2.2.

Stream flow measurement

2.2.1. Introduction
An important aspect of measuring the available water in a basin is the measurement of
the water in the rivers and streams. The same applied to man made canals and ditches
used to move water.
Even though it is possible to estimate runoff from a river basin using only rainfall data
only (e.g. using methods such as rational formula or the curve number method), There are
four main methods of calculating the rate of flow in stream /river canal:
a) Measuring structures
b) Velocity area
c) Dilution gauging
d) Electromagnetic and ultrasonic

- Weirs /flumes
- measure the velocity of the water and
multiplying the area of the river
- add tracer chemicals into the water to
measure its velocity.
- flow is inferred from ultrasonic
/electromagnetic measurements.

However, all of these methods require making measurement of the depth of water in the
river we call this the stage.
Stage
The stage at a stream or lake is defined as the height of the water surface above an
established datum plane. Water level measurements are used both to develop a stagedischarge relationship and to provide a discharge estimate one the rating curve is
available. The reliability of discharge records and/or predictions is dependent on the
accuracy of the stage data.
The simplest stage measurement is by a staff gauge in the river or a gauge board attached
to a structure. The divisions on the board should be clearly marked and sited so that it is
possible to read the board from a distance using binoculars if necessary (e.g. during a
flood; these readings can be very valuable for design work).
A recording gauge is very useful because it gives a continuous record of water level. The
most common type has a float which moves up and down in a tube (stilling well) open to
the river (this removes the effect of waves). The float movement is then transferred to a
pen on a drum chart or to a computer /data logger.

At remote sites, the data can be sent by telephone lines or radio to a central data center. It
is usually possible to draw up a relationship between the stage (water level) and the
discharge having made a set of readings. A stage discharge relationship allows us to
calculate the flow just by measuring the water level.
These relationships assume that the cross-section is constant and must be built up from at
least 20 manual flow measurements covering a wide range of flows /stages. If a site
experiences erosion or deposition then the relationships may no longer apply.
The stage discharge relationship is some times known as the rating curve and usually
takes the form of
Q a( H b)c

Where Q is discharge, H is stage and a, b, c are constants.

A channel section may have varying geometry with stage and it may be necessary to
drive two or three such curves for differing ranges of reach.
Adjustment of stage-discharge curve

When discharge measurements are made during both rising and falling stages and also at
constant stage, the points joining the rising and falling stages plot a loop due to channel
storage and variation of water surface slope as a flood wave moves along the stream,
Figure. A smooth discharge curve is then drawn along the median line passing through or
near the points that were obtained at constant stage. Whenever stream gauging is
conducted for determining or checking the discharge-rating curve, the gauge reading and
time are recorded at the beginning and at the end of the gauging to calculate the rate of
change in stage. Curves relating percentage correction to discharge and rate of change in
stage can be obtained from continuous discharge measurement during rising, falling and
constant stages of the river.

Shift in rating Curves

The stage discharge relation can vary with time, in response to degradation, aggradation,
or a change in channel shape at the control section; deposition of sediment causing
increased approach velocity in a weir pond and vegetation growth. Shifting in ration
curves are best detected from regular gaugings and become evident when several
gaugings deviate from the established curve.
In gravel bed Rivers a flood may break up the armoring of the surface gravel material,
leading to general degradation until a new armoring layer is established, and ratings shift
states of quasi-equilibrium. It may be possible to shift the rating curve up or down by the
change in the mean bed level.
In rivers with gentle slopes, discharge for a given stage when the river is rising may
exceed discharge for the same stage when the river is falling. In such cases, adjustment
factors must be applied in calculating discharge for the rising and falling stages.

