FEATURE doi: 10.1111/emr.

12452

Advances in approaches to seagrass

restoration in Australia
By Elizabeth A. Sinclair, Craig D. H. Sherman, John Statton, Craig Copeland,

s,
Andrew Matthews, Michelle Waycott, Kor-Jent van Dijk, Adriana Verge
Lana Kajlich, Ian M. McLeod and Gary A. Kendrick

Three case studies involving two

temperate Australian seagrass
species – Pondweed (Ruppia
tuberosa) and Ribbon Weed
(Posidonia australis) – highlight
different approaches to their
restoration. Seeds and rhizomes
were used in three collaborative
programmes to promote new
approaches to scale up
restoration outcomes.

Key words: Blue Restoration, citizen

science, marine restoration, stakeholder
engagement, Traditional Owners.

Elizabeth A. Sinclair is Senior Research Fellow

with the School of Biological Sciences and Oceans
Institute, University of Western Australia (Perth,
WA, 6009, Australia; Tel: +61 8 9480 3642; Em-
ail: [email protected]). Craig D.
H. Sherman is Senior Lecturer at the Centre for
Figure 1. A healthy Posidonia australis meadow in Port Stephens, New South Wales, but
Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environ- movement of the boat mooring chain is beginning to thin the meadow. (Photo by Adriana Verg

es).
mental Sciences, Deakin University (Geelong, V-
ic., 3216 Australia; Email:
[email protected]). John Statton is [email protected]). Kor-Jent v- Kendrick is Professor of marine ecology at the
Research Associate with the School of Biological an Dijk is Research Associate with the School of School of Biological Sciences and Oceans Insti-
Sciences and Oceans Institute, University of Wes- Biological Sciences, the University of Adelaide (- tute, University of Western Australia (Perth, W-
tern Australia (Perth, WA, 6009, Australia; Em- Adelaide, SA, 5005 Australia; Email: korjent.- A, 6009, Australia; Email:
ail: [email protected]). Craig Copeland [email protected]). Adriana Verg

es is [email protected])..
is Chief Executive Officer of OzFish Unlimited (- Associate Professor in marine ecology at the Un-
Ballina, NSW, 2478; Email: craigcopeland@oz- iversity of New South Wales (Kensington, New
fish.org.au). Andrew Matthews is Senior South Wales, 2052; Email: [email protected]
du.au). Lana Kajlich is PhD candidate at the
Introduction
Program Manager for Western Australia at OzF-

Sthoseome of our most important and

ish Unlimited (Ballina, NSW, 2478; Email: an- University of New South Wales (Kensington, NS-
[email protected]). Michelle W, 2052 Sydney Institute of Marine Science (Mos- threatened natural ecosystems are
Waycott is Chief Botanist at the State Herbarium man, NSW, 2088, Australia; Email: along the coastal fringes. One bil-
of South Australia and the H.B.S. Womersley Ch- [email protected]). Ian M. Mc- lion people live within 50 km of the
air in Systematic Botany at the School of Biolog- Leod is Assistant Director at TropWATER, James coast globally (Lotze et al. 2006; Hal-
ical Sciences, the University of Adelaide Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4810, Aus- pern et al. 2008), including 85 per cent
(Adelaide, SA, 5005 Australia; Email: tralia; Email: [email protected]). Gary A. of Australians (Clark & Johnston 2017).

10 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 22 NO 1 JANUARY 2021 ª 2020 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd

