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ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

4 STREAM FLOW MEASUREMENT

1. INTRODUCTION

A stream can be defined as a flow channel into which the surface runoff from a specified basin
drains. The science and practice of water measurement is called ‘hygrometry’. Among different
parts of hydrological cycle, stream flow measurement is the only one that can be done
accurately.

2. MEASUREMENT OF STAGE (G)

Stage is defined as water surface evaluation measured fixed value. The process of
measurements of stage is called gauging. Following methods may be used in order to find the
value of a G.
2.1. Staff Gauge
The simplest of stage measurements are made by noting the evaluation of the water
surface in contact with a fixed graduated staff.
It is fixed rigidly to a structure such as an abutment, pier, wall etc. The staff may be
vertical or inclined with clearly and accurately graduated permanent markings.

It is a gauge used to measure the water surface elevation from above the surface such
as from a bridge or similar structure. In this a weight is lowered by a reel to touch the
water surface.
A mechanical counter measures the rotation of the wheel which is proportional to the
length of the wire paid out. The operating range of this kind of gauge is about 25 m.

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2.2. Float gauge recorder

This is the most commonly used automatic stage recorder. It contains a stilling well in
order to negate the wave effect and to prevent entry of debris.

In this gauge, compressed air or gas is made to bleed out at a very small rate through
an outlet placed out at a very small rate through an outlet placed at bottom of the river.
A pressure gauge measures the gas pressure which in turn is equal to the water column
above the outlet. A small change in the water surface elevation as felt as a change in
pressure from the present value at the pressure gauge and this in turn is adjusted by a
servo-mechanism to bring the gas to bleed at the original rate under the new head. The
pressure gauge reads the new water depth which is transmitted to a recorder.

* pressure of gas = pgas = rH

pgas
H=
r

3. MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY

The measurement of velocity is an important aspect of many direct stream flow measurement
techniques.
Following methods may be used in order to find the velocity of a river or a stream.
3.1. Float
In this method, a very simple float device is used which flows along the river surface.

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L
V=
t1
Mathematically,

Measurement of float is affected by wind or other such obstructions and hence this does
not give very reliable results. Some improvements in the conventional flow has led to the
development of consister float and rod float

3.2. Current meter

The most commonly used instruments in hydrometry to measure the velocity at a point
in the flow cross section is the current meter. It consists essentially of a rotating element
which rotates due to the reaction of the stream current with an angular velocity
proportional to the stream velocity.
Number of rotations made by the current meter is counted in order to find out the value
of rps (rotation per second) (Ns). The characteristic equation of current meter is given as

V = aNs + b

Here, a and b are called characteristic constants.

There are basically two types of current meter.

(a) Vertical axis current meter :
It contains a vertical axis on which a rotating disc is provided. Its major disadvantage is
that it can’t be used in situation where there is an appreciable inclined flow.
Typical example of this types of current meter are price current meter and curely
current meter.
(b) Horizontal axis current meter:

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It contains a horizontal axis on which a rotating element is provided. These of current

meters are not affected by inclined flow upto 15°.
Typical example includes ott,neyrtec and watt meter.
Note: Caliberation of current meter is done by using a ‘Towing tank’.
Sounding weight: It is a standard weight attached to a current meter in order to keep it
at fixed location.

In order to reduce the drag force these are stream lined in shape. Value of this sounding
weight is given as

W = 50 v y

Here, w = weight in ‘N’

v = Average velocity in ‘m/s’

Y = depth in ‘cm’.
Average velocity can be obtained as follows
Case 1: For deep water bodies k/a two point formula.

V0.2y + V0.8y
Vavg =
2

Case 2: For shallow k/a one point formula

Vavg = V0.6y

Case 3: For flashly river and flood like situation.