2.2.2. Measuring Stations

The place where the measurement of water level (hence flow) made is important. A river
gauging station must be a site convenient to get at, to be representative of the river and
also unaffected by hydraulic effects, which could spoil the stage discharge relationship.
Straight reach: - the station should be on a part of the river that is straight so that the
flow is uniform across the cross section.
Uniform section: - the river cross section should be uniform for a distance both upstream
and downstream of the station to avoid any transient effect.
A stable cross section: - is needed in the river; because erosion and sedimentation
changes the shape of the cross section then the stage discharge relationship will change.
Back water effects: from structures upstream and downstream should be avoided.
Large cross section: - If possible, choose a site that will contain large floods so that they
can be measured (once flow goes out of bank, it is very difficult to estimate the flow
rate).
Easy to get at: - there is no point in sitting a station in the bottom of a gorge to contain
large floods.
Note also that the gauge site should have flexibility so that additional facilities can be
introduced. If a flood passes the site, it is important that the reference level of the gauge
is not affected. A well-secured staff gauge is vital.
2.2.3. Measuring Structures
The depth of water at the critical depth is directly related to the flow rate. The critical
depth can be correlated with the depth of water a few meters upstream of the structure.
There are two practical ways to force critical flow in a channel by narrowing the section
(flume) or creating a drop (weir).

Weirs are generally more versatile and can measure flow over a very wide range. Thin
plate (sharp edged) weirs or flumes are used for small to medium flows (pipe flow up to
small streams) while round nosed weirs are used for small to medium rivers.

The relationship between depth of water and flow rate for these structures normally takes
the form:

Q CLH n
Where L is the width of the crest, n is exponent which depends on the type of structure
(e.g. 3/2 for horizontal weir and 5/2 for a V-notch weir)

2.2.4. Velocity area method

The advantage of these methods of measuring is that they are relatively simple and in
expensive. The disadvantage is that they provide a flow measurement at only one point in
time.
The flow is the product of the average velocity of flow and the cross sectional area.
Hence if we have surveyed the channel section, on measuring water depth and the
average velocity of water will give the flow rate.
a) Measuring velocity using floats
This is a simple but crude method of measuring velocity. The advantage is that floats are
in expensive and several measurements can be made in a short space of time. Steps to be
followed are:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.
9.

Select relatively uniform section

Locate two points on the selected uniform section, x distance a part
Measure the distance between the selected points. E.g. 3m, 4m or 5m.
Set watch (000 or known time)
Throw the float at first point and set the watch to start simultaneously
while throwing the float.
Stop the watch when the float crosses the second point and record the time
elapsed.
Calculate velocity by dividing the distance with time elapsed.
V = Distance
time
Measure the cross-sectional parameters, bed width and flow depth, then
calculate cross sectional area.
Determine flow or discharge by multiplying velocity with cross sectional
area.

b) Current meter method

A current meter is a propeller or impeller that has been accurately calibrated for velocity.
With care, flow measurements can be made within 2 to 5% error. The device is held in
the water and the number of turns of the blades in a given period of time can be converted
to the velocity and calculate the flow rate by multiplying the cross-sectional area with the
average velocity. Depending on the depth of the channel section the average velocity is
determined after taking velocity measurement at different depths as indicated below.

Deph < 0.6m

VV
; 0.6 water depth from the water surface
0.6d

0.6m Depth 2m

V
V
0.8d
V 0.2d
2

Depth 2m

V
2V
V
0.6d
0.8d
V 0.2d
4

C. Slope area method

An indirect measure of the flow in a channel can be made using semi-empirical equations
such as the chezy equation or the manning equation. These relate cross section geometry
and an empirical constant to provide an estimate of the flow velocity.
From Mannings equation is
V

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
R S
N

Where V is the velocity, R is the hydraulic radius, S is hydraulic gradient and N is

Mannings roughness coefficient.
These equation do give a measure of the flow rate in a section but remember that the
biggest problem is estimating the roughness coefficients a 30% error either way is
possible.
Most textbooks on hydraulics give full lists of values for N. some typical values are:
Table: Typical Mannings N values
Rivers
Straight, weed free stones
0.025 0.030
Curving, weed free, stones
0.030 0.050
Curving, with weeds
0.050 0.150
Canals and ditches (unlined)
Earth, good alignment
Earth, poor condition

