CHAPTER 3 : A FLOW

MEASUREMENT
ORIENTATION
3.1 Flow measurement Basics
3.2 Applications and Technologies Selection
3.3 Transmitters and Indication
3.4 Flow Measurement System Errors
Flow Sensors

The measurement and control of flow can be the very heart of process
industries.
Continuously operating manufacturing processes involve the movement of raw
materials, products, and waste throughout the process.
All such function can be considered flow, whether automobiles through assembly line
or methyl chloride through a pipe.
SOLID-FLOW MEASUREMENT
Conveyor Flow Concept
A mechanical valve controls the rate at
which material can flow from the hopper
onto the conveyor belt. The belt is driven by
a motor system.
The flow rate
Q = WR/L
Q = flow (kg/min or lb/min-Pound(s) per Minute)
W = weight of material of section of length L (kg
or lb)
R = conveyor speed (m/min –meter per minute or
ft/min-feet per minute)
*Revolution
L = length of weighing platform (m or ft)
Load cell can also be replaced by an LVDT. *Note: lb-Latin word for pound which is "libra“, means "scales"
or "balance
Example 1.0
LIQUID FLOW
Flow Units
1. Volume flow rate – volume delivered per unit time m3/h (Cubic meters per hour.)
or ft³/h (Cubic feet per hour)
2. Flow velocity – Distance of liquid travels in the carrier per unit time. m/min. This
is related to the volume flow rate by
V = Q/A
where V = flow velocity,
Q = volume flow rate,
A = cross-sectional area of flow carrier

3. Mass or weight flow rate – Mass or weight flowing per unit time kg/h.
This is related to the volume flow rate by
F = ρQ where F = mass or weight flow rate
ρ = mass density or weight density
Q = volume flow rate
Example 1.2
Flow Through A Pipe

Idealized Real World

V V

Pipe Velocity Profile

Flow Profile Correlation

Steam
V Water
Heavy Crude

Velocity profile is a predictable function of

Reynolds number. Fluids with the same
Reynolds number will have similar velocity
profiles.
Characterization of Fluid Flow

Types of Flow
RE < 2100 Laminar

Transitional

n RE >3000 Turbulent ***

Principles of Fluid Flow in Pipes
Flow Sensors

• The important factor is to determine the flow

rate of a fluid or the total flow of fluid that
flows through a point at a certain time.
• A very important sensor in process industry.
• Consists of many types:
i. Differential pressure flow meter.
ii. Turbine flow meter.
iii. Magnetic flow meter.
 1. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW
METER

• The basic principle used is to measure the pressure

change of fluid flow through an obstruction by using
a differential pressure transducer.
• The flow rate of fluid after the obstruction will
increase but the pressure will reduce. The relation
between both factors are:

q = K Δ P
where, q : flow rate
K : constant
P : pressure change
• This meter is popular because there are no moving
parts. Therefore this meter is reliable and easy to
maintain.
• The disadvantage of this meter is the obstruction used
will cause constant pressure loss and a pump has to be
used to increase the pressure. Therefore the pattern of
pressure change in the pipe needs to be known.
• The sensed pressure difference has to be sent to the
differential pressure transmitter or “D/P cell” to change
the pressure to proportionate output current signal
which is (4-20 mA).
• Square-root extractor is used for linearization.
Liquid Flow

Pipe Flow Principles

The flow rate of liquids in pipes is
determined only by the pressure
that is forcing the liquid through
the pipe.
In the figure, flow through the pipe
P is driven by the pressure in the
pipe, but this pressure is caused by
weight of liquid of liquid in the
tank of height h.
Liquid Flow
Restriction Flow Sensors
One of the most common methods
of measuring the flow of liquids
in pipes is by introducing a
restriction in the pipe and
measuring the pressure drop that
results across the restriction.
The velocity of fluid through the
restriction increases, and the pressure
the restriction decreases.
Flow Sensors
The volume flow rate is given by
Q = k√∆p
where
Q = volume flow rate,
K = a constant for the pipe and
liquid type,
∆p = drop in pressure across the
restriction.