Ecological
Society of
Australia
 FEATURE

Valuable ecosystems, such as coral practitioners and scientists have habitats over large spatial and temporal
reefs, macroalgae, mangrove forests, embraced this wealth of knowledge. scales (Orth & McGlathery 2012).
saltmarshes and seagrass meadows The application of seed-based restora- Thirty consecutive years of watershed
(Fig. 1), are in the precarious position tion is a relatively new concept in modelling, biogeochemical data and
of being a buffer between the terres- marine restoration (Marion & Orth comprehensive aerial surveys of Chesa-
trial and marine environments. They 2010; Orth et al. 2012). Seeds add ver- peake Bay, in the north-eastern United
will continue to be under increasing satility to current transplant practices, States, was used to quantify the cascad-
pressure from anthropogenic activities emerging as an alternative, genetically ing effects of anthropogenic impacts
through coastal development, pollu- diverse, less damaging, cost-effective on submersed aquatic vegetation (in-
tion and climate change (Lotze et al. approach to restoring larger areas. cluding seagrasses and other underwa-
2006; Duarte et al. 2015). The planet ter vascular plants; Lefcheck et al.
S e e d i n g f o r e c o s y s te m
has lost one quarter of its seagrasses 2018). Models linked land use change
recovery
globally (Waycott et al. 2009) with to higher nutrient loads, which reduce
widespread and accelerating losses Large-scale restoration of seagrasses is submersed aquatic vegetation cover
continuing (Statton et al. 2018; Evans now possible with recent advances through multiple, independent path-
et al. 2019). Declining fisheries around helping to reverse declines and return ways. The submersed aquatic vegeta-
the world are linked to the loss of sea- the benefits of healthy seagrasses to tion has regained 17,000 ha to
grasses, which also play a critical role coastal communities. Large expanses achieve its highest cover in almost half
in supporting a diverse range of marine of Eelgrass (Zostera marina) have a century, due to sustained manage-
life (Unsworth et al. 2018). Seagrass been restored to Virginia’s coastal ment actions that reduced nitrogen
meadows represent globally signifi- lagoons in the United States, enabled concentrations in Chesapeake Bay by
cant carbon sinks (‘Blue Carbon’; through the development of an effi- 23% (Lefcheck et al. 2018). This suc-
McLeod et al. 2011), contribute to cient seed collection, processing and cess required long-term investment
water quality (Barbier et al. 2011; delivery programme (Orth et al. by multiple stakeholder agencies and
Lamb et al. 2017) and stabilise sedi- 2012). The reintroduced seeds have communities.
ments (Orth et al. 2006a). Losing sea- grown, flowered and produced seeds A comprehensive review of seagrass
grasses, particularly the larger species themselves that have spread naturally restoration across Australia and New
that support critical habitat provision to new areas, such that by 2018 Zealand (Tan et al. 2020) highlights
and ecological functions, will lead to almost 3,600 ha of seagrass has been emerging tools, techniques and
further reduction in an ability of sea- restored. This recovery has been fol- approaches needed to restore seagrass
grass habitats to resist climate impacts lowed by an increase in abundance meadows and associated ecosystem
through carbon sequestration (Arias- of fish and invertebrate species (Rey- services. Here, we use three case stud-
Ortiz et al. 2018) and shoreline stabili- nolds et al. 2016; Lefcheck et al. ies from temperate Australia (Fig. 2) to
sation (Donatelli et al. 2019). This 2017). Decades of pioneering and demonstrate how some of these
increased understanding of the value foundational seagrass restoration approaches are improving the success
of ecosystem services is laying the research has brought us to this point. of restoration activities. These case
foundation to improve conservation We now have the science to begin studies align with practical strategies
of our remaining seagrass meadows, tackling restoration at ecologically proposed by Aronson et al. (2020) in
as well as expand restoration activities meaningful scales to restore our support of the United Nation’s Decade
to recover damaged meadows. coastal ecosystems. on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–
Restoration efforts using transplan- We note that reintroduction on its 2030).
tation methods have largely been own will not be the ‘silver bullet’ to
small in scale and costly compared reversing the long history of seagrass
with other marine habitats (van Kat- decline. Indeed, resilience-based Three Seagrass Restoration
wijk et al. 2016; Bayraktarov et al. restoration and management will form Case Studies
2016). We argue that in the long term, an integral part in enhancing the ability
C a s e s tu d y 1 : S e e d i n g li fe
it is too costly not to restore them. of seagrasses to withstand the effects of
b a c k i n t o t h e Co o r o n g ,
Given the massive scale of seagrass anthropogenic stressors, and to
S o u t h A u s t r a l i a, w i t h
losses, both nationally and globally, recover naturally (recruitment,
Tr adition al O wn er s
development of scalable techniques growth, survival) after major impacts
is necessary. Terrestrial seed-based or climate events. Managing anthro- The Coorong, Lake Alexandrina and
restoration approaches have been pogenic stresses to re-build ecosystem Lake Albert Wetland in South Aus-
successful at spatial scales of 10 s– resilience has been linked to successful tralia were listed as a Wetland of
100 s of ha, and seagrass restoration restoration of nearshore seagrass International Importance under the

ª 2020 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 22 NO 1 JANUARY 2021 11
FEATURE

many of the region’s lake bed sedi-

ments, which dry out over summer.
Lake Cantara, an ephemeral lake
immediately south of the Coorong,
was one of the few sites where seed
densities were still high in surface lay-
ers of sediment. A thin surface layer
containing Pondweed seed bank was
removed mechanically using a small
excavator along the edge of Lake Can-
tara during late summer and early
autumn when the lake was dry
(Fig. 3a,b). Track mats were used to
reduce the impact of the excavator
in the donor site. A total of 730 tonnes
of sediment containing seeds was
bagged and translocated to five
restoration sites (Fig. 3c). Supplemen-
tary planting of seedlings of Pond-
weed was carried out when mudflats
around the edge of the Coorong South
Lagoon were exposed. The sites were
chosen based on water level predic-
tions, as Pondweed grows best in
water depths between 30 and
100 cm.
Pondweed established across
translocation sites within three
Figure 2. Map of Australia showing the location of three case studies. months of the sediment transfer, total-
ling approximately 61 Ha across three
Ramsar Convention in 1985. The recovery did not occur despite the sites in two years. All sites showed an
Coorong supports a high abundance return of a moderate level of water emergence of Pondweed seedlings
and diversity of wetland fauna, partic- at the end of the drought (Paton with abundant patches established in
ularly migratory shorebirds (Phillips & et al. 2018). The lack of recovery is following years. For example at one
Muller 2006; Paton 2010). Pondweed attributed to the loss of the seed bank site, referred to as Policeman’s Point,
(Ruppia tuberosa) is the most com- over the drought period as this spe- there were zero shoots in sampling
monly found seagrass species provid- cies is essentially an annual species cores in annual monitoring of the site
ing important food resources and that flowers, produces seed (which prior to translocation in 2011, and by
habitat for birds (Paton et al. 2017). remains in the sediment) and then 2015, 37.5% of cores had shoots
Pondweed is tolerant of the extreme dies off (Box 1). This means that (Table 1; Fig. 3d; Paton et al. 2018).
range of salinities common in the extended periods of unfavourable However, long-term persistence of
estuary, from near freshwater to salin- drought conditions resulted in the Pondweed is dependent on a regular
ities over four times that of oceanic loss of the seed bank through seed water supply and annual seed produc-
levels (Collier et al. 2017). It was once bank depletion and the ability of tion (Collier et al. 2017). Subsequent
widespread in the Coorong South meadows to return once favourable to this recovery, declining water
Lagoon, with meadows occupying conditions return (Paton et al. levels during spring, when Pondweed
more than 1500 Ha (DEWNR 2014). 2017). Intervention through a large- flowers and sets seeds, led to seed
The millennium drought of 2002– scale seed-bearing sediment transfer banks not being adequately recharged
2010 had a devastating impact on programme was undertaken in 2013, and overall recovery rates slowing
the ecological health of the Coorong in partnership with Traditional Own- (Paton et al. 2018). This observed
(Paton et al. 2017), with reduced ers from the Ngarrindjeri community reduction in recovery rates exempli-
water levels and increased salinities (DEWNR 2014). Pondweed seeds, fies how essential it is to remove the
resulting in the rapid decline of Pond- about 1 mm in size, black and tear- causes of seagrass loss, in this case,
weed (Paton 2010). Its expected dropped shaped, can be found in reduced annual water levels enabling