0.020 0.030
0.030 0.050

Channels (lined)
New concrete
Hand placed pitching

0.012 0.017
0.025 0.035

Dilution gauging

This method involves introducing a chemical tracer substance such as a salt or dye into
the stream and then monitoring changes in its concentration at some point downstream. It
is useful in highly turbulent streams which provide rapid mixing of tracers and at the
same time the normal flow measurement with current meter is difficult. The two most
frequently used methods of dilution gauging are slug-injection and constant rate
injection.

Figure Two basic methods of dilution gauging (Shaw 1988)

Slug-injection Method
In this method a solution of known volume and concentration is added to the stream in
one slug or gulp. Concentration of the tracer is monitored as the wave of marked fluid
passes by, then the discharge is calculated from integration (calculating the area under the
curve) of the concentration hydrograph. The equation for computing discharge is (Shaw,
1988)

Q 1000

VCt
t2

(C Co )dt

t1

Where V=known volume of tracer, Ct =concentration of tracer in introduced solution,

Co = background concentration of stream, C = changing concentration of tracer
measured downstream, Q = discharge (m3/s) and t1 and t2 are the initial and final times of
measurements (seconds). The units of the concentration should consistent.
Constant-injection Method
In constant-injection method a solution of known concentration is injected into the stream
at a constant rate. The discharge is then calculated from the equation (Shaw, 1988)
Q 1000

(Ct C1)
Qt
(C1 Co )

Where C1 is the final, constant concentration of the tracer in the stream, Q is in m3/s and
Qt is the injection rate of the tracer in liters per second (L/s)

Electromagnetic and Ultrasonic methods

Electromagnetic Method
This method can be used where there is no stable stage-discharge relationship or incases
the flow is impeded by weed growth. The electromagnetic method is based on the
Faradays principle that an electromagnetic field (emf) is induced in the conductor (water
in our case) when it cuts a normal magnetic field. Large coils buried at the bottom of the
channel carry a current I to produce a controlled vertical magnetic field. It has been found
that the signal output E will be of the order of millvolts and is related to the discharge as
n

Ed

Q K1
K2
I

Where d = depth of flow, I =current in the coil, and n, K1 and K2 are system constants

Ultrasonic Method
This is essentially an area-velocity method with the average velocity being measured by
using the ultrasonic signals. Consider a channel carrying a flow with two transducers A
and B fixed at the same level h above the bed on either side of the channel (Fig.). these
transducers can receive as well as send ultrasonic signals. Let A send an ultrasonic signal
to be received at B after an elapse time t1. Similarly, let B send a signal to be received at
A after an elapse time t2. If CS = velocity of sound in water,

t1

L
(CS VP )

Where L= length of path from A to B and VP = component of the flow velocity in the
sound path= V cos . Similarly from Fig. ,

t2

Thus

L
(CS VP )

1 1 2V p 2V cos

t1 t2
L
L

Or

L 1 1

2 cos t1 t2

The moving-boat method

On large streams and estuaries the conventional methods of measuring

by current meter is
frequently impractical and involve costly and tedious procedures. There may be no
suitable facilities at remote sites. Where suitable facilities do exist, they may be
inundated or inaccessible during floods. At some sites, unsteady flow conditions require
that measurements be made as rapidly as possible. The moving- boat technique is a
method of rapidly measuring the discharge of large streams. It requires no fixed facilities,
and it lends itself to the use of alternate sites if conditions make this desirable.
The moving-boat technique is similar to the conventional current-meter measurement in
that both use the velocity-area approach in determining discharge. In each method, a
measurement is the summation of the products of the subsections of the stream cross
section and their respective average velocities. Both techniques require that the following
information be obtained:
Location of sampling verticals 1, 2, 3,. . n across the stream in reference to the
distance from an initial point.

