodium +
Na Hydrogen H Ammonium NH4+
+

Potassium K+ Hydride H- Hydroxide OH−

Silver Ag+ Chloride Cl- Nitrate NO3−
Copper (I) Cu+ Bromide Br- Hydrogen HCO3−
Iodide I- carbonate
2. Magnesium Mg2+ Oxide O2- Carbonate CO2−
3
Calcium Ca 2+
Sulphide 2-
S Sulphite SO2−
3
Zinc Zn2+ Sulphate SO2−
4
Iron(II) Fe2+
Copper(II) Cu2+
3. Aluminium Al3+ Nitride N3- Phosphate PO3−
4
3+
Iron(III) Fe
15. Rules for writing chemical formula of compound:
Formula of compound given by writing side by side the symbols of
constituent elements.
Symbols of the more metallic element are written in first in formula.
Number of atoms of each of the constituent element present in the
molecule is indicated by subscript.
When either of the ions on both the ions are polyatomic and their
valency is more than 1, we enclose the polyatomic ions in brackets. No
brackets are necessary if the valencies of polyatomic ions are one.
While writing formula of compound if the valency numbers have a
highest common factor (HCF), divide the valency numbers by HCF to get
the simple ratio between the combining elements.
16. Binary compounds:
The simplest compounds which are made up of two different elements
are called binary compound.
Formula of a binary compound is written by criss-crossing the
valency of the elements present in molecule of the compound.
17. Chemical compound:
A chemical compound is always electrically neutral so the positive
and negative valencies or charges of the ions in the compound must add
up to zero.
18. Molecular mass:
The molecular mass of a substance is the relative mass of its molecule
as compound with a mass of a carbon atom taken as 12 units.
The molecular mass is equal to the sum of the atomic masses of all
the atoms present in one molecule of the substance.
19. Calculation of molecular mass:
i. H2  2 x 1 = 2u
ii. O2  2 x 16 = 32u
iii. Cl2  2 x 35.5 = 71u
iv. CO2  1 x 12 + 2 x 16 = 12 + 32 = 44u
v. CH4  1 x 12 + 4 x 1 = 12 + 4 = 16u
vi. C2H6  2 x 12 + 6 x 1 = 24 + 6 = 30u
vii. C2H4  2 x 12 + 4 x 1 = 24 + 4 = 28u
viii. NH3  1 x 14 + 3 x 1 = 14 + 3 = 17u
ix. CH3OH  1 x 12 + 3 x 1 + 1 x 16 + 1 x 1 = 12 + 3 + 16 + 1 = 32u
x. Calculate the formula unit masses of ZnO, Na2O, and K2CO3
1. ZnO  1 x 65 + 1 x 16 = 65 + 16 = 81u
2. Na2O  2 x 23 + 1 x 16 = 46 + 16 = 62u
3. K2CO3  2 x 39 + 1 x 12 + 3 x 16 = 138u
20. Formula unit mass:
The formula unit mass of a substance is a sum of the atomic masses of
all atoms in a formula unit of a compound.
WORKSHEET
1. Give an example of a) triatomic b) polyatomic molecule of elements.
2. Define the law of constant proportions.
3. As per the law of definite proportions carbon and oxygen combine in a ratio
of 3:8 compute the mass of oxygen gas that would be required to react
completely with 6g carbon.
4. Write the symbol for following elements. a) Iron b) Potassium
5. Give symbol and valency of the following ions. Hydroxide ion, carbonate
ion.
6. What is the role of valency in the combination of atoms?