12 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 22 NO 1 JANUARY 2021 ª 2020 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
 FEATURE

Box 1. Life cycle of Pondweed (Ruppia tuberosa)

Pondweed, an ephemeral seagrass species, has developed a complex life history strategy enabling survival under
hypervariable and hypersaline conditions. Pondweed can persist through summer dry periods as dormant turions (under-
ground buds) or seeds within the sediment, or as adult plants in deeper water. Strong, seasonally adapted growth strategies are
responsible for the high degree of resilience to hypersaline conditions (greater than 100 ppt salinity), which result from
fluctuations in water level and salinity due to reduced water levels from declining annual flows and increased evaporation
(Brick 1982). Pondweed seeds germinate and turions sprout in autumn. The plants grow through rhizome extension to form
dense patches. Ideally, reproduction occurs prior to senescence in late spring to early summer, either sexually through
flowering and seed bank production, or asexually through turion formation. Turions and seeds remain dormant to survive
through summer in shallower water. Seeds are considered critical to annual regrowth on ephemeral mud flats (Paton & Bailey
2014).

Five life stages are recognisable (see Collier et al. 2017): initiation of growth with the onset of cooler weather and rising
water levels covering summer dry flats, breaking seed dormancy and inundating the areas where turions have survived, or
remnant plants in deeper water (1); rapid shoot growth and colonisation occurs on the large areas of available habitat created
by rising water levels (2); sexual reproduction through flowering and seed production occurs in moderate salinities. Turion
formation is favoured in hypersaline, warming, waters in late spring to early summer (3); completion of seed production or
turion formation enables persistence when water levels drop (4); and Seeds and turions remain dormant in exposed
environments or within the sediment (5). Plants can continue growing in deeper, hypersaline water over summer.

completion of the Pondweed life recovery. Thus, to prevent future ecological requirements for success in
cycle and as a result the depletion of occurrences, water levels would need achieving long-term sustainability of
the seed bank preventing natural to be maintained to achieve minimum restoration actions.

ª 2020 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 22 NO 1 JANUARY 2021 13
FEATURE

of adult shoots, which, although suc-

cessful, can be labour-intensive and
costly and often employ cumbersome
and technically difficult methodolo-
gies not readily accessible or easily
replicated by members of a local com-
munity (Paling et al. 2001; Paling et al.
2007; Bastyan & Cambridge 2008).
(a) (b) Ecological and genetic data have high-
lighted the extent to which sexual
reproduction plays a vital role in pop-
ulation persistence, expansion and
regeneration of many seagrass popula-
tions including Posidonia (Kendrick
et al. 2012, 2017). Therefore, there
has been increasing interest in poten-
tial for the use of seeds or seedlings
(c) (d) in conservation and restoration strate-
gies to underpin effective large-scale
Figure 3. Project Coorong (a) Mechanical scraping of the upper surface of dried sediment management of this species (Kilmin-
containing the previous seasons’ seeds was achieved to less than 10 cm depth; (b) large-scale
ster et al. 2015).
seed harvesting at Lake Cantara (seed donor site) located to the south of the Coorong; (c) translo-
More than a decade of research on
cated bags of scraped sediment Pondweed seeds were moved to the restoration site by light-
weight vehicle, then emptied onto the sediment surface before being inundated by rising water;
Ribbon Weed (Posidonia australis)
and (d) germinated Pondweed seedling patch growing in the shallow waters of a translocation site has improved our understanding of
during winter. (Photos by Kat Ryan). the influence of sexually produced
propagules on meadow maintenance
and genetic diversity (see Box 2 for
Table 1. Change in abundance of Pondweed shoots at long-term monitoring locations in the life cycle; Kendrick et al. 2012,
southern Coorong, South Australia, based on the percentage (%) of 200 cores (75 mm 2017; Sinclair et al. 2014, 2016,
diam 9 40 mm deep) sampled at each site (data from Paton et al. 2017) 2018), physiological and growth
Monitoring site 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 requirements (Statton et al. 2013;
Statton et al. 2014; Borum et al.
Tea Tree Crossing – – 3.5 8.0 –
Salt Creek – – 0.5 27.5 25.0 2016; Fraser et al. 2016; Strydom
Policeman’s Point (2012 restoration site) – 5.0 13.5 37.5 28.5 et al. 2018; Cambridge et al. 2019)
and bottlenecks to seedling establish-
ment (Orth et al. 2006b; Statton
Subsequent to the initial post- et al. 2017; Johnson et al. 2018). This
C a s e s t u d y 2 : Re c r ea t i o n al has given rise to exploring seeds (or
transfer actions, increased average
fi s h e r s s u p p o r t ‘ Seeds f or ‘seedlings’ as they are direct develop-
water levels have occurred, resulting
Snapper ’ in C ockburn ing seeds) as an alternative approach
in an increase in the extent of Pond-
So un d, We stern A ustr ali a to restoring Ribbon Weed. Methods
weed across the Coorong (Paton
et al. 2019). However, water quality Cockburn Sound in Western Australia have been developed and improved
conditions continue to prevent the has lost ~77% of seagrass cover since upon each year to harvest, process
formation of dense Pondweed mead- the 1960s, with little evidence of natu- and remotely deliver increasingly lar-
ows in the southern Coorong. A ral recovery, despite significant ger quantities of local mature Ribbon
new management initiative, under improvements in water quality (Ken- Weed seed to the seafloor (Fig. 4).
the banner ‘Project Coorong’ drick et al. 2002). The main impacted These simple but effective technolo-
(www.projectcoorong.sa.gov.au), genus, Posidonia, is characterised by gies have the capacity to increase
has been announced to improve the slow horizontal growth and decadal the scale of seed deployment, signifi-
ecological condition and hydrologi- time frames to naturally recolonise cantly reduce the costs of getting
cal regime of the Coorong including adjacent degraded areas. Traditional plants in the ground and improve
the conditions for enhancing Pond- approaches to restore Posidonia spp. our ability to restore locations that
weed productivity. have often focused on transplantation are difficult to access (deep, turbid