Stream depth, d, at each observation vertical.

Stream velocity, V, perpendicular to the cross section at each observation vertical.

During a traverse of the boat across the stream, a sonic sounder records the profile of the
cross section, and a continuously operating current meter senses the combined stream and
boat velocities. A vertical vane alines itself in a direction parallel to the movement of
water past it, and an angle indicator attached to the vane assembly indicates the angle
between the direction of the vane and the true course of the boat. The data from these
instruments provide the in-formation necessary for computing the discharge for the cross
section. Normally, data are collected at 30 to 40 observation points in the cross section
for each run. Experience has shown that discharges determined by the moving-boat
technique match, within 5 percent, discharges determined by conventional means.
The principal difference between the conventional measurement and the moving-boat
measurement lies in the method of data collection. The standard current-meter method of
measurement uses what might be called a static approach in its manner of sampling, i.e.,
the data are collected at each observation point in the cross section while the observer is

in a stationary position. This is in contrast to the dynamic approach to data collection

utilized in the moving-boat method. Here, data are collected at each observation point
while the observer is aboard a boat that is rapidly traversing the cross section.
Theory of the Moving-Boat Method

The moving-boat measurement is made by traversing the stream along a preselected path
that is normal to the streamflow. The traverse is made without stopping, and data are
collected at intervals along the path. During a traverse of the cross section, the boat
operator maintains course by crabbing into the direction of the flow sufficiently to
remain on line (figure). The velocity, Vb of the boat with respect to the stream-bed along
the selected cross-section path is the velocity at which the current meter is being pushed
through the water by the boat. The force exerted on the current meter, then, is a
combination of two forces acting simultaneously: one force resulting from the movement
of the boat through the water along the cross-section path and the other a consequence of
the natural streamflow normal to that path.
The velocity measurement taken at each of the sampling points in the cross section is a
vector quantity that represents the relative velocity of water past the vane and meter. This
velocity, Vv, is the vector sum of V, the component of stream velocity normal to the cross
section at the sampling point, and Vb, the velocity of the boat with respect to the
streambed along the selected path.
The sampling data recorded at each observation point provide the necessary information
to define Vv. The pulses-per-second reading from the rate-indicator unit is used in
conjunction with a rating table to obtain the vector magnitude, Vv, while the angle
reading, , representing the angle the vane makes with the cross-section path, defines the
direction of the vector.
Stream velocity, V, perpendicular to the boat path (true course) at each sampling point, 2,
3, 4, . . . (n. - l), can be determined from the relation
V = Vv sin

The solution of the above equation yields an answer which represents that component of
the stream velocity that is perpendicular to the true course even though the direction of
flow may not be perpendicular- lar. This is the desired component.
From the same vector diagram, it can be seen that
Lb Vv cos dt
Where Lb is the distance that the boat has traveled along the true course between two
consecutive observation points, provided the stream velocity is perpendicular to the path.

Figure: Diagram of Velocity vector

Advantages of the moving boat method over conventional methods include the short time
required. Reliability of results is comparable to that for conventional measurements, if the
results of several traverses are averaged. In normal practice, a series of at least 6 runs,
each with 30 or 40 verticals, are averaged.
Instruments currently used for the3 moving boat are more automated than the previous;
for instance, an acoustic Doppler current profiler provides a vertical profile of horizontal
velocities and the direction of water movement is being developed. This system will
likely develop as the new moving boat system (ASCE, 1996).
Limitations of this method
(i) It cannot be used in shallow streams.
(ii) Velocity coefficient is to be worked out every stage of the river as the ratio between
stream depth and the depth of lowering current meter will change.
(iii) The boat has to be traversed along the measuring section correctly. At times it has
been observed that it drifts from the section line and then sighting parallel to the section
line becomes difficult.
(iv) The equipment required is expensive and requires services of experienced by
personnel.
Major advantage is, it is very quick, flexible and can be dismantled quickly and carried to
some other site where it is needed.