7. Give one major drawback of Dalton’s atomic theory of matter.

8. Define atomic mass unit. What is its symbol?
9. How many atoms are present in one gram molecular mass of a substance?
10. Write symbols of: (a) copper (b) mercury (c) iron (d) silver (e) gold
(f) Argon (g) zinc (h) cobalt (i) lead (j) potassium (k) silicon
11. An element X has a valency 3. Write the formula of its oxide.
12. The oxide of aluminium has a chemical formula Al2O3. State the valency of
Al.
13. Calculate the formula unit mass of sugar (C12H22O4)
14. How an ion is different from an atom? How cation is different from anion?
15. The symbols of some of the ions are given below Na+, mg2+, H+, CO32-, Cl-,
S2- Using this information, find out the formulae of (i) sodium carbonate (ii)
magnesium chloride (iii) hydrogen sulphide
16. The formula of carbonate of a metal m is M2CO3. What is the formula for
phosphate of M?
17. The valency of carbon is 4 and that of chlorine is 1. What will be the
formula of carbon tetrachloride?
18. What are ionic and molecular compounds? Give two examples for each.
19. Match the following:-
Column I Column II
1 . Sodium a. Yellow in colour
2 . Helium b. Diatomic
3. Sulphur c. Soft metal
4. Hydrogen d. Noble gas
20. An element X forms X2(CO3)3 type compound. What is the formula of its
phosphate and chloride?
21. How formula unit mass is different from molecular mass?
22. What is the difference between sodium atom and sodium ion?
23. Give the names of any two elements present in the following compounds.
24. Write the chemical formulae of following compound, using criss-cross
method. (i) magnesium bicarbonate (ii) barium nitrate (iii) potassium nitrate
25. Give postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory
26. What is meant by the valency of an element?
27. Define atomic mass of an element.
28. State the two important law of chemical combination. How Dalton’s atomic
theory explains the two laws?