14 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 22 NO 1 JANUARY 2021 ª 2020 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
 FEATURE

Box 2. Life cycle of Ribbon Weed or broadleaf seagrass (Posidonia australis)

Ribbon Weed forms large dense single and multispecies meadows. The meadows begin to establish via seedling
recruitment (1). Dense expansive meadows take years to establish as plants grow through rhizome expansion (or vegetative
growth) (2). Mature plants start flowering after about four years (3). Flowers emerge through the leaf canopy during winter.
Pollen is released over a 6-week period (Smith & Walker 2002), with fruit ripening during the austral spring (Kuo & McComb
1989). The flowers are monoecious and hermaphroditic, containing male (anthers) and female (stigma) on the same flower.
Multiple, protandrous flowers (anthers mature before the stigma is receptive) occur on each inflorescence stem. Mature
positively buoyant fruit are released from the parent plant in late spring to early summer and rapidly float to the water surface
(4), where they are subjected to local surface currents and direct wind forces (‘windage’, Ruiz-Montoya et al., 2012). Each fruit
contains a single continuously growing seed or seedling that germinates and bears a plumule and radical (while still contained
within the fruit). The mature fruit splits open within minutes to several days, releasing the negatively buoyant seed, which
rapidly sinks to the seafloor. The seedling will grow, nourished by its large endosperm, and, if conditions are suitable, will
establish. Reproductive stages are locally synchronised. Fruit production is highly variable across the species range, although
prolific in the south-west of Western Australian. The approximate timing of life history events is in the centre wheel, although
these can vary considerably with latitude. For example, fruit ripen in low-latitude meadows in Shark Bay, Western Australia,
from late October, while fruit in Corner Inlet, Victoria, ripen in January.

or diver-restricted locations). More In an Australian first, over 200,000 Australia, and community members
importantly, these approaches are viable Ribbon Weed seeds were col- from the Cockburn Power Boat Club,
developed specifically with commu- lected, processed and delivered to became ‘Seeds for Snapper’. Boat
nity participation in mind whereby 1,000 m2 of seafloor in Cockburn users collected floating fruits while
community members can contribute Sound, Western Australia, in both travelling to/from fishing locations,
to all areas of the restoration includ- 2018 and 2019. This programme, con- and recreational divers used purpose-
ing fruit and seed collection, process- ducted in partnership with OzFish built nets to harvest mature fruit
ing and delivery to the seafloor. Unlimited, the University of Western directly from parent plants (Fig. 5a).

ª 2020 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 22 NO 1 JANUARY 2021 15
FEATURE

large-scale degradation can go unno-

ticed (Coleman et al. 2008). Marine
ecosystems such as seagrass meadows
receive substantially less attention
from the media than coral reefs, and
they also tend to receive less funding
in research, which can result in lower
conservation outcomes (Duarte et al.
2008). A general lack of public aware-
ness about the importance of sea-
grasses has been put forward as one
of the key global challenges for sea-
grass conservation (Unsworth et al.
2019). This points towards a need to
develop appropriate science commu-
nication campaigns to accompany
and facilitate seagrass conservation
and restoration actions.
Figure 4. Number of Ribbon Weed seeds collected between 2006 and 2019, as collection, ‘Operation Posidonia’ (www.Ope
processing and delivery techniques improved in efficiency. Direct seeding to the seafloor began
rationPosidonia.com) aims to restore
in 2013. Broadcast seeding trials began in 2014 with an improved capacity to collect and process
threatened Ribbon Weed in Port Ste-
more seed. The ‘Seeds for Snapper’ project began in 2018.
phens, New South Wales (NSW),
while also raising awareness about
this important ecosystem. Before
Collected fruits were held within a seedlings tended to aggregate, pro-
embarking on the actual restoration,
bucket or esky containing seawater. duce multiple shoots by the second
social researchers engaged with local
Once fishers and divers returned to year (Fig. 5e) and show coalescence
communities including boat owners
the Cockburn Sound Boat Club, fruit by 2.5–3 years (Fig. 5f). An assess-
and fishers, local government, private
containing seeds were placed into ment of ‘return to ecosystem func-
industry and coast care groups. The
large aquaculture tanks (Fig. 5b). tion’ will be conducted in the future,
overall aim was to canvas voices
The warm and stable temperature as part of ongoing monitoring of the
across a range of stakeholder groups
combined with agitation from the restoration. The most recent cost–
to uncover the broad knowledge, per-
water movement inside the tanks pro- benefit analysis indicates that by using
ceptions, experiences and uses of
moted rapid splitting or dehiscence of this approach, 1 ha of seagrass can be
marine and coastal spaces where sea-
fruit. This technique simulates float- re-seeded for $AU13,000–32,000
grasses occur. This public consulta-
ing fruit at the ocean surface exposed depending on the use of commu-
tion subsequently informed a science
to warm sunlight and being agitated nity or professional labour, respec-
communication campaign designed
by waves. After splitting, the seeds tively (Rogers et al. 2019). These
to enhance awareness about the
rapidly sank to the bottom of the tank innovations are being applied to other
importance of seagrass and recruit cit-
where they were collected (Fig. 5c). larger scale restoration activities
izen scientists to take part in the
Seeds were then transported to locally and in Corner Inlet, Victoria.
restoration project.
restoration sites by fishers on their The future includes larger restora-
way to their fishing grounds. Restora- tion efforts covering 10 s–100 s of
Informing and engaging the local
tion sites were marked by buoys and ha with a focus on community-driven
community
ranged in area from 200 to 400 m2. activities.
The process of delivering 40,000 Initial consultation involved 60 com-
C a s e s tu d y 3 : ‘ O u t of
seeds, broadcast by hand over the side munity members via semi-structured
s i g h t , o u t of mi n d ’ ? –
of the vessel, took less than 10 min. interviews, which allowed partici-
Changing perceptions
The seeds naturally spread out as they pants the flexibility to direct the con-
within a local community
descend, resulting in a relatively even versation yet also address specific
to restore boat mooring
coverage on the seafloor (Fig. 5d). questions to optimise engagement
s c ar s , Po r t S t e p h e n s , N e w
Seedling establishment across the with the restoration project. These
S o u t h Wa l e s
restoration plots using this approach interviews highlighted that many peo-
was ~10%, amounting to ~20 seed- Changes to underwater ecosystems ple within government, environmen-
lings m 2 after 1 year. Surviving are not visible to most people, and tal groups and private industry had a