Vavg = kvs

Here, k = 0.85 – 0.95

Vs = Surface velocity
Example In a triangular channel, the top with and depth of flow were 2m and 0.9m
respectively. Velocity measurement on the centre line at 18 cm and 72 cm below the
free water surface indicated velocities of 0.6 m/s and 0.4 m/s respectively. The discharge
in the channel is
Solution.
A = 1/2 × 2 × 0.9 = 0.9m
VAvg = (V0.2y + V0.8y) / 2
= (0.4 +0.6) / 2 = 0.5

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∵ given depths,
18cm is 0.2y depth i.e = 0.2 × 0.9 = 0.18 m = 18 cm
For 72 cm is 0.8y depth i.e = 0.8 × 0.9 = 0.72m = 72 cm
Q = A × V = 0.9 × 0.25
= 0.45 m3/s

4. MEASUREMENT OF DISCHARGE

Measurement of discharge can be broadly classified in to two categories as

(i) Direct determination of stream discharge
(a)Area velocity method
(b) Dilution method
(c) Ultrasonic method
(d) Moving boat method
(e) Electromagnetic method
(ii) Indirect determination of stream discharge
(a)Slope area method
(b) Hydraulic structure such as weirs, flumes and gated structure.
4.1. Area velocity method:
This method of discharge measurement consists essentially of measuring the area of
cross section of the river at a selected section called gauging site and measuring the
velocity of flow through the cross sectional area. This method is also known as standard
current meter method. In this method section of river or stream is divided in to a number
of segments as follows.

n
Q=  Qi
i=1

Q1 = A1V1

Q2 = A2 V2

Qn = An Vn

Here, A1 = w1y1

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A2 = w2y2

An = wny2

Here,

2
 w2 
 w1 + 2 
w1 =  
2w1

w3 + w4
w3 =
2

2
 wn−1 
 wn = 2 
wn−1 =  
Similarly, 2wn

4.2. Dilution method:

This method is also known as the chemical method depends upon the continuity principle

applied to a tracer which is allowed to mix completely with the flow.

The stream flow is assumed to be steady.

Here C = background concentration.

Mathematically,

CQ + c 'Q' = C "(Q + Q')

Example. A 300 g/l solution of common salt was discharged into stream at the rate of

35 l/s at a downstream section, the solution was completely mixed and an equilibrium

concentration of 70 ppm Was reached. If the background concentration was 15 ppm. The

discharge in the stream in m3/s

Sol. Q = Q1(C1 – C2)/C2 – C0

Q1= 35 × 10–3 m3/s

C0 = 15 × 10–6 kg/l

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C1 = 300 × 10–3 kg/l

C2 = 70 × 10–6 kg/l

on solving,

Q = 191 m3/s

4.3. Ultrasonic Method:

This is essentially an area velocity with the average velocity being measured by using

ultrasonic signals. In this method two transducers are provided on both the sides of river

or stream

l
t1 = → (i)
C + v cos 

l
t2 = → (ii)
C + v cos 

From equation (i) and (ii) we get

l  1 1
v=  − 
2 cos   t1 t 

Q = AV

4.4. Moving Boat Method:

Discharge measurement of large alluvial rivers.

Such as the ganga by the current meter method is very time consuming even when the

flow is low or moderate. It is particularly suitable for wild streams whose width is more.

It this method, a boat moves from one bank to the other bank of the river in which current

meter is installed.

The boat is also provided with an angle indicator which records the direction of resultant

velocity.

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Mathematically, it can be expressed as.

  0 + y1   y1
Q1 = A1Vf =  Vb t1    vf = vb0vf t1
  2  2

y1
= Vr2 sin  cos t1
2

Similarly,

 y + y2 
Q2 = Vr2 sin  t2  1 
 2 

 y + y3 
Q3 = Vr2 sin  t3  2 
 2 

4.5. Electromagnetic Method:

This method of finding discharge makes use of faraday’s Law of electromagnetism.

4.6. Slope Area Method :

This method finding discharge makes use of law of conservation of energy for fluid

(Bernoulli’s equation) In this method two section are selected such that cross section

properties are known

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v12 V22
Z1 + y1 + = Z2 + y2 + + h2
2g 2g

 V2 − V22 
 h2 = (z1 + y1 ) − (z2 + y2 ) +  1 
 2g 

hf = frictional
 
Here, h2 = hf + hc hc = eddies 

 V2 − V22 
 hf = (h1 − h2 ) +  1  − he
 2g 

Through experiments, it has been found that eddy head loss

V12 − V22
he = Ke
2g

Where, Ke = eddy head loos coefficient.