29. Give a brief description about the following (i) relative atomic mass

(ii) Atomic mass unit (iii) Ions (iv) Ionic compound (v) Atomicity

30. If in an experiment barium chloride is used in place in place of silver nitrate

and sodium sulphate is used in place of sodium chloride, then which
reaction is used to verify law of conservation of mass?
Chapter-4.STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
I. Important terms and concepts:
1. Ionization of gases in discharged tube proved that atoms have
subatomic particles.
2. Summary of Characteristics of Electrons, Protons, Neutron:
Particles Electron Proton Neutron
Symbol e p n
Relative charge -1 +1 0
Nature Negatively charged Positively charged Neutral
Discovered by J.J. Thomson E. Goldstein Chadwick
3. Thomson’s model of atom:
An atom is a uniform sphere of positive charges (due to presence of
protons) as well as negative charge (due to presence of electrons). Atom as a
whole is electrically neutral because negative and positive charges equal in
magnitude.
4. Limitations of Thomson’s model of atom:
Model failed to explain how protons and electrons arranged in atom
so close to each other.
5. Alpha particle:
Alpha particles are charged particles having two units of positive
charge and having four units of mass i.e., they are doubly charged two
helium ions (He2+).
6. Rutherford’s gold foil experiment:
Rutherford expected that if the model proposed earlier by J.J.
Thomson according to which there is uniform distribution of positive and
negative charge, was correct then alpha particles striking the gold atoms
uniformly deflected. Since the alpha particles were heavier than the proton,
he didn’t expect to see larger deviations.
 i. Selection of gold metal for Rutherford experiment:
Since alpha particles was easily observed by objects. He wanted to
ensure that alpha particles pass through foil without getting observed.
If alpha particles were observed in matter then they would not be able
to give any useful information about inside of atom.
Only if alpha particles were deflected then only it can give useful
information about inside of atoms.
Gold is easily malleable and can be beaten into thin sheets and also
noble metal.
ii. Conclusion:
Most of the alpha particles passed straight through gold foil without
suffering any deflation from their original path.
Some of the alpha particles were deflected by the foil by small angles.
One out of every 12000 particles appeared to rebound.
iii. Observation:
Most of the space between inside atoms is empty; hence it allows the
α-particles to pass through straight to it without any deflection.
Very few particles were deflected from their path which suggests that
the positive charges of an atom occupies little space.
The total volume occupied by a nucleus is very small compared to the
total volume of atom, as very few α-particles are reflected by 180o and all
positive charge and mass of the gold atom were concentrated in a very small
volume within atom.
7. Rutherford’s model of an atom:
There is positively charged at the centre in an atom is called nucleus
and the entire mass of atom resides in the nucleus.
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in well defined orbits.
Size of nucleus is very small as compared to size of atom.
8. Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of atom:
Rutherford had proposed that electrons move around a positively
charged nucleus at very high speed in circular orbits. To remained in a
circular orbit electron would have to be accelerated centripetally (tending to
move toward to centre). But according to electromagnetic theory if charged
body (electron) is accelerated around another charged body (nucleus). Then
there would be continuous radiation of the moving body (electron). This loss
of energy would slow down speed of electron and eventually electron would
fall into the nucleus. But Rutherford’s could not explain such a collapse.
Rutherford proposed that electron revolve around the nucleus in fixed
orbits. He did not specify the number of electron in each orbit.
9. Postulates put forward by Bohr representing model of atom:
Electron revolve around the nucleus in the limited number of orbits
called discrete orbits of electrons are also called permissible orbits.
While revolving in discrete orbits the electron does not radiate energy
that is the energy of electron remains constant so long as it stays in a given
orbit. Electrons present in different orbit have different energy.
When an electron jumps from lower energy level to higher energy
level some energy is absorbed, while energy is released when electron jumps
from higher energy level to lower energy level.
Orbits are shells are represented by K, L, M, N or number n=1, 2, 3,
4…
10. Bohr-Bury Scheme for distribution of electron in different orbit:
Maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is
given by 2n2, where ‘n’ is the shell number that is first shell can
accommodate 2 electrons, second shell 8 electrons and third shell 18
electrons and so on.
Outermost orbit of an atom can accommodate a maximum number of
8 electrons.
Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell, unless the inner
shell is fixed that is the shells are fixed in step wise manner.
11. Valency:
Combining capacity of an atom is called its valency.
12. Valence shell:
Outermost shell of an atom is called valence shell.
13. Valence electrons:
Electrons present in valence shell are called valence electrons.
14. Calculating valency:
Valency of element having 1-4 electrons in the outermost shell are
generally determined by a rule that is valency = No. of electrons in outermost
shell.
Valency of elements having no. of electrons in outermost shell close
to 8 is determined by the formula that is valency = 8 – no. of electrons in
outermost shell.
15. Significance of valence electron:
Valence electrons are responsible for chemical charges.
Elements having same number of valence electrons in their atoms
posses similar chemical properties because chemical properties of an element
are determined by the number of valence electron in an atom.
Elements having different no. of valence electrons in their atom
possess different chemical properties.
16. Atomic number :( Z)
Atomic number is defined as the sum of the total no. of protons
present in nucleus of an atom or total number of electron in neutral atom.
Atomic number of element = No. of protons in one atom of element
17. Mass number:(A)
Mass number is defined as the sum of the total no. of protons and
neutrons present in nucleus of an atom.
Mass number = No. of protons + No. of electrons
Mass number = Atomic mass
Proton + Neutron = Nucleus
Mass Number
Symbol of element 𝐴𝑍 𝑋
Atomic number
12 14 23 40
6𝐶 , 7𝑁, 11𝑁𝑎 , 20𝐶𝑎
18. Isotopes:
Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same atomic
numbers but different mass numbers.
Example: 35 37
17𝐶𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 17𝐶𝑙

Isotopes Protons Neutrons Electrons

35
17𝐶𝑙 17 18 17
37
17𝐶𝑙 17 20 17
Three isotopes of hydrogen:
Name Isotopes Protons Neutrons Electrons
1
Protium 1𝐻 1 0 1
2
Deuterium 1𝐻 1 1 1
3
Tritium 1𝐻 1 2 1
19. Isobars:
Isobars are the atoms of different elements having different atomic
number but same mass number.
Example: 40 40
20𝐶𝑎 , 18𝐴𝑟

Isobars Protons Neutrons Mass number

40
20𝐶𝑎 20 20 20 + 20 = 40
40
18𝐴𝑟 18 22 18 + 22 = 40
20. Applications of Isotopes:
U235 is used as a fuel in the reactors of nuclear power plant for
generating electricity.
Arsenic-74 tracer is used to detect the presence of tumors and sodium-
24 tracer is used to detect the presence of blood cloths.
 Cobalt-60 is used to cure cancer.
Iodine-131 is used to determine the activity of thyroid gland which
helps in the treatment of diseases like goiter.
Radioactive isotopes are used in industry to detect the leakage in
underground oil pipelines, gas pipelines, and water pipes.
Uranium-238 is used to determine the age of very old rocks and even
the age of earth.
C14 is used to determine the age of old bones of living organisms.
P32 is used in agricultural research.
21. Isotones:
Atoms of different having same number of neutrons but different
mass numbers are called isotones.
Example: 146𝐶 , 168𝑂