16 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 22 NO 1 JANUARY 2021 ª 2020 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
 FEATURE

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 5. ‘Seeds for Snapper’ (a) Mature fruit of Ribbon Weed prior to harvest; (b) processing harvested fruit by agitation in 2,500-L flow-through
tanks; (c) harvested seeds are delivered to site via broadcast seeding; (d) degraded restoration site re-seeded with Ribbon Weed seeds at a rate of 200
seeds m 2; (e) tagged 2-year-old seedling with three shoots; (f) 2.5-year-old seedlings coalescing to create a sparse meadow. (Photos by John Stat-
ton).

high level of knowledge about the Restoration is typically perceived exercise at the project outset brought
importance of seagrass, with one as an uncontested ‘good’ activity; researchers and stakeholders towards
respondent from industry expressing, however, the initial consultation a shared understanding.
‘seagrasses are the backbone of our raised unexpected concerns, particu-
Port Stephens’ economy’. These larly among coast care groups who Citizen science in action
groups also recognised the impor- queried the scale of the restoration
Finding suitable donor shoots for
tance of Posidonia specifically as a and project funding. Researchers
restoration was a major challenge
key species. In contrast, fewer in the were able to explain that small-scale
because Ribbon Weed meadows have
general boating public knew about experiments were necessary to adapt
been declining rapidly in NSW in the
Posidonia, referring to it as ‘weed’ methods to local conditions – and, if
last few decades (Glasby & West
or simply ‘seagrass’. The general pub- successful, offered potential to restore
2018; Evans et al. 2019), despite State
lic’s dislike for swimming or boating at a larger scale. The project funding
and National protection. Further, Rib-
in seagrass and seeing it onshore as was explained to which one member
bon Weed meadows rarely flower in
wrack was raised as an issue that the responded with, ‘actually that’s
NSW, and overall fruit and seed pro-
‘Operation Posidonia’ awareness cam- ridiculously good value then’. The
duction are highly variable (Inglis &
paign then aimed to address. One of engagement with local school stu-
Lincoln Smith 1998), factors which
the strategies used to change negative dents met with broad social accep-
limit their use in restoration. Opera-
associations was to draw on the posi- tance with one member asserting,
tion Posidonia asked citizen scientists
tive connections of Ribbon Weed ‘there’s a tremendous amount of
to collect rhizome fragments that
with charismatic marine fauna associ- good with your research right
become naturally detached after large
ated with seagrasses (Fig. 6). there’. Conducting a listening

ª 2020 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 22 NO 1 JANUARY 2021 17
FEATURE

Figure 6. ‘Operation Posidonia’ engages with the local community to collect storm-detached shoots washed up as beach wrack for replanting into
boat mooring scars. The communication campaign developed logos, which associated the project with a local charismatic animal that relies on healthy
seagrass meadows (seahorse); the ‘Storm squad’ logo on beanies and hats developed a community of beach collectors. (Logos by catfish creative,
Photos by Harriet Spark).

storms and wash up as ‘beach wrack’ The science communication cam- via a launch event, school visits and
on local beaches. These fragments paign was critical for the recruitment guided seagrass collection walks
were subsequently replanted and of citizen scientists to collect storm- (Fig. 6). The overall approach was
used to restore meadows that have detached shoots. The campaign mate- highly successful, with over 1,200
been damaged by boat moorings (Fer- rials included a website, social media shoots being collected by local volun-
retto et al. 2019). This approach presence and series of short films that teers in the first 14 months of the pro-
avoids additional damage to existing communicated the importance of sea- ject. One community group was
meadows, while also engaging local grass and mechanics behind the pro- particularly effective, creating their
communities in the restoration pro- posed restoration. The team also own coordinated local solution: days
gramme. connected with local communities were colour-coded according to

18 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 22 NO 1 JANUARY 2021 ª 2020 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
 FEATURE

Box 3. The Seagrass Restoration Network

The Seagrass Restoration Network (http://seagrassrestoration.net) was established in 2016. It is a network of scientists and
restoration practitioners in partnership with the Nature Conservancy Australia and with funding support by the National
Environmental Science Program Marine Biodiversity Hub. The network continues to support the growing number of grassroots
restoration programmes being established around Australia and New Zealand. Involvement and commitment from industry
partners, Traditional Owners, local communities, NGOs, and local, State and Federal government agencies is required to
establish multiyear to decadal nationally funded restoration projects in order to achieve large-scale restoration. The network is
developing a national framework to enable local communities and small business to take on the challenge of restoring
seagrasses and develop the business of ‘Blue Restoration’. Coordination and collaboration at multi-institutional levels has
been achieved over decades in two of the longest running successful seagrass restoration projects – Oyster Harbour in
Western Australia (Bastyan & Cambridge 2008) and Chesapeake Bay in North America (Lefcheck et al. 2018). Yet, we need to
continue promoting these successes, including advances with seed-based restoration to move restoration into our common
societal language and procedures.