The most common method of

measuring the pressure drop is to
use a differential pressure sensor
(b) and is often described by the
name DP cell.
Example 1.3
A
C

Measured
Pressure Drop Permanent
Pressure Loss

Distance
A : maximum pressure
B : minimum pressure (vena contracta point)
C : pressure C = pressure A
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
• Simple and easy to fabricate.
• No moving parts.
• Suitable for most gases and liquids.
• Price does not increase with diameter increase.
Disadvantages
• Fluctuation of value and and pressure effects the accuracy of
measurement.
• High pressure loss.
• Worn off obstruction will effect the reading.
• The usage limit if this meter depends on the viscosity of fluid
where it is not suitable for slurries and corrosive fluids.
 EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENTIAL METER

• i. ORIFICE METER
• Uses orifice plate, metal discs with a hole in the middle which is
inserted into the pipe.
• Orifice meter is widely used because it is easy to use, cheap and
can be obtained in a wide range of diameters.

Orifice Plate
P1 P2

V1 V2
Orifice Meter
ii. VENTURI METER
• Venturi is a tube that has a
certain shape.
• It has a higher accuracy and a
lower pressure drop compared to
orifice meter.
• More expensive.
P1
P2

V1 V2
Venturi Meter
Obstruction Flow Sensor

• Rotameter – The distance to which

the float rises in the column, is
proportional to the flow rate.
•Moving vane – The angle of the vane
is a measure of the flow rate.
•Turbine flow meter – The ouput from
the tachometer is a measure of the
flowrate.
 2. TURBINE FLOW METER

• Consists of a rotor which is axially

mounted in a pipe.
• A permanent magnet is connected
to the body of the rotor (connected
to one of the propeller blades).
• The speed of rotor is proportionate
to the flow rate of fluid through
the pipe.
 Operation Principles
• When fluid flow through a pipe, it will pass
through a set of vanes and it will cause the
rotary blade to rotate.
• Turbulent vanes are mounted at both end of the
pipe and it is use to reduce the swirling factor.
• A small magnet is fix onto one of the rotary
blade and this will induce electric current at the
pick-up coil and form magnetic field. Therefore,
every time the blade rotate, it will disturb the
magnetic field formed at the pick-up coil and
produces electrical pulse at the coil.
• This electrical pulse frequency will show
the actual flowrate. By counting the
number of electrical pulse in a certain
period of time, the actual fluid flowrate can
be calculated.
• Flow rate were measured using this
equation:
K N
q =
Δt
where, K : volume per pulse
N : total number of pulse
Δt : time
Turbine Flow Sensor
Turbine Meter
Principle of Operation

Rotor velocity is proportional to fluid velocity

Clean water application only
Turbine Meter
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
A D VA N TA G E S
• Output pulse is suitable with digital control system.
• High accuracy.
• Wide range of temperature,which is at the lowest of
-200ºC to the highest of 350ºC.
•C a n be used with non-conductive fluid.
D I S A D VA N TA G E S
• Fluid density must be known prior to install this type of
meter.
• Not suitable for slurry fluid.
• The pipe system cannot be exposed to any
vibration.
 3. MAGNETIC FLOW METER
• The operation is based on Faraday’s L aw where the
voltage (emf) induced when the conductor moves
through the magnetic field and the emf is proportionate
to the conductor’s velocity.
• The magnetic field remain constant through the D C
current flowing through the electromagnetic coil.
• The fluid has to be conductive and flows through
the non-metal part of the piping system.
• Two electrodes installed at the pipe are used to detect
induced voltage.
Magnetic Flow Sensor
Magnetic Flow Meters
Theory of Operation
 Magnetic Flow Meters

• Based upon Faraday’s Law

• The fluid is the conductor, must be electrically conductive.
• E=BDVx10-8
• E=voltage, volts
• B=magnetic flux density, gauss
• D= length of the conductor, cm
• V=velocity of the conductor, cm/sec
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

A D VA N TA G E S
• No obstacle in flow, therefore no pressure drops.
• There is no mechanical movement,therefore there is
no leak or wear off problems.
• Fluid flow measurement is independent of temperature,
pressure factor and density of the fluid.
•Good linearity even at a small range.
D I S A D VA N TA G E S
• C a n only be used with conductive type fluid.
• Any slurry in the flow will cause error in reading.
Types of errors in flow
measurement
Types of errors in flow measurement

Instrumental errors in the measurement of fluid flow can result in

significant inaccuracies.