Isotones Protons Neutrons

14
6𝐶 6 8
16
8𝑂 8 8

Rutherford’s Gold Foil:

Distribution
Name of Atomic No. of No. of No. of Atomic
Symbol of electrons Valency
element number Protons Neutrons Electrons mass
K L M N
Hydrogen H 1 1 - 1 1 - - - 1 1
Helium He 2 2 2 2 2 - - - 0 4
Lithium Li 3 3 4 3 2 1 - - 1 7
Beryllium Be 4 4 5 4 2 2 - - 2 9
Boron B 5 5 6 5 2 3 - - 3 11
Carbon C 6 6 6 6 2 4 - - 4 12
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 2 5 - - 3 14
Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 2 6 - - 2 16
Fluorine F 9 9 10 9 2 7 - - 1 19
Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 2 8 - - 0 20
Sodium Na 11 11 12 11 2 8 1 - 1 23
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 2 8 2 - 2 24
Aluminum Al 13 13 14 13 2 8 3 - 3 27
Silicon Si 14 14 14 14 2 8 4 - 4 28
Phosphorus P 15 15 16 15 2 8 5 - 3,5 31
Sulphur S 16 16 16 16 2 8 6 - 2 32
Chlorine Cl 17 17 18 17 2 8 7 - 1 35.5
Argon Ar 18 18 22 18 2 8 8 - 0 40
Potassium K 19 19 20 19 2 8 9 - 1 39
Calcium Ca 20 20 20 20 2 8 10 - 2 40
 WORKSHEET:
1. Name three sub atomic particles of an atom.
2. Define atomic number and mass number.
3. What are the limitations of J.J. Thomson’s model of an atom?
4. What are Canal rays?
5. Describe the  particle scattering experiment conducted by Rutherford with a
diagram.
6. Describe the model of atom given by J.J.Thomson.
7. Describe the Bohr’s model of an atom.
8. How do isotopes and isobars differ? Write three applications of isotopes.
9. Why do elements which exist as isotopes have fractional atomic masses ?
10. Are mass number and atomic mass of an element equal in all respects?
11. What are the drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of atom?
12. What is valency? If z = 4, what is the valency of the element?
13. What are valence electrons? Give example to explain, how it helps in
finding the valency of an atom.
14. Compare an electron, proton and neutron in terms of charge and mass.
15. Define the following:
(a) mass number (b) atomic number (c) isotopes (d) isobars
16. If the number of electrons in an atom is 8 and the number of protons is also
8, then:
(i) What would be the atomic number of the atom?
(ii) What is the charge on the atom?
17. Composition of the nuclei of two atomic species X and Y are given as
under Protons Neutrons
X 6 6
Y 6 8
Give the mass numbers of X and Y. What is the relation between the two
species?
18. The element Aluminium is written by the symbol 13Al27. Write the
number of protons, electrons and neutrons present in it.
19. Helium atom has atomic mass of 4u and has two protons in the nucleus.
How many neutrons does it have?
20. If Z=3, what would be the valency of the element? Also, name the element.
21. The electronic configuration of an element Z is 2, 8, 6. How many
electrons does it require to have a stable configuration?
22. Two atoms A and B have the following composition
Atom A Atom B
17 protons 17 protons
18 neutrons 20 neutrons
What are their mass numbers? What is the relation between the species?
23. Briefly describe the features of the Rutherford Model of an atom. What are
the drawbacks?
24. If number of electrons and protons in an atom is 9 each, what is the atomic
number of the element?
25. Write the distribution of electrons in following atoms- carbon, sodium,
oxygen, sulphur, lithium, silicon, phosphorous, nitrogen.
26. If the K and L shells of an atom are full, then what would be the number of
electrons in the atom?
27. Which of the two will be chemically more reactive; element X with atomic
number 17 or element Y with atomic number 16?
28. Atomic number of chlorine atom is 17. What is the atomic number of Cl- ?
29. On the basis of Thomson's model of an atom explain how the atom is
neutral as a whole.
30. Draw a sketch of Bohr's model of an atom with three shells.