predicted storms when Ribbon Weed 2017). The Environmental Protec- The involvement of local citizen
shoots and rhizome were most likely tion and Biodiversity Conservation scientists has become an important
dislodged. A ‘green for go’ day meant Act (EPBC Act 1999) allows the Aus- aspect of restoration. Hands-on
members were mobilised via email to tralian Federal Government to join engagement with local communities
comb the beaches for dislodged the states and territories in managing is a powerful tool that not only
shoots and rhizome among the beach coastal ecosystems when they fall raises awareness about the impor-
wrack. This group alone collected 750 under Matters of National Environ- tance of seagrass ecosystems, but
shoots. The restoration outcomes for mental Significance (MNES). A recent also offers a positive view of how
Operation Posidonia are very encour- review outlined how seagrass mead- science can be used to help solve
aging, so far. Research to date shows ows fall within MNES because they environmental problems. Restoration
that Ribbon Weed fragments col- are important components of World projects that enhance community
lected by citizen scientists provide Heritage Sites and Ramsar wetlands, engagement can inspire a sense of
an effective, non-destructive source support many species listed as threat- optimism that motivates further
of plants for restoration, with survival ened or endangered under the EPBC action and have been linked with
rates of >50% in restored plots (Fer- Act, and support migratory species positive conservation outcomes
retto et al. 2019). protected through international trea- (McAfee et al. 2019).
ties (McLeod et al. 2018). Generally,
management has focused on reducing Acknowledgements
Broader Conservation
harm from development activities and
Context of Seagrass This article was the result of two
through protected areas (McLeod
Restoration workshops, one conducted at Deakin
et al. 2018). However, despite protec-
These three case studies each high- tion through the EPBC Act, many sea- University and a second at the Depart-
light the need for coordination, col- grass communities are continuing to ment of the Environment and Energy,
laboration and ongoing commitment decline due to changing climate and Canberra. Funding support was pro-
for restoration projects to be success- ongoing anthropogenic activities. We vided by the Australian Govern-
ful. These ‘Blue Restoration’ projects suggest that (1) seagrass recovery ment’s National Environmental
demonstrate examples of successfully needs a more proactive approach to Science Program (NESP) Marine Biodi-
overcoming environmental, technical enable restoration, (2) there is posi- versity Hub. Thanks to Dr Lisa
and social barriers (Stewart-Sinclair tive value of national coordination Bostr€om-Einarsson for designing Fig-
et al. 2020). and collaboration through organisa- ure 1. The Ruppia project is sup-
Most management of coastal envi- tions such as the Seagrass Restoration ported by Department for
ronments in Australia is done by local Network (Box 3) and (3) funding Environment and Water, Government
councils, and state and territory gov- should be directed towards creating of South Australia; the ‘Seeds for Snap-
ernments, and for most environmen- a framework and good practice guide- per’ Program is funded by the Recre-
tal issues, levels of government are lines for seagrass restoration in Aus- ational Fishing Initiatives Fund and
not coordinated (Clark & Johnston tralia. BCF to OzFish Unlimited and partners

ª 2020 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 22 NO 1 JANUARY 2021 19
FEATURE