According to Manning's equation, discharge is given as

1
Q = n A R2/3 S1/2 ⇒Q=K S

1
Where K = conveyance= n AR2/3

hf hf
Q=k
-S= L ⇒ L

Here, Q is a function of hf, whereas the value of hf depends on Q and hence in order to
find discharge following method is adopted.
(i) To start with, assume V1 = V2, which gives hf = h1 – h2

hf
k
(ii) Find discharge using Q = L

(iii) Using above value of discharge (Q), find V1 and V2 where,

Q Q
A
V= 1 1 and V = A
2 2

(iv) Find modified value of hf using above value of V1 and V2

(v) Find discharge Q by using above value of hf
(vi) Repeat the above steps till the value of discharge converges.
Here,

1
2/3
K for section (1)→ K1 = 2 A1 R 1

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1
2/3
K for section (2)→ K2 = 2 A2 R 2

K = k1k2

Example. In a river carrying a discharge of 142 m3/s, the stage at a station A was 3.6m
and the water surface slope was 1 in 3000. If during a flood, the stage at A was 3.6m
and the water surface slope was 1 in 6000, what was the flood discharge?
Solution.

Q s

s1 s1 142 1 / 3000
=  =
Q1/Q2 = s2 s2 Q2 1 / 6000

Q2 = 200 m3/s
Example: During a flood flow the depth of water in a 10 m wide rectangular channel was
found to be 3.0 m and 2.9 m at (two section 200 m apart. The drop in the water-surface
elevation was found to be 0.12 m. Assuming Manning’s coefficient to be 0.025, estimate
the flood discharge through the channel. Assume (h e = 0).
Solution:
Using suffixes 1 and 2 to denote the upstream and downstream section respectively, the
cross-sectional properties are calculated as follows:

Section 1 Section 2
y1 = 3.0 m y2 = 2.90 m
A1 = 30 m 2
A2 = 29 m2
P1 = 16 m P2 = 15.8 m
R1 = 1.875 m R2 = 1.835 m
K1 = 1/0.025 × 30 × (1.875)2/3 K2 = 1/0.025 × 29 × (1.835)2/3
= 1824.7 = 1738.9

Average K for the reach = K1 K2 = 1781.3

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To start with h1 = fall = 0.12 m is assumed. (This follows from V 1 = V2).

Eddy loss he = 0
The calculations are shown in Table as shown below
Sf = hf/L = hf/200

Q = K Sf − 1781.3 Sf

2
V12  Q 
= / 2g
2g  30 

2
V22  Q 
= / 2g
2g  29 

 V12 V22 
 − 
hl = (h1 – h2) +  2g 2g 

 V12 V22 
 − 
hf = fall +  2g 2g 

 V12 V22 
 − 
= 0.12 +  2g 2g 

hf St Q V12 /2g V22 /g hf

Trial
(trial) (units of 10–4) (m3/s) (m) (m) by eq. (A)

1 0.1200 6.000 43.63 0.1078 0.1154 0.1124

2 0.1124 5.615 42.21 0.1009 0.1080 0.1129

3 0.1129 5.645 42.32 0.1014 0.1085 0.1129

The final value of Q may be taken as 42.32 m3/s.

5. RISK AND RELIABILITY

The designer of a hydraulic structure always faces a doubt about the risk of failure of his
structure. This is because the estimation of hydrologic design values involve a natural or inbuilt
uncertainty and as such a hydrological risk of failure. So it is a binomial event.
A binomial event is which one has two possible outcomes. The probability of a particular event
happen exactly 'r' times out of 'n' trials is given as
n
crpr (1 − p)n−r

Here p = probability of exceedance.

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5.1. Reliability
This is the probability that a particular flood or rainfall is never equalled or exceeded (r
= 0) in a time span of 'n' years, Mathematically
n 0 n−0
⇒ Reliability = c0p (1 − p)

Re liability = (1 − p)n
⇒

5.2. Risk
This is a probability that a particular flood or rainfall is equaled or exceeded at least once
in a time span of 'n' years.
P (at least once) = 1 – p(never happen)= 1- Reliability
Note: It can be seen that the return period for which a structure should be designed
depends on acceptable risk is governed by economic and policy considerations.
Ex: The probability of 10 cm rainfall in 1 hr occurring in Bombay was found to be 1/50.
What is the probability that a 1 hr rain of magnitude 10 cm or larger will occur once in
20 years.
Sol.
P = 1/50

49
 risk q =
50

P (one in 20 years) = ncrprqn–r

1 19
2020  1   49 
= c 
1 50   50 
   

= 0.272
(As probability of r times in n years = ncrprqn–r )

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