Recognizing the factors that contribute to these errors is crucial in

ensuring accurate and precise measurements.
1. Erosion
Erosion causes the material to wear away.
Suspended solids or debris in the piping will
not only plug up the sensing lines, it will
erode the sensing device.
Erosion reduces the differential pressure
between the HP and LP line, Orifice plate,
flow nozzle, and even venturi can be
damaged.
*HP: high pressure; LP: low pressure.
Causes of Erosion in Flow Measurement;

Velocity: High flow rates cause turbulence and wear on the measurement device.

Particle Size: Larger particles in the fluid cause more damage to the device.

Fluid Characteristics: Corrosive, abrasive, and viscous fluids cause more erosion.

Installation: Improper installation can cause turbulent flow and erosion.

Methods for Detecting Erosion

3. Monitoring Device
1. Ultrasonic Wall 2. Visual Inspection:
Performance: Measuring
Thickness Testing: Involves taking apart the
flow rates and monitoring
Measures the thickness of device and visually
performance over time can
the pipe wall to determine inspecting key components
help identify erosion-
the level of erosion for signs of erosion.
related issues.
2. Vapour
formation in the
throat: ( Wap)
• Vapour formation in flowing liquid
can occur at both LP and HP
side.
• Vapour formation occurs when
the fluid pressure drops below its
vapour pressure, causing the
liquid to change to a gas state.
• The bubbles of gas cause an
error in flow measurement.
The Phenomenon of Vapour Formation in
Flowing Liquids

The factors such as an increase in temperature or a Vapour bubble formation causes the fluid density to
drop in pressure can cause the fluid to change to a gas decrease, making the flow measurement appear higher
state. than the actual flow rate.
Types of errors in flow measurement
3. Over ranging Damage to the D/P Cell:
The system pressures are usually much greater than the
differential pressure and three valve manifolds must be correctly
used.

4. Clogging of Throat: (Tersumbat)

Particulate or suspended solid particles in flow stream hit the
flow sensor in high velocity can damage the flow sensor. Also
damages the material in the throat of the sensor which increases the
pressure across the cell. Which increases the flow measurement too.
Types of errors in flow measurement
5. Plugged or Leaking Sensing Lines:
• Sometimes DP sensing line can leaks. The effects of plugged or
leaking D/P sensing lines is the same,
• On the HP side, a plugged or leaking sensing line will cause a
lower reading.
• On the LP side, a plugged or leaking sensing line will cause a
higher reading.
Techniques for
Minimizing
Measurement Errors
Proper Installation and Maintenance
Calibration of instruments, applying best practices, and proper
installation is a critical factor in minimizing measurement errors.

Real-time Monitoring and Control

Using automated software and real-time monitoring provides data
accuracy and error identification throughout the measurement
process.

Data Verification and Validation

Continuously verifying and validating flow measurement data can
boost confidence in the data's accuracy and provide timely error
detection and correction.
 Calibration Procedures

Calibration Type Frequency Methods

Factory Calibration Initial + Service Cycle Recalibration by OEM (Original Equipment

Manufacturer)or trained professionals

Field Calibration Daily to Annual Comparison with a reference instrument,

zero and span adjustment, and applying
correction factors to data.

Round Robin Calibration Interlaboratory Comparison, 8-10 times per Measuring the same device by different
year calibration labs, to improve the accuracy of
calibration and measurement.
Verification • Verification
• Verification tests the
• Validation
• Validation ensures the
and measurement system's
accuracy when measuring
measurement system's
ability to measure the
Validation specific values. It helps
identify errors in the
desired values within the
acceptable range.
Processes measurement data. 1. Accuracy test
1. Zero adjustment test 2. Reproducibility test
2. Linearity test 3. Stability test
3. Hysteresis test 4. Interference test
4. Repeatability test