Recfishwest and The University of DEWNR (2014) Ruppia translocation: Coorong, Kuo, J. and McComb, A. J. (1989). Seagrass tax-
Lower Lakes and Murray Mouth (CLLMM) onomy, structure and development. In: Biol-
Western Australia; ‘Operation Posido- Recovery Project. Department for Environ- ogy of Seagrasses. A treatise on the biology
nia’ is funded through New South ment Water and Natural Resources, South of seagrasses with special reference to the
Wales Environment Trust grant. EAS Australia. Available from URL: environment. Australian region (eds A.W.D. Larkum, A.J.
sa.gov.au/cllmm. McComb, & S.A. Shepherd). pp. 6–73. Else-
and JS are supported by Australian Donatelli C., Ganju N. K., Kalra T. S., Fagherazzi vier, Amsterdam.
Research Council funding S. and Leonardi N. (2019) Changes in hydro- Lamb J. B., van de Water J. A. J. M., Bourne D.
(DP180100668, LP160101011). dynamics and wave energy as a result of sea- G. et al. (2017) Seagrass ecosystems reduce
grass decline along the shoreline of a exposure to bacterial pathogens of humans,
microtidal back-barrier estuary. Advances in fishes, and invertebrates. Science 355,
Water Resources 128, 183–192. 731–733.
References Duarte C. M., Dennison W. C., Orth R. J. W. and Lefcheck J. S., Marion S. R. and Orth R. J. (2017)
Carruthers T. J. B. (2008) The charisma of Actively restored ecosystems as a refuge for
Arias-Ortiz A., Serrano O., Masqu
e P. et al. (2018) coastal ecosystems: Addressing the imbal- biological diversity: A case study from eel-
A marine heatwave drives massive losses ance. Estuaries and Coasts 31, 233–238. grass (Zostera marina L.). Estuaries and
from the world’s largest seagrass carbon Duarte C. M., Fulweiler R. W., Lovelock C. E. Coasts 40, 200–212.
stocks. Nature Climate Change 8, 338–344. et al. (2015) Reconsidering ocean calamities. Lefcheck J. S., Orth R. J., Dennison W. C. et al.
Aronson J., Goodwin N., Orlando L., Eisenberg C. BioScience 65, 130–139. (2018) Long-term nutrient reductions lead to
and Cross A. T. (2020) A world of possibilities: Evans S. M., Griffin K. J., Blick R. A. J., Poore A. the unprecedented recovery of a temperate
six restoration strategies to support the Uni- G. B. and Verg
es A. (2019) Seagrass on the coastal region. Proceedings of the National
ted Nation’s Decade on Ecosystem Restora- brink: Decline of threatened seagrass Posido- Academy of Sciences 115, 3658–3662.
tion. Restoration Ecology 28, 730–736. nia australis continues following protection. Lotze H. K., Lenihan H. S., Bourque B. J. et al.
Barbier E. B., Hacker S. D., Kennedy C., Koch E. PLoS One 14, e0216107. (2006) Depletion, degradation, and recovery
W., Stier A. C. and Silliman B. R. (2011) The Ferretto G., Glasby T. M., Housefield G. P. et al. potential of estuaries and coastal seas.
value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem ser- (2019) Threatened plant translocation case Science 312, 1806–1809.
vices. Ecological Monographs 81, 169–193. study: Posidonia australis (Strapweed), Posi- Marion S. R. and Orth R. J. (2010) Innovative
Bastyan G. R. and Cambridge M. L. (2008) Trans- doniaceae. Australasian Plant Conservation techniques for large-scale seagrass restora-
plantation as a method for restoring the sea- 28, 24–26. tion using Zostera marina (eelgrass) seeds.
grass Posidonia australis. Estuarine, Coastal Fraser M. W., Statton J., Hovey R. K., Laverock B. Restoration Ecology 18, 514–526.
and Shelf Science 79, 289–299. and Kendrick G. A. (2016) Seagrass derived McAfee D., Doubleday Z. A., Geiger N. and Con-
Bayraktarov E., Saunders M. I., Abdullah S. et al. organic matter influences biogeochemistry, nell S. D. (2019) Everyone loves a success
(2016) The cost and feasibility of marine microbial communities, and seedling biomass story: optimism inspires conservation
coastal restoration. Ecological Applications partitioning in seagrass sediments. Plant and engagement. BioScience 69, 274–281.
26, 1055–1074. Soil 400, 133–146. McLeod I. M., Bostr€ om-Einarsson L., Johnson C.
Borum J., Pedersen O., Kotula L. et al. (2016) Glasby T. M. and West G. (2018) Dragging the R. et al. (2018) The role of restoration in con-
Photosynthetic response to globally increas- chain: Quantifying continued losses of sea- serving matters of national environmental sig-
ing CO2 of co-occurring temperate seagrass grasses from boat moorings. Aquatic Conser- nificance. Report to the National
species. Plant, Cell & Environment 39, vation 28, 383–394. Environmental Science Programme, Marine
1240–1250. Halpern B. S., Walbridge S., Selkoe K. A. et al. Biodiversity Hub.
Brick M. A. (1982) Biology of the salinity tolerant (2008) A global map of human impact on mar- McLeod E., Chmura G. L., Bouillon S. et al. (2011)
genus Ruppia L. in saline lakes in South Aus- ine ecosystems. Science 319, 948–952. A blueprint for blue carbon: toward an
tralia II. Population ecology and reproductive Inglis G. J. and Lincoln Smith M. P. (1998) Syn- improved understanding of the role of vege-
biology. Aquatic Botany 13, 249–268. chronous flowering of estuarine seagrass tated coastal habitats in sequestering CO2.
Cambridge M. L., Zavala-Perez A., Cawthray G. meadows. Aquatic Botany 60, 37–48. Frontiers in Ecology and Environment 9,
R., Statton J., Mondon J. and Kendrick G. Johnson A. J., Statton J., Orth R. J. and Kendrick 552–560.
A. (2019) Effects of desalination brine and G. A. (2018) A sediment bioturbator bottle- Orth R. J., Carruthers T. J. B., Dennison W. C.
seawater with the same elevated salinity on neck to seedling recruitment for the seagrass et al. (2006a) A global crisis for seagrass
growth, physiology and seedling development Posidonia australis. Marine Ecology Progress ecosystems. BioScience 56, 987–996.
of the seagrass Posidonia australis. Marine Series 595, 89–103. Orth R. J., Kendrick G. A. and Marion S. R. (2006b)
Pollution Bulletin 140, 462–471. van Katwijk M. M., Thorhaug A., Marb a N. et al. Predation on Posidonia australis seeds in sea-
Clark G. F. and Johnston E. L. (2017) Australia (2016) Global analysis of seagrass restora- grass habitats of Rottnest Island, Western Aus-
state of the environment 2016: coasts, inde- tion: the importance of large-scale planting. tralia: patterns and predators. Marine Ecology
pendent report to the Australian Government Journal of Applied Ecology 53, 567–578. Progress Series 313, 105–114.
Minister for Environment and Energy. Aus- Kendrick G. A., Aylward M. J., Hegge B. J. et al. Orth R. J. and McGlathery K. J. (2012) Eelgrass
tralian Government Department of the Envi- (2002) Changes in seagrass coverage in recovery in the coastal bays of the Virginia
ronment and Energy, Canberra. Cockburn Sound, Western Australia between coast reserve, USA. Marine Ecology Pro-
Coleman M. A., Kelaher B. P., Steinberg P. D. and 1967 and 1999. Aquatic Botany 73, 75–87. gress Series 448, 173–176.
Millar A. J. K. (2008) Absence of a large Kendrick G. A., Orth R. J., Statton J. et al. (2017) Orth R. J., Moore K. A., Marion S. R., Wilcox D. J.
brown macroalga on urbanized rocky reefs Demographic and genetic connectivity: the and Parrish D. B. (2012) Seed addition facili-
around Sydney, Australia, and evidence for role and consequences of reproduction, dis- tates eelgrass recovery in a coastal bay sys-
historical decline. Journal of Phycology 44, persal and recruitment in seagrasses. Biolog- tem. Marine Ecology Progress Series 448,
897–901. ical Reviews 92, 921–938. 177–195.
Collier C., van Dijk K.-J., Erftemeijer P. et al. Kendrick G. A., Waycott M., Carruthers T. J. B. Paling E. I., van Keulen M. and Tunbridge D. J.
(2017) Optimising Coorong Ruppia habitat: et al. (2012) The central role of dispersal in (2007) Seagrass transplanting in Cockburn
Strategies to improve habitat conditions for the maintenance and persistence of seagrass Sound, Western Australia: a comparison of
Ruppia tuberosa in the Coorong (South Aus- populations. BioScience 62, 56–65. manual transplantation methodology using
tralia) based on literature review, manipula- Kilminster K., McMahon K., Waycott M. et al. Posidonia sinuosa Cambridge et Kuo.
tive experiments and predictive modelling. (2015) Unravelling complexity in seagrass Restoration Ecology 15, 240–249.
Report to Department of Environment and systems for management: Australia as a Paling E. I., van Keulen M., Wheeler K., Phillips J.
Natural Resources. The University of Ade- microcosm. Science of the Total Environment and Dyhrberg R. (2001) Mechanical seagrass
laide, South Australia. 534, 97–109. transplantation on Success Bank, Western

20 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 22 NO 1 JANUARY 2021 ª 2020 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
 FEATURE

Australia. Ecological Engineering 16, 331– restoration approaches. Report to the Structure, Ecology and Conservation (eds
339. National Environmental Science Programme, A. W. D. Larkum, R. P. Ralph and G. A. Ken-
Paton D. C. (2010) At the End of the River. The Marine Biodiversity Hub. The University of drick) pp. 665–704. Springer Publishing,
Coorong and Lower Lakes. ATF Press, Hind- Western Australia, Perth. Cham, Switzerland.
marsh. Ruiz-Montoya L., Lowe R. J., Van Niel K. P. and Statton J., Kendrick G. A., Dixon K. W. and Cam-
Paton D. C. and Bailey C. P. (2014) Annual mon- Kendrick G. A. (2012) The role of hydrody- bridge M. L. (2014) Inorganic nutrient supple-
itoring of Ruppia tuberosa in the Coorong namics on seed dispersal in seagrasses. Lim- ments constrain restoration potential of
region of South Australia, July 2013. Univer- nology and Oceanography 57, 1257–1265. seedlings of the seagrass, Posidonia aus-
sity of Adelaide, South Australia. Sinclair E. A., Anthony J. M., Greer D., Ruiz-Mon- tralis. Restoration Ecology 22, 196–203.
Paton D. C., Bailey C. P., Paton F. L. and McCar- toya L., Evans S. M., Krauss S. L. and Ken- Statton J., Montoya L. R., Orth R. J., Dixon K. W.
ron V. E. A. (2018) Translocation of Ruppia drick G. A. (2016) Genetic signatures of and Kendrick G. A. (2017) Identifying critical
tuberosa to the Coorong, South Australia. Bassian glacial refugia and contemporary recruitment bottlenecks limiting seedling
In: Proceedings of Restore, Regenerate, connectivity in a marine foundation species. establishment in a degraded seagrass
Revegetate: A Conference on Restoring Eco- Journal of Biogeography 43, 2209–2222. ecosystem. Scientific Reports 7, 1–12.
logical Processes, Ecosystems and Land- Sinclair E. A., Krauss S. L., Anthony J. M., Hovey Stewart-Sinclair P. J., Purandare J., Bayraktarov
scapes in a Changing World (ed R. Smith) R. K. and Kendrick G. A. (2014) The interac- E. et al. (2020) Blue Restoration - building
pp. 67–69. University of New England, New tion of environment and genetic diversity confidence and overcoming barriers. Frontiers
South Wales. within meadows of the seagrass Posidonia in Marine Science 7, 748.
Paton D. C., Paton F. L. and Bailey C. P. (2017) australis (Posidoniaceae). Marine Ecology Strydom S., McMahon K. M., Kendrick G. A.,
Monitoring of Ruppia tuberosa in the south- Progress Series 506, 87–98. Statton J. and Lavery P. S. (2018) Short-term
ern Coorong, summer 2016-17. Report to Sinclair E. A., Ruiz-Montoya L., Krauss S. L., responses of Posidonia australis to changes
Department of Environment, Water and Natu- Anthony J. M., Hovey R. K., Lowe R. J. and in light quality. Frontiers in Plant Science 8,
ral Resources. University of Adelaide, South Kendrick G. A. (2018) Seeds in motion: 2224.
Australia. genetic assignment and hydrodynamic models Tan Y. M., Dalby O., Kendrick G. A. et al. (2020)
Paton D. C., Paton F. L. and Bailey C. P. (2019) demonstrate concordant patterns of seagrass Seagrass restoration is possible: insights
Annual winter monitoring of Ruppia tuberosa dispersal. Molecular Ecology 27, 5019–5034. and lessons from Australia and New Zealand.
in the Coorong region of South Australia. Smith N. M. and Walker D. I. (2002) Canopy Frontiers in Marine Science 7, 617.
University of Adelaide, Adelaide. structure and pollination biology of the sea- Unsworth R. K. F., McKenzie L., Collier C. J. et al.
Phillips W. and Muller K. (2006) Ecological Char- grasses Posidonia australis and P. sinuosa (2019) Global challenges for seagrass conser-
acter of the Coorong, Lakes Alexandrina and (Posidoneaceae). Aquatic Botany 74, 57–70. vation. Ambio 48, 801–815.
Albert Wetland of International Importance. Statton J., Cambridge M. L., Dixon K. W. and Unsworth R. K. F., Nordlund L. M. and Cullen-
Department for Environment and Heritage, Kendrick G. A. (2013) Aquaculture of Posido- Unsworth L. C. (2018) Seagrass meadows
South Australia. nia australis seedlings for seagrass restora- support global fisheries production. Conser-
Reynolds L. K., Waycott M., McGlathery K. J. and tion programs: effect of sediment type and vation Letters 12, e12566.
Orth R. J. (2016) Ecosystem services organic enrichment on growth. Restoration Waycott M., Duarte C. M., Carruthers T. J. B.
returned through restoration. Restoration Ecology 21, 250–259. et al. (2009) Accelerating loss of seagrasses
Ecology 24, 583–588. Statton J., Dixon K. W., Irving A. D. et al. (2018) across the globe threatens coastal ecosys-
Rogers A. A., Burton M. P., Statton J. et al. (2019) Decline and restoration ecology of Australian tems. Proceedings of the National Academy
Benefits and costs of alternate seagrass seagrasses. In: Seagrasses of Australia: of Sciences USA 106, 12377–12381.

ª 2020 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 22 NO 1 JANUARY 